PowerPoint Lecture Outlines
to accompany
Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Tenth Edition
Shier w Butler w Lewis
Chapter 1
Notes Section 1
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1-1
Biology II Introduction
Scientific Method
Steps of the Scientific Method
*Observation
*Hypothesis
*Experimental Design/Data Collection
Testing the Hypothesis
This can also be observational or experimental
*Analysis (Explaining the Data)
Scientific Method Terms
Control
The factor in an experiment that stays the same throughout the course of the
experiment. All good experiments have at least one control
Variable
The factor in the experiment changes. The fewer the variables in an experiment, the
better the design.
Independent variable: What you change to see the effects
Dependent variable: What you are measuring (what you are trying to find
out about)
Theory
A hypothesis that is tested repeatedly and is yet to be disproved
Pregnant Women and Chocolate
Hypothesis: If pregnant women eat only
chocolate, then they will have healthy babies.
(or Pregnant women who eat only chocolate will
have healthy babies)
Control: Pregnant women in the study eat
anything but chocolate
Variables:
Independent: Preg women eating only chocolate
Dependent: What happens to the babies
Types of Studies
Observational vs. Experimental
Observational- follows at behaviors, doesn’t
make people do anything
Experimental- group is told to do something/
exposed to something
Activity: Form and Function
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Examine the objects in your container.
Describe the form of each object.
Describe the function of each object.
Relate the form of the object to the
function.
Are the objects grouped, or random?
Are there similarities in the objects, in
either form or function?
Can you use another object in the
container to make ice cubes, other
than the ice cube tray?
1.  Would there be an advantage
to using this object instead?
2.  Would there be disadvantages?
Can you use another object in
the bin to clean your teeth?
1.  Would there be an
advantage to using this
object instead?
2.  Would there be
disadvantages?
In your own words, explain
what is meant by the term
form follows function? Use
example from your bins.
Anatomy
•  “tome” means to cut in Greek
•  Describes the structures of the body:
–  what they are made of
–  where they are located
–  associated structures
Physiology
•  Is the study of:
–  functions of anatomical structures
–  individual and cooperative functions
–  How they do what they do
Relating Anatomy &
Physiology
•  All physiological functions are performed
by specific anatomical structures
•  The principle of complementarity says that
structure and function are complementary
–  Function always reflects structure
–  What a structure can do depends on its specific
form
Teeth
Linking Structure and Function
•  The key to learning anatomy is
understanding function
–  For example: Incisors are a different shape than
molars. They have a different number of points
on them.
–  Why is that? Because they perform different
actions during the eating
Take home: Structure (anatomy) and
function (physiology) are intimately
related
Gross Anatomy
•  Gross means that the structures are large enough
that one can see with the unaided eye
•  Types:
–  Surface Anatomy - study of superficial markings
–  Regional Anatomy - The study of specific areas of the
body (e.g. head, trunk)
–  Systemic Anatomy - Study of the organ systems
Physiology = Function
•
Considers the operation of specific organ
systems
–
–
–
•
Renal – kidney function
Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous
system
Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and
blood vessels
Focuses on the functions of the body,
often at the cellular or molecular level
How can we organize this
information?
•  By dealing with it the way that living things
are organized, from the smallest to the
largest parts.
Because form = function
•  Smallest parts mean a lot on how larger parts work
together
•  So, we need to know a lot about the smallest parts of
the body
Levels of Organization
1-5
Levels of Organization
Level
Example
Atom (smallest)
Molecule
Macromolecule
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen
Water, Glucose
DNA, Protein
Ribosomes, Nucleus
Neuron, Muscle cell
Connective Tissue
Skin, Liver
Digestive System
Human, Whale
Organism (largest)
1-4
Characteristics of Life
What is it that all living things
have in common?
1-6
Characteristics of Life
• Organization
• Made up of cells that are organized
• Metabolism
• The ability to get and use energy from
the environment
• Growth/ Development
• Get larger and change
Characteristics of Life
• Responsiveness
• Respond to changes in the environment
• Part of maintaining homeostasis
• Reproduction
• Ability, not necessarily having the
offspring.
• Production of new cells also count
Metabolism
Anything that is associated with
obtaining and using energy for an
organism
• Including
• Ingestion- eating
• Respiration- breathing
• Digestion – breakdown of food substances
• Assimilation – changing of absorbed substances
into different substances
Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal
environment
What happens if homeostasis is disrupted?
LOSS OF ORGANIZATION!
(and we know what that means.)
But why is homeostasis so important?
•  Chemical reactions of metabolism operate best
under a limited range of conditions.
Homeostasis
Why is homeostasis so important?
•  Chemical reactions of metabolism operate best
under a limited range of conditions.
–  Temperature
–  pH
–  Salt concentrations
–  Others
Other functions of many
organisms (including humans)
Absorption – passage of substances through
membranes and into body fluids
Circulation – movement of substances in body fluids
Excretion – removal of wastes
These are ALL part of the 5
characteristics of life- not stand alone
defining life!
1-7
Requirements of Organisms
What do all living things
require to carry out the
functions of life?
1-8
Requirements of Organisms
Water
- most abundant substance in body
- required for metabolic processes
- required for transport
- regulates body temperature
Food
- supply energy
- supply raw materials
1-8
Requirements of Organisms
Oxygen*
Heat
- one-fifth of air
- used to release energy from nutrients
- (metabolism)
- form of energy
- partly controls rate of metabolic reactions
Pressure
- atmospheric pressure – important for breathing
- hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing
1-9
Homeostatic Mechanisms
Homeostatic Mechanisms – monitor aspects of the
internal environment and corrects any changes
• Receptors - provide information
• Control center - tells what a particular value should be
• Effectors - causes responses to change internal environment
1-10
Homeostasis
What factors are controlled homeostatically?
•  Temperature (37 o Celsius)
•  pH (7.4)
•  Pressures
•  Nutrient levels
•  Hormones
•  Cell division
•  JUST ABOUT EVERYTHING!
Receptors
Interoceptors – located internally
– Baroreceptors (pressures)
– Chemoreceptors (pH, oxygen levels)
– Thermoreceptors (temperature)
– Stretch Receptors (in muscle)
– Nociceptors (pain)
– You do not need to know this list
Receptors
Exteroceptors - located externally
» Mechanoreceptors (touch, hearing)
» Chemoreceptors (pH, taste, smell)
» Thermoreceptors (temperature)
» Nociceptors (pain)
» Photoreceptors (vision)
» You do not need to know this list
Control Centers
–  Brain
–  Spinal Cord
–  Located within some organs
» Pancreas
» Thyroid gland
» Digestive tract
» Not limited to just these
Effectors
–  Any structure that operates in response
to signals from a control center is an
effector
– Can be:
•  Somatic - Skeletal Muscles
•  Visceral –  Muscles: smooth and cardiac
–  Glands
Feedback System
The 2 types of responses are known as:
1. Negative feedback
2. Positive feedback
Can you figure out which is which?
Homeostasis Involves Feedback Loops
•  Negative Feedback
•  Most common feedback loop
•  A change in conditions initiates an effector
response that reverses, or negates, that change. (It
stops or reverses the situation)
•  Examples:
» Temperature regulation
» Regulation of Blood Glucose (sugar) Levels
» Regulation of pH
Homeostasis Involves Feedback Loops
•  Positive Feedback
•  Much less common than negative feedback
•  A change initiates an effector response that
increases, or promotes, the change.
•  Some can create pathological conditions if they
continue unchecked
•  Examples:
» Blood Clotting
» Labor Contractions
» Lactation
A good example of negative feedback is the cruise
control in my car.
A good thing to use if you
have a “heavy foot!!”
The cruise control has a sensor that senses the
speed of the car as well as a control mechanism
that processes the information from the sensor. It
then adjusts the speed of the car by manipulating
the accelerator.
Okay but where is the negative part?
If I go downhill the car naturally speeds up a
bit. The sensor senses this and the controller
decreases the speed by easing up on the
accelerator.
Can you see that the response (slowing
down) is opposite to the stimulus (speeding
up)?
It’s getting clearer.
Likewise is the car goes uphill and slows down a
bit. The cruise control works the accelerator to
increase the speed.
Again the response (speeding up) is opposite of
the stimulus (slowing down).
This is negative feedback in action.
Remember: Positive Feedback
•  Positive feedback is where the response is
the same as the stimulus.
•  In positive feedback the response can be
intensified.
•  The situation continues
• A good example of positive feedback is the
feedback you hear from sound systems in
concerts.
• In this example the stimulus (sound going into
microphone) is processed to produce a magnified
response (sound coming out of the speakers).
• Sometimes the microphone picks up sound from
the speakers and continues to magnify it until it is
out of control (the feedback that hurts your ears).
Practice on Positive and
Negative Feedback
1.  You are driving and your car veers to the
right, you then slightly pull the steering
wheel to the left.
Is this positive or negative feedback?
Negative—the response is opposite of
the stimulus.
2. You pull the starter cord on your
lawnmower to start it.
Is this positive or negative feedback?
Positive feedback—the lawnmower
engine magnifies the stimulus of
pulling the starter cord.
3. You are washing your hands and adjust the
temperature so it is just right.
Is this positive or negative feedback?
Negative feedback—you are turning on cold
water when too hot and hot water when too
cold.
01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism
Slide number: 1
Control center
Thermostat detects
deviation from set point
and signals effectors.
Receptors
Thermostat in room
detects change.
Stimulus
Room temperature
rises above normal.
Effectors
Heater turns off; air
conditioner turns on.
Response
Room temperature
returns toward set point.
too high
Normal room
temperature
Thermostat
set point.
too low
Stimulus
Room temperature
Decreases.
Receptors
Thermostat in room
detects change.
Response
Room temperature
returns toward set point.
Effectors
Heater turns on; air
conditioner turns off.
Control center
Thermostat detects
deviation from set point
and signals effectors.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Homeostatic Mechanisms
1-11
You should be getting a handle on the
concept of feedback systems. Your quiz
will include questions about feedback
mechanisms, and you will be required to
explain WHY it is considered positive or
negative.
Next we’ll take a look at the levels of
organization of the human body…
PowerPoint Lecture Outlines
to accompany
Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Tenth Edition
Shier w Butler w Lewis
Chapter 1
Notes Section 2
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1-1
In anatomy body parts have special names
that differ from common names. In other
words in anatomy the knee cap is not called
the knee cap but the patella.
It will take some practice to get used to these
anatomical terms.
We will start with some regions of the body.
A region is a broader area such as the upper
leg (femoral region). Although a region may
sound like an actual body part, it is not. It is
an area.
Body Regions
1-21
The abdominal region is an important region
in clinical situations. There are 2 special
ways the abdominal region can be divided.
One way is to divide the region into 9
sections. Kind of like tic tac toe. It takes 2
horizontal and 2 vertical planes to do this.
Body Regions
Abdominal region (9 sections)
–  These regions are separated by planes:
•  2 horizontal planes
–  Transtubercular
–  Transpyloric
•  2 vertical planes
–  2 parasagittal planes
Abdominal Subdivisions
1-20
The other way to divide up the abdominal
region is to use 2 planes intersecting at the
umbilicus.
Body Division
• There are two divisions of the body
• The axial portion of the body
• Runs through a straight line down the body
through the head, neck, and torso
• The appendicular portions
• Hang off of the axial portions
• Include the arms and legs
1-13
Body Cavities
The body has several cavities, divided into two sections
• Ventral cavities
• Thoracic cavity
•  Pleural cavity: holds the lungs
•  Pericardial cavity: holds the heart
• Abdominopelvic, which includes the
•  Abdominal cavity: holds digestive organs
•  Pelvic cavity: holds reproductive organs and
bladder
• Sinuses: in the head and face
• Nasal cavity: nose
• Orbital cavities: the eye sockets
• Oral cavity: mouth
• Middle ear cavity: inner ear space
1-13
Body Cavities
• Dorsal cavities
• Cranial cavity: hold the brain
• Vertebral canal: holds the spinal cord
1-13
Body Cavities
1-12
Cavities
01_10.jpg
Head cavities
Serous Membranes
• Serous Membrane
•  slippery lining of a cavity
•  Prevents friction between parts b/c coated with fluid
• Visceral layer – covers an organ
• Parietal layer – lines a cavity or body wall
Thoracic Membranes
• Visceral pleura
• Parietal pleura
• Visceral pericardium
• Parietal pericardium
Abdominopelvic Membranes
• Visceral peritoneum
• Parietal peritoneum
1-13
Serous Membranes
1-14
Organ Systems
• Most animals, including humans, have
many organ systems that work together
to maintain the life of that organism.
• While not all systems are operating at
full capacity at all times, the organism
needs to have most running in some
capacity to maintain life.
1-15
Systems that Cover the Body
• Integumentary system
• Know to us as the skin
1-15
Systems of Support & Movement
• Skeletal system
• Muscular system
1-15
Systems of Integration and
Coordination
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
1-15
Transport Systems
• Cardiovascular system
• Lymphatic system
1-15
Absorption and Excretion Systems
• Digestive system
• Respiratory system
• Urinary system
1-15
Systems work TOGETHER
Next we will learn about positional
terminology.
We use positional terminology in order to
specify locations of anatomical structures.
Anatomical Terminology
The positional terms usually go in pairs.
The pairs are usually opposites
For example superior and inferior go together.
Superior means above and inferior means
below.
1-18
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Position – body standing erect, facing forward,
upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward
Terms of Relative Position
•  Superior versus Inferior
• Anterior versus Posterior
• Medial versus Lateral; Intermediate
• Ipsilateral versus Contralateral
• Proximal versus Distal
• Superficial versus Deep
1-18
Superior v. Inferior
•  Superior means on top of a structure.
•  Inferior means below.
Ex: the cranium is superior to the femoral
area.
So you could write a statement stating that the
head is superior to the chest or to be more
specific—the cephalon is superior to the
thorax.
AND
The reverse would also be true:
The thorax is inferior to the cephalon.
Anterior V. Posterior
Here are some other terms:
•  Anterior means towards the front.
•  Posterior means towards the back.
Ex: the sternum is anterior to the heart…
OR the heart is posterior to the sternum.
Medial v. Lateral
•  Medial means toward the midline of the
body.
•  Lateral means away from the midline.
•  Intermediate means between two structures
Ex: the ears are lateral to the nose
The eyes are medial to the ears.
The nose is intermediate to the ears
Proximal v. Distal
•  Proximal means towards the trunk of the
body.
•  Distal means away from the trunk.
Proximal and distal are usually used when
describing structures in the extremities.
Ex: the elbow is proximal to the wrist.
The wrist is distal to the elbow.
Superficial v. Deep
•  Superficial means toward the surface.
•  Deep means under the surface.
Ex: the skin is superficial to the stomach.
The stomach is deep to the skin.
Ipsilateral v. Contralateral
•  Ipsilateral means on the same side.
•  Contralateral means on the opposite side.
Ex: the right shoulder and elbow are
ipsilateral.
The right shoulder and left elbow are
contralateral.
Parietal v. Visceral
•  Parietal means pertaining to or forming the
outer wall of a cavity.
•  Visceral means pertaining to covering of an
organ within the ventral body cavity.
Ex: The parietal pleura cavity lines the outer
surface of the pleural sac around the lungs
The visceral pleura forms the inner layer of
the pleural sacs
Some
directional
terms
Body Sections
Planes of the body – always referring to anatomical
position
• Saggital (vertical)
•  Can be midsaggital or not
• Coronal (horizonal)
• Transverse (frontal)
• Oblique (diagonal)
• Longitudinal (lengthwise)
1-18
Body Sections
• Sagittal /
Midsagittal or
Median
• Transverse /
Cross
• Coronal or
Frontal
• Oblique
1-19
Examples using the brain
Sagittal, Transverse and Cornonal Planes
Body Sections
Clinical Application
Medical Imaging
• Noninvasive procedures
• Provide images of soft internal
structures
Ultrasonography
• Use of highfrequency sound
waves
• Relatively quick
and inexpensive
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Requires injection of dye
• Produces computerized
transverse, frontal, and
sagittal sections of area
being studied
1-22
Medical and Applied Sciences
• You are responsible for the following, listed at the end of
chapter 1
cardiology
obstetrics
dermatology
oncology
endocrinology
ophthalmology
epidemiology
orthopedics
gastroenterology
otolarygology
geriatrics
pathology
gerontology
pediatrics
gynecology
pharmacology
hematology
podiatry
histology
psychiatry
immunology
radiology
neonatology
toxicology
nephrology
urology
neurology
1-22
Helpful links
http://derickwalsh.com/biomechanics.swf
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objID=A