Ethical Theory About Philosophy Chapter 5 Ethics •  Ethics-­‐the systema8c study of how we ought to act toward ourselves and others; deals with general rules and par8cular cases •  Three reasons to think about ethics –  To answer both skep8cs and rela8vists –  Figure out how to do the right thing, when the right thing is not clear; hard cases –  Figure out how to live the “good life” •  Morals-­‐principles or habits with respect to right or wrong conduct •  Morality-­‐conformity to the rules of right conduct Immanuel Kant •  German, 1724-­‐1804; Protestant (Pie8st) •  Reason in Ethics –  Rejected the no8on that religious doctrine could provide a founda8on for morality –  Insisted that moral principles be established on purely ra8onal grounds •  Kant’s concerns –  Doing what is right in the face of tempta8on to do what is wrong –  How to balance the determinism of modern science and free will/ethics Ethical Rela8vism and Skep8cism •  Maxims-­‐universal rules •  Mores-­‐the customs and conven8ons embodying the fundamental values of a group or society •  Ethical Rela8vism-­‐perspec8ve that rightness or wrongness of an act depends on, or is rela8ve to the society in which the act is commiYed •  Ethical Skep8cism-­‐perspec8ve that denies that we can have any certainty about what it means to be good or right; doubts that any acts are right or wrong •  Ethical Nihilism-­‐perspec8ve that denies that any act is right or wrong •  “de gus8bus non disputandem est”-­‐there is not dispu8ng in maYers of taste Kant’s Response to Ethical Rela8vism •  Groundwork on the Metaphysic of Morals –  Discover, analyze, and defend the fundamental principles of morality –  New Golden Rule: “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same 8me will that it should be a universal law.” •  Categorical Impera8ve-­‐a command that orders us to do something uncondi8onally, regardless of our aims or purposes •  Universalizability-­‐the Kan8an principle that if a course of ac8on cannot be universally adopted it must be morally impermissible Kant’s “Proof” of the Categorical Impera8ve •  Ra8onality of the will –  man is capable to make choices on the basis of reason •  Infinite worth of persons was ends-­‐in-­‐themselves –  Man has a dignity that sets us above everything else in the world –  Man is not just a “slave” to his passions/desires •  Autonomous nature of reason –  Man can legislate the laws to which it submits –  Reason itself “writes” the categorical impera8ve •  “Kingdom of Ends”: Kant’s dream, an ideal community of upright, responsible, ra8onal men and women who base their ac8ons on universally valid laws that they autonomously lay down for themselves U8litarianism and Jeremy Bentham •  U8litarianism-­‐rule that we should try to make as many people as possible as happy as possible –  “The Greatest Happiness Principle” –  Epicurus (Greek) and Lucre8us (Roman) •  Jeremy Bentham –  English, 1748-­‐1832 –  An Introduc8on to the Principles of Morals and Legisla8on –  Most famous modern u8litarian –  Believed that when people said “good” and “evil,” they mean “pleasant” and “painful” –  More pleasure beYer than less; less pain beYer than more Implica8ons of Bentham’s U8litarianism •  Bentham: Principle of U8lity should apply to community; allows him to extract a moral principal from his theory –  How do my ac8ons affect me AND others? –  Act U8litarianism-­‐each of us should use the principle of u8lity in every act we perform –  Governments should legislate by it –  Rule U8litarianism-­‐general laws or social norms should be chosen based on u8litarian considera8on, individual acts should be judged according with those laws and norms Strengths of U8litarianism •  Explains happiness in easy to understand terms •  U8litarian Calcula8on: can transform seemingly impossible problems of moral delibera8on into manageable empirical problems •  Bentham hoped his Greatest Happiness Principle could simplify/reform English law Weaknesses of U8litarianism •  Is it really that simple? –  Can we really quan8fy pleasure and pain? The pleasure and pain of others? –  Total happiness vs. maximizing average happiness •  Nega8ve moral implica8ons –  Can you find a way to add happiness to some/
many without causing someone else pain? –  How do you calculate the rights of an individual against the possible benefit of the community or group? What is Virtue Ethics? •  Virtue-­‐moral excellence, goodness, righteousness, good character •  Virtue Ethics-­‐focuses on character (the kind of person one is) not on behavior (what one does) –  Differs from Kant’s concentra8on on duty –  Differs from Bentham’s concentra8on on maximizing value Aristotle •  Believed that the aim of life was eudaimonia –  “eu” (“good”) and “daimōn” (“spirit”) –  Usually translated as “happiness” or “well being” –  From Defini8ons: The good composed of all goods; an ability which suffices for living well; perfec8on in respect of virtue; resources sufficient for a living creature. •  Believed ideal person is someone who made right choices by habit un8l they became second nature –  Virtue consists “essen8ally in observance of the mean” (Golden Mean) Rosalind Hursthouse •  Modern virtue theorist –  Premise 1: An ac8on is right if and only if it is what a virtuous agent would characteris8cally do in the circumstances –  Premise 1a: A virtuous agent is one who has, and exercises, certain character traits, namely the virtues –  Premise 2: A virtue is a character trait that a human being needs for eudaimonia, to flourish or live well •  Possible Cri8cism: Isn’t that a liYle bit circular? Summary: Kant vs. Bentham vs. Hursthouse •  Remember the three reasons to “think about ethics” 1.  How does first “first principle of conduct” stand up to skep8cs and rela8vists? –  Kant: Categorical Impera8ve –  Bentham: Principle of U8lity, “Maximize Happiness” –  Hursthouse: Be “virtuous” 2.
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How do you decide “Hard Cases”? –  Kant: Does your ac8on pass the test of “universalizability”? –  Bentham: U8litarian Calcula8on –  Hursthouse: What would a virtuous person do? What ac8on would make me a virtuous person? How to live a “good life”? –  Kant: Life devoted to duty deserves happiness –  Bentham: Do you maximize your happiness, the happiness of those around you? –  Hursthouse: Did you achieve eudaimonia? Summary •  Ques8ons: –  What makes acts right? –  What is theore8cally more fundamental: duty, value, or virtue? Feminist Cri8que of Ethical Theory •  Feminism-­‐intellectual, social, and poli8cal movement united in an effort to combat and change social ins8tu8ons and altudes that have oppressed women •  Describe the philosophers we have discussed thus far in the course. –  Kant: “The virtue of a woman is a beau8ful virtue. That of the the males sex should be noble virtue.” •  Basic premise of feminist cri8que –  the tradi8on of ethical theory is flawed by patriarchal thinking and oblivious to the experiences and insights of women –  Par8cularly concerned with Kan8an tradi8on