Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine
Viktor F. Saiko
Working Paper 95-WP 145
December 1995
Center for Agricultural and Rural Development
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50011
Viktor F. Saiko is director of the Ukrainian Research Institute of Agriculture in Kiev and
professor of the Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
PROBLEMS OF RATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LAND USE IN UKRAINE
Ukraine has been a center of agricultural production for millennia. Today Ukraine is one of
the most extensively farmed areas in the world. Of its total area of 60.4 million ha, 70% is
presently devoted to agricultural production, and 81% of that area is arable land. This proportion
of land used for cropping substantially exceeds that of other northern countries with major
agricultural economies. For instance, 37% of the total agricultural land of the former USSR is
arable. Comparable figures for some other countries are 48% for France and Germany, 37% for
Hungary, 25% for England, and 20% for the United States (Fig. 1). The abundance of
agricultural land and a generally favorable climate contribute to Ukraine=s high potential for crop
production. Nevertheless, currently there are deficiencies in meeting the country=s demand for
food and other agricultural raw materials.
This situation is attributable, in part, to agro-political policies under the former command
economy. Twentieth century expansion of agricultural land use led to both economically
unsustainable production costs and an unprecedented increase in agro-environmental risk. The
postBWorld War II period was especially characterized by rapid escalation of cultivation. In
some regions of Ukraine (e.g., Vinnitskaya, Ternopolskaya, Kirovogradskaya, Cherkasskaya)
over 90% of the agricultural land is cultivated. Today, 58% of the total area of the country is
cultivated. This compares with 10% of the total area of the former USSR and 12% of the total
area of the United States (Fig. 1). No other developed country has such a high proportion of land
under cultivation.
2 / Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine
The intensification of cultivation, the doubling of row-crop area in post-wartime, and the
practice of amalgamating crop fields into larger units has contributed to increasingly severe
environmental and natural resources problems, especially soil erosion. Annual soil loss in
Ukraine amounts to approximately 600 million metric tons, including more than 20 million
metric tons of humus. Almost 7 metric tons of soil were lost for each metric ton of actual grain
produced during the eleventh five-year-plan period (1980B1985). The total annual economic
damage attributable to erosion is 3.45 billion rubles, and the loss of agricultural net profit is 2
billion rubles (1986 exchange rate).
Moreover, biological activity of the soil has decreased, and freshwater resources have
declined in supply and quality. According to World Health Organization data, one-fourth of the
Ukrainian population contends with water supply contamination. Moreover, freshwater resources
per capita in Ukraine are only one-fourth that in the United States. Clearly, the intensity of crop
production in Ukraine has increased ecological risk and social concern in the republic.
The history of Ukraine during the period of domination by tzarist Russia includes similar
patterns of events. The expansion of cultivated areas, for example, is believed to have
contributed to droughts and subsequent crop failures in some regions and, in turn, to declines in
cattle production. Steppe conditions rapidly spread northward into the Forest-Steppe Zone of
Ukraine. Droughts, which were previously known in the Kiev region only once a century, now
occur approximately every 10 years.
Perspectives for Agricultural Land Use
Rational agricultural land use is imperative in Ukraine. Existing agricultural systems are not
appropriate to changing production, technological, economic, ecological, and energetic realities.
With the additional pressure of transition to a market economy, a new agricultural paradigm is
required. In the extreme, it may require the removal of 10 million ha (nearly one-third of the
existing cultivated land) from cultivation. This land would be converted primarily into
permanent vegetation, including 6 to 7 million ha of grassland and about 2 million ha of
reforested area (Table 1). Even if this happened, the remaining proportion of cultivated land
(56.8% of the total agricultural land area) would still be the highest in Europe, and three times
greater than that in the United States (Fig. 1). Nevertheless, it is believed that a return to more
natural landscape and vegetative patterns will contribute substantially to restoration of ecological
equilibrium and stability.
In the view of Ukrainian scientists, a key element of this plan is the need to increase
permanent pasture and forest area by 2.7 and 1.8 times, respectively. It is important to
acknowledge that reforestation is necessary for environmental improvement and also critical to
meet national economic demands. Two hundred years ago, one-half of Ukraine=s territory was
covered by forest. Today, only 14% of the area is forested and mature timber is nearly depleted.
It is estimated that only 6% of the original natural stands remains and, if the Carpathian forests
Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine / 3
are excluded from that total, only 4% remains. Even during the period of economic stability
(1960sB1980s), Ukraine was not able to improve the age structures of its forests. With today=s
continued harvest of lumber to meet national demands, the problem of age structure is
exacerbated by inadequate forest management policies that still permit unsustainable harvests.
Moreover, experience has shown that some cultivated lands on previously forested areas are poor
choices for crop production. On 800,000 ha of pine forest sands, for example, only 50 to 60
metric tons of rye may be expected to be produced within a period of 50 to 60 years, while over
the same time period, 300 m3 of valuable timber can be produced at less cost. Additionally,
reforestation may be expected to promote optimization of the oxygen-carbon ratio in nature.
Table 1. Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine; Area in Millions of Hectares.
Total land area
Agricultural land1
Arable land
Planted with crops
Grains, total
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Corn
Peas
Other2
Industrial crops, total
Sugar beet
Sunflower
Other3
Vegetables, potatoes, etc.
Fodder crops, total:
Corn for silage
Permanent pasture
1
Present,
1986-1990 average
60.40
39.40
32.30
30.90
15.90
6.30
3.50
0.60
2.10
1.40
2.00
3.70
1.60
1.60
0.50
0.50
10.20
4.00
7.30
Future,
after reallocation
60.4
37.9
22.3
21.5
15.0
6.0
3.5
0.8
1.1
1.6
2.00
2.60
1.00
1.40
0.20
0.50
3.40
2.00
15.80
Excluding personal plots.
Rye, triticale, groats, rice, grain sorghum.
3
Rapeseed, soybean.
2
Future grazing lands expansion would greatly increase the contribution of pasture forages to
livestock production. At present, pasture forage amounts to only 5% of the total fodder
nationally; in the Kiev region there is even less pasture (2.7%). Grazing lands that can provide
more than one-half of the protein required for cattle will substantially decrease the need for feed
grain. After the adjustments of the land use plan, the feed grain demand is expected to decline by
5 to 6 million metric tons annually. An example of this projection is as follows. One ha of
4 / Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine
alfalfa-grass eaten by grazing cattle would yield 8,176 kg of milk (3.4% fat content) and 900 to
1,100 kg of beef during the 5- or 6- month pasture period. Annually, Ukraine requires about 28
million metric tons of milk and 4.5 million metric tons of meat. Thus, 6 million ha of alfalfabased pasture would provide the Ukrainian population with all the required milk and one-half of
the required meat.
The need to transform crop lands into grazing lands is further emphasized by consideration
of the energy required for production. In the case of corn silage, 73% of the energy expended in
production is for harvesting and transportation. In contrast, energy utilization for pasture
management is six times more efficient than for corn grain production. From the standpoint of
ecological energetics, soil erosion on pasture lands averages one-sixth that of croplands.
Therefore, energy conservation of the land is correspondingly more efficient; energy is stored in
the organic matter and nutrients of the soil, not lost through erosion.
The mind-set of Ukrainian agronomic specialists toward rotations that include meadow
crops must be overcome in order to convert crop lands to grazing lands. Moreover, it is
imperative that long-term pastures and meadows be established close to livestock facilities and
that areas of steep slopes, water-protection zones, and lands contaminated by radionuclides be
placed under permanent grass cover. In fact, it is difficult to imagine that so much steep land is
in cultivation in many regions of Ukraine, e.g.:
Vinnitskaya
Odesskaya
Khmelnitskaya
Kharkovskaya
Lvovskaya
513,000 ha
504,000 ha
487,000 ha
329,000 ha
276,000 ha
It is projected that the conversion of these highly erodible lands into pasture lands would reduce
soil conservation expenditures involved in contour cropping by two-thirds to four-fifths.
Finally, the expansion of grazing lands would satisfy the government=s social policy
requirements by promoting milk and meat production on permanent pastures without additional
material and technological expenses and investments by the state. This transformation of land
use should be carried out simultaneously with the land reform process (the transfer of land to
private ownership and the development of a legal system for land sale) in order to ensure
appropriate intensive agricultural uses of the agrolandscape. Intensive cropping must be
localized on the 22.3 million ha of flat, fertile land designated for such activity in recent
legislation.
Solution of the Grain Shortage Problem
For many years, the economic well-being of Ukraine was determined by grain production.
Grain was the only source of agricultural profit. Ukrainian grain occupied a prominent place in
Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine / 5
the world market and supported the competitiveness of the remainder of Ukrainian agriculture.
In 1913, the Ukrainian grain yield was 25 million metric tons, a quantity greater than that
produced by the German Federal Republic in the 1980s. Immediately before World War II, total
Ukrainian grain production reached that of the United States (Table 2). The highest average
annual yield (47.4 million metric tons or almost 1,000 kg/capita) was achieved during the
twelfth five-year-plan period (1986B1990). However, when total grain reached more than 51
million metric tons in 1989, only 62% of the national livestock need for feed grains could be
provided internally. Given the current state purchase and storage systems, the grain needs for the
livestock industry cannot be met only by increasing production.
Grain production will still constitute the core of Ukrainian agriculture in the future.
However, the critical factor in providing sufficient grain for human and livestock consumption
will be the geographical focusing of grain production and the efficient use of production, rather
than an increase in production. Under a rational land use plan, about 70% of Ukraine=s arable
area should be planted with grain crops, resulting in a slight reduction in total land use for grains
(Tables 1 and 3). A comprehensive analysis shows that a stable annual average bulk yield of dry,
cleaned grain could achieve 45 to 47 million metric tons.
Winter wheat is the predominant Ukrainian staple grain crop. The area devoted to this crop
should continue at 6 million ha and could be reduced only if replaced by an expanded area in
spring wheat. The continuing importance of winter wheat relates to needs for providing stable
grain production, ensuring ecological equilibrium in agrolandscapes, and reducing peak work
loads during the spring field-work period. Moreover, climatic conditions of Ukraine maximize
winter wheat production efficiency (Table 4). Annual bulk yields of this crop are expected to be
20 to 24 million metric tons. Of this amount, Ukraine will be able to sell about 5 million metric
tons to foreign markets or exchange it for feed grains.
There is great potential for corn as a crop in Ukraine. At present, Ukraine devotes more area
to corn production than any other country in Europe. An analysis suggests that in the future the
area planted in corn would be 1.0 to 1.1 million ha for grain and 2 million ha for silage
production, and gross yield is expected to be 5 million metric tons (Tables 1 and 3). Future
increases in corn production levels may be achieved by applying grain production technology for
growing silage corn and harvesting it for grain.
More people now advocate the American model for corn production. However, the direct
transfer of such successful models as the corn-soybean system practiced in Iowa (USA) is not
feasible because of differences in bioclimatic potential. Iowa straddles the 42nd parallel while
Ukraine lies primarily between 45o and 52o North latitude. Annual precipitation in Iowa is
approximately 840 mm, and the daily July temperature is nearly 24oC. In contrast, at Cherkassy
in central Ukraine, these important climatic indices are 549 mm and 18oC. Thus, much of the
arable land in Ukraine is in a drier, cooler climate than the land in the North American Corn
Belt. Consider also that 60% of the arable area of the United States has a total annual moisture
potential of 700 mm while in Ukraine only 1.7% of the cultivated area has a similar water-supply
capacity.
6 / Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine
Among the remaining grains, barley is the second largest crop in Ukraine (Table 3) but it is
first in importance as forage. At present and in the future, the area devoted to barley (winter and
spring) should be 3.5 million ha, which will produce 10.5 million metric tons annually.
Peas need to be grown on 1.6 million ha and yield about 4 to 5 million metric tons annually.
No other leguminous food grain crop can surpass the yield of peas in Ukraine.
Oats is a superior grain insofar as its protein quality is concerned, and it is undervalued in
this regard. Oats will be planted on an area of 0.8 million ha and yield 2.4 million metric tons
annually.
Winter rye and triticale should be grown on 0.6 million ha, resulting in 1.7 million tons of
grain annually. Increases in yield capacity of groats are expected to provide future bulk yield
increases while the planted area would remain unchanged at 0.6 million ha. The remaining grain
crops, rice and grain sorghum, will require 0.8 million ha and would supply 2.2 million metric
tons of grain annually.
In some parts of southern Ukraine, without irrigation, it is more appropriate to grow grain
sorghum because of increasing fuel costs. This will lead first to the replacement of corn. Overall,
the total area under grains and grain-legumes would constitute 15.0 million ha, and the total
annual yield will reach 48.8 million metric tons (Table 3).
The industrial crops of Ukraine are sugar beet and sunflower (Table 1). Anticipated future
yield improvements will permit the volume of sugar production to remain constant while
allowing substantial reduction in the amount of land devoted to sugar beet, from 1.6 million ha to
1.0 million ha. Edible rapeseed and soybeans will become the principal oil crops although
sunflower is a traditional Ukrainian crop with a trend toward reduced production area. World
experience indicates that sunflower is a good precursor crop for rapeseed, which will become a
more important oilseed in the northern and western Forest-Steppe Zone and the Forest Zone.
Soybean plantings have been increasing, and by the year 2000, 0.5 million ha are expected to be
planted in soybeans. The area devoted to industrial crops would be 2.6 million ha, due to the
reduction in cultivated land.
Potatoes and vegetables will continue to be grown on 0.5 million ha, while the area used for
production of corn for silage and green fodder should be halved to 2.0 million ha. Pure fallow in
rotation prior to winter crops will involve 0.8 million ha.
Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine / 7
Table 2. Grain Yield in Ukraine and the United States and
Relative Areas Planted in 1990 Compared to 1940.
Area planted;
1990 as percent
Yields (100 kg/ha)
of 19
1
1
Cr Ukraine USA Ukraine USA Ukraine
USA
Whea
12.1 10.2
40.1 22.8
104.7 115.6
11.1
8.1
24.3 17.71
14.0
15.0
R
Co
16.3 17.9
38.3 73.6
79.0
75.0
1
Oa
12.1 12.9
26.5 19.5
21.5
20.0
1
Barle
14.2 12.5
32.8 26.2
69.0
63.0
1
1989 data.
Table 3. Projected Future Grain Production in Ukraine.
Crop
All grains
Winter wheat
Rye and triticale
Barley1
Corn
Oats
Groats2
Peas
Other
Food grain
Feed grain
1
2
Area cropped,
million ha
Average yield,
100 kg/ha
Total production,
mil. metric tons
15.0
6.0
0.6
3.5
1.1
0.8
0.6
1.6
0.8
7.6
7.4
32.5
35.0
28.0
30.0
45.0
30.0
20.0
30.0
28.0
32.9
32.2
48.8
21.0
1.7
10.5
5.0
2.4
1.2
4.8
2.2
25.0
23.8
Winter and spring barley.
Assorted grains for human consumption.
8 / Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine
Table 4. Power Efficiency of Grain Production in the United States
and Ukraine.
Tonnes of grain production
per tonne of petroleum used
Coefficient of energy
efficiency
Crop
USA
Ukraine
USA
Ukraine
Wheat
Corn
Barley
Oats
8.7
15.8
9.6
16.0
13.0
8.3
11.6
15.0
2.38
4.59
2.60
4.00
3.5
2.4
3.2
3.7
Re-establishment of Soil Fertility
One result of decreasing the area under cultivation is reduction of soil energy losses. Better
focusing of crop land use will permit concentration of the application of organic and inorganic
fertilizers into about 22.3 million ha, 30% less area than at present and will involve 10 to 15
metric tons per ha depending on soil and climatic conditions. This will allow greater emphasis on
utilizing agricultural by-products as fertilizers and growing a variety of crops as green manure.
To increase fertility on areas converted to grazing land, legume and grass-and-legume
combinations will be enhanced with inorganic fertilizers. Increased production and use of
agricultural lime is also crucial to the process.
Additionally, integrated pest management approaches should be utilized. It is not, however,
regarded as expedient to intensify agricultural drainage and irrigation activity. It would be better
to use existing irrigation and drainage systems to grow more productive crops than to expand
such operations.
Application of Technology
The reduction of arable land will make technology the key in maintaining agricultural
production. Although yields of major Ukrainian crops continue to lag behind those of western
countries, experimental studies indicate that technology is now available in Ukraine to close the
gap (Table 5). Applications of Ukrainian-developed technologies are growing yearly. The
theoretical goal of intensive use of agricultural technology is to narrow the difference between
potential and actual crop yields, especially to produce products most useful to society.
The practical basis of such technology is increasing plant growth processes based on
morphophysiological knowledge and manipulation. Acceptance of biological limits of potential
and actual crop production capacity is the basis for the dynamics of intensive technologies, for
timely and correct agronomic decision making, and for efficient utilization of soil fertility and
Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine / 9
related resources. In developing crop improvement technologies, therefore, priority will be given
to development of high-yielding cultivars that are resistant to disease and insects and that
respond positively to efficient use of equipment and fertilizer.
Climate and weather cannot be controlledConly predicted. Thus, the adoption of farming
practices suitable to local climates combined with technological adjustments to local agroecological factors are needed to provide stability of yield and bulk production of farm crops. In
every eco-climatic zone there is, as a rule, a predominant ecological limiting factor that crop
technology must address. In Ukraine, moisture is the uncontrollable yield-limiting factor in the
Steppe and Forest-Steppe zones, the regions of the majority of agricultural production. Thus,
technological improvements will largely focus on methods for accommodating that
environmental factor.
Ukraine=s most valuable resource in carrying out the policy of agrarian reform will be the
intellect and knowledge of its citizens, combined with their desire and ability to improve their
individual and societal condition. With improved agricultural production and the development of
different forms of property ownership, production processes will become more complicated, and
competition among the forms of ownership will ensue. The use of science will be a part of the
general process of competition. Those who can use science most effectively will win the
economic struggle for survival and contribute most to improving the country=s food system.
Table 5. Comparison of Crop Production (100 Kg/ha) by Three
Technology Systems.
Technology
Crop
Wheat
Barley
Corn
Sugar beet
1
Ukrainian
Western
Ukrainian
Experimental
40B44
30B35
40B42
280B320
75B82
55B55
90B103
420B500
75B982
70B802
88B1102
550B6503
1
Data from Ukrainian Ministry of Farm Produce.
Experimental data, 1987B1993 averages, from the Ukrainian Research Institute of
Agriculture.
3
Hybrids, data from the Ukrainian Sugar Beet Institute.
2
10 / Problems of Rational Agricultural Land Use in Ukraine
Acknowledgments
This CARD Working Paper is based on a presentation delivered by the author at Iowa
State University on June 28, 1994. The original Russian manuscript was edited to make it more
clearly understandable to American readers. The editing group included Bruce Menzel, John
Pesek, Elena Polouchkina, and Ellen Balm, all of Iowa State University.