Lincoln University Digital Thesis Copyright Statement The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: 


you will use the copy only for the purposes of research or private study you will recognise the author's right to be identified as the author of the thesis and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate you will obtain the author's permission before publishing any material from the thesis. RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE COASTAL ZONE:
A STUDY OF PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT FOR
THE WEST COAST. SOUTH ISLAND
Presented in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Science
in the
University of Canterbury
by
N.F. RASMUSSEN
Centre for Resource Management
University of Canterbury
and
Lincoln College
1984
nEt
quidem
sunt
onmium
profundus.
littora
itself
et
these
of
sea.
jure
haec.
all:
and
et
By
things
air
with
communia
aero
mare
maris II
property
the
naturali
are
per
hoc
natural
law
the
running
it
aqua
the
common
water.
shores
of the sea.
Justinian. Institutes. Lib. II. Ch. 1. s.1
ABSTRACT
Coastal zone management problems have been the focus of many conferences,
seminars,
and publications
given
to
providing
information
been
suggested
that
has
in
New
Zealand
in
recent
the
remains
years.
and
In
guidance
present
for
coastal
inappropriate
to
the
spite
of
the
decision
zone
attention
making,
management
character
and
it
approach
use
of
the
zone. To address this issue, the existing management approach is examined
to identify the types of problems that have arisen. This study discusses
the West
area
Coast
where
the
South Island,
significant
managEment on
the
and conf I icts
that
generalised
developed,
West
New Zealand,
developments
An examination of
proposed.
A
of
the
Coast
within
the
as
an example of
coastal
information available
provides
the
basis
zone
for
for
coastal
identifying
have resul ted from the exist ing management
model
of
the
which provides
planning
a
and
framework
decision
for
may
making
examining
the
an
be
zone
issues
approach.
process
coastal
is
system
and assessing the adequacy of the present management approach.
The
study
incorporates
West Coast,
of
those
examination
resource developments
coastal
to general
an
zone management.
of
the
physical
system
on
the
in the area, and insti tut ional aspects
This examination is used to draw attention
inadequacies in the existing management approach, particularly
re la ting
to
uncertainties
coastal
zone
and
planning
insti tut ional
and
management
An
arrangements.
approach
to
is
developed,
that
addresses
specific problems and uncertainties, wi th particular reference
to the West Coast.
This
approach
the
is based on an understanding of
physical
coastal
of
system,
zone.
Management
incremental
by gathering
resource
decisions
futher
uses,
and
uncertainties
where
information.
interactions between
institutional
can
existing
the
be
dealt
with
information
A system of
aspects
is
monitoring
by
of
the
the
use
inadequate
or
and evaluation
to provide feedback to the decision making process is essential.
The
existing
framework
shown
to
to
inadequate
an
and
that
have
fragmented
the
several
resolution
guidelines
between
management
coastal
of
for
base,
these
problems
and
requires
of
Zealand
are
jurisdictional
directives.
management
means
in New
deficiencies
existing
management
achieving
management
These
and
agencies,
management responses.
zone
deficiencies.
information
policies
provide
for
It
measures
objectives,
developing
and
is
related
boundaries,
is
concluded
designed
to
coordination
implement ing
(iv)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1.
2.
3.
4.
Page
LIST OF FIGURES
(vi)
LIST OF TABLES
(vii )
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Problem Statement and Study Objectives
1
1.2
Study Approach
3
THE COASTAL SYSTEM
5
2.1
Introduction
5
2.2
Coastal Zone Processes
6
2.3
Oceanic Circulation off the West Coast
10
2.4
The West Coast Wave Environment
12
2.5
Sediment Characteristics and Sediment Sources
15
2.6
Sediment Transport in the Coastal Zone
19
2.7
Development of a Sediment Budget
22
2.8
Coastal Erosion and Accretion
24
2.9
Conclusions
26
RESOURCE USES IN THE COASTAL ZONE
28
3.1
Introduction
28
3 .2
Miner a 1s and Mining
28
3.3
Port Developments - Changing Coastal Geometry
36
3.4
Residential - Commercial Developments
39
3.5
Conclusions
41
INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF THE COASTAL ZONE
43
4.1
Introduction
43
4.2
Property Rights
44
4.3
A Framework for Institutional Analysis
48
4.4
Coastal Zone Policy and Management Agencies
48
4.5
Features of the Legislation Applying to the Coastal Zone
52
4.6
Conel usions
59
(v)
CHAPTER
5.
6.
7.
Page
INTERACTIONS WITHIN THE COASTAL ZONE AND MANAGEMENT
ISSUES
60
5.1
Introduction
60
5.2
Resource Character and Development Issues
61
5.3
Institutional Arrangements and Organisational Issues
63
5.4
Uncertainties in Interactions
67
5.5
Concl us ions
72
APPROACHES TO COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT - A STUDY OF
THE WEST COAST
74
6.1
Introduction
74
6.2
Approaches to Coastal Zone Management
74
6.3
An Approach to Coastal Zone Planning and Management
for the West Coast
76
6.4
Decision Making Approaches Under Uncertainty
89
6.5
An Appropriate Framework for Management
91
96
CONCL USIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
100
REFERENCES
101
APPENDIX I:
Account of Uncertainties in Information and
Knowledge
107
(vi)
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
Page
2.1
A sediment budget model.
8
2.2
Flexible behaviour of beach and frontal dune subject
to wave action.
9
2.3
Oceanic circulation off the West Coast.
11
2.4
Beach profile - related terms.
16
2.5
Dominant offshore terrigenous sediments West Coast.
17
Areas of significant erosion and accretion West Coast.
25
3.1
Major ilmenite prospecting areas.
35
3.2
Coastal changes at Westport, Southern Karamea Bight.
38
3.3
Progressive erosion around a near vertical sea-wall
of the type constructed at Omaha Beach.
40
4.1
Legislative administration of the coastal environment.
53
6.1
Conceptual model of the planning and decision
making process.
79
Conceptual framework of a generalised approach to
coastal zone planning and management. for the West Coast.
88
2.6
6.2
(vii )
LIST OF TABLES
Page
TABLE
2. I
Suspended sediment yields for South Island
West Coast rivers.
19
3.1
Potential output from mining of the Barrytown Flats.
34
4.1
Mechanisms of allocation of rights to property.
45
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
PROBLEM STATEMENT AND STUDY OBJECTIVES
The
West
for
is
Coast
resource
that
Council
developments
there
management
United
does
not
decisions
periodically
wi thin
appear
the
to
regarding
be
coastal
an
these
receives
zone.
adequate
proposals
proposals
The
basis
that
problem
for
is
making
appropriate
to the characteristics of the coastal zone resource.
Knowledge
coastal
the
physical
zone of the
between
are
of
the
not
system
producing
each has on the other.
istics,
such
example,
gravel
as
resource
exceed
the
and
of
the
in
the
the interactions
coastal
zone
the
the
of
resources
effects
of
the
unclear
mining
cumulative
of
effects
present
or
residential
total'
the
at
gold
and
possible
the
is
alluvial
commercial
is,
sum
In addition,
location,
mining;
port,
that
uses
operating
uncertainties
scale
surround
uses;
and
present
that
Knowledge of possible future resource character-
sand
extraction;
Uncertainties
may
the
Ilemnite
at
West Coast is limited.
physical
clear,
processes
(for
dredging;
developments).
effects
of
these
resource
developments
individiaul
developments.
This may be viewed as a form of synergy.
Under
the
conditions
described
of
the
coastal
zone
of
the
consequences.
of
these
of
uncertainties
decisions
of the coastal
well
is
these
are
the
relating
zone,
If
it
to
it
to
made
not
be
knowledge
natural
the
without
is
to
of
between
approach
how
use
knowledge
delay
In
many
the
face
the resources
the
two,
how
to
deal
with
equipped
can
management
full
available.
processes,
inadequate,
concerning
possible
interactions
management
is
decisions
be
may
full
and
existing
problems?
likel y
Yet
until
above
appropriate
management
strategies for the coastal zone be developed?
In
order
to
address
these
questions,
two
major
objectives
of
the
study were decided on:
1.
To
isolate
uncertainties
management
that
need
concerns,
to
be
specific
a ddressed
in
problems
and
coastal
zone
2
planning
and
management,
with
particular
reference
to
the West Coast and the present management approach.
2.
To
present
the
West
and
an
approach
Coast
that
management
to
coastal
accommodates
dec isions ,
zone
management
uncertainties
within
an
in
overall
for
planning
framework
for coastal zone management.
This
study
presents an examination of existing
problems,
focussing
Zealand.
where
have
The
on
West
few
Coast
studies
been
the
West
was
relating
undertaken,
but
Coast
chosen
to
for
of
the
as
an
physical
which
zone management
South
Island,
example
processes
significant
of
or
an
New
area
management
developments
affecting
the coastal zone maybe proposed in the near future.
A
study
of
the
identification
adequacy
West
therefore,
management
of
of
Coast,
existing
the
provides
problems
and
management
the
an
approach
basis
for
the
examination
of
the
to
deal
with
these
issues.
The
existing
received
has
and
much
publications
resolution
Morton
1974;
Knox,
the
for
have
et
Willis,
remains
in
on
1,973;
Ministry
(for
by
that
inappropriate
and
years.
in
New
number
A
managements
of
Zealand
conferences
problems
and
their
New'
Zealand
Institute
of
Surveyors,
New
Zealand
Institute
of
Engineers,
of
Transport,
Despite
1982).
argued
1982)
recent
example,
legislation
is
approach
focussed
al. ,
1977;
it
1977),
1980;
attention
Environment,
relevant
Act
zone
for
(see
1972;
to
coastal
example,
many
(Lello,
present
that
this
the
attention
Town
1980;
in
and
of
Commission
and
changes
Country
Planning
Morton,
management
progress
and
1980;
1980;
the
Healey,
coastal
formulating
zone
appropriate
strategies has been both slow and ineffective.
Under! ying
special
these
problems
statements
for
is
a
management
view
that
the
coastal
that
are
not
addressed
by existing legislation and management systems.
whether
or
not
problems,
to
first
approach.
there
is
special
explore
specific
an
exceptional
management
problems
presents
adequately
In order to demonstrate
character
responses,
under
zone
the
it
to
coastal
seems
existing
zone
essential
management
3
1.2
STUDY APPROACH
The
approach
of
the
planning
Resource
a
taken
in
this
and
decision
for
viewing
is
based
making
pers.
Management.
framework
study
coastal
generalised
(Ackley.
1983).
the
a
process
comm.
how
on
This
Centre
model
system
model
for
provides
operates
and
the
adequacy of the management approach that is applied to this system.
Traditional
planning.
A
management
organising.
broader
view
of
direction.
of
natural
management
as
a
space
a
is
of
time.
and
preferences.
within
decision
and
administrative
the
avoidance
the
however,
of
for
resource
of
needs,
is
disasters.
given
and
1973) .
considering
defines
resource
allocation
aspirations
managerial,
Emphasis
including
(Dale.
when
(1971)
judgement
environmental
functions
innovation
making
framework
alternatives.
of
of
O'Riordan
involving
and
and
needed.
resources.
process
number
control
management
management
over
incorporates
technological
to
flexibility.·
the
maximisation
of net social welfare over time.
But no one. of course. can handle the management functions
capably unless he is conversant with what he is managing
(Dale, 1973 p.9, author's emphasis).
This initial
situation,
requirement
is
the
of
first
management.
step
in
the
is
based
a
survey
phmning
of
the
existing
process
and
is
also
the first phase of this study.
Coastal
resources
interdependence
ecological
of
sectoral
the
(Ditton
et
al.,
relating
to
the
is
management
applied,
1977).
The
operation of
the
although
other
areas
management
system
between
outlined
and
are
in
New.
three
Chapter
problems
examined.
uses
as
is
in
and
the
is
the
4 with
in
of
present
of
reference
to
2 and
view
of the coastal
of
the
posed
by
existing
proposed
the
West
drawn
from
coastal
zone
the
3.
resources
uncertainties
management
to
are
aspects
Chapters
information
or
made
physical
Interactions
management
zone.
these
the
decisions
which
coastal
an overall
adequacy
to
of
anal ysis
an
present
discussion
Institutional
described
aspects
5 as
reference
Chapter
and
management
system
are
to
understanding
chapters
that
relevant
Zealand.
discussed
resource
these
management
are
of
uses
Specific
examples
two
physical
resource
within the coastal zone.
regarding
next
the
an
resources
coastal
responsi bili ties
and
Coast
of
on
are
Specific
interactions
management
approach
4
in
dealing
zone
management
appropriate
chapters.
7.
with
these
for
issues.
the
consideration
Conclusions
In
West
of
from
the
the
6
Chapter
Coast
an
approach
and
is
information
study
outlined
are
in
presented
to
coastal
involves
the
in
an
preceding
Chapter
5
CHAPTER TWO
THE COASTAL SYSTEM
2.1
INTRODUCTION
This
chapter
presents
in
this
case
the
on
the
physical
a
discussion
coastal
zone
of
characteristics
of
the
the
of
operation
West
the
Coast.
system
of
the
resource,
Emphasis
that
is
placed
present
important
physical
processes
considerations for management.
The
West
Coast is
operating
that
in
may
the
have
proposed
an area where
in
coastal
a
the
zone
significant
near
is
like1 y
effects
It
future.
adequacy
these
of
of
the
The
on
is,
the
developments
coastal
zone
useful
developments
and
to
to
be
examine
analyse
approach· in
aspects
may
system in order to determine
management
latter
Resource
therefore,
physical
resource
existing
interactions.
limited.
impact
existing knowledge regarding the
the
knowledge of the
are
dealt
the
dealing
with
in
with
subsequent
chapters.
The
time
constraints of this
to
gather
on
a
any
field
literature
study have meant that
data.
review
The
to
it was
discussion,
summarise
not
therefore,
existing
possible
is
knowledge
based
of
the
physical processes operating in the coastal zone of the West Coast.
By
it
way
is
and
of
introducing
useful
how
the
beginning
off
of
the
to
they
with
analysis
Island I s
currents.
Together
sediment
characteristics
an
the
examination
coastal
of
zone.
with
development
and
that
anyone
affect
response
that
features
may
or
alter
discussion
the
influence
has
on
sources,
factors
the
more
of
are
of
wave
the
system
of
an
examination
sediment
primarily
these
factors
variable
coastal
characteristics,
leads
transport
responsible
Resource
will
these
Coast
circulation
information
zone.
by the form and features of the coast.
Coast,
oceanic
more
between
West
of the West
the
coastal
balance
to
that
this
influencing
the
system
consideration
factors
the
leads
of
Coast
of
components
coastal
and
of
major
the
a
These
system
of
West
the
the
This
components
an
physical
describe
operate.
specific
South
first
the
to
within
for
the
developments
result
factors,
in
some
expressed
6
2.2
COASTAL ZONE PROCESSES
The
coastal
between
the
It
1967) .
zone
the
tidal
zone
the
oceans
and
of
the
coastal
zone
narrow
land
and
broadl y
where
strip
water
major
and
of
ocean
where
shore,
the
the
zone
currents,
the
of
interaction
atmosphere
produced
meet
necessary
the
as
and
waves,
atmosphere
is
defined
Ii thosphere
movements
of
the
be
hydrosphere,
is
currents,
can
variable
by
land.
(Zenkovich,
the
A
interaction
broad
in
order
to
encompass
but
also
the
adjacent
impact
of
activities
may
coastal
definition
not
only
areas
be
of
evident
or where developments may impinge on the other areas.
The
major
from
the
influence
river
coast.
of
waves
of
basins
In
the
and
the
addition,
approaching
land
the
the
is
through
erosion
land
coast
of
input
areas
surface
and
the
to
sediments
directly
influences
serves
of
bordering
the characteristics
absorb
their
energy.
The main components of the system, therefore, are:
the
hydrodynamics
particularl y
of
the
energy
coastal
zone
as
transforma tion
and
a
whole
water
and
movement
by wave action;
the
processes
of
transport
and
deposition
resulting
from
these movements; and,
the
development
and
features
of
the
coastal
to the physical character of the land and
zone
related
sediment character-
istics (Zenkovich, 1967).
The
interactions
characteristics
between
of
a
these
components
given
give
coastline,
rise
inc1 uding
to
the
particular
features
such
as
headlands, cliffs, estuaries, beaches and dunes.
Beaches are the most common features of
depositional
as
a
marine
landforms,
cliffs
or
three-dimensional
on
some
Kirk,
1979a).
beaches,
point
basement,
in
with
time
shore
opposed
to
platforms.
accumulation
of
around
limit
This
the
as
being
the
definition
form
and
an
many coastlines and
erosional
A
beach
of
wave
emphasises
position
ex
of
of
the
the
be
action
(King,
dynamic
at
any
processes
inter-relationships
between
the
components
of
a
as
resting
1972;
nature
of
particular
controll ing
the supply, transfer, and loss of sediments (Kirk, 1979a).
The
such
defined
sediment,
beach
the
landforms
can
unconsolidated
represent
beach
7
result
one
in
dynamic
adjustments
or
more
components
material
from
one
result
to
in
not
only
the
suppl y
the
at
of
site
in
budget
needed
rate,
and
coastal
how
entire
but
reduced
stability
where
is
beach
system
stability
also
in
much can be removed
in a
in
Removal
of
dune
will
in
an
attempt
may
be
reduced
In
areas
where
order
to
the
beach
sediment
coming
from,
at
of
material
changes
or
downdrift
1979a).
knowledge
the
1980).
foreshore
(Kirk,
a
to
the
Coastal
removal
system
Healey,
as
balance.
is
whole
1972;
such
the
of
material
reductions
is
of
sediment
the
the
(King,
component,
readjustment
restore
of
avoid
what
given time without resulting
in a sediment deficit? (Figure 2.1).
Beach
as
of
systems
headlands
a
coast
and
between
coastal
however,
be
longshore
of
of
coast
to
sediment
(a
and
other
follows,
inputs,
These
influenced
from
It
sediment
boundaries
compartments.
transport.
the
distinct
significantly
losses of sediments
through
segment
formed
termed
may,
characterisation
a
are
are
coast
transfers
that
budget)
is
segments
by
inputs,
parts
of
therefore.
transfers
and
best
such
the
that
losses
conduc ted
a
for
on
a
regional scale.
Waves
are
changes
the
on
principal
the
depend
shore
the
and
shore.
period)
are
of
wind,
the
on
cause
the
the
for
which
characteristics
determined
and
most
by
the
shoreline
characteristics· of
duration
The
of
of
the fetch
distance
a
the·
waves
particular
waves
distance.
the
changes.
wave
wind
approaching
wave
(height,
These
type
acts
length.
and
velocity,
travels
after
duration
leaving
the
generating area (Coastal Engineering Research Centre, 1977).
There
are
and
swell
and
are
close
the
two
main
waves.
Sea
to
a
coast
waves
when
they
waves
will
cause
those
and
reaching
that
first
been
are characteristicall y long,
have
been
eliminated
are
that
steep
are
will
be
a
low waves
blowing
similar
a
( Figure
great
a
toward
in
sea
storm
Where
Generally,
beach
generated
beaches:
during
waves.
generated.
on
affect
produced
winds
shore
erosion
have
wave
short,
the
the
are
of
waves
characteristically
waves
are
types
form
these
2.2} .
distance
waves
conditions
storm
occurs
the
shore,
to
the
short
Swell
sea
steep
waves
offshore
and
since the short steep components
over the distance
travelled.
generall y, cause accretion of a beach (Figure 2.2).
Swell
waves
will.
8
Figure 2.1:
Aims:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
A sediment budget model.
where does beach material come from?
what bappens to it within compartment?
how and where does it leave a compartment?
what are the amounts of material involved in the above?
Longshore Movement
Beach material
Cliffs
From River
Onshore
,..,j....----
Offshore . .
From Cliffs
~""-:I---
Submarine
Canyon
In situ addition biogenous material
(Loss)
Longshore Movement
KEY
additions
losses
Additions,
input, sources - river s, cliffs, onshore, longshore,
in situ, wind.
Transfers - Onshore, alongshore, wind.
Losses, output - off shore, longshore, wind
(inshore).
9
2,2:
Flexible behaviour of beach and frontal
subject to wave action.
I
Slable Beach
Dune System
florma~
sub;ec. 10
dune
wave ac1ion
Sand deposiled DUshore
& profile lIaUened
2
Swell waves transport
sand bar landward durmg
calm weather.
3
Sand moved Irom beach baCk to dune
under aellon of wind Relormed
dune colonised by vegelallO n .
-Source:
The
of
important
sediments
Waves
affect
sediment
that
is
waves
characteristics of
near
is
a
beach
sediment
motion
set
Gale and Barr. 1977.
in
and
transport
generating
motion.
determined
an
are
to
The
a
their
in
waves
height.
the
currents
quantity
large
of
extent
period.
that
may
transport
sand
distributed
by
on
direction
the
and
rate
energy
of
are
is
the
wave
sediment size and the slope of the beach.
wave
and
zone
steepness.
and
the
nearshore
in
approach
direction
affecting
transport
of wave
on-offshore
breaking
mainly
the
sediment
by
height.
influenced
most
1977).
direction.
initiating
sediment
brea
Sediment
by
wave
The
direction
important
influences
transport
direction (Coastal Engineering Research Centre.
by
t
in
a
longshore
10
2.3
OCEANIC CIRCULATION OFF THE WEST COAST
Although
the
is
oceanic
processes
an
circulation
that
important
does
define
the
circulation,
factors
governing
tidal
the
have
character
influence on the
Inshore
not
a
direct
influence
on
a
given
coastline,
it
of
pattern of circulation closer
movements
and
transportation
wave
of
action
sediments
are
in
inshore.
the
major
coastal
water.
Current speed determines the potential for sediment transport.
Oceanic
circulation in the Tasman Sea west of New Zealand is generally
weak.
A
west,
broad
appears
1976).
The
to
forms
flowing
current
flow
portion
the
a
major
in
other
the
(Figure 2.3).
Closer
inshore,
north-west
as
a
is
the
coast
Heath,
of
the
Strait
The
around
Farewell
flow
south-east
the
as
Spit,
the
The
Jackson
inshore
but
the
east
Plateau.
with
Current
coast
a
and
of
New
along
the
Current
(Brodie,
zone
strong
the
Island,
Southland
of
metres
the
north-east
the
(Stanton,
500
from
south
Head
limit
to
Tasman
flows
Island.
from
causing
South
the
around
The
rising
circulation,
of
inflow
topography
to
northern
1960) .
an
Plateau,
Current
around
by
bottom
north
south
South
flow
(Brodie,
the
west
Westland
1969).
variable
to
continuing
flowing
south-westward
1961;
Tasman
flow
fed
Challenger
somewhere
portion
by
obstruction
the
Zealand
current,
controlled
submarine
divides
of
flowing
be
broad
depth,
This
east
begins
1960;
Garner,
Westland
Current
tends
to
southerl y
enter
winds
Cook
reduce
this component and extend the current to the north (Figure 2.3).
Studies
the
of
current
Westland
west
quarter
wind
the
coastal
flows
Current
is
driven
(Stanton,
Westland
current.
west
1976;
Current
Stanton
Heath,
1969).
is
(1976)
is
produced
but
flow
is
reversed
during
periods
of
dri ven
component
replaced
suggests
not
Island
winds
from
During
by
that
a
suggest
the
periods
weak
during
of
that
southlittle
south-westerly
calms
the
weak
in response to geostrophic circulation,
by
south-westerly
is
South
prevailing
flow
this
the
by
south-westerl y
that
of
sufficient
a
stronger
winds.
to
wind-driven
To
the
south.
reverse
the
strongl y
component
the
wind-
developed
Southland Current.
Heath
(1973)
made
direct
current
measurements
for
a
single
point
11
Figure 2.3:
Oceanic circulation off the West Coast.
TASMAN SEA
Challenger
Plateau
Tasman
Current
Scale:
Source:
Brodie, 1960.
1: 7 000 000
12
in
time
Cape
a
basis
thi s
and
for
makes
local
Jackson
further
no
winds.
account
The
Head
current
measurements.
Between
subsurface flow was mainly
-1
with a
maximum speed of
1. 36 m. s
although mean flows
-1
much weaker and typically less than 0.5 m,s
(Heath, 1973),
were
of
provide
Foulwind
tidal
but
to
for
the
variations
potential
for
in
tidal
sediment
flow
or
transport
the
effect
as
a
result
of
the
of these flows is discussed in section 2.6.1.
THE WEST COAST WAVE ENVIRONMENT
2.4
The westerly winds
are
the
major
Zealand
wind
The
force
coast.
is
the
predominating
generating
Because
major
prevailing
between
of
large
limiting
winds
waves
and
fetch
affecting
fetch
factor
in
latitudes
much
distances,
wave
distances
the
generation
result
in
New
duration
of
(Reid.
1981) .
high
energy
a
wave climate especially on the south and west coasts of New Zealand.
Wave Characteristics
2.4.1
Despite
the
limitations
subjectivity
were
able
to
due
of
to
visual
make
some
the
short
period
observations.
preliminary
of
Pickrill
observations
and
generalisations
Mitchell
about
and
(1979)
the
ocean
Zealand
coast
wave characteristics around New Zealand.
Deep
water
are
the
the
coast
wave
most
reliable
causes
wave
to
Zealand! s
from
as
changes
period.
extent.
New
records
rigs
extensive
in
wave
The
West
oil
is
the
refraction
height,
dominant
Coast
off
from
New
of
most
direction
waves
and.
direction
of
the
through
west
near
to
wave
some
approach
the· south-
west.
( 1973 )
Mangin
the north-west.
however.
likel y
and
to
waves
found
Due
the
have
to the
deep
Westport
approached
mainl y
configuration of the coast around
resulting
a
at
effects
water
of
refraction.
approach
these
anywhere
from
Westport,
waves
between
are
south-
west and north.
Ocean wave
heights
in
water
coastal
many
of
the
are
as
smaller
likely
waves
to
be
much
reaching
components
of
the
their
greater
than
wave
coast
have
usually
height.
Mean
wave
heights
lost
heights
13
recorded
1979).
are
between
Mean
half
wave
those
(1973)
at
around
2.2
heights
recorded
Westport
Cape
m
deep
were
2.8
observed
in
0.9
Foulwind,
and
but
wave
(Pickrill
from
water.
m,
mean
m
the
shore
Those
due
to
Mitchell,
are
typically
recorded
the
heights
and
at
by
amount
the
of
Mangin
refraction
shore
for
much
of the rest of the West Coast of the South Island may be higher.
Wave
period
direction.
in
the
is
less
Wave
affected
periods
open ocean,
at
by
the
possibly
wave
refraction
coast
due
to
are,
the
than
height
however,
longer
attenuation
of
shorter
Coast
typically
and
than
period
waves by the time they reach the coast.
Deep
water
6-9
wave
seconds.
periods
and
from
shore-based
while
few
waves
off
the
West
rarel y
exceed
12
records
ranged
between
with
periods
are
seconds.
greater
Mean
8.3
and
16
than
between
wave
seconds,
12.8
seconds
period
or
shorter
been
limited,
observations
suggest
than 7 seconds were recorded.
of
Collection
data
wave
but
both
offshore
that
there
is
or
climate
on
passage
a
across
of
are
West
low
the
constant
Coast
Sea.
is
Low
often
height,
period,
1979;
Mangin,
1973 ).
by
pressure
(5 11
interval
the
intervening
high
relationship
greater
shown
wave
a
to
least
Coast
exist
the
(and
the
days).
pressure
systems
move
low
ideal for
wave
and
may
the
produce
eastwards
rhythmic
pattern
pressure
systems
wave
anticyclones
timing
of
Coast
the
West
(Pickrill
and
Mitchell,
most
systems
The
The
events
quasi-cyclic
on
-cyclic
over
storm
steepness
generation,
are
generally
, less able to generate waves.
between
heights
has
wave
weather
with
time
visual
dorilinated
cyclonic
associated with low wind
at
in
of
generally associated with strong winds,
while
A
periods
Mitchell ,
and
cyclicity.
Tasman
fair! y
pattern
pressure
period
long
shore-based
seasonal
no
the
of
short
and
( Pickrill
direction
over
of
weather
New
low
of
1979
patterns
Zealand)
pressure
New
Zealand
p.514).
To
experienced
are
systems
reflected
has
some
and
been
extent
on
the
West
in
the
wave
climate.
2.4.2
The Wave Climate
Deep water waves off the West Coast are characteristically approaching
14
from the
metres
the
and
deep
wa ve
through
south-west
a
water
with
a
are
waves
period
6-8
of
period
to
of
west,
seconds.
On
transformed
9-12
seconds,
a
with
height
entering
a
to
when
of
shallow
0.5-1. 5
observed
1.0-3,0
water
metre
from
high
the
beach
means
(Pickrill and Mitchell, 1979).
The
steep
and
that
little
wave
and
south
refraction
is
of
at
Since
south-west
waves
shelf
lost
approaching
completely.
refracted
a
continental
energy
waves
that
in
narrow
due
an
the
West
Coast
friction
with
the
bottom,
the
coast
may
not
is
generall y
to
shoreline
north
approaching
to
angle
the
to
off
north-east
from
the
direction,
south-west
be
oriented
incomplete
through
west
will result in a component of the wave energy being directed alongshore
in a north north-east direction,
Waves
may
(1973)
found
the
to
from
this
be
this
area
also
be
mean
anywhere
dominant
that
the
the
storms
waves
and
north-west
wave
the
were
the
to
of
although
south-west
from
by
direction
direction,
between
approaching
generated
are
approach
to
be
Despite
not
Mangin
at
Westport
of ,refraction
effects
likel y
north.
north-west,
approaching
this,
where
completely
in
from
waves
refracted
they
nearshore
zone
rna y result in a longshore current to the south south-west.
The
direction
rna y
not
near
be
of
net
dominantly
Greymouth
of
net
of
longshore
to
has
longshore
the
shown
transport
movements
the
or
west
to
in
a
that
in that
then
strong
the
in
Recent
there
the
work
is
related
is
northward
Point
Elizabeth
dominant
direction
1984).
to
The
direction
the
weather
sequence
of
storms
of
approach
a
direction
at
no
area (Pfahlert,
more
there
If
transport
north.
appears
waves.
south-west
result
longshore
wave
drift,
while
systems
to
is
likely
frequent
if
the
storms
occur to the north-west the reverse may be true.
Since
zone
to
the
of
West
Coast
strongest
of
West
Coast
the
are
New
is
Sea,
Waves
than
elsewhere
to
the
westerly
the West Coast
parts
of
reaching
winds,
generally
Zealand
the
South
lee
of
this
around
coast
New
the
coast
Island
is
waves
higher
than
unlimited
Zealand.
the
travelling
(Davies,
are
on
fetch
generally
Since
from
those
1972) .
the
margin
of
this
zone
reaching
In
zone
higher
other
addition,
of
the
and
energy
of
the
the
Tasman
steeper
waves
15
is
proportional
height,
wave
height
(King,
average
near
to
energy
height
the
the
wave
increases
1972).
The
(and
energy)
coast
length
mean
and
rapidly
and
there
square
with
combination
that
the
of
an
waves
is
great
a
the
wave
in
wave
greater
than
increase
waves
steep
of
of
generated
by
potential
storms
for
erosion
along much of the West Coast.
Swell
from
waves
the
Coast
and
Tasman
and,
is
swell
from
do
the
not
are
likely
relationship
systems
waves
by
generated
by
of
wave
shorter
Sea
to
in
storm
to
the
West
higher,
movement
a
and
the
passage
wave
climate
waves
the
waves
period,
and
results
centres
storm
sediment
conditions
generated
storm
and
distance
promote
Tasman
locally
west
great
be
that
the
and
a
to
between
across
characterised
south
travel
characteristics
The
weather
that
Sea
therefore,
steeper:
erosion.
of
originating
interrupting
west
and
south.
The frequent passage of storm systems and the difficulties in predicting
their
timing
and
position
off
the
West
Coast
mean
that
changes
in wave conditions may be abrupt.
SEDIMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND SEDIMENT SOURCES
2.5
Sources
of
discussion
operating
sediments
of
sediment
historically
on
the
West-
Coast
characteristics,
and
under
may
be
distribution
present
day
inferred
and
from
the
conditions.
a
processes
The
various
zones referred to in the discussion are depicted in Figure 2.4.
Offshore Sediments
2.5.1
For
most
sequence
of
of
dominate
the
sediments
occur
sediments
of
(Carter,
of
surf
of
the
zone
the
at
the
the
1980;
continental
(Carter
sediments
of
the
sediments
are
influence
(Figure
of
the
due
to
the
greater
Linden,
1969).
shelf
except
shallow
Heath,
although
1975).
Gravel
significant
2.5) •
muddy
sand
mud
The
presence
banks
and
not a
deposits
of
(less
Coarser
1980).
blankets
a
sands
finally
shelf.
is
Coarse
hydraulic
Mud
is
there
sand,
(Carter,
edge
of
Coast
and
metres
der
and
fine
sand) ,
40-125
the
West
into
(10-50%
shelf
possible
off
grading
toward
outer
van
of
mud
depths
again
shelf
zone
sandy
sand)
and
fining
littoral
10%
sands
continental
seaward
sand),
(50-90%
than
the
coarser
of
relict
turbulence
large
areas
the
nearshore
major
constituent
gravel
occur
in
16
Figure 2.4:
Beach profile - related terms.
Couto I orea
Beach or shore
80nllor. zont
of nearshore current,
Inshor. or .honloce
Docklhor.
ode.d. through brook.r lOne
Bluff
Offshore
Surf Zone
or
_-""'~_
Creat
Ordlnorx
Hlgb !!qt.r l!\/oL
low
Plung,
Bottom
Source:
Coastal Engineering Research Centre, 1977
Figure 1.1.
17
Figure 2.5:
Dominant offshore terrigenous sediments - West Coast
N
t
KEY
Cobbles and Pebbles
Medium and Fine Sand
Mud
Scale:
Source:
1:2 330 000
McDougall, 1975, 1982.
18
the Kahurangi Shoals (van der Linden, 1969).
Anal yses
of
of
subsurface
sediments
1972;
and
Carter,
during the
core
increasing
1980).
coaser
the
last
sediments
6500
years,
indicate
quantities
Much
Pleistocene and
the
samples
of
of
the
Holocene
increasing
gravel
offshore
with
interpreted
once
sea
as
level
(Norris,
accumulated
The muds
having
had
depth
sediments
transgressions.
are
coarseness
overlying
accumulated
reached
its
during
present
level
(Norris, 1972; Carter, 1980; Gibb, 1979).
2,5.2
and Beach
Sediments
range
in
from
mixtures
Coarse
the
fine
of
nearshore
sands
sand
sand
is
to
and
gravels.
and
the
zone
gravel
dominant
in
beaches
on
Many
beaches
have
(see
for
sediment
the
example,
of
the
West
Coast
characteristic
Mangin,
nearshore
1973) •
and
beach
deposits.
Because
a
of
continual
nearshore
sand,
is
interactions,
interchange
zone.
contains
a
the
It
is,
sediments
gravel
most
is
likely
critical
of
sand
to
so
confined
to
gravel
the
is
the
assumed
those
readily
to
wave
between
therefore,
similar
not
depth,
due
of
unlikel y
zone
may
be
beach
system
and
the
the
adjacent
and
and
to
there
that
transported
surf
action,
be
nearshore
beaches.
movement
foreshore.
redeposited
zone
Unlike
of
gravel
Once. beyond
on
the
shore
as water motion will be insufficient to initiate transport,
Mud
is
Very
conspicuously
fine
energy
particle
nearshore
absent
sizes
zone
from
may
and
be
are
nearshore
readily
then
and
beach
suspended
readily
sediments,
in
transported
the
high
offshore
or alongshore.
2,5.3
Sediment Sources
Mineralogicall y,
are
a
offshore,
quartz -mica-feldspar
gneisses
and
Carter.
1980) ,
have
the
schists
of
Processes
concentrated
the
nearshore
association,
Southern
occurring
minerals
in
and
derived
Alps
during
beach
beach
(van
the
and
sand
deposits
the
granites.
from
der
Linden,
Pleistocene
dune
and
deposits
1969;
Holocene
(Carter.
1980 ).
Numerous
rivers
and
streams
of
steep
gradient
drain
westward
19
from
the
(Table
a
Southern
The
2.1).
function
Alps.
of
high
the
carrying
yields
high
enormous
have
rainfall
been
of
quantities
shown
the
to
region.
of
be
sediment
predominantly
provided
catchments
are relatively undisturbed by man (Griffiths, 1981).
Table 2.1:
Suspended sediment yields for South Island
West Coast rivers.
Basin 2
Area (km )
Basin specific
annual suspen.9zd_l
yield (tonnes km yr )
1242
325
0,404
752
3830
2,88
Buller
6484
270
1.75
Grey
3948
787
3.11
Taramakau
1005
9877
9.93
Hokitika
1069
17070/448/16080
12.0
Haast
1349
12736
17 .2
11292
14903/1062
80.1
River Name
Karamea
Mokihinui
Kapitea to
Mackenzie
Source:
Griffi ths and Glasby. in prep •• Table 1.
in
Much of the mud
ri ver
this
sources.
area
existing
and
It
surficial
has
exceeds
on
Heath,
accumulate
Once
Load delivered to
ocean a~ttuall y 6
(tonnes yr
x 10 )
the
the
resuspended
the
in
the
entering
shore
but
that
capacity
resulting
Mud
the
suggested
sorting
shelf,
1975).
near
been
deposits
offshore
is
the
mud is readily
the
of
the
may
derived
sediment
of
transported
by
by
(Carter
out
wave
the
in
regime
mud
flocculate
resuspended
from
input
hydraulic
accumulation
sea
easily
is
and
action.
prevailing
water movements (Carter and Heath, 1975).
2.6
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN THE COASTAL ZONE
A number of factors, including ocean currents, tides and waves,
tribute
to
sediment
producing
sediment
nearshore
zone,
probabl y
occurs
does
occur
offshore
so
in
seawards
zone.
transport
movement
that
the
this
of
reference to these two zones.
the
may
marine
amount
Despite
nearshore
transport
environment.
more
be
greatest
zone.
the
Sediment
in
is
this.
zone,
The
concentrated
of
in
conforces
in
the
sediment
transport
sediment
transport
a
convenientl y
zone
termed
the
discussed
by
20
2.6.1
Offshore Zone
Within
this
mean
zone
off
produce
Carter
on
tides
circulation,
circulation
to
sediment
tidal
shelf,
flow
is
of
but
Tidal
waves
of
sufficient
the
water
depths,
recorded
the
finest
flows
velocities
off
velocity
as
depths
water
of
the
at
is
sediments
too
weak
to
this
movement
of
(90-175
bottom,
mean
too
weak
1973;
in
sediment
areas
where
Straits.
In
Waves
the
movement
bed
case
is
not
sediments
metres).
produced
the
of
move
bottom.
New Zealand,
records
by
(Heath,
significant
the
at
the
generally
Cook and Foveaux
initiate
wave
velocities
are
mainly
measurements
it
maybe
in
western
to
Direct
that
produce a resultant water movement
of
influenced
show
even
constricted,
is
waves.
Coast
1975).
Heath,
open
and
West
movement
and
the
the
movement
At
by
at
shallower
waves
would
be greater and sediment may be transported.
Only
of
a
in
water
bed
few
isolated
motion
the
strengths
off
the
mentioned
by
sediments
of
West
Coast
velocities
(Carter
and
above
themselves.
the
critical
velocities
positions
for
mainl y
1975) .
Heath,
The
of
indi vidual
enough
sediment
need
transport
the
have
For
components
consist
do
to
of
be
in
strength
and
excess
to
transport
combined.
fine
components
of
Current
and
induced
sediments
with
-1
35-40 cm. s
has
low
between 1.3 and
while
tidal
-1
up to 51 cm.s
at the surface (Carter and Heath, 1975),
Available
that
of
measurements
storms
the
motion
are
sediment
rather
waves
capable
continental
induced
of
by
of
disturbing
shelf.
Because
waves,
the
than
storm
of
the
principal
transport
it.
bottom
effect
Once
sediments
in
of
suspension
are
suggest
over
much
of
water
nature
waves
mean
flows
currents
oscillatory
occur
sands
about
Westland
-1
9.6 cm.s
to
Bed
medium
move
is
to
most
disturb
sediments
are easil y transported.
The
inferred
direction
north-east,
coinciding
The
main
forces
and
storm
driven
when
and
mean
east direction.
bed
sediment
with
the
direction
producing
currents.
south-westerly
the
of
storms
circulation,
sediment
Maximum
are
both
transport
of
of
the
sediment
which
to
are
with
in
peak
a
would
tidal
north
north
Current.
tides,
transport
are
the
Westland
transport
coincident
is
waves
occur
flow
north-
21
2.6.2
Nearshore Zone
Sediment transport in the nearshore zone can be divided into movements
in
an
onshore-offshore
direction.
This
sediment
direction
distinction
transport
is
is.
likel y
and
movements
in
arbitrary
as
at
number
of
directions
be
transported
however.
to
be
in
a
an
alongshore
any
moment
with
both on-offshore and alongshore components.
Significant
amounts
of
material
an
on-offshore
direction.
As
mentioned,
mud
not
easil y
transfer
is
an
likely
primaril y
easil y
transported
in
are
once
a
result
transported
in
on-offshore
as
to
deep
offshore
water.
direction
of
and
Most
will
wave
of
involve
in
action.
gravel
the
is
sediment
sand
movements
in response to changes in wave characteristics and beach conditions.
Longshore
breaking
of
transport
waves
and
and
force
wave
higher
the
from
energy
and
the
transfer
directed
wave
disturbed
results
of
disturbance
this
alongshore.
result
transported
in
sediment
Greater
greater
(Coastal
of
sediment
by
the
component
of
approach
angles
amounts
of
Engineering
by
sediment
Research
being
Centre,
1977) .
Within
a
the
nearshore
combination
The
of
distinction
moving
in
zone,
bedload
between
suspension
sediment
transport
sediment
is
once
transport
and
moving
again
usuall y
suspended
on
the
load
bottom
arbitrary
as
occurs
as
transport.
and
sediment
individual
grains
may move in both manners.
The
dominant
zone
of
the
approach
waves
will
Coast
the
not
be
the
directed
refracting
waves
produce
longshore
Pfahlert
(1984)
vary
considerably
2.3.5).
In
may
possibl y
through
coast.
the
has
shore
in
contrast,
to
other
the
component
the
the
influence
the
the
longshore
vicinity
of
waves
Wherever
these
shallow
water
wave
energy
direction.
Despite
north and
Point
researchers have
of
Cape
Foul wind
The
resultant
Bight.
from
nearshore
most
the
north-east
both
as
over
of
Karamea
the
north
passing
predominantly
shown
the
to
in
south-west.
north
shown
aproaching
transport
has
a
be
by
some
in
transport
to
refracted
alongshore
(1973)
approach
longshore
west
Mangin
waves
of
completel y
reaching
this,
in
West
from
are
before
direction
the
north-west
south.
transport
inferred
In addition,
direction
Elizabeth
and
to
(see' section
that
northward
22
transport of
sediment
was
dominant
(Furkert.
1947;
van
der
Linden.
1969; Carter and Heath. 1975).
Furkert
the
(1947)
Quaternary
3
m . yr
-1
in
the
West
vicinity
of
m .yr
past
due
the
to
evidence
Coast
the
Westport
Farewell
of
around
calculations
and
of
deposition
Harbour.
Harbour
of
addition
and
rivers
Westport
growth
Furkert
was
of
during
4.5
million
the
and
suppl y
erosion
concluded
the
Spit
measured
that
order
of
of
sediment
5
million
-1
appears
been
that
been
this
from
transport
3
has
From
sediment
It
calculated
from
accepted
the
literature
without
that
question.
Furkert' s
although
estimates
there
have
have
been
generally
no
studies
at Farewell Spit or elsewhere on the West Coast that clearl y demonstrate
a net northward movement of this quantity of sediment.
2.7
DEVELOPMENT OF A SEDIMENT BUDGET
The
procedure
of
coast
and
for
obtaining
consists
losses
of
a
assessing
(debits)
and
littorial
the
sediment
sedimentary
equating
these
to
budget
for
a
contributions
the
net
stretch
(credits)
gain
or
loss
(balance of sediments) within given boundaries.
For
of
the
the
purposes
West
of
Coast
this
from
study.
Jackson
the
area
Bay
in
included
the
south
is
to
that
portion
Farewell
Spit
in the north.
Within
be
this
from
Southern
total
area
the
sediment
in
using
may
be
a
For
examp Ie,
major
numerous
Alps.
Spit is
3
-1
m • yr
the
rivers
Griffiths
yield
the
an
of
Glasby
of
sediment
(in
prep.)
of
tonnes
1.33
contributor
area
high
is
assumed
to
yield
draining
the
calculate
between Jackson
6
130±26 x 10
tonnes per
conversion
significant
of
contribution
rivers
from
order
a
and
sediment
coast
of
material
10
Bay
year
3
per
m ).
to
the
kilometres
that
the
and
Farewell
6
(98±20 x 10
Coastal
erosion
sediment
budget.
long.
eroding
at
a
rate of two metres per year coul d be expected to contribute approximatel y
20.000
of
the
rates of
3 -1
m. yr
or
coastline
up
to
more.
on
eight
the
It
appears
West
Coast
metres
per
that
is
year
a
significant
naturall y
(Gi b b.
eroding
197 8).
proportion
at
Other
average
possi ble
23
sources are:
cliff
erosion,
onshore
transport,
longshore
transport
the area, wind transport, in situ biogenous and
into
hydrogenous
deposi tion, and man.
Al though
and
sand
may
be
zone,
nearshore
the
offshore,
further
the
mud,
transferred
which
is
conspicuousl y
is
can be assumed from
from
continuall y
the
between
dominant
(see
absent
beach
systems
surface
sediment
2.5),
section
It
this evidence that onshore transport of sediments
continental
shelf
is
minimal,
The
offshore
areas
appear
to act more as sinks for the finer sediments reaching the coast.
Cliff
erosion
1973).
(Mangin,
to
may
Longshore
minimal
be
from
Jackson
from
sources
likely
to
contribute
due
to
such
in
material
in
from
the
in
the
Southland
1960;
as wind
minor
be
transport
(Brodie,
Bay
some
Heath,
transport
comparison
certain
south
Current
1969).
and
to
in
the
localities
is
assumed
flowing
Other
situ
south
contributions
deposition
quantities
of
are
sediment
supplied by the rivers.
Within
the
zones
area,
have
the
major
been described.
predominantl y
in
a
transfers
in
the
offshore
and
littoral
The assumption that material is transported
northward
direction
appears
to
be
an
over-
simplification of the various transfers occurring,
Sediment
New
sinks
Zealand
reliable
identified
and
data
is
date
to
the
Farewell
possibly
available
are
on
the
continental
Spit
amounts
and
of
shelf
Cook
of
western
Strait.
sediment
Little
deposited
in each of these sediment sinks.
Although
a
reasonable
is available,
transfers
within
is no clear
and
becomes
It
is
area
and
data
means
where
of
loss
on
to
difficult
the
that
it
West
determine
to
predict
the
quantity
available
goes
knowledge of the overall
difficult
also
lack of
losses
and
the
suppl y
the
estimate
sediment
on the quantities
what
is
of
happens
uncertain.
to
As
of
this
a
The
long
term
the
likely
implication
trends
effects
developments on the systems state of balance.
in
of
sediment
material
result,
balance or imbalance of
Coast.
supply
is
coastal
various
there
sediment
that
it
sta bili t y .
resource
24
2.8
COASTAL EROSION AND ACCRETION
Rates
coastal
of
coastline
erosion
by
studied
and
Gibb
accretion
(1978)
around
show
a
the
New
Zealand
of
erosion
dominance
of the coastline between Jacksons Bay and Karamea.
Rates
of
erosion
developments
with
an
and
located
expected
be
affected
of
this
by
accretion
close
to
lifetime
of
rates
of
may
have
the
significant
shoreline.
10
more than
-1
or
m. yr
1.0
a
years
therefore, mean rates of erosion
-1
than 1. 0 m. y r a r e assumed to be significant.
or
on
Developments
are
For
study,
effect
likel y
the
to
purposes
accretion
greater
Areas of significant erosion are:
Jacksons
Bay,
Bruce
coastline
north
of
Bay,
Hunts
Grey
the
Beach,
Ri ver
Waitaha,
mouth
to
the
Rapahoe,
the Barrytown flats, Nine Mile Beach, Fairdown, Waimangaroa,
Jones Creek, Little Wanganui and Te Namu (Figure 2.6).
Areas of significant accretion are:
The
coastline
immediately
south
Canoe
Creek
lagoon
on
Beach,
North
Beach,
Karamea
problems
may
be
man
induced.
of
the
Ri ver
Barrytown
the
and
flats,
Farewell
mouth,
Carters
Spit
(Figure
of
complex
2.6) •
Coastal
erosion
factors,
the
both
result
reason
a
sediment
natural
of
a
and
deficit
careful
in
the
consideration
transfers
caused
occurring
and
to
a
Erosion
beach
needs
by
variety
is.
however,
sediment
to
be
how
budget.
given
these
to
will
always
For
the
be
this
natural
affected
by developments in the coastal zone.
A
major
accretion
in
the
problem
with
the
use
is
they
may
disguise
that
sediment
lar ge
areas
Gi b b
(1978).
of
balance
the
on
of
beaches
coastline
were
average
rates
important
along
not
the
for
short
term
coastline.
included
in
erosion
In
the
or
changes
addition,
study
by
25
Figure 2.6:
Areas of significant erosion and accretion - West Coast.
N
Farewell
Spit
Little
KEY
Accretion
Erosion
Barrytown
Greymouth
Whataroa R,
Scale:
Source:
Compiled from Gibb, 1978.
1:2 520 000
26
2.9
CONCL USIONS
are
There
that
are
that
zone.
certain
features
important
when
of
coastal
considering
features
These
the
and
zone
proposed
their
of
the
West
resource
Coast
uses
implications
are
characterised
by
within
summarised
here.
The
coastal
of
zone
sediments
of
from
the
West
the
rivers
Alps
and
seaward
ranges.
areas
that
influence
the
to
the
coast
are
Coast
and
streams
Developments
quantity
likely
is
to
and
have
draining
within
type
of
implications
large
the
Southern
these
catchment
sediments
for
inputs
delivered
sediment
transport
and deposition within the coastal zone.
The numerous beaches along the
of
coarse
sands.
gravel
also
action
which
There
is
occur.
is
a
and
energy.
steep
the
activities
the
west
sediment
at
of
the
erection
the
of
beach
in
of
onhigh
approach
by
sediment
within
wave
an
may
affected
and
winds.
both
these
system.
structures
by
incidence
which
and
sand
south-west
the
readily
characteristics
form
and
to
of
transported
transport
due
are
mixtures
readily
angle
processes
and
by
direction
natural
are
for
and
wave
is
mainly
potential
These
influence
disturb
generated
waves
gravels
material
alongshore
shore.
that
sands.
This
high
offshore
the
Fine
West Coast are predominantly composed
acti vities
transport.
Examples
the
or
of
such
nearshore
zone
and the destruction or modification of' dune systems.
The
overall
within
is
the
due
to
transfers
the
balance
West
the
and
effects
or
Coast
imbalance
coastal
difficulty
losses.
that
As
of
a
resource
of
the
system
sediment
is
unknown
determining
result.
it
the
at
of
difficult
influencing
and
present.
quantities
becomes
developments
supply
loss
This
sediment
to
predict
sediment
inputs.
transfers or losses will have on the overall balance of the system.
It
has
been
noted
by
erosion.
affected
the
area.
may
be
for
erosion
is
disturbed
Activities
affected
to
or
by
that
a
significant
suggesting
or
where
in
in
the
areas
transfers
of
predominant
developments
erosion
increase
a
portion
located
future.
where
of
material
coastline
erosional
close
There
the
the
is
to
the
also
natural
trend
for
foreshore
a
potential
beach
supplying
is
the
system
beach
27
are interrupted.
Resource
should
developments
involve
processes
of,
of
the
impacts
resource
recognition
operating
resource
within
in
of
that
developments
processes,
that
likely
uses
within
the
to
coastal
the
to
be
result.
In
zone
management issues related to their location.
of
nature
Planning
described
coastal
zone
dynamic
zone.
needs
physical
are
the
in
this
Chapter
are
of
for,
based
the
West
the
and
on
an
the
discussed
physical
management
understanding
chapter,
3
Coast
and
features
to
the
of
highlight
28
CHAPTER THREE
RESOURCE USES IN THE COASTAL ZONE
3.1
INTRODUCTION
The major uses of the coastal zone of the West Coast that are
present
problems
for
in
chapter.
Features
this
the
management
of
the
of
the
resource
resource
use
that
likely to
are
outlined
have
presented
problems in the past or that are likely to in the future are discussed.
Considerations
important
in
the
management
of
resource
uses
are
discussed and will be developed in subsequent chapters.
The
wide
range
of
uses
of
the
coastal
zone
include
developments, coastal subdivision, effluent disposal,
and
recreation;
all
The
development
of
of
which
these
affect
various
the
uses
port
harbour
mining, agriculture,
resource
has
and
led
in
to
some
way.
conflict
and
to prob lems related to their location in adynamic environment.
3.2
MINERALS AND MINING
3.2.1
Aggregate Extraction
The recovery of aggregate is dependant on market conditions, especiall y
demand.
Because of low market
ation,
use.
aggregate
Despite
extraction
its
low
prices and the high costs of transport-
usually
market
occurs
value,
the
close
to
total
the
monetary
area
of
value
of
aggregate exceeds that of any other mineral produced in New Zealand.
There
rock.
of
are
and
parent
operations
as
it
is
two
material.
situ
and
and
In
can
limited
deposits
can
however,
the
rna y
ceased,
the
river
be
and
sources:
produced
hard
stock
rock
a
or
by
is
the
natural
extracted
non-renewable
quantity
available.
considered
a
renewable
(flow)
of
in
material
all
may vary in space and time.
cases
to
beach
the
rates
and
and
In
resource
Unconsolidated
beaches
processes..
quarrying
(stock)
terraces,
erosion
breakdown
by
and
by
hard
in
channels
replenished
supply
aggregate
considered
be
by
in
continuall y
have
of
sediment
occurs
is
types
unconsoli dated
material
it
main
and
offshore
resource
some
instances,
offshore
quantity
as
of
sources
supply
29
On
the
the
West
bulk
Coast,
is
suitable for
some
removed
from
metal aggregates
predominantl y as bedload
1981)
to
has
be
shown
very
quantities
it
may
An
important
they
they
limited
et al •
over
or
are
the
rate
is
of
of
rate
of
by
the
available
per
important
resource
use
of
is
is
of
the
a
variations
in
is
supply.
time
(Ehrlich
of
supply
be exhausted
renewable
resource
at
or
river
space
that
of
may
wi thin
glance
required.
rate
maintained
suppl y
large
first
duration
unit
river s
the
however,
exceeds
then the
Sediment
at
management
in
(1979.
Coast
considering
resources.
extraction
is transported
West
rivers.
or
Sustainable
replacement.
characterised
the
extraction
time,
damaged.
the
by
In
but
Material
Griffiths
Island
2.5.3).
unlimited
of
quarries
terraces.
system.
South
renewable
rate
from
river
river
for
quantity
period
irreversibly
that
the
the
prolonged
requires
of
and
planning
virtually
by
If
1977).
a
Ii ttle
feature
al though
a
supplied
that
extracted
particles or larger)
section
sediment
appear
(gravel
yields
(see
is
rivers
within
sediment
high
of
are
aggregate
below
systems
and
time.
If
aggregate is to be treated as a renewable resource then the implications
of these variations for the rate of extraction should be considered.
Annual
sediment
lands
usuall y
yields
vary
values
(Hayward,
related
to
of
the
by
as
low
as
size,
geological
of
1%
and
Glasby
2-5%
the
suspended
at
times
of
sediment
stream
be
bedload
yield.
bed
has
produced
by
1979).
Griffiths
rivers
generally,
moved
by
flood
events
are
so
bedload
to
total
than
prep.)
such
as
for
much
The
greater
flood
(1981)
shows,
infrequent
a
coarse
infrequent
events
events
of
portion
smaller
than
overall
should
more
portion
of
for
mean
they
carry
annual
a
climate.
ranges
from
noted
that
portion
armouring
the
bedload
may
magnitude
suspended
the
and
be
material
vary
catchment
significant
that
of
may
on
bedload
high
however,
greater
that
It
when
reduced.
the
that
are
Estimates
yield
magnitude.
mean
yield
supply.
depending
flood
mountain
about
sediment
sediment
yield.
steep
more
sediment
suggest
sediment
or
in
40%,
factors,
account
been
variations
greater
draining
magnitude
and
(in
may
of
flow
geomorphic
and
areas
stream
to
Griffiths
of
order
These
in
contribution
catchment
an
1979) .
variations
from
from
(Hayward,
South
Island
sediment
flood.
smaller
is
Larger
proportion
of total suspended sediment yield.
From
this
discussion
it
is
noted
that
sediment
movement
(bedload
30
and
suspended
load)
is
sediment
is
portion
of
fluvial
system,
banks
of
fluvial
held
either
the
river
system
components
sodic.
in
of
the
in
the
part
storage
a
and
of
at
stored
of
reduced
the
sediment
deepening
lower,
or
river.
of
river
temporary
base
are
'hole
supply
the
prolonged
that
This
to
to
act
the
as
produced
therefore,
a
the
to
bed
and
in
the
downstream
off shore
or
it
areas.
causing
may
induce
adjustment
the
requires
the
in the longitudinal
an
by
requirements
within
sediment trap
areas,
upstream
level
hole I
I
greater
temporarily
and lor
as
downstream
channel
extraction,
surplus
may
t
on
supply
coastal
the
point
or
potential
to
time
some
Continued extraction from one site results in a
profile
the
area
Sediment
of
system
most
catchment
channel.
forms
For
hole.
amounts
to
Extensive
of
of' stability
the
sediment
in
the
river
system and in coastal or other storage areas.
Aggregate
extraction
Coast
and
has
close
to
the
and
a
extraction
long
Transport
is
Most
population
although
Although
below
beaches
history.
major
Westport,
requirements.
from
other
a
mean
acknowledge
that
extraction
centres
areas
licence
high
widespread
illegal
at
mark
for
do
sand and gravel
has been removed born Hokitika
able
time
of
period
beach
while
of
erosion
there
has
without
a
licence
have
threatened
been
no
assessment
of
the
shingle
Ministry
For
area
of
example,
a consider-
granted.
commercial
local
and
the
been
located
for
Beach for
having
the
sand
occur.
West
Greymouth,
exploited
(MHWM),
operations
are
Hokitika,
required
water
the
operations
maybe
is
along
Periods
of
Hokitika
relationship
between
the beach sediment budget and the quantity of material extracted.
Offshore
exploitation
the
West
Coast
from
river
and
of
production.
is
extracted
than
30
extraction
offshore
since
beach
In
from
metres.
is
and
aggregate
sources,
areas
offshore
The
of
sands
other
similar
mining
of
minerals
materials
and
of
because
New
deposits
technology
to
gravels
that
in
used
which
such
as
are
of
water
the
and
sand
is
costs
and
gravel
usually
sand
probably
be
discussed
on
available
increased
depths
offshore
would
unlikely
readily
Zealand.
for
gold
appears
and
less
gravel
used
in
for
section
3.2.2.
3.2.2
Gold Mining
Large
areas
of
low
grade
alluvial
gold
bearing
deposits
occur
31
on
the
West
Coast.
At
the
height
the
earl y
1900 IS,
63
dredges
and
dune
systems
in
the
dredging
the
to
operation
Taramakau
have
for
a
mining
has
been
prices
licence
approved
since
Coast
in
to
area.
(the
on
date
dredge
the original feasibility
unattracti ve,
earl y
only
cost
may
least
at
on
Proposals
with
a
new
An application
River
south
changes
scale
dredge
1982.
River
in
lagoons,
large
gold
1984a).
Mikonui
boom
areas,
in
Grey
study
at
The
(Wallace,
but
dredging
Kaniere
the
the
principle,
gold
catchment
operation
operations
to
in
times
been unsuccessful
commerciall y
is
West
ceased
dredging
the
wor ked
recent
River)
recommence
dredge
in
of
and
of
Ross
lower
gold
mean that the operation
present
the
(Wallace,
1984c) .
The
escalation
meant
has
deposits
At
A
the
to
exploration
West
all
methods
and
of
West
little
on
Coast
gold
to
low
typical
the
the
catchment
and
in
work
streams,
than
there
known
about
processes,
a
gold
years
placer
and
licences
the
using
gold
applications
covering
in
the
South
alluvial
early
Island
1980 IS.
comes
from
earthmoving
machinery
gravels
beach. sands.
terrace
large
the
or
recent
or
or
deposit
requires
the extraction and
3
m
per day. In several catchments
1000
are
for
dramatically
operations
in
price escalation has stimulated
mining
increased
alluvial
market
uneconomic
prospecting
production
grade
Coast
This
scale
more
is
and
world
previous I y
the
prospecting,
medium
processing
on
in
present,
hand
of
on
may now become economic.
on
small
prices
many
exploration,
areas
gold
that
expenditure
for
of
number
of
cumulative
of
the
small
effect
of
environmental
scale
operations
these
activities
effects
of
small
scale mining in general.
Gold
the
of
in
the
other
surface
conditions
currents,
for
other
beach
sands
mineral
be
arising
in
from
wave
economic
the
typically
(Williams,
constituents
gold-leads
and
may
beach
the
minerals
in
the
If
a
1974) .
sands
is
the
future,
smaller
The
the
beach
such
tides,
sands
as
size
than
concentration
dependant
of
interaction
characteristics.
of
on
suitable
nearshore
are
ilmenite,
mined
then
gold is likely to be an attractive by-product.
The
major
areas
of
interest
in
offshore
gold
in
New
Zealand
are
the drowned river valleys off land areas that have provided significant
32
discoveries
of
the
Strait ,
Foveaux
these
in
valleys.
namel y
Otag 0,
during
areas
detrital
past,
gold
what
are
exploration
Coast
and
where
Coast
Coromandel
may
now
ha ve
they
the
resulted
South
Exploration
1,000km
some
been
and
Pty
off
searching
of
accumulation
sands
2
Island,
Erosion
in
beach
(CRA)
have
of
Peninsula.
submerged
covering
licences
Southland,
West
Australia
Riotinto
have
the
glaciation
in
Conzinc
and
the
river
Limited
the
for
West
submerged
river channels and beaches.
If
one
offshore
of
two
involves
main
a
which
35
extraction
metres
jet
The
expensi ve
rna y
of
particle
dredge
to
impact
changes,
pits,
to
Gillie
and
from
offshore
as
Kirk
suspension
(1980)
of
fine
areas
offshore
winds
outline
mining;
around
sediments
strong
which
dredging
of
offshore
for
involve
trailer
depths
other
explore
to
dredging
or
In
by
such
likely
water
utilised.
overlain
conditions
operations.
size
be
is
anchor
Below
be
required
physical
direct
excavating
may
it
dredging
dredge.
assistance
likely
proceeds,
suction
moving
is
and
material
of
technology
disrupt
areas
a
deposit
1980),
types
stationary
utilises
placer
of
the
(Carter,
gold
and
is
waves
four
possible
bathymetric
changes,
sediments,
and
coastal
erosion.
Bathymetric
of
the
changes
deposit
are
being
determined
mined,
th e
by
method
the
of
extent
mining,
and
and
thickness
the
mobility
of the material in the vicinity of the site.
Particle
deposit
size
changes
being
removed
can
be
is of a
significant
different
size
if
material
class.
beneath
the
Off the West Coast,
sediment sizes generally increase with depth below the seabed
(see sect-
ion 2.5.1) and particle size changes will depend on the type of material
removed
(for example, relict sand deposits in the case of offshore gold
mining) .
Suspension of fine sediments is likely to be significant in the
case
deposi ts overlain by mud. Suspension can result from the action
suction
pipe
on
the
seabed
collection vessels. Fine
greatest
impact
disturbance
(Gillie
and
of
is
the
Kirk,
from
material
likely
to
material
1980;
or
and
Padan,
is
be
discharge
easil y
related
the
1977),
Fine
the
the
surface
from
redispersed
and
biological
effects
to
density
at
of
of
the
discharge
material
may
redeposited in unfavourable areas such as navigation channels.
of
the
of
plume
also
be
33
Coastal erosion may be caused by four main mechanisms:
1.
slumping of the beach profile drawing material offshore;
2.
changes
in
wave
refraction
influencing
longshore
transport
as a result of changes in bathymetry;
reduced
3.
protection
from
wave
attack
due
to
the
removal
of offshore bars or banks; and
4.
the
removal
sediment
of
material
transport
normally
budget
part
(Gillie
and
of
the
on-offshore
Kirk,
1980;
Padan,
be
excluded
1977) .
Accordingl y ,
nearshore
offshore
areas
mining
avoid
to
operations
interaction
should
with
the
processes
from
affecting
shoreline stability.
Ilmenite Sand Mining
3.2.3
Within
the
Jacksons
is
coastal
(a
Bay
estimated
sands
comprise
up
a
series
to
a
1967) .
dune
of
range
et
152
of
West
between
400
million
of
al.,
tonnes
1958;
behind
and
potentially
potentiall y
valuable
ilmenite,
minerals
These
at
level
can
magnetite,
valuable
shoreline
inland
sea
there
1967).
present
present
and
kilometres)
shorelines
above
Karamea
Nicholson,
the
Recent
metres
including
Coast
approximately
systems
of
sands
the
1000
Pleistocene
maximum
A
from
be· over
of
(Nicholson
sands
the
distance
to
beach
also
of
zone
and
heights
(Nicholson,
be
extracted
zircon,
monazite,
gold, scheelite, rutile, uranothorite, zirconium, and cassiterite.
The
percentage
mostl y
low
mining
none
of
these
are
are
the
minerals
the
Apart
relict
and
it
to
except
as
is
be
are
profitable
from
at
gold,
present.
beaches
unlikely
heavy
sands
from
offshore
likely
described,
those
1967).
concentrating
not
in
recovered
sediments
are
minerals
commercially
occur
acti vel y
sands
the
in comparison to
being
also
modern
of
(Nicholson,
are
may
with
Offshore
many
significant
minerals
currents
1980) .
of
overseas
deposits
covered
shelf
for
but
operations
Ironsand
are
content
that
but
modern
minerals
(Carter,
commercially
exploited
perhaps
for
gold,
because
of the high cost of prospecting and mining.
Together,
most
two
major
significant
Challenge
Limited,
Inc.
Mineral
and
companies
ilmenite
in
a
hold
deposits
joint
Resources
on
venture
(N.Z.)
prospecting
the
with
Ltd.,
West
Amax
have
licences
Coast.
for
Fletcher-
Exploration
conditional
the
(N .Z.)
approval
34
to
prospect
on
Pty Limited,
covering
in
1862
hectares
of
the
Barrytown
flats.
CRA
in conjunction with Buller Minerals Ltd.,
over
addition
13,040
to
a
hectares
licence
around
covering
Westport
the
have applications
and
nearshore
Exploration
Cape
zone
Foulwind
off
Nine
Mile
Beach.
In combination,
cover
of
mouth
the
coast
(Figure
areas
there
prospecting
greater
the
stretch
the
portion
If
adjoining
are
of
between the
3.1) •
likely
a
the
to
licences
these
Quaternary
mining
licence
major
or
two
beach
Barrytown flats
foreshore,
be
of
and
is
in
major
deposits
in
the
the Waimangaroa River
approved
the
implications
companies
for
nearshore
for
one
zone,
sediment
of
then
transfers
and shoreline stability.
Eventual
mining
economic
in
of
a
for
a
a
cutter
gold
pond
of
the
commercial
suction
up
until
dredge.
approximately
225-375
50
metres
trommel screen for
3
-1
of 40 m. hr
• The
be
less
for
each
year,
area
than
giving
per
the
20
a
flats,
dredge
The
for
by
proved
the
worked
to
in
length
and
would
Sand
would
be
of
the
disturbed
reject
37
the
hectares
mining
work
at
and
would
operation
in
move
the
anyone
sand
area
delivered
minerals
at
means
the
need
hectares- with
lifetime
be
is
would
metres
land
resource
already
dredge
week.
the
probably
has
concentration
of
if
would
Approximatel y
restoration.
used
50 years
A
1940' s.
a
to
sense,
the
approximately
likel y
Barryt own
to
rate
time
is
soil
being
be
mined
of
around
(total area of prospecting licence is 1862 ha). The approximate
annual output from the mining is presented in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1:
Mineral
Ilmenite
Potential output from mining of the
Barrytown Flats.
Annual Output (tonnes)
225,000
Magneti te
15,000
Mon az ite
4,500
Rutile
2,200
Zircon
9,000
Gold
Source:
130 kg
Wallace. 1984b.
35
Figure 3.1:
Major ilmenite prospecting areas.
o
o
o"'"
KEY
Q.
o
0..
Quaternary
its
Prospecting licence areas
held by CRA/Buller Minderals
and Fletcher Challenge/Amax
and Mineral Resources Ltd.
Scale:
Source:
1:360 000
Compiled from Bowen, 1964 and NZMS 261B shee t s K 29 and 30.
36
Originall y.
for
the
titanium
Processing
ilmenite
metal
production,
Division
Research
was
of
the
to
be
but
studies
Department
Fletcher -Challenge
for
processed
now
into
synthetic
undertaken by the
of
Scientific
favour
the
rutile
Industrial
and
Industrial
production
of
a
titanium dioxide pigment.
3.3
PORT DEVELOPMENTS - CHANGING COASTAL GEOMETRY
Changes
in
system
shore
which
geometry
are
often
will
lead
to
undesirable.
responses
Perhaps
the
in
the
most
beach
significant
changes to shoreline geometry are those associated with the construction
of port facilities.
Typical
structures used in port developments are jetties or breakwaters
which
are
location
and
Despite
from
designed
prevent
natural
transported
region
is
structures
will
resulting
entrance
is
on
channel
material
those
other
updrift
supply
by
side,
particular
the
channel.
a
material
solid
structure
while
may
the
downdrift
begin
to
erode.
changes
to
shoreline
or
erosion
of
material
influences
dissipation of wave energy
Where
and
accumulation
These
a
in
effects.
and
diffraction
refraction.
to
results. structures protruding
interrupted
the
influence
the
of
have
sediment
from
wave
concentration or
drift
of
also
influence
can
accumulate
starved
geometry
in achieving
littoral
will
an
accumulation
shoreline
as
material
Solid
confine
being effective
a
the
to
to
may
cause
leading to further
either
problems
of eros ion or accretion.
On the east coast of the South
Island.
many
resul t
of
these
direction.
on
the
area
the
gravel
a
of
the
hectares.
have
sediments
north
side
80
around
as
60,000
average
southern
of
fine
On
problems
3
m • yr
of
-1
a
net
dr ift
material
breakwater,
Immediatel y
in
port of Timaru exemplifies
of
harbour
accumulated
beaches,
the
in
has
Bay,
particularl y
at
northward
accumulated
resulting
to the north of
Caroline
a
the
in
an
harbour,
while
further
Washdyke,
have
located
the
been
eroding rapidly (Kirk, 1982).
Many
of
of
rivers
causes
New
Zealand I s
rather
problems
than
that
in
are
secondary
ports
natural
harbour s.
aggravated
by
are
Changing
changes
to
at
coastal
the
mouths
geometry
river
mouth
37
bar
and
the
system
by
which
material,
travelling
alongshore,
by-
passes the river channel.
Port
developments
exemplify
of
around
Westport
problems
the
major
at
rivers.
Greymouth
associated
Waves
from
Foulwind
Cape
and
to
the
with
west
approach
on
the
West
at
the
location
and
south-west
Westport
mouths
are
from
Coast
refracted
the
northwest
( Mang in , 1 97 3 ) .
The entrance to Westport Harbour was confined by two main breakwaters
and
river
training
1971 ).
Various
carried
out
110
seaward
construction of
at
1928-1944
was
a
short
the
area
the
south
erosion
-has
accreting
Carters
been
but
occurring
at
Furkert (1947)
3
-1
m .yr
had
million
east
lea:st
at
a
1.25
accumulated
was
breakwater
Following
the
since
faster
between
there
the
and
than
east,
to
active
of
1890
-1
that
reversed
period
about
m.yr
harbour
rate
the
that
7.6
Further
since
calculated
and
rapidly
1978).
construction.
west
continued
of
was
then
(Gi b b ,
Beach
were
entrance
breakwater.
has
this
since
the
1895-1928
the
Fyson,
breakwaters
harbour
and
and
Beach to the west accreted
Accretion
erosion
the
east
from
to
(Simpson
the
Carters
1947) •
of
been
at
the
1
m.yr
of
entrance
than
Immediately
period
1900
when
original
8.2
(Furkert,
has
1916
further
of
3.2) •
date
and
the
and
raisings
harbour works,
the
rates
average
from
of
1886
and
1906
metres
60
between
extensions
between
metres
extended
walls
harbour
and
1945,
harbour
works
harbour,
formed
and as a result of their construction.
The
by
existence
the
interaction
dredging
since
conducted
the
the
be
a
bar
of
waves,
1904.
of
a
dredge
the
including
and
inside
There
not
entrance
river,
dredge,
could
removed,
at
Dredging
1910.
since
operation
that
to
of
have
not
to
the
tidal
the
flow,
has
harbour
been
has
numerous
of
necessitated
which
also
been
problems
with
the
least
was
cope
with
the
large
amount
large
logs.
In
1963,
with
the
of
fact
material
the
imminent
retirement of the dredge. a scheme to extend and narrow the breakwaters
was
Breakwater
approved.
it
at
first
be
enough
harbour
water
was
to
maintain
authority
depths,
to capacity.
hoped
as
has
this
extension
that
water
become
is
the
was
completed
narrowing
depths.
More
concerned
restricting
of
the
recent I y,
again
cement
with
vessels
by
1967
entrance
would
however,
the
and
the
decreasing
from
loading
38
Figure 3.2:
Coastal changes at Westport. Southern Karamea Bight.
A
1
......
'
f)
R.
....~
B
~
'I"
CAPE
1II •• k.
I .... I.,.
f'OULWIND
A.
B.
Source:
1885 shoreline
1973 shoreline
Mangin. 1973. Figure 38.
39
3.4
RESIDENTIAL - COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS
and
Residential
proceeded
frequentl y
developments
commercial
without
any
in
knowledge
the
of
coastal
the
zone
shoreline
have
dynamics
and all too often they have been threatened by coastal erosion.
One of the fundamental causes of erosion threatening coastal developments
has
been
the
foredune,
act
as
failure
and
recognise
important
during
from
therefore,
mean
that
shifts
a
distance
Where
the
the
formations
they
in
is
destroyed
and
are
Changes
or
where
likely
to
high
30
developments
sediment
supply,
mark
commonly
capacity
by
beach
(Healey,
are
threatened
the
profile
water
the
to
that
beach
metres
modified,
be
a
and
particularly
sediments
sand
to
conditions
and
and
coastal
releasing
position of mean
15
systems,
of
by
wave
between
reduced
dune
energy.
of
foredune
is
events
wave
variations
that
reservoirs
storm
dissipating
result
erosion
to
are
buffers
system
that
the
to
located
storm
1980).
resist
on
dune
events
from
time to time.
At
Omaha
Beach
replaced
type
by
often
promoting
in
a
Northland,
near-vertical
accentuate
scour
of
beach
the
sea-wall.
beach
in
storms destroyed
and
programme
of
frontal
erosion
Consequentl y,
costly
the
the
Solid
by
£Font
dune
of
destroyed
structures
reflecting
storm
the
sea-wall
at
Omaha and
sea-wall
groyne
was
constr uction
and
of
this
waves
(Figure
and
3.3).
an extensive
renourishment
of
the beach, and rebuilding of the frontal dune has been undertaken.
Failure
to
consider
long
term
persistent
erosion
patterns
and
the
migration and erosion of river mouths is a further cause of developments
being
threatened
by
erosion
(see
Healey,
1980
and
Forbis,
1974
for examples).
Al though
the
West
of
subdivision
in
the
northern
centres
on
caused
by
studied
by
West Coast.
the
Coast
and
of
coastline,
Gibb
not
development
half
coastal
is
the
(1978)
to
North
there
erosion.
subject
are
Rates
show
a
to
the
same
Island
and
still
of
many
coastal
dominance
the
extreme
degree
around
as
experienced
major
examples
erosion
of
pressures
population
of
problems
and
accretion
erosion
along
the
40
Figure 3.3:
Progressive erosion around a near vertical sea-wall
of the type constructed at Omaha Beach.
o.
b.
Storm condition
still water level
Clapotis
j ,~
---~
MHWM
c.
Source:
Healey. 1980. Figure 14.3.
41
At
Hokitika,
immediatel y
concern
the
town
landward
water
the
history
of
the
both erosion and
long
may
the
the
effect
of
A
there
result
study
accretion
of
brief
have
storm
may,
the
in
been
overall
hollow
considerable
erosion
been
and
periods
in the
events
however,
a
examination
suggesting that fluctuations
be
of
that
located
has
foredune.
shows
Detailed
periods
is
There
about
the
accretion,
trend.
term
of
site
district
foredune.
residents
simpl y
term
short
the
overtop ping
salt
a
of
by
expressed
position
commercial
trend
at
of
shoreline
rather
show
of
than
that
despite
the
site
is
one of erosion.
Erosion
has
of
the
occurred
foredune
during
Most
the
system
to
associate
storm
the
events
the
last
recentl y
residents.
beach
along
and
few
the
appears
erosion
the
periods
years,
a
state
anyone
of
at
Punakaiki
causing
foredune
in
with
beach
has
some
amongst
rebuilding
and
It
is
difficult
such
as
increased
recovery.
causal
factor
or
alarm
been
of
erosion
settlement
accretion
may
occur
again
at any time.
The
examples
above
serve
to
illustrate
two
the siting of developments in the coastal zone.
are
proposed
dynamics
some
close
are
distance
to
the
needed,
and
landward
coast,
detailed
developments
to
preserve
the
foredune.
Second,
where
that
appear
threatened
by
erosion,
erosion
due
to
whether
the
is
developments
it
knowledge
regarding
of
the
coastal
always
be
located
buffering
exist
should
term
points
First, where developments
should
the
short
main
capabilities
close
first
storm
to
be
events
the
of
coast
ascertained
or
is
part
of a long term trend.
3.5
CONCL USIONS
This
uses
chapter
of. the
Emphasis
and
has
examined
coastal
zone,
features
with
has
been
given
to
resource
uses
with
the
of
specific
some
of
the
reference
to
between
the
interactions
aim
of
presenting
major
the
resource
West
Coast.
physical
system
considerations
that
are important in the management of resource
uses.
,1
Mineral
extraction
operations
budget
characteristics,
may
especiall y
have
the
a
marked
suppl y
of
effect
on
material
sediment
to
the
42
coastal
areas
to
zone.
The
may
affect
coastal
areas.
coastal
areas
stability.
where
extraction
the
storage
Operations
are
likely
Offshore
they
of
are
to
aggregate
gold
of
sediments
that
remove
material
a
direct
have
developments
located
and
within
and
more
will
the
from
supply
have
the
nearshore
zone
catchment
of
from
material
beach
impact
and
on
coastal
greatest
impact
or
only
a
short
distance offshore.
Port
by
developments
structures
zone.
that
Where
illustrate
the
intercept
the
sediment
transfers
types
of
shoreline
transport
of
changes
sediment
are
interrupted,
the
threat
in
erosion
induced
the
of
coastal
downdrift
areas will usually result.
The
most
common
building
other
of
protective
barriers.
erosion
effecti ve
As
a
only
recognition
these
poor
they
onl y
are
affecting
that
the
in
buffering
a
and
of
coastal
capabilities
to
the
the
sea-walls
or
to
solve
Where
as
maintenance.
a
final
coast.
effort
of
The
should
dune
the
structures
knowledge
zone
of
been
extensive
detailed
portion
the
failed
construction.
resorted
on
has
groynes,
have
costl y
be
based
developments
of
or
erosion
as
structures
require
should
of
such
design
frequently
processes
resource
to
they
when
to
structures
of
due
they
result,
shore
of
Many
problem
are
and
response
the
siting
involve
systems
and
a
both
short and long-term variations in shoreline position.
In
zone
of
the
next
are
the
resource
is
chapter,
discussed.
management
and
used
management
institutional
as
the
a
Institutional
approach
various
basis
approach
aspects
resource
for
in
that
arrangements
is
applied
uses.
assessing
dealing
applying
This
the
with
to
coastal
define
the
the
coastal
to
discussion of
adequacy
the
the
of
important
considerations developed in this chapter and Chapter 2.
basis
zone
institutions
the
existing
management
43
CHAPTER FOUR
INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF THE COASTAL ZONE
4.1
INTRODUCTION
In
this
chapter
are
described
are
constrained
rights
and
coastal
using
by
the
zone
institutional
a
framework
institutional
free
market
policy
and
consideration
of
in
a
framewor k.
management
when
a
those
framework
for
to
viewing
how
for
arrangements.
allocation
management
a
related
of
These
The
notions
aspects
and
of
as
discussed.
aspects
planning
coastal
property
resources
are
institutional
the
will
be
management
rights
property
they
This
needing
zone
affect
involves
recognition
considered
is
again
presented
in
Chapter 6.
The
emphasis
of
and
the
and
management
the
responsibilities
social
and
legislation provide
is
of
goals
for
applied
acts
of
policy
the
that
remainder
to
applying
is
of
the
to
examined
have responsibilities for
of
as
coastal
a
zone
Existing
exists
since
planning
expression
management
there
and
legislation
Coastal
zone.
existing
As
on
current
coastal
the
zone.
is
agencies.
the
basis for
coastal
the
chapter
management
management
the
the
a
numerous
of
policy
approach
multitude
agencies
different aspects of management, the discussion
aims only at presenting the main points relevant to this study.
Although
1969;
to
the
order
elements
the
control
the
relationships
of
institutions
and
mana'gement
judgements,
and
constraints
resource.
of
been
Fox,
1972;
Schmid,
def ini tion
as
have
institutions
the
1976)
the
defined
term
social,
economic
among
individuals
includes
laws,
agencies.
customary
on
variousl y
or
property
is
and
rights
used
in
to
refer
that
society.
regulations,
apply
This
var ious
moral
practices.
that
here
political
traditions,
accepted
(Ciriarcy-Wantrup.
and
broad
resource
ethical
Institutions
to
a
act
particular
44
4.2
PROPERTY RIGHTS
Property
rights
specify
people
with
respect
to
penal ties
for
violation
(Randall, 1981 p.148).
The
set of
influence
property
the
economic
rights
structure
decisions.
the
proper
relationships among
use
of
things,
and
the
the
of
those
proper
relationships
applying
and
to
a
distribution
These decisions
particular
of
resource
incentives
will
that
guide
will ultimately affect the allocation
and use of the resource under consideration.
Where
property
to
defined,
conflict
violation
of
to
result
to
the
I
system
rights
in
holder
of
that
right,
and
of
between
not
the
be
of
rights
who
to
source
the
is
of
will
be
(resource),
the
holder
determined
of
object
the
by
the
is
be
to
the
likely
compared
Every
these
legitimates
rights,
or
gives
(Burch,
nature
rights
for
obligations. under
rights
the
poorl y
(1969).
of
for
which
of
can
Hardin
accountable
assignment
allocation
the
authority
situation
and
by
or
penalties
This
resource
define
defined
while
described
I
should
some
not
users
the
commons
are
enforced.
rights
the
ap proval
object
will
property
the
Resource
arise
resource
mis-management
traged y
of
social
may
a
of
the
1976).
the
property
resource,
and
the means of authority used to enforce the property right.
There
and
are
two
two
four
4.1 ).
groupings
of
main types of property
combinations
to
main
of
these
possible
Pri vate
market,
rights
mechanisms
rights
public
to
rights
ition,
private
rights
while
legislation
to
rights:
holders
for
allocation
decides
the
of
the
of
property
private
public
public
public and
and
private
to
property:
property
allocation
are
of
private,
private.
Different
rights
the
are
property
and
give
resource
rise
(Table
allocated
by
allocated
by trad-
are
allocated
public
by
the
regulation,
rights
to
public
property.
There
are
control
Zealand,
to
zone
use.
the
to
also
another
which
Ministry
legislation
situations
in
agency,
as
are
of
owned
Energy
provides
for
which
in
by
the
the
(Mines
control
the
resource
owner
case
of
minerals
Crown
some
with
Division) .
of
both
control
delegates
in
New
delegated
Wi thin
the
coastal
public
and
private
45
Mechanisms of allocation of rights to property.
Table 4.1:
Private Rights
Public Rights
Pri vate Property
Market
Tradition
Pub lic Property
Regulation
Legislation
Burch, 1976 p.79
Source:
4.2.1
Property Rights in the Coastal Zone
As
resource,
a
which
are
resource.
zone
First,
it
Third,
it
certain
level
stretch
of
due
the
the
a
and
coast.
of
of
Finall y ,
complexity
is
zone
is
number
of
(land,
sea,
air)
physical
and
of
zone
is
Any
to
local
produce
it
is
meet
to
the
the
only
and
interact.
characteristics.
so
allocated
interactions.
likely
rights
that
length,
maybe
coastal
characteristics
biological
limited
uses
of
property
in
the
of
a
unique
resource
number
has
discussion
spheres
finite
system
the
diversity
a
zone
coastal
three
has
is
to
the
the
Second,
of
coastal
relevant
where
to
the
that
only
within
vulnerable
a
to
disturbance
to
variations
as
a
given
changes
one
part
well
as
affect other parts of the system.
A
variety
ha ve
been
portion
state
it
of
of
property
through
the
zone
coastal
exists) ,
the
the
to
the
by
in
areas
offshore
the
the
metre
Crown.
be
interests
Crown's
coastal
number
held
may
For
vested
persist
zone
of.
in
strip
shelf,
property
may
a
is
continental
public
individuals
20
the
to
distributed
inc1 uding
rights
rights
public
and
offshore
specified
in
private
in
the
or
the
mining
form
waters.
rights
of
large
by
reserve
vested
Zealand
A
ownership
esplanade
example,
New
mechanisms.
of
be
in
the
(where
Private
in
to
private
minerals
companies
although
conditions
placed
on the mining licence and the collection of royalties for the minerals.
There
are
under
private
may
land
as
is
exists,
Parks
the
also
be
case
mainl y
and
large
ownership.
restricted
with
in
Reserves,
by regulations.
areas
land
the
and
of
The
by
set
the
use
form
State
within
land
of
private
granting
zoning.
of
the
Forest
the
of
Public
rights
zone
held
to
private
some
public
rights,
property
on
esplanade
areas,
coastal
reserves,
which
are
land
also
National
controlled
46
Legislation
public
with
is
and
regulation
property
that
more
is
Al though
private
goods
highest
outcomes
the
the
value
Where
the
allocation
use,
free
or
use
is
necessary.
of
the
an
are
, market
system
of
resourse,
policy
1981).
in
results
may
some
involve
inducements,
gravitates
has
been
termed
typical I y
a
involves
inefficiences.
socially
undesirable
public
intervention
of
agreements
regulatory
to
market
pricing
form
allocating
free
and
in
societal
which
This
and/or
resource
of
property
situations
a
from
means
that
consistent
of
diverges
efficient
rights
market
the
that
so
is most
ownership
imperfection'
property
interest
that
private
(Randall ,
Intervention
rights,
manner
that
there
societal
Private
is
ensuring
of
a
management
market
or
attenuation
in
in
inefficient
failure'
reflect
society.
result
and
are
, market
by
to
ideals.
the
managed
demanded
likely
should
with
controls,
the
or
owner
compulsory
taking (Albee and Storey, 1973).
Agreements
influence
For
and
these
enforced
that
of
terms
is
little
reasons,
a
set
regulations,
resource
goals.
land
is
This
is
invol ves
may
of
public
in
especially
market
an
a
true
legal
to
that
since
may
a
long-lasting
restitution
be
of
private
effective
way
value'
complicated
for
rights
provides
have
not
opportunity
managed
areas at 'fair
and
inducements
there
through
the
societal
policy
and
means
is
the
damage.
property,
of
consistent
outright
prohibitive
proceedings
ensuring
(United
with
purchase
in
tost
Nations
Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, 1982).
The land-water edge is thus characterised by an interlocking
web
of
specific
individual
concerns and
diffuse
social
and
ecological
interests.
Yet
the
economic
and
legal
regimes
regulating
man's
activities
in
this
zone
were
historicall y
intended
to
protect
and
serve
only
the
interests
of
individuals
in
their
dealings
with
each
other, and have not always been well-suited to maximise
the
broader
social
welfare.
Part
of
this
welfare
is
the opportunity for the
general
public to have access
to and enjoy the unique features of the shoreline ... This
indicates
that
traditional
institutional
arrangements
entrusted with the allocation of scarce coastal resources
have
been
incapable
of
striking
a
socially-optimal
balance, not only between conservation and development,
but also between private and public use
(Ducsik,
1974
p. 5) •
4.2.2
One
Mar ket Inefficiencies
possible
mar ket
cause
mechanisms
of
is
inefficiency
the
existence
in
of
resource
allocation
externalities.
through
External it ies
47
arise
to
where
be
the
imposed
market.
may
be
of
management
on
In
other
this
activity
activities
that
with
the
social
externalities
remain
causes
are
external i tie s
way
inconsistent
one
costs
in
value
benefits
accounted
not
result
or
an
of
the
for
by
allocation
that
resource
being
exchanged.
In
practice
many
or
transactions costs,
a
building
transport
thought
some
of
structure
of
sand,
causing
as
an
form
of
compensation,
of an area
the
of
High
and
in
legal
imposition
of
social
intercepts
longshore
downdrift,
costs
restraints
externality
to
in
such
not
can
defining
as
being
be
proof
accounted
is the residential development
public
costs
high
example,
transactions
the
popular for
that
of
For
property
example of an externality
that was
because
constraints.
foreshore
externality.
result
existence
legal
erosion
of
A further
of
the
on
responsibility, may
for.
in
because
in
recreational
those unable
pursuits,
to
use
resulting
the
resource
after development.
Ducsik
of
(1974)
outlines
resources
within
difficulties
public
view
in
use
or
the
sand
as
aesthetics,
the
efficient
is
of
a
zone.
values
of
to
such
zone
(for
as
is
commumls II
is
value
for
which
mar ket
price.
the
there
are obtainable are usually capital
zone
has
held
to
such
features
diversity
some
within
absence
the
of
scenic
is
the
Examples
a
of
that
use,
is
of
the
one
ecological
in
of
value
coastal
applies
public
result
value
the
that
of
a
economic
resource
and
in the allocation
is
the
that
ownership
implication
the
first
example,
composition
uses
The
terms,
second
Common
The
assessment
expression,
price
"res
market failure
zone.
in
The
physical
overcommitted
market
coastal
ownership.
coastal
coastal
beach).
characteristics
common
the
reasons for
estimating,
of
in
two
coastal
means
uses
intensive
of
an
zone
of
value-
for
which
developments
such as industry, housing, and commerce.
An
improved
portion
being
of
specification
the
accounted
achievement
of
social
of
costs
for
in
an
optimal
property
of
decisions
rights
may
developments
made
policy
will
by
the
result
in
private
involve
marginal social benefit with marginal social costs.
the
the
in
a
greater
coastal
sector.
balancing
zone
The
of
48
4.3
A FRAMEWORK FOR INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS
Institutions
otherwise
of
are
influencing
social
goals.
freedom
by
and
the
at
from
the
define
I
that
aimed
harm
insti tutional
is
the
of
by
the
of
through
freedom
others.
arrangements
affect
the
distribution
be
conceptualised
can
of
the
impose
simple
the
benefi ts
individuals
of
incentives
Consequently,
of
and
others,
institutions
1981).
attainment
pursuit
on
terms,
structure
or
individual
protecting
(Randall,
the
in
restricting
by
In
and
actions
restraining,
individuals
individual
game'
individual
influence
an
enhancing
imposed
controlling,
achieved
harm
time
rules
directing,
activities
This
same
influence
and
the
limiting
the
at
social
costs
goals,
of
resource
use.
Institutions
of
decision
level
of
can
systems
involves
purpose
(institutional)
influence
are
the
sets
ends
out
the
components
responsibilities
the
allocation
of
of
the
management
of
of
decision
agencies
a
the
that
The
are
(policy)
broad
statement
The
second
arrangements
level
as
they
agencies
The
hierarchy
in
hierarchy
highest
desired.
management
decisions
level
that
Legislation and regulation
institutional
making
a
institutional
property' rights.
make
three
describe
lower level.
various
public
of
1969).
that
or
decision making on the
the
I evel
decisions
goals
level
important
part
(Ciriarcy-Wantrup,
policy
and
as
is
accord
and
lower
the
establish
specify
(operational)
level
with
at
the
which
constraints
imposed from the higher levels.
Each
of
of
the
the
structure,
(Schmid,
1972).
structure,
in
the
New
Zealand
and
a
levels
In
the
is
brief
the
hierarchy
and
performance
following
and
in
This
administration
description
of
a
of
relation
involves
on
can
of
sections
performance
discussed
hierarchy.
its
of
functioning
functioning,
decision
policy
with
three
a
regional
the
of
be
analysed
the
decision
this
zone
to
three
discussion
and
legislation
of
local
terms
systems
chapter,
coastal
the
in
the
management
levels
coastal
level,
applying
to
of
zone
together
coastal
zone managment.
4.4
If
COASTAL ZONE POLICY AND MANAGEMENT AGENCIES
institutional
arrangements
are
to
control,
direct
or
otherwise
49
influence activities
goals
must
are
for
agencies
must
fulfil
the
These
primary
goals
and
publicI y
seek
on
should
and
an
be
goals
how
they
acceptable
achieving
These
in
resource
be
reduced
arrangements
what
be
set
of
social
goals,
goals
among
decisions
societal
In
the
section
goals
space
and
stated
in
a
will
deciding
be
produced,
time.
Without
mechanisms
will
to
conflict
avoided,
manner
for
lead
Although
be
of
resources
decisions
seldom
case
how
and
groups.
specific
for
to
effective
interest
are
are
effort
society
arrangements
in
may
4.2)
determine
of
importance.
agencies.
allocation
opposing
an
more
services
distributed
in
the
will
and
resource
allocation
if
goods
to
debate
in
goals
of
institutional
are
those
and
(discussed
those
agencies
and
over-riding
formulation
management
of
policies
of
then
management
coordinated
those
the
mix
allocated,
the
and
the
goals,
various
aspects,
guide
of
societal
Where
goals:
resources
use.
of
compatible
should
acceptable
be
conflict
different
objectives
resource
pursuit
stated.
primary
owned
an
the
explicitly
responsible
those
to
be
in
it
that
can
clearly
defines the relationships between resources and their desired use.
This section focusses on the expressed goal s of coastal zone management,
as
reflected
in
policy,
and
the
coordination
and
compati bil ity
of
the responsibilities of the major management agencies.
National Policy
4.4.1
national
Present
within
in
its
and
a
August
policy
statement
1974.
legislative
made
This
by
policy
powers
the
use
the
Minister
is
when
or
1979).
Development,
on
The
of
used
coastal
of
by
Works
government
allocating
basic
land
finance
elements
of
land
a
is
and
contained
Development
when
exercising
(Ministry
the
of
policy
Works
are
as
follows:
a)
that
Recogni tion
coastal
is
resource
of
wide
variety
national
importance, but of fixed quantity.
b)
Provision
both
should
acti ve
experience
be
and
as
the
retention
in
made
for
passive
coast
as
recreational
is
able
to
a
opportunity
offer,
now
of
and.
and
in
the future.
c)
The
coastal
flora
and
as some "unique" and
d)
Establishment
of
a
"sufficient
fauna
in
quantity"
its
natural
of
the
state,
nati ve
as
well
"typical" areas of coastal scenery.
pattern
of
future
land
use
that
clearly
50
defines
land
for
urban
development
and
land
that
should
be prohibited from such development.
e)
Ensuring
and
that
holiday
any
development
purposes
is
in
of
coastal
sympathy
land
with
for
the
urban
landscape
and natural features of the site.
f)
Recognition
land
is
that
high
on
that
the
stability
dependant
levels
unstable
on
of
dune
the
of
stability
recreational
areas
large
areas
of
of
sand
coastal
dunes
and
use
should
not
be
of
Works
and
Development,
(Minister
permitted
1974).
The
provisions
supposed
the
Town
and
Country
to provide the opportunity for
planning
are,
of
to
deal
however,
with
all
several
issues
other
of
Act' 1977
are
more effective and coordinated
related
acts
Planning
to
the
parliament
coastal
zone.
There
which
contain
some
implicit policies.
The
Ministry of Transport represents
and
the
Transport
It
also
seabed.
Under
has
responsibility
the
has
several
in
of
to
erosion
approving
to
the
Ministry
structures
mining,
reclamations,
·and
owner of foreshores
1950,
Act
relating
structures,
relation
Crown as
Harbours
policies
and shingle extraction,
especiall y
the
the
and
public
wor ks.
dredging,
and other
access
of
sand
developments
and
enjoyment
of coastal lands (Ministry of Transport, 1983).
The
Soil
Conservation
and
Rivers
and
Soil
Conservation
Act
1967
the
National
Boards
Water
and
and
Soil
Commissions
in
Control
both
Act
outline
Conservation
relation
1941
to
and
specific
Authority
erosion,
the
Water
functions
and
flooding
of
CatChment
and
water
quality.
The
Ministry
Act
1983
of
and
Agriculture
the
and
Minister
Fisheries
has
the
administers
power
to
the
impose
Fisheries
constraints
on developments under the Mining Act 1971.
The
Department
of
Lands
and
Survey
has
the
major
responsibility
for the purchase of reserve lands, and since 1966 has been undertaking
a
national
impose
survey
of
coastal
conditions
on
mining
the Department.
reserves.
proposals
The
for
Minister
land
of
Lands
can
administered
by
51
National
Policy
zone
is
fragmented
land
use
nature
related
under
of
in
the
to
planning
nature.
Town
interactions
Despite
and
in
and
the
Country
the
management
attempt
Planning
coastal
zone
of
to
Act
the
coastal
control
coastal
the
1977,
means
that
complex
many
other
national policies have some applications to this area.
Regional and Local Administration
4,4.2
In
essence
the
Town
and
Country
Planning
Act
is
1977
designed
to provide the. link beteen central government policy and the responsibilities
of
territorial
and
Regional
and
for
implementation
the
a
Maritime
regional
Many
level
local
and
the
many
Planning
of
and
policies
such
developments,
Authorities
national
have,
to
relationship
issues
authorities.
of
The
for
through
residential
betwen
land
and
the
mineral
use
of
extraction,
zone
planning,
erosion
Despite
and
this,
estuaries,
recreational
at
functions.
scheme
uses.
foreshores
and
coastal
developments,
water
of
opportunity
management
district
with
the
the
local
deal
as
establishment
provides
polic y
coordination
authorities
implemented
local
uses
port
have
not
received full attention (Ministry of Works and Development, 1979).
National
policy
provides
of
problems
in
of
planning
and
of
marine
of
limited
planning
must
Soi I
and
Soil
of
by
and
Conservation
Ri ver s
Act
1967,
(for
the
Mining
use
either
side
of
and
there
the
the
constraints
of
regional
schemes
expressed
and
1941
other
coverage
planning
objectives
Act
Interaction
the
extension
are
resolution
limited
and
Although
Control
Act
the
the
boundary,
Conservation
resource
by
for
for
Schemes.
Schemes
principles
and
example
Planning
Planning
land
the
guidance
h~ndered
is
resources
the
to
explicit
District
Maritime
beyond
regard
not apply
and
management
expertise
have
the
Regional
areas
areas
little
the
acts
1971).
Planning and
foreshore
boundary,
in
Water
which
do
management
in
essence,
remain divorced.
The
areas
range
of
above
administrative
and
below
options
MHWM
For
example,
may
be administered
Act
1950,
Town
and
Country
Act
1971,
Mining
Act
1971,
a
range
of
depending
on
under
mechanisms
a
adds
the
to
the
to
of statutes
Planning
and
as
Act
Fisheries
ad
hoc
plan
confusion
circumstances,
range
(such
available
areas
(including
1977,
Act
and
manage
conflict,
below
MHWM
the
Harbours
Marine
Farming
1983),
management
and
and
plans,
through
grants
52
of
control,
extension of
maritime
planning
regional
and
planning
existing
boundaries.
licensing
district
schemes,
procedures)
(Ministry
of Works and Development, 1979).
Given
that
undertaken
of
the
much
at
a
role
regional
the
resources
but
own.
level,
needs
authorities
appear
to
effecti vel y
scattered
a
management
of
the
in
planning
and
management
to
the
in
a
a
which
and
has
can
of
set
encompasses
all
the
the
guidance
goals
the
coastal
societal
from
should
aspects
Local
expertise
and
is
definition
agencies.
departments
dispersed
zone
clearer
expertise
overall
of
a
neither
Before
be
common
be
coastal
government
many
zone.
the
manage
the
outline
coastal
level,
local
amongst
clear
of
to
have
plan
government
there
form
there
and
to
local
management
central
are
is
and
various
Central
these
Nowhere
local
of
and
their
planning
nor
zone
on
the
resources
and
agencies.
goals
for
the
and
assistance
central
government
be
of
clearly
the
stated
coastal
zone
that need planning and management, and which are at present dispersed.
4.5
FEATURES
OF
THE
LEGISLATION
APPLYING
TO
THE
COASTAL
ZONE
Legislation
coastal
to
for
zone
either
exists
the
abundant.
is
between
the sea.
in
the
those
The
planning
zone
the
or
acts
range
and
and· management
Around
water,
land,
to
regulation
40 Acts
both
appl ying
of
of
to
aspects
management
responsibility
of
of
a
.in
the
applying
4.1) •
No
boundary
areas
and
by
the
different
number
activities
Parliament exist,
land
covered
of
clear
those
legislation
aspects
of
of
the
government
appl ying
resul ts
coastal
departments,
territorial authorities and non-governmental organisations.
Since
and
New
there
is
no
responsibilities
Zealand,
identical
it
fashion
describe
of
resources
the
administering
survey of
due
of
to
the
the
the
act
for
is not
brief! y
the
single
to
coastal
use
main
of
setting out
zone
the
planning
acts
agencies.
No
zone,
attempt
is
legislation covering coastal
complexity
major
acts
of
such
relevant
to
a
task.
this
is
to
and
The
the
made
management
and
to
provide
planning and
will
in
virtually
sections
management
responsibilities
Hopefully,
study
arrangements
followinG
planning
and
zone
legal
conducted in a
inland.
appl ying
coastal
the
planning
surprising that this
land
the
clearl y
a
of
detailed
management,
the
brief
mention
avoid
some
of
the
53
Figure 4.1:
Legislati ve administration of the coastal environment.
CO~STAL
EXCLUSIVE ECONOHIC ZONE
200 nautical miles
HINTERLAND
width varjes
INTERNAL WATERS
width varies
TERRITORIAL SEA
12 nautical miles
FORESHORE
L WM
M H WM
I
Baseline for
Sea Boundaries
Baseline for
Land Boundaries
- ......~..<-,
,
-" ,I"
-,,'
.
~. . :!~~W7.}tt;.~i!iW5 i;;s~:~~" 1;ft:0~}1i'?7'" 7;~r~~" ;.'
=-_
"::CO~'1'INEN'l'hL CRUST .. ,
~f&iIT{iL~'O""M",
..........
......
.
',,'
.. :........
Fisheries Act 198~
Petroleum Act 1937
Marine Pollution Act 1974
loIa-rine Mammals Protection Act 1973
National Pevelopment Act 1979
T~rritorial
Sea and Exclusive EconomiC Zone Act'1977
~i
4(
Continental Shelf Act 1964
Submarine Cables and
Pipelines Protection Act 1966
I~arine Farming Act 1971
Marine Reserves Act 1971
Crown Grants Act 1908
Harbours Act 1950
Health Act 1956
Post Office Act 1959
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967
NZ Ports Authority Act 1968 I
Electricity Act 1968
J~ininq
Act 1971
Antiquities Act 1975
Town and Country Planning Act 1977
coal Hines Act 1979
I>itter Act 1979
Historic Places Act 1980
Public Works Act 1981
Land Drainage Act 1908
River Board Act 1908
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941
Land Act J948
Wildlife Act 1953
Maori Affairs Act 1953
Civil Aviation Act 1964
Re~erves Act 1977
National Parks Act 1980
NZ nailways Corporation Act ]981
Sand Drift Act 1908
Swamp Drainage Act 1915
Native Plants Protection Act 1934
FOI:e"ts Act 1949
Ir~n and Steel Industry Act 195~
Civil Defence Act 1962
Local Government Act 1974Forest and Rural F'il"'es Act 1977
Source:
Adapted from Ministry of Works and Development. 1979.
54
confusion and conflict that surrounds the interpretation and administration
of the numerous acts.
Town and Country Planning Act 1977
4.5.1
The
Town
act
and
Country
controlling
the
coastal
or
land
the
Schemes
which
Councils,
and
is
not
and
is
for
the
to
only
a
planning
District,
by
principal
Regional
covering
specific
activity
delegated
This
to
jurisdiction
Maritime
and
(United)
Authorities
legislative
act
is
authorities.
Regional,
Planning
the
restricted
terr itor ial
prepared
Maritime
is
Zealand,
Responsibility
through
are
1977
Act
New
local
and
implemented
in
which
interest.
regional
is
use
zone
sectional
Planning
Planning
Councils,
respective 1y.
The
local
purpose
of such schemes as described in section 4(1) of the act is:
... the
wise
use
and
management
of
the
resources
and
the direction and control of development of the region,
district or area in such a way as will most effecti vel y
promote
and
safeguard
health,
safety
and
convenience,
and
the
economic,
cuI tur aI,
social
and
general
welfare
of
the
people,
and
the
amenities
of
every
part
of
the region, district or area (Town and Country Planning
Act, 1977).
Control
and
of
development
access
is
but
in
achieved
of
boundaries
some
cases
Schemes
limit
the
Planning
small
they
will
have
of
the
provision
way
of
local
may
sea
been
specific
of
zoning
cover
recreational
procedures.
authori ties
normally
territorial
areas
areas
by
territorial
Planning
of
and
areas
extend
onl y
(12 miles) .
To
established
conflict
and
and
it
is
over
use
will
extend
out
to
Maritime
MHWM
only
four
likely
be
the
MHWM
to
beyond.
from
date
Usually
only
extend
tidal
facilities
to
the
Maritime
that
only
designated
as
Maritime Planning areas in the future.
Regional
Planning
and
both
the
Regional
Town
and
District
Schemes
and
Planning
Country
may
Maritime
Scheme.
Planning
Act
Planning
set
Schemes
1973
The
out
the
12
must
amendment
matters
of
mile
limit
comply
with
to
national
the
1953
importance
to be provided for in the preparation, implementation, and administration
of
District
1977
Act
Schemes.
and
These
extended
to
matters
Regional
were
and
included
Maritime
in
the
rewritten
Schemes
section 3, which includes:
The preservation of the natural character of the coastal
environment
and
margins
of
lakes
and
rivers
and
the
protection
of
them
from
unnecessary
subdi vision
and
development (Town and Country Planning Act 1977, section
3(i)(c)).
under
55
4.5.2
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941
This
act
was
established
establish
flood
Authority
has
area
to
also
set
control.
the
control
up
The
power
soil
under
primarily
National
to
take
erosion
the
act
to
with
Water
land
and
control
or
and
erosion
Soil
Conservation
restrict
flooding.
rating
soil
land
Catchment
powers
and
use
in
Boards
the
and
an
were
responsibility
of implementing the functions of the act. Licences for private contractors
to
extract
Boards
sand
who
and
may
gravel
also
from
control
rivers
licences
are administered
for
by Catchment
sand
and
gravel
extraction
Soil
Conservation Authority
from Crown owned river-beds.
4.5.3
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967
This act
(now
and
constitutes
enlarged
National
include
to
Conservation
Soil
Water
the
Boards.
Under
and
dissol ve d
the
and
the
Water
Rivers
act the
Water
Control
National
Resource
Council)
Water
and
Council
and
Soil
Regional
Conservation
Authority has, as part of its functions:
To examine
problems
concerning,
and
make
plans
in
respect
of ••• The
control
of
erosion
on
the
banks
of
rivers, the shores of lakes, and the seashore; ... (section
14(3)a(ii)), and;
To
exercise,
in
relation
to
erosion,
accretion,
and
poll ution in estuaries and on the sea front and in all
other places within the outer limits of the territorial
sea of New Zealand, all the functions and powers conferred
by
or under the Soil
Conservation and
Rivers Control
Act
1941,
as
if
those
functions
and
powers extended
to the
said estuaries,
sea front,
and
places
(section
14(3)e, Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967).
In a draft amendment
to
the
Water
and
Soil
Conservation
Act, the
suggested functions and powers of the National Water and Soil Conservation
Authority under the two main acts have been amalgamated (Anon.· 1984).
4.5.4
The
Harbours Act 1950
Harbours
specific
have
of
areas
the
(1950 )
Act
of
coast.
responsibility
harpours,
and
the
of
gives
Within
the
Harbour
their
Boards
defined
administration,
overall
control
of
jurisdiction
area,
control,
coastal
Harbour
and
over
Boards
management
foreshores,
seabed,
and navigable rivers and lakes.
A
Harbour
boulders,
harbour
Board
silt,
bed,
may
mud,
lake
or
licence
shell,
the
or
navigable
removal
other
river
of
material
which
is
stone,
from
vested
shingle,
the
sand,
foreshore,
in the
Crown,
S6
but
onl y
with
for
the
the
Petroleum
rna y
not
At
present
removal
be
to
bring
of
the
Act
the
be
Ministry
of
a
which
hectares
for
authorised
the
Iron
and
consent
of
Transport
and
of
shingle
of
in size,
Governor
any
other
Industry
Act
Ministry
of
is
implementing
removal
under
only
approved
except
1959,
Transport.
measures
the
control
under
although
the
reclamations
not interfere with navigation
the
public"
General
Licences
act
the
Parliament,
of
Fisheries.
Steel
are
that will
benefit
of
under
the
Act
"the
by
Minister
Reclamations
special
is
the
sand
1971.
the
granted
and
without
Mining Act
less than four
of
material
1937
granted
of
consent
of
licencing
authority
and
the
(section
through
an
175),
Order
in
may
Council
(Wells, 1984).
Harbour Boards are not required to produce either a management
development
always
plan
comply
for
the
with
the
areas
under
policies
and
their
jurisdiction,
conditions
set
out
plan or
but
in
must
Regional
Planning Schemes and with the regulations of the Ministry of Transport.
Where a
ional
Maritime Planning Area is set up entirel y within the
area
the
of
Maritime
arise
a
Planning
between
planning,
Harbour
port
and few
Board,
the
Authority,
unless
developments
Harbour
Board
Boards
it
and
have
will
be
appointed
declines.
the
jurisdict-
Conflicts
objectives
'of
as
may
maritime
planning experience appropriate
to the management of maritime resourc·es on· a regional scale.
4.5.5
This
Mining Act 1971
act
coal,
applies
ironsands,
are
deemed
of
any
the
not
acts
the
mining
petroleum
be
land
minerals
other
to
to
the
on
New
Crown
(Wells,
commencement
and
property
wi thin
the
Crown
owned
geothermal
of
the
minerals
and
silver
Crown on or
under
the
surface
can
licensed
Where
act,
Crown
the
excludes
Gold
territorial
be
and
energy.
Zealand I s
land
1984).
of
of
land
Crown
limits.
under
has
retains
All
a
other
number
been
sold
ownership
of
since
of
any
Minister,
all
minerals and the right to prospect for and mine those minerals.
Subject
to
Crown land
of
Energy.
being
and
of
the
low
the
the
is
written
of
the
appropriate
open to mining through licences granted by
Mining
area
water
seabed
consent
privileges
between
ordinary
between
for
high
spring
LWOS
and
(a)
water
part
ordinary
tide
the
any
(LWOS),
seaward
of
spring
or;
limit
of
the
the
Minister
foreshore.
tide
(HWOS)
(b)
any
the
terr itor ial
57
sea,
of
cannot
Transport
and
the
written
concurrence
with
has
been
obtained
(Mining
of
private
owner and
consent
unless
in
mining
of the
be
issued
acting
Fisheries
Before
If
be
is
occupier and
refused,
declared
land
open
the
for
is
consent
the
Minister
Act
mining
by
an
of
Agriculture
27(1)).
the
written
consent
minerals
for
is
certain
Order
Minister
section
approved,
(except
the
1971,
the owner of any
land
of
in
required.
classes)
Council,
may
following
specified procedures (Mining Act 1971, section 27(1)).
Conditions
the
may
Minister
disturb
of
the
advice
of
Board
or
the
of
the
appropriate
of
the
of
as
is
mining
the
the
impose
of
the
for
and
practicable.
relating
to
specified
and
the
by
will
on
the
Catchment
purpose
of:
providing
for
the
conflict
with
the
any
Town
time
Energy,
for
Rivers
The
any
Lands
surface;
preventing
provisions
of
Crown
conditions
Conservation
reasonably
of
at
technique
Minister
land
surface;
licence
mining
land,
may
Soil
1977,
a
Commissioner
land
the
on
Where
destruction
purposes
Act
Energy.
Commission,
restoration
far
imposed
surface
preventing
as
be
Control
and
the
Act
Country
1941,
Planning
Planning
Tribunal,
does not apply to the Mining Act.
for
mining
privilege
All
applications
an
Environmental
Impact
Assessment.
or
high
impact
mining
proposals,
be
required
under
may
example,
or mining).
at
the
and
the
Recently,
In
the
an
the
River
case
there
to
adequately
of
Protection
for
proposal
has
huge number of
accompanied
Environmental
or
been
that the Mines Division of the
ability
be
Commission
dredging
however,
in processing a
the
must
Environmental
by
Grey
pressure
is under
the
administered
Procedures
(for
a
by
large
scale,
Impact
Report
and
Enhancement
the
Environment
offshore dredging
increasing
Ministry
concern
Energy
of
mining privilege applications,
assess
the
environmental
impacts
of the proposals (Wallace, 1984d).
4.5.6
The
in
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959
purpose of this
New
Zealand.
ironsands
Industry
at
in
Act
present
(North
act
Under
three
1959,
are:
Island,
is to provide for
the
act,
areas
section
from
west
is
vested
3( 1)).
the
coast);
the
the iron and
right
in
the
The three
Kaipara
from
Harbour
the
to
prospect
Crown
steel industry
for
(Iron
ironsands areas
to
Karamea
the
and
and
to
Steel
designated
Whangaehu
River
mine
the
River
Haast
58
River
(South
Island,
west
Land
District) •
The
(Nelson
coast) ;
first
and
two
Waitapu
areas
Survey
include
District
all
land
from
MHWM to three miles inland.
The
Mining
within
in
thinks
7
fit.
can
of
Land
the
8).
conditions
erosion
11) •
or
on
such
of
other
the
any
damage
Prov isions
for
and
may
Steel
of
ironsands
mine
for
ironsands
or
person
or
conditions
mining
area
Steel
rehabilitation
or
Minister
mining
purposes
1959.
sections
who
require
may
adjacent
the
by
the
privileges
Industry
under
company
as
Act
Transport.
the
and
of
Industry
Minister
in
mining
be taken for
lands,
(Iron
land
any
tidal
land
the
prospect
terms
and
to
to
to
areas
(Iron
respect
protect
to
authorised
paid
consent
to
be
apply
right
within these
With
written
not
The
Energy,
compensation
and
does
areas.
areas
Minister
and
1971
ironsands
these
the
Act
impose
it
to
Act
1959,
act
are
from
section
few
and
onl y of a very general nature.
4.5.7
Continental Shelf Act 1964
This
act
control
of
is
administered
the
New
Zealand.
vested
in
minerals
shelf,
exploration
a
specified
to
Ministry
exploitation
right
Crown.
subject
the
and
The
the
of
by
to
type
for
in
conditions.
of
explore
Licences
are
Foreign
the
and
the
a·
of
continental
exploit
prospecting
specified
granted
Affairs
area
of
by
the
to
coastal
the
to
shelf
shelf
is
and
mining
of
the
continental
Minister
of Energy
(Continental Shelf Act 1964, section 5),
4.5,8
Other Acts
Numerous
and
management,
form
of
Forests
and
other
Crown
Act
have
Since
a
Act
for
applications
large
ownership.
1949,
Wildlife
provision
acts
the
the
National
1953
may
taking
portion
apply.
land
coastal
provisions
Parks
of
of
Act
Public
the
under
the
either
refuse
erection
of
or
Local
a
Government
building
a
Council),
permits
non-permanent
Where
Amendment
or
grant
structure
Act 1979, section 641, amended 1980).
is
Act
a
in
some
1948,
Reserves
Act
1977,
1981
makes
Act
of
'public
(for
building
a
works'
excrnpl e
subject
1979
(Local
is
Act
purposes
land
planning
Land
Works
undertaken either by the Crown or a local authority
Harbour Board
land
the
1980,
The
for
of
zone
to
erosion,
Council
permit
Government
a
for
may
the
Amendment
59
4.6
CONCLUSIONS
This
chapter
rights
to
to
began
with
illustrate
how
ownership
relating
to
off
the
planning
an
examination
rights
coastal
and
are
of
the
concept
specified
zone.
Latter
management
and
and
how
sections
examined
of
property
they
relate
discussed
policy
existing
legislation
pertaining to the coastal zone.
Although
public
of
areas
ownership
the
may
large
land
result
is
of
and
privately owned.
in a
socially
the
imposition
zone
has
characteristics
the
within
the
administered
and
to
land
Private
undesirable
of
specification of
by
negative
of
a
rights
zone
government
are
agencies,
allocation or use of
externalities.
the
held
in
much
ownership .of coastal resources
publicly
to
coastal
Since
owned
resource
the
resource
the
coastal
resource,
may
adjustments
be used
to achieve
greater recognition of the social costs of developments.
National
policy
defined
and
recreational
use
in
that
a
zone
primarily
with
activities.
Other
policies
relevant
number
is
coastal
deals
are
guidance
affecting
of
given
to
acts
relating
zone
by
separate
regional
is
residential
coastal
or
to
management
clearl y
developments
to
management
land
have
management
and, local
not
and
and
been
water
defined
agencies.
authorities
in
Little
implementing
Planning Schemes and management actions.
There
is
an
Boundaries
abundance
between
range
of
As
result.
a
of
these
administrative
the
legislation
acts
are
options
planning
applying
not
leads
and
to
the
coastal
set
out
and
confusion
and
conflict.
clearl y
to
management
of
activities
zone.
the
on
land
arrangements
will
and water are. not well integrated.
In
the
be
considered
and
resource
develop
chapters
an
to
follow,
in
conjunction
uses
(discussed
approach
to
with their characteristics.
these
with
in
coastal
institutional
aspects
Chapters
zone
of
2
the
and
management
physical
system
3)
in
order
to
that
is
consistent
60
CHAPTER FIVE
INTERACTIONS WITHIN THE COASTAL ZONE
AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES
5.1
INTRODUCTION
This
chapter
processes,
aims
to
resource
describe
uses
and
interactions
institutional
between
the
arrangements
physical
within
the
coastal zone. These interactions are used to illustrate the considerations
that are necessary in developing an approach to coastal zone management.
Emphasis
is
placed
is necessary for
on
presenting
appropriate
what
information
and
knowledge
management and where there are
shortfalls
in current information and knowledge.
Specific
problems
from
two
from
the
with
resource
Second
main
and
sources.
physical
management
First
the
These
from
applied
the
be
described
problems
coastal
are
originating
to
can
those
of
developments.
regime
issues
are
character
those
are
management
and
zone
discussed
insti tutional
resource,
as
arising
issues
arising
and
in
interactions
section
aspects
which
are
5.2.
and
the
discussed
in section 5.3.
Consideration is also given to uncertainties present in the characterisation
of
the
coastal
additional
zone.
Because
information
management
concerns,
time
is
needed
knowledge,
and
specific
it
to
is
problems,
collect
and
analyse
to
isolate
necessary
and
uncertainties
that
need to be accounted for in the management process.
Information
view
the
in
da ta
of
is
the
planning
this
drawn from
coastal
and
chapter
discussed
zone.
In
decision
can
in
Chapters
be
making
2,
3 and
terms
viewed
Chapters
2,
the
process,
as
3
of
4 to
an
and
The
an overall
generalised
model
information
presented
analysis
4.
present
of
the
remaining
the model form part of the discussion presented in Chapter 6.
of
inventory
steps
in
61
5.2
RESOURCE CHARACTER AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
5.2.1
Mining Impacts
Many aggregate extraction operations at present may have little consideration for
the
implications
for
the
coastal
zone
as
the
effects
are
not readily linked to the extraction operation. This problem is related
to a
lack of
knowledge and
river
basins wi thout
impacts. "Where a
to the
coastal
managed
to
information,
consideration of
and a
the
river system provides a
narrow view of managing
implications
for
'downstream'
significant amount of material
sediment budget aggregate extract ion should be carefully
ensure
that
the
supply
is
not
altered
in
a
manner
that
could lead to a shortfall in the coastal sediment budget.
Removal
the
of
sand
coastal
reports
Sand
Act
and
however,
are
there
of
an
no
evidence
and
1950
area
not
and
so
to
and
shingle
(see
are
from beaches
budget
sediment
stability.
Harbours
shingle
or
section
suggest
that
likely
erosion
to
be
could
and
granted
In
sediment
the
technical
many
budget
cases,
balance
approved where
result.
on
dune
under
favourable
areas.
the
effect
profiles
beach
require
to
direct
more
erosion-prone
relating
are
a
licences
4.5.4)
in
data
licences
alter
extraction
granted
no
may
has
Licences
there
is
may
be
suspended if problems such as accelerated erosion become evident (Ministry
of
Transport,
1980)
but
usual I y
by .the
time
such effects
are
notice-
able efforts to reverse the erosion may be difficult and costly.
A further
complication arises where
unlicensed extraction
is
occurring
as the amount of material removed and the effect this has on the sediment
budget is difficult to determine (see section 3.2).
The
impact
of
sediments
be
suppl ied
terraces
the
that goldmining may have on catchment systems and the supply
to
by
active
machinery
to
the
coast
unknown.
downstream areas
goldmining
river
may
is
operations
channel.
increase
may
The
the
Sediments
be
and
removed
dumped
disturbance
proportion
of
due
that
from
may
river
as
tailings
to
the
fine
use
sediments
normally
beds
and
outside
of
of
dredging
transported
by rivers. The cumulative effect of numerous operations in one catchment
is also unknown.
Mining
for
the
of
beach
stability
sands
of
for
coastal
ilmeni te
areas.
may
The
have
areas
important
of
interest
implications
for
ilmenite
62
sand
mining
shoreline
areas
be
include
and
as
the
Current
uplands.
coastal
buffers
supplied
accumulations
large
against
during
storms
periods
prospecting
of
licences
of
The
and
between
importance
as
erosion
for
sand
the
of
these
already
ilmenite
sands
dune
material
reserv O-ir s of
has
present
been
cover
to
mentioned.
areas
right
out to MHWM and beyond (see section 3.2.5). If future mining is permitted
out
to
this
point
then
the
stability
of
large
areas
of
coastline
scale
titanium
ma y be affected as the natural dune systems are disturbed.
Fletcher
Challenge
pigment
dioxide
plant
is
coal
be
plant
likely
and
Limited
to
employed
located
resource.
in the
of
the
Barrytown
and
operation of the
evaluating
near
various
stages
sands,
open
world
tonnes
Charleston
total
A
titanium
a
100, 000
producing
be
limestone
are
of
to
production;
cast
mining
plant
annum.
utilise
400
around
of
pigment
per
the
local
people
the mineral
of
The
would
dressing
Charlestown
(Bryce,
coal,
Fletcher Challenge
Ltd., pers. comm. 1984).
5.2.2
The
Engineering Structures
design
on
wave
zone.
of
characteristics
Building
unforeseen
than
solve
deal
of
it.
The
effecti veness
maintenance.
Where
no
have
been
the
of
without
and
may
difficulties
are
built
problem.
structures
Consequently,
provision
is
effective
requires
sediment
structures
structures
with
structures
and
complications
inadequate
to
engineering
transport
this
only
of
obtaining
do
not
There
is
no
Ii ttle
structures
made
for
frequentl y
maybe
often
lead
mean
are
structures
inadequate
that
requirements
made
that
to
rather
evaluation
is
built
maintenance,
can
minimum
formal
nearshore
problem
finance
meet
information
the
~he
to
provision
become
in
knowledge
add
that
and
detailed
of
for
the
their
ineffective.
that
may
and
visuall y
be
followed
unattracti ve.
Construction
for
any
and
maintenance
shore protection works
guidelines
that
should
are outlined by the Coastal
Engineering
Research Centre. These guidelines list six rules, as follows:
1.
Provide
adequate
protection
for
the
toe
of
the
structure
to prevent undermining;
2.
Secure
both
ends
of
the
protection
works
against
at the flanks;
3.
Check the foundation conditions of any structure;
erosion
63
indi vidual
Use
4.
blocks
of
material
that
are
heavy
and
dense enough to withstand movement due to wave action;
5.
Build the structure high enough to prevent waves overtopping
6.
Ensure
that
material
voids
are
between
small
individual
enough
to
pieces
prevent
of
protection
underlying
material
from being washed out by waves.
5.3
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND ORGANISATIONAL ISSUES
Many
problems
arrangements
These
in
coastal
and
maybe
zone
the
nature
related
to
management
of
the
arise
existing
specific
from
institutional
management
responses
to
approach.
problems
arising
from the physical character of the resource or to broader organisational
aspects
of
include
to
existing
planning
resource
responses
uses.
legislation,
management
to
coastal
Examples
problems
of
systems.
of
Examples
hazards
the
and
latter
coordination
the
regulations
are
between
of
the
former
applying
abundance
agencies,
and
of
the
level at which planning and management is applied.
Planning Responses to Coastal Erosion Hazards
5.3.1
Recent
responses
to
coastal
erosion
hazards
have
on development implemented through zoning procedures.
are
proposed
construction
to
avoid
in
an
area,
set-back
the
demarcation
line
problems
may
of
be
an
erosion
ment
Zealand this concept
Set-back'
1982) .
Where
however,
the
detrimental
1984).
This
are
demarcation
and
guide
to
objectives
concept
is
seen
and
applied
of
the
such
as
as
a
dune
more
management
tool
Department
in the form
Hazard
existing
set-back
of
a
(Gibb,
developments,
lines
'buffer
but
management
positive
'Develop-
may
consequences
of
set-back,
of
Zoning'
coastal
economic
concept
development
coastal
1982).
construction
possibly
appropriate
Nations
'Coastal
to
controls
Where developments
appropriate
been applied
1980)
(1979b) outlines
a
management
they
social
Kirk
includes
(Healey,
has
an
(United
International Economic and Social Affairs,
In New
of
involved
also
and
(Chung,
zone'
which
outlines
sand
management
have
other
conservation.
tool
in
that
it encourages activities that promote foreshore stability.
The
various
techniques
for
assessing
construction
set-bac k
limits
64
rely
of
on
the
historical
length
of
data.
the
This
record
data
and/or
may
the
be
inadequate
accuracy
of
in
terms
predicting
future
trends in erosion or accretion with any confidence (Chung,
Average
beach
rates
sediment
events.
be
erosion
balance
Short-term
greater
of
beach
therefore,
may
such
disguise
as
changes
than those
Knowledge
is,
of
those
in
the
shown by
needed
in
due
to
to
position
average
responses
short-term
rates
addition
to
effects
the
of
short-term
changes
the
of
in
of
the
storm
shoreline
erosion or
events
that
1984).
accretion.
such
as
presented
may
storms
by
average
through District
planning
rates on longer-term erosion or accretion.
Construction
set-bac k
Schemes
and
of
the
Local
not
deal
limits
building
developments.
practices
and
no
implemented
permits
Government
with
use
are
maybe
Act
aspects
Under
the
that
may
lead
to
other
land
uses
controls
on
of
act
under
Unfortunate I y,
1974.
other
refused
land
there
use
besides
are
no
erosion.
that
641 cbes
residential
building
such
on
as
be
641
section
controls
may
section
other
dune
land
removal,
affected
by
coastal
erosion (that is developments not involving buildings).
Controls on Mining
5.3.2
Licencing
in
the
for
the
hands
of
boards
administer
harbour
boards,
most
licences
and
being
transferred
to
licences
are
issue
of
information
to
be
below
Mines
in
effects
for
MHWM
a
of
for
by
the
location.
from
making.
foreshore
is
Energy.
ensure
all
present
Most
that
areas,
are
at
This
Licensing
operations
Catchment
administer
control
to
is
systems,
Division.
agencies
for
aggregate
river
of
Mines
manner
extraction
the
this
Ministry
decision
consistent
other
Transport
although
Division,
between
on
or
extraction
of
administered
available
gravel
depending
Ministry
coordination
conducted
cumulative
the
seabed
is
sand,
bodies
and
the
of
various
areas
mining
the
removal
raises
adequate
also
so
other
needs
that
evaluated
the
rather
than just their effects within a single jurisdictional area.
Furthermore,
are
few
condi tions
(see
under
provisions
may
section
be
4.2.5)
the
for
Iron
land
imposed
but
the
to
and
Steel
restoration.
ensure
that
provisions
Act 1959 are far more general in nature.
of
Industry
Under
the
the
Act
the
land
Iron
1959,
Mining
surface
and
Act
there
1971
is
restored
Steel
Industry
65
5.3.3
Property Rights
Property
for
of
rights
land
or
use
and
ownership
to
the
of
uses
constraints
such
as
customarily
potential
and
of
land
of
Since
by
society
water
be
as
a
by
the
water
rights
to
some
do
not
Divergent
to
by
market
insti tutional
water
(res
these
use
defined
they
respond
whole
body.
be
resources.
for the effects of externalities is greater.
transmitted
may
controlled
ownership
the
although
rights)
may
defined
to
and
land
resource
easil y
Rights
resources
for
often
can
more
goods
water
do
zoning.
held
economic
they
the
are
resources.
granting
that
extent
mechanisms
~allocation
are
the
through
incompatible
are
as
traded
the
groups
water
for
are
example,
exist
than
and
resources
to
(for
individuals
resources
land
rights
of
resources
communus)
the
Where externalities
market
inefficiencies
cannot be reduced by control and allocation of land use alone (Harrison.
1978).
The
declaration
of
the
importance
(Town
that
form
of
to
the
some
as
well
of
the
onl y
coastal
Country
common
water
zone
reduction
the
an
If
as
and
allocation
such
a
coastal
Planning
resources
a
of
market
as
a
applies
of
matter
section
1977,
the
res
that
management
Act
ownership
as
system
environment
to
the
coastal
resource
inefficiences
replaces
system
the
were
but
imposed,
national
3c)
implies
land
zone.
resources
Management
could
the
mar ket
of
involve
imposition
(Harrison,
then
not
the
of
1978) .
information
used in decision making would be of critical importance.
Private
property
resource
held
indi viduals
impact
on
local
of
of
on
in
private
arise
owners
1980).
local
the
res
the
coastal
communal
use
of
their
and
Ditton et
government
of
the
al
and
a
(1977)
agencies
to
interrelated
Decisions
It
have
has
been
management,
deep
value
is
property
resource.
planning
because
zone
ownership.
communus
coastal
level,
(Le110.
in
the
problems
within
of
founded
land
point
recognise
as
out
a
that
made
the
with
by
that
particular! y
a
in
the
market
failure
private
potential
argued
belief
the
on
to
many
at
a
rights
commodity
the
behalf
in
common
frequent! y
extend
resources
ownership are of greater than local concern.
The
interrelationships
of
natural
coastal
systems
beyond local planning boundaries. creating jurisdictional and coordination
problems.
In
accordance
with
this.
it
seems
appropriate
that
coastal
66
zone
management
jurisdictional
is
based
control
over
land and water resources.
however.
at
a
regional
entire
level
natural
under
systems.
agencies
with
including
both
The nature of the ownership of the resource.
implies that there is also a national
dimension to management.
These points are discussed further in Chapter 6.
5.3.4
Legislation and Agency Coordination Issues
The
to
numerous
the
acts
coastal
zone
planning
and
sectional
fashion
functional
units
(for
example
and
the
within
overall
more
effectively
not
a
existing
the
of
management
jurisdictional
coastal
zone
is
zone.
these
covered
by
level)
may
Since
the
sea,
be
of
the
'coastal
at
the
individual
that
problem.
rather
arrangements
the
and
lack of
units
estuaries,
management
than
may
units.
management
a
individual
identified
functional
of
in
functional
easily
zone',
fragmentation
but
to
harbours and
more
Most
undertaken
the
coastal
related
limits.
related
aimed
institutional
range
of
arrangements
definition
significant
aspects
institutional
sea
therefore,
a
in
land
above
some
argued,
with
water.
various
have
management
land
be
covering
be
may
It
per
se
is
coordination between
management
agencies
(Harrison,
1978).
The
need
for
functions
of
concern
for
various
at
Survey
coordination
the
Coastal
in
prep.).
overall
management
policy
incorporate
a
existing
management
1984
Department,
the
of
of
the
agencies
Zone
is
recognition
of
was
need
zone
to
societal
to
goals
a
for
a
these
major
policies
in
statement
the
the
(Lands and
existing
frame
Such
and
as
Seminar
examine
and
significant.
policies
expressed
Management
The
coastal
statement
management
some
should
management
of
the coastal zone.
Regional
planning
compati ble
with
boundaries
the
Maritime
planning
and
been
has
boards
will
planning
beyond
seldom
coverage,
or
the
At
present
covers
normally
they
wider
natural
only
but
expertise
central
to
have
in
at
planning
few Regional
a
in
of
few
the
the
for
beyond
maritime
planning
provides
little
limits
guidance
can
coastal
areas.
related
the
that
marine
critical
expertise
Regional
scale
or Uni ted Counci I s have
planning
government
a
operating
responsibility
boundaries.
extend
set
management
only
have
port
be
processes
established
although
may
to
may
be
zone.
resource
Harbour
planning
maritime
have
a
the resources
of
for
the
land.
Regional,
67
local. and Maritime Planning Authorities in making day-to-day management
decisions.
Existing
fragmented
and
policy
emphasises
Little
consideration
or
providing
to
related
is
to
coastal
residential
given
specific
to
and
for
management
recreational
policies
guidelines
zone
for
the
is
developments.
other
developments
implementation
of
these
policies at the regional and local level.
An
alternative
system
of
government
and
and
management
example.
of
ad
of
'regional'
hoc
agencies
'functional'
of
Lands
and
exists
responsible
units
Ministry of Transport,
Department
management
within
in
for
the
the
the
and
Catchment
planning
coastal
zone
Ministry of Agriculture and
Survey
Boards.
form
(for
Fisheries,
One
Catchment
Board covers virtually the whole of the West Coast area.
A management
system
based
need
highl y
coordinated:
on
sectional
Financial
resources
are
also
inadequate.
of
coastal
and
local
in order
land
a
situation
and
the
for
not
which
are
have
of
not
of
forced
from
adequate
funds
to
be
present.
expertise
the
been
purchase
insufficient
approve
Many
to
at
and
for
has
rates.
access
exist
personnel
purposes
frequently
revenue
however.
does
allocation
preservation
to increase their
do
would.
provision
Government
authorities
authorities
agencies
developments
local
and regional
to
or
personnel
trained in matters applicable to coastal zone management. The complexity
of interactions within the coastal
problems
of
requires
disciplines.
personnel
levels.
to
There
be
in
technical
is
based
conjunction
zone and the resolution of management
training
a
need
at
the
with
for
and
an
se
increased
regional
the
ex
and
provision
in
variety
of
trained
decision
making
number
local
of
a
more
technical
and
financial support from central government.
5.4
UNCERTAINTIES IN INTERACTIONS
Present knowledge of the physical processes operating on the West Coast
and
In
the
possible
addi tion.
economic.
of
this
and
future
important
about
actions
of
aspects
information
the
resource
information
institutional
incomplete
uncertainty
impacts
nature
(Radford.
1977;
and
and
on
may
developments
resource.
be
significance
Rowe.
is
of
limited.
technical
lacking.
knowledge
is
One
that
past
socio-
implication
it
leads
events
to
and
1977). Uncertainty leads to the
68
possibility
that
the outcome of
a
particular
decision
may
be
different
the
presence
from that estimated at the time the decision is made.
In
choosing
between
of
uncertainty
an
unfavourable
decisions
adds
the
or
courses
dimension
outcome
from
of
the
of
ac tion,
the
risk:
decision.
As
possibility
decisions
of
become
more complex, the outcomes more uncertain, and the possible consequences
more
unfavourable,
the
need
to
employ
some
means
of
analysing
uncertainty and risk becomes more compelling.
The
first
should
in
be
Anal ysis
an
of
It
will
sources
contribute
also
decision
analysis
identification
the
uncertainties
an
help
process
and
of
of
the
to
of
uncertainty
the
factors
uncertainty
most
ris k
define
lead
what
to
assist
the
resultant
to
in
gathering
is
of
risk
uncertainty.
defining
decision
information
the
the
contributing
will
to
and
making
process.
critical
further
which
to
data
the
where
this is found to be necessary.
In relation to coastal zone management, three main sources of uncertainty
can be identified. These are the following:
1.
Uncertainties
about
the
operation
of
physical
processes
and the nature of phYSical events;
Uncertainties
2.
in
the
surrounding
coastal
zone
the
such
impacts of
resource
mining,
engineering
as
developments
structures;
and,
3.
Uncertaintie s
relating
coastal
management
zone
responses,
insti tutional
to
including
coordination
of
arrangements
such
things
management
and
as
for
social
the
question
of who decides.
The
following
detail,
zone
sections
defining
discuss
information
management
these
that
decisions.
is
sources
likely
Specific
to
of
uncertainty
be
important
examples
from
the
in
in
more
coastal
West
Coast
are used to support the discussion.
5.4.1
Knowledge of Physical Processes and Events
Some
processes
and
ebb
of
the
effects
but
easily
tides.
of
understanding
events
are
it
Others
storms).
of
is
how
defined
are
Physical
waves
difficult
to
are
and
far
observed,
less
predictable
studies
have
formed
and
predict
such
exact I y
as
(for
provided
propagated
when
and
the
flood
example,
a
by
where
general
storm
storms
69
will
occur,
the
size
and
energy
of
the
waves
formed,
and
how
they will affect the coastline.
The
characteristics
implications
for
or
on-offshore
to
be
the
one
the
of
waves
transport
of
material
The
(see
section
and
situation
northward
currents
due
or
in
the
and
West
difficult
drift,
the
appears
depending
direction
predict
have
longshore
Coast
these
to
shore
a
drift
the
that
the
either
southward
winds
southward
reaching
on
Given
is
it
or
to
2 . 6 .2) .
that
northward
either
of
either
of
considerabl y
energy
direction.
direction
approach
and
on
of
wave
conditions
vary
the
amount
duration
and
of
direction
of net longshore transport is uncertain.
The
of
effects
the
of
storm waves
beach
accretion
on
is
occurring
the
erosion
for
example, a
or
is
removal
due
it
to
sand
also
they
from
or
sediment
the
Where
to
is
erosion
through
damming
of
the
a
river
timing
storms and the magnitude of the consequences is,
or
whether
induced,
by
Prediction
condition
determine
man
supply
beach.
existing
1980),
difficult
causes
a
to
(Short,
be
natural
in
related
act
may
reduction
of
location of
which
are
and
therefore,
a complex task.
Uncertainty
quanti ties
West
of
material
.
rIvers
Coast,
the
coast
20%.
The
coast
is
volume
surrounds
also
but
also
of
being
figure
of
is
material
as
involved
to
only
accurate
supplied
it
is
for
the
98
and
zone. On the
1
6
10
m 3 .yrto
x
within
erosion
difficult
sources
coastal
to
by
large
of
the
.
Iy
apprOXImate
sediment
uncertain
determination
supplied
t ransport
this
amount
the
to
plus
of
parts
quantify
lengths
of
or
the
minus
of
the
the
exact
coast.
The
amount is also likely to vary considerabl y in time and space.
Knowledge
is,
the
therefore,
events
if
of
the
relate
fundamental
to
amounts
accuratel y
quantities
the
of
to
responses
sediment
quantified.
of
there
material
an
supply,
understanding
of
the
supplied
could
to
still
coastal
the
be
transfer,
of
and
physical
how
environment.
West
Coast
uncertainty
loss
Even
could
about
be
the
quantities in transfer.
Accumulation
the
jetties
of
at
material
Westport
against
Harbour
an
may
artificial
not
provide
structure,
an
accurate
such
as
picture
70
of
how
much
material
material
may
bypass
quantification
of
is
the
in
transfer
harbour
sediment
sinks
as
significant
entrance.
maybe
The
quantities
of
identification
incomplete.
For
and
example,
it is difficult to quantify the amount of material that may be transported
into
Cook
Strait
or
north
to
be
deposited
in
the
Taranaki
Bight
or further offshore.
5.4.2
The Impact of Resource Developments
Any
development
highl y
uncertain
ph ysical
in
should
the
what
of
type
coastal
the
example.
form
of
is
liable
problems
coastal erosion
arises
of
structure
zone
case
uncertainty
some
If
In
(for
initial
be.
dynamic
impacts.
processes
harbours)
just
in
over
engineering
should
be
to
have
arising
from
or
sedimentation
what
response is
built?
response
the
How
considered,
it
will
affect
the physical processes and will it solve the problem?
Many
resource
environment
areas
involve
of
well
developments
engineering
defined
applied,
about
be.
exact
Thus,
form
a
a
problems
in
structures.
Unlike
coastal
engineering
does
Although
outlined
Research
to
of
coding.
those
Engineering
the
will
as
responses
building
work,
design
such
(Coastal
the
or
general
in
Centre,
Shore
1977),
there
structure
that
works
involving
uncertainty
coastal
many
not
other
have
principles
the
structure -should
the
can
Protection
remains
take
and
well
in
what
one
a
be
Manual
uncertainty
its
affects
situation
may
not work in another.
A
the
problem
further
of
effect
have
structures
the
physical
failed
physical
to
failed
forces
solve
processes on
because
acting
the
they
on
a
they
how
to
development
have
them.
problem
is
not
In
been
many
were
what
will
Many
able
cases
designed
determine
be.
to
withstand
structures
to
deal
have
with
or
have created other unforeseen problems.
All
are
these
uncertainties surrounding the
related
to
of
resource
is
adynamic
the
operation
developments
will
assist
in
impacts
of
resource
can
developed
for
physical
system.
Consideration
system.
the
developments.
area
developments
recognise
reducing
an
resource
the
should
process-response
system
be
of
impact of
of
If
that
Knowledge
uncertainties
a
coast
detailed
then
the
of
coastal
the
zone
physical
surrounding
sediment
developments
the
budget
can
be
71
more
readily
assessed
budget. These
such
as
the
impacts
Under
In
their
impact
on
the
sediment
order
and
to
institutional
identify
the
aspects
relating
trade-offs
between
to
the
(see section 6,3.6).
institutional
existing
has
over
control
considering
a
the
single
arrangements
various
in
due
to
of
coastal
development
nature
arises
zone
over
management,
proposal
anum ber of agencies,
sectional
the
uncertainty
aspects
resource
to gain consents from
necessary
is
of
Institutional Arrangements for Management
5,4.3
who
technical,
in
different aspects
terms
may then be compared with other considerations,
economic,
development,
in
it
may
be
This uncertainty
of
management
and
the resultant difficulties in determining responsibilities,
Where
controls
be
uncertainty
of
controls
to
meet
on
a
a
of
societal
uncertainty
to
of
participation
their
prerequisite.
It may
groups
process
few
social
arrangements
order
doing
or
of
Although
there
may
acceptance
are
likel y
be necessary to impose controls
in
In
acceptance
the
developments.
acceptance,
well
social
resource
development
some
in
on
acceptance,
type
unacceptable
to
logical
with total
of
imposed
relating
is
certain
aspect
are
to
so
protect
the
individuals
can
be
goals
general
controls
within
reduced
determining
some
maybe
society,
by
ensuring
for
the
The
public
management
of the resource and in deciding on what controls are to be implemented,
Even
if
specify
responsibilities
that
can
still
be
related
some
arise
to
are
control
over
on
how
uncertainty
adequatel y
a
best
a
particular
damage and
the
use
is
benefits
to
from
the
Where
easil y
use
deal
surrounding
of alternative management options.
from
resource
defined
and
is
desirable,
with
problems.
different
damage to
costs
a
identifiable,
different
societal
control
uncertainty
This
and
resource
the
goals
costs
measures
may
benefits
resulting
of
may
such
be
uncertain.
Management
between
or
decisions
will
acceptability
and
al ternati ve
and what is the
actions),
I
normall y
social
This
goals
leads
best' decision?
involve
to
or
trade-offs
between
problems
costs
over
(for
example,
and
benefits
who
decides I
72
5.5
CONCL USIONS
This
chapter
has
discussed
resource
uses
and
with
a
view
to
These
interactions.
constraints.
for
are
coastal
the
institutional
together
in
uncertainties
in
it
for
processes.
coastal
for
zone
management.
from
developing
uncertainties
framework
the
arising
For this reason,
and
physical
concerns
considerations
problems
appropriate
important
with
zone management.
an
between
arrangements
illustrating
important
management
before
interactions
information
a
framework
is useful
to highlight
needing
consideration
coastal
zone
management
is
developed in Chapter 6.
A
detailed
description
is essential for
true
when
zone.
Present
lacking
be
used
of
acti vi ties
with
the
operation
dynamic
West
provide
need
Coast.
the
to
be
of
the
management.
A
a
coastal
in
the
change
approach
Specific
to
coastal
affecting
integrated
order
system
particularl y
as
budget
more
zone.
identified
such
processes
sediment
for
physical
This is
environment
describing
information
affecting
relationships
a
information
for
to
the
effective planning and
dealing
is
of
could
management
process-response
isolate
the
impacts
of resource developments.
Existing
of
responses
social
acceptance
frequentl y
suitable
are
not
to
fail
to
where
an
coastal
and,
in
solve
no
erosion
the
the
solution
case
of
problem.
developments
absolute
hazards
to
present
engineering
Planning
exist
at
problems
problems
responses
present.
where
structures.
although
existing
1974.
onl y
deal
with
buildings
and
not
other
be
they
developments
are located. Planning responses implemented under the Local
Act
may
Government
forms
of
land
use.
Coordination
pr esents a
of
a
of
the
further
agencies.
maximum
functions
problem.
however
or
well
optimal
of
the
Sectional
it
is
efficiency
various
management
management
through
performed.
because
of
cannot
the
lack
hope
of
agencies
a
number
to
achieve
communication
and interaction between the agencies. A more holistic view of management
is
needed
to
At
present
define
there
permitted
under
example.
zoning
is
common
no
certain
of
land
goals
overall
coordinate
definition
circumstances
uses
and
may
and
differ
of
responsibilities.
which
which
between
ones
activities
are
not
counties).
are
(for
Mining
73
activities
are
Planning
of
from
detrimental
or
to
a
large
procedures
mining
suited
to
but
the
extent
there
coastal
to
the
regional
the
res
communus
appears
zone
consequences.
excluded
to
where
Present
from
be
a
there
case
are
(communal
for
is
of
ownership)
and
the
likel y
management
inter-relationships
Town
to
exclusion
be
not
the
Country
severe
adequately
natural
nature
of
system
the
coastal
zone resource.
Goals
for
management
the
and
legislation
the
provide
a
basis
of
are
for
the
not
resource
clear I y
defined.
making
decision
are
and
fragmented
Goal
should
through
setting
should
recognise
social
needs and the enhancement of social well-being.
Uncertainties
present
management.
Specific
processes
lead
responses.
to
These
resultant
invol ve
uncertainties
combat
on
natural
the
about
the
event
relating
associated
with
of
to
definition
of
problems.
Information
provides
a
of
for
the
the
about
occur.
of
of
and
of
and
decisions
on
and
likely
system
controls.
how
to
and
uncertainties
will produce corresponding uncertainties in management.
in
and
J
extractive
to
processes
developments
Institutional
acceptance
storms J
attempts
budget.
is
and
management
of
physical
sediment
physical
o.r
between
system
of
developments
structures
effects
physical
parameters
Resource
and
management
affects
budget
developments.
the
about
effectiveness
physical
nature
and
.relationship
system
responsibilities.
basis
the
J
the
resource
the
sediment
making
appropriate
magnitude
impact
and
Because
operation
determining
the
mining
decision
information
accretion will
processes.
physical
uncertainty
are
as
for
in
timing.
about
such
in
material.
erosion or
developments.
and
the
of
or
uses
uncertainties
include
whether
resource
problems
difficulties
movement
not
complex
information
to
reduce
uncertainties
an
unclear
deal
with
resource
uses
these
areas
74
CHAPTER SIX
APPROACHES TO COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT A STUDY OF THE WEST COAST
6.1
INTRODUCTION
The
previous
uses
chapters
have
in
the
coastal
aspects.
and
highlighted
and
management
to
be
issues
implicit
management.
zone
in
that
of
the
that
physical
West
important
many
which
described
from
management
operates
Coast.
interactions
arise
so
processes
them.
to
discussed
between
these
Effective
achieve
resource
institutional
Uncertainty
issues.
as
and
the
aspects
was
shown
planning
desired
and
effect,
should account for all of these factors.
The
aim
of
this
management
of
on
several
by
a
chapter
the
to
coastal
consideration
is
made with reference to the
leads
to
incorporates
West
of
of
of
for
with
chapter.
and
framework
that
of
coastal
brief
Coast
inadequacies
of,
an
approach
in
decisions
attempt
uncertainties
The
West
management
an
a
management
the
to
discussion
may
be
United
the
zone
taken
Council.
various
options
discussion presented in earlier chapters.
management
uncertainty.
national
the
merits
as
approach
involves
zone
development
Since
dealing
broader
the
guidelines
Coast.
degree
the
an
This
such
A
This
present
Coast.
agency
of
to
West
approaches
management
is
is
within
for
the
will
made
the
management
implications
of
the
to
management
coastal
zone
always
to
incorpora te
at
some
means
the
management
for present policy and management are considered
the
approac h.
presented
suggested
of
involve
management
is
that
in
the
A
end
approach
concluding
chapter.
6.2
There
that
APPROACHES TO COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
are
are
approaches
proposals
two
general
reactionary
approaches
and
those
involve responses
as
they
arise.
to
to
coastal
that
are
zone
management:
anticipatory.
management problems or
Anticipatory
approaches
to
those
Reactionary
development
involve
assessing
the general characteristics of both the resource and possible development
proposals,
and
providing
guidelines
for
management
that
take
account
75
of these features.
Dealing
specific
with
shortcomings
which
to
in
problems
are
arisen
case
of
and
commercial
the
foreshore.
In
are
the
have
Omaha
cases
structure
may
structures
cost
exceed
the
are
built
always
protect
that
that
in
the
residential
landward
of
undertaken
at
1980).
(Healey,
point
assets
responses
true
maintaining
and
several
problems
programme
the
has
past
to
to
this
erecting
of
of
immediatel y
illustrates
value
arise
solutions
nearly
located
of
they
number
restoration
Northland
the
a
is
that
cosU y
as
First,
This
developments
in
by
zone.
cosU y .
often
The
Beach
problems
exemplified
coastal
engineering
other
management
protective
a
is
it
designed
to protect.
Second,
it
may
restore
the
not
be
conditions
possible
that
as
groynes
sea-walls,
solve
the
problem
and
erosion
the
case
not
be
of
often
mineral
possible
and
to
to
areas
extraction
existed.
(see
frequently
restore
the
or
fail
secondary
sections
the
outright
to
Protective structures
undesirable
affecting
completely
problems
breakwaters
lead
adjacent
of
solve
originally
such
such as
to
3.3
and
coastal
form
effects
3.4) .
zone
and
to
In
may
it
character
of
the area once problems become evident or once mining has ceased.
Finall y,
a
may
avoided
be
reactionary
approach
if
careful
fails
to
recognise
consideration
is
that
given
many
problems
the
character
to
of the resource and the developments that are proposed.
Instead
rna y
of
dealing
react
zone.
to
This
resource
the
likel y
but
it
is
incorporate
zone
and
the
impacts.
an
the
an
for
arise,
assessment
of
the
approach
that
on
consideration
of
the
interactions
in
involves
reacting
This
a
management
development
development
reactionary,'
likel y
they
proposed
improvement
still
a
An
as
proposals
involve
and
is
problems
specific
could
the
proposals
with
type
to
dynamic
prior
to
involves
a
the
order
as
approach
nature
betwen
to
responses
a
coastal
interactions
problems
of
in
agency
evaluate
to
specific
they
appear,
still
of
specific
fails
the
to
coastal
development
proposal being put forward.
A
more
of
the
satisfactory
resources
of
approach
the
coastal
zone
and
general
characterisation
anticipation
of
likel y
76
developments.
resource
of
the
for
character and
with
the
character
management
for
must
and
could
will help
to
and
assist
will
ensure
of
the
may
then
a
requires
coastal
functioning
include
considered
be
zone.
be
of
guidelines
accordance
system.
The
guidelines
the
statement
of
for
resource
that
proposals
meet
desired
management
Specific
in
planning
avoiding
understanding
proposed
in
in
an
those
aspects
that
developments.
This
management
problems
that
objectives
result
from
proposals.
poorl y cons
6.3
dynamics
developments
resource
approach
This
AN APPROACH TO COASTAL ZONE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
FOR THE WEST COAST
6.3.1
h
The Present
The
proposed
outlines
section
one
objectives
population,
These
and
in
any
to
Coast
specific
policies
objectives
or
Regional
are
1981).
policies
community
to
be
to
of
Planning
environment
the
sections
Council,
Coast
related
services,
later
United
West
icies
employment,
added
the
and
developments 1.
(West
of
the
Regional
The
to
the
resource
elaborated
Planning
scheme
related
viability
and
expanded,
Scheme
does
not
coastal
Scheme
outline
environment
or to resource developments within th.e coastal zone.
In
the
the
absence
coastal
on
reference
environment
management
relies
of
approach
responses
propos als.
It
management
is,
agencies
in
objectives
the
applied
to
to
the
specific
will
the
Planning
to
therefore,
for
coastal
management
respond
to
Scheme,
zone
of
problems
reactionary
a
management
the
the
Coast
development
approach.
problems that
present
West
and
of
Individual
arise
within
their own jurisdictional or management areas.
The problem ,
courses of
the
ma y
is
that
where
developments
or
alternative
action to solve single problems are considered independently,
overall
be
therefore,
result
undesirable.
obtained
by
This
results
aggregating
from
a
the
failure
individual
to
impacts
consider
the
1. One semantic difficulty is that the definitions of policies, goals,
and objectives commonly used differ from the definitions in section
6.3.3.
Notwithstanding this, any hierarchical definition of policies,
goals and objectives may be used, provided that it is clear what
is meant by each term.
77
net
effect
of
the
address
series
overall
hierarchy.
making
decisions
this
Kahn
concept
to
environmental
low
problem
level
at
a
process
making
by
I
of
This
decision
economic
of
a
has
(1966).
result
higher
and
or
level
the
problems
the
(1982 )
outlines
problems,
pointing
a
series
the
of
to
decision
creates
tyranny
Odum
I
failure
it
termed
from
the
in
been
environmental
problems
decisions,
for
of
the
small
relevance
out
that
small
many
decisions
rather than a conscious decision to effect environmental degradation.
The
existance
functional
of
units
decision
to
numerous
within
being
decisions
areas,
of
that
the
made.
are made
decision
sediment
may
example,
the
could
on
manage
result
the
West
in
The
effect
these
types
individual
within
catchment
individual
cumulative
individual
Coast,
could result in a
balance.
but
and
developments
or offshore,
slight
plan
zone
regarding
budget
be
that
coastal
For
on the foreshore,
the
agencies
on
major alteration
impact
of
each
coastal
stability
ma y be significant.
An Alternative Approach
6.3.2.
In order
present
to
to a void the
associated with a
of
the
zone
of
the
be
more
anticipatory
in
nature.
management
be
altered
recognising
a
problems
to
cumulative
the
holistic
approach
inter-relationships
planning
coastal
to
effects
planning
amongst
provides
a
management
alternative
mechanism
for
coordinated
Coast
One
needs
means
is
that
development
a
West
developments
of
and
reactionary approach,
to.
adopt
examines
proposals.
approach
of
the
Regional
to
resource
management on a regional scale.
The
in
general
section
model
can
making
is
features
2.2
be
can
and
used
be
of
are
as
a
a
it
draws
system.
It
is
in
framework
around
identify
the
li kel y
the
discussion
The
attention
thus
budget
illustrated
applied.
that
sediment
a
the
convenient
impacts
Figure
significance
to
of
a
model
2.1.
which
of
using
of
from
proposed
A
discussed
sediment
planning and
functioning
basis
were
a
budget
decision
sediment
the
budget
whole
which
coastal
managers
development
on
the
can
whole
system.
Much
to
the
of
conventional
coastal
zone
presented
planning
of
the
in
practice.
West
the
For
Coast,
following
the
sections
purposes
however,
the
of
is
common
managing
procedures
and
78
processes
outlined
here
should
be
adopted
in
relation
to
the
features
of the physical system as represented in the sediment budget model.
The
planning
following
of
a
process
motivations,
problem.
the
decision
choice.
The
a
rigorous
such as the
process
maker
The
is
with
various
has
the
and
procedure
for
pursuit of goals or the identification
a
number
of
information
steps
systematic
of
the
basic
required
planning
steps
to
that
make
and
provide
a
reasoned
decision
making
model are as follows
1.
Preliminary Definition of Goals and Objectives, or Identification
of
the
Problem:
these
form
the
basis
on which
management
decisions will be made.
2.
Inventory:
a
survey
to a resource,
of
the
existing
situation
with
respect
social needs or whatever, aimed at clarification
of the problem or goal.
3.
Analysis
of
definition
Inventory
of
goals
Data:
and
should
objectives
provide
or
the
a
refined
problem
to
be
addressed. Forms the basis for step 4.
4.
Identification
of
consequence
Alternative
of
each
Courses
course
of
of
Action:
the
expected
action
should
be outlined.
5.
choice of the best,
Choice:
optimum or
alternati ve
is made.
Plan
6.
for
Action:
a
detailed
design
of
the
activities,
tasks, responsibilities, and sequence of actions.
7.
Implementation:
implementation of the plan for action.
8.
Monitoring
Evaluation:
made
to
with
the
and
ensure
that
policies
the
and
measures
plan
goals
is
of
performance
implemented
adopted,
in
and
are
accordance
the
success
of the plan is evaluated.
These
what
steps
is
are
aimed
perceived
to
at
be
transforming,
a
less
over
desirable
some
period
situation
into
is more desirable from the decision makers viewpoint (Radford,
Although
each
step
leads
logically
also charcterised by feedback
to
the
next,
the
of
time,
one
that
1977).
process
is
(Figure 6.1). At any time new information
may be provided, which may lead to a redefinition of the anal ysis.
In
the
is used
following
to
sections
provide the
the
planning
and
decision
making
basis of an anticipatory aproach to
of the coastal zone of the West Coast.
model
management
79
Conceptual model of the planning and
decision making process.
Figure 6.1:
Problem definition
l-!
-3101
0 . - - - - - - - -......
......
Initial Definition of Goals and Objectives
- L - - - _ - - - - : - --
- - - - '
::1
0
,..-l
1
+-'
co
El
l-!
......0
::1
H
(J)
a8
Inventory of existing situation
~
co
::E
::1
0
'..-l
til
'1j
,..-l
(J)
Q)
U
:z;
Data gathering and
bO
::1
'..-l
Anal ysis of Inventory Data
(J)
Cl
-
Redefinition of problem/goals and objectives
-
Adequacy of information
Identify Alternative Courses of Action
(including do nothing option)
Outline consequences of each alternative
Choice of Preferred Alternative and
Plan for Action - tasks, responsibilities, sequence
I
Implementation of Plan
Monitoring and Evaluation
- success of plan
- achievement of objectives
I
80
6.3.3
The
of
Definition of Policy.
first
the
in
'ends I
those
for
step
any
that
ends.
management
planning
are
These
Goals and Objectives
to
be
desired
decisions
process
sought
ends'
I
and
the
definition
be
the
means
of
achieving
then
serve
as
criteria
for
and
can
define
should
the
a
the
basis
assessment
of management actions.
and
goals
Policy.
detail
objectives
determine
that
invol ves
a
broad
and
be
thought
can
principles
1983) .
from
by
Goals
define
pursuit
which
of
of
goals
heirarcy
ends
and
means.
as
of
a
Centre
the
a
a
desired
statement
(Ackley.
provide
guiding
for
to
while
be
philosophy
ends
societal
or
it
is
objectives
and
set
desired
describe
are,
and
generall y
values
of
guiding
s
comm
to
achieve
Management.
that
achieved
purpose
Polic
reflecting
Resource
specific
policy,
are
purpose
of
the
means
therefore,
capable
of both attainment and measurement (Young, 1966).
In
order
to
for
guidelines
zone
of
avoid
the
a
reactionary
development
West
approach
are
Coast
a
to
resource
necessary.
Within
sediment-budgeting
management,
the
coastal
approach
can
be
used as one means of determining the cumulative impacts of alternative
development
proposals.
All
development
proposals
should
consider
the impact on the various elements of the sediment budget:
whether
sediment
suppl y
from
land,
within
the
zone, or offshore is affected (for example,
littoral
by
mineral
extraction operations);
whether
sediment
the
of
case
transfers
structures
disturbed
are
located
the
in
(as
nearshore
in
zone) ;
and,
whether sediment storage and loss functions are modified.
The
in
aggregate
terms
of
impact
other
of
developments
management
goals
should
and
also
be
objectives
evaluated
defined
in
the planning scheme related to social and economic factors.
6.3.4
Inventory and Analysis of the Existing Situation
A
basic
is
an
inventory
essential
basis
of
for
the
coastal
management.
zone
The
and
aim
its
of
characteristics
such
an
inventory
and
evaluate
would be to:
1.
Identify
the
various
coastal
resources
their sensitivity and vulnerability;
2.
Provide
an
understanding
of
coastal
systems
in
order
81
to forecast their response to developments; and,
3,
To explain the causes of negative impacts and identify
appropriate responses to these problems (Amir, 1983),
In
addition
to
development
for
providing
impacts,
monitoring
benchmark
the
long-term
data
inventory
changes
for
measuring
would
(United
also
Nations
and
evaluating
provide
a
basis
Department
of
Inter-
national Economic and Social Affairs, 1982),
The
to
objectives
specific
are
in
then
these
a
of
objective
areas,
these
by
be
a
will,
areas
the
on
determination
(Amir,
the
1983;
from
should
be
Where
areas
development
for
are
providing
therefore,
zone
the
intensity
Nations
Department
of
coastal
that
identified,
a
suitable
of
related
protection
provide
coastal
of
United
policy
inventory.
means
inventory
of
and
management
protection
should
The
developments
zone
identified
special
identification
in
coastal
problems
need
the
the
of
basis
for
use
of
to
for
different
acceptable
International
Economic and Social Affairs, 1982),
A
broad
include
but
the
also
over
various
use
of
back
maritime
or
of
lines,
the
the
land
adjacent
where
the
impact
cause
of
action
and
the
impact
on the
Decisions
management
preservation
problems
including
sensitive
to
the
proposals
and
the
zoning,
to
shoreline,
activities
implemented
areas,
needed
originates.
resources
be
is
of
development
may
tools
of
zone
and
of
objectives,
specific
waters
areas
where
courses
in terms
stated
definition
adjacent
evident
made
of
flexible
only
not
become
be
and
may
Decisions
can
then
achievement
through
the
construction
set-
restrictions
and
developments
and
and
controls on developments,
Zoning
can
provide
be
buffers
used
to
between
control
various
the
location
resource
of
uses.
Construction set -back
lines and preservation of sensitive areas would ensure that developments
were
excluded
changes
induced
restrictions
and
from
by
areas
susceptible
developments,
controls
may
Where
need
to
to
erosion
developments
be
imposed
or
vulnerable
are
in
to
implemented,
order
to
meet
coastal
zone
management objectives,
6,3,5
All
Identification and Analysis of Alternative Courses of Action
proposals
for
resource
development
within
the
should identify the available alternatfves, The anal ysis of
the inventory
82
data
should
types
of
adjacent
identify
where
resource
to
the
problems
development,
foreshore
or
are
such
the
likely
as
to
the
extraction
arise
from
location
of
of
material
certain
buildings
from
beach
systems.
Different
will
of
problems
require
action
different
will
ph ysical
type
depend
or
alternative
budget
action
resolution.
of
courses
a
is
to
may
correct
nourishment,
courses
to
natural
institutional
arising
from
build
some
be
to
a
deficit
implement
data
The
due
problem
action
attempt
inventory
developments,
For
of
the
problem
and
these.
beach
for
the
use
structure,
through
of
whether
resource
engineering
sediment
on
an analysis
of
combinations
erosion,
of
by
courses
processes,
arrangements
natural
identified
in
some
the
planning
response restricting developments in the area, or do nothing.
Where
the
a
resource
coastal
technology
mental
zone,
to
extent of
development
alternative
be
the
used,
In
proposed,
courses
the
development,
impacts.
is
scale
and
addition,
of
of
means
such
action
the
as
may
relate
development,
of avoiding or
there
mining
maybe
the
within
to
the
spatial
reducing environ-
alternative
institutional
arrangements applying to the management of the resource development.
The
expected
should
be
evaluated
of
the
consequences
outlined
in
terms
resource
consequences
of
in
of
all
of
alternative.
appraisals.
the
goals
expressed
each
each
in
or
Regional
should,
of
consequences
objectives
the
al ternati ve
These
course
for
the
Planning
therefore,
action
can
be
management
Scheme.
be
The
expressed
in a manner that is consistent with the stated management objectives.
The
impacts
tangible
or
(easily
intangible
terms).
various
of
measured
(not
Tangible
cost-benefi t
readil y
impacts
anal ysis
or
development
alternatives
in
or
monetary
other
measured
in
can
anal ysed
be
input-output
monetary
or
using
anal ysis
but
may
be
either
quantifiable
terms)
other
q uantifia b Ie
methods
these
such
as
techniques
have a number of shortcomings when attempting to account for intangible
impacts.
These shortcomings are related to the difficulties of expressing
consequences in some common unit.
A
or
range
of
intangible
aesthetics
are
impacts
non-linear
such
in
as
reduced
certain
cases.
environmental
For
quality
example,
the
83
erosion
a
that
beach
that
to
may
may
be
be
caused
negligible
rate
of
extraction,
absorb
the
impact and
to
identify
important
by
up
the
to
removal
a
certain
however,
the
severe erosion
impacts
that
of
sand
rate
of
system
may
are
or
gravel
extraction.
may
not
non-linear
Above
be
It is,
result.
from
able
therefore,
and
define
the
limit at which environmental change becomes significant.
Coastal
zone
management
objecti ves ,
and
the
quantitative
use
of
solution
is
in
terms
deal
not
of
pro blems
with
adynamic
analytical
applicable.
their
involve
A
environment.
methods
or
optimal
on
anal ysis,
alternative
criteria
set
will
but
out
not
a
the
choice
stated
an
analysing
in
This
optimal
alternatives
view
of
stated
procedure,
necessarily
allows
in
for
multiple
Consequentl y,
determining
desirability
goals and objectives is more desirable.
feasibility
for
procedure
feasibility
uncertainties,
define
between
the
termed
best'
I
or
alternatives
based
objectives
(Albee
management
and Storey, 1973).
Feasibility
terms
of
analysis
their
feasibility
should
(see
Unite d
should
a
is
Nations
feasible,
capable of
structures.
be
The
whether
the
or
in
tested
using
Financial
adequatel y
may
exceed
to
financial,
Storey,
International
(for
and
1973).
in
social
Economic
anal ysis
An
must
feasibility
financed.
terms
but
available
protect.
the
finance,
Finally,
an
can
al ternati ve
it
be
design
which
to
also
of
the
a
value
be
alternative
must
and
the
be
well
of
politically
and
be
institutional
alternative
structure
in economic,
of
how
building
an
construction
Social
alternative
support
whether
example,
and
and
and
political
be feasible
or
an
existing political and
an
costs
of
built
should
have
relates
As
Economic
feasibility
example,
implementation within the
political
alternatives
cost-benefit
structure
problem
words
of
protection of an area of coast may
is
and
engineering
a
breakwater).
other
and
analysing
political,
(Albee
Department
pp .14-17).
solve
sea-wall
or
all relevant social costs and benefits. from a development
determine
will
can
frequently
1983
testing
engineering,
desirability
consider
Affairs,
it
economic,
or
fesibility
involves
for
the
engineering
maintenance
asset
socia 11 y
that
it
feasible
impl ying a certain level of social acceptance.
One
meet
approach
desired
that
may
be
useful
objecti ves
is
the
in
evaluating
"goals-achievement
how
alternatives
matrix"
(goals
84
here
are
the
developed
benefit
equivalent
by
Hill
analysis
quanti tati vel y
specific
goal
is
as
or
weights
This
which
the
as
a
costs
and
in
terms
Thus,
benefit
while
there
different
defined
approach
qualitati vel y,
However,
for
objectives
(objectives).
entered
costs.
(1968).
in
goals
of
are
is
an
of
are
from
in
groups,
a
either
goals
a
of
specified
are
entered
determining
and
cost-
achievement
toward
departures
6.3.3)
of
defined
their
progress
and
section
'extensI'on
benefits
difficulties
objectives
in
relative
separate
matrix
is needed for each alternative plan (Albee and Storey, 1973).
Despite
a
the
simplifications
generalised
objectives
matrix
may
and
approach
be
useful
some
to
difficulties
decision
conceptually
aI, in prep.)
Information
of
to
the
about
various
the
effects
objectives
is
making
(see
and Storey, 1973; Anderson
in
involving
for
in
a
multiple
example,
each alternative and
presented
application,
matrix
Albee
their
contribution
form.
The
matrix
allows the ordering of information and can be used as both a checklist
to
ensure
that
all
of
summarising
and
al ternati ves.
In
factors
have
comparing
this
way
been
the
the
considered
information
and
as
about
consequences
of
a
each
each
means
of
the
alternative
are presented in a manner which allows an assessment of the implications
of
each
to
be
available
choice.
Since
all
quantitative,
the
evaluation
the
of
information
the
matrix
is
not
and
the
likely
set
of
alternatives will require the exercise of judgement.
6.3.6
Choice Between Alternatives
The evaluation of alternatives
to
deal
with
one
with the
the
problem or
guidelines
al ternati ve
meeting
each
between
the
is
set
a
attainment
under
in
there
of
to the
selection of an
development
out
'optimal'
objective,
leads
proposal
management
that
it
will
be
objectives.
is
the
a
is compatible
objectives.
best
some
As
that
alternative
Unless
alternative
degree
result,
it
for
of
trade-off
is
necessary
to determine preferences or means of weighting the objectives.
Where
a
their
objectives
choosing
from
has
consequences,
various
of
matrix
an
one
been
the
should
of
the
to
trade-offs
alternative
evaluation
used
be
represent
between
relati vel y
ahead
of
the
consequences
some judgement of whether choices are
of
the
the
attainment
clear.
others
each
'good' or
I
alternatives
The
can
the
implications
be
determined
alternative,
bad I .
of
and
allowing
The trade-offs
85
between
objectives
between
a
possible
set
will
objectives,
if
be
to
alternatives
of
determine
to
need
is
estimates
made.
each
In
the
of
time
this
relative
makers I
decision
the
considered
choices
a
way
decision
it
may
be
of
the
importance
are
consistent
over
time.
6.3.7
A
Plan for Action
plan
for
activities,
of
mean
a
of
management
and
as
coastal
zone
plan
involve
problems
resource
with
sequence.
such
should
an organised
and
means
and
The
will
be
of
within
objectives.
set of
A
specific
a
of
detailed
design
management
interactions
and
between
management
composed
of
many
to
ensure
the
the
future
coastal
plan
can,
decisions
to
zone
of
a
Such
existing
developments
are
therefore,
meet
problems
elements.
range
that
the
the various
of
with
of
definition
complexity
dealing
methods
allocations
management
involves
responsibilities
and
the
any
strategy
and
timing
that
plan
or
tasks,
their
elements
action
consistent
be
set
defined
of objectives
within a given time horizon.
The essence of a
in
implementing
good
the
plan or
complete
strategy is cooperation and
set
of
actions.
As
a
coordination
result
of
this,
adoption of only a portion of the strategy will be ineffective.
The
chain
are
essential
of
of
command
for
management
avoiding
the
Institutional
a
and
the
plan
or
techniques
tyranny
of
aspects.
and
details
of
management
strategy
to
be
decision
small
decisions
therefore,
become
responsibilities
effective.
making
is
described
an
a
Coordination
major
in
step
sec tion
important
in
6.3. 1 .
consideration
in the development of a workable plan for action.
Management
plans developed
by
separate agencies should be coordinated
in a manner that ensures their compatability with an overall management
strategy. Various government departments,
local and regional authorities,
and
management
Coast
ad
region
planning
and
hoc
agencies
shoul d
provides a
management,
responsible
act
in
accordance
mechanism for
but
onl y
for
where
with
the overall
the
each
within
the
other.
coordination of
boundaries
land and water areas (see sections 4.4.2 and 6.5.2).
West
Regional
planning
incorporate
both
86
6.3.8
Implementation
Institutional
management
to
a
exist
very
may
be
Guidance
and
is
important
agenc y
should
programme
or
there
actions.
and
actions
plan
also
A management
actions.
implement
that
are
aspects
must
receive
to
If
delays or conflicts
in
are
have
a
guidance
take.
direction
when
this
needed
implementing
clear
authority
the
direction
on
authority
implementing
to
avoid
does
not
management
misinterpretation
and to ensure that action leads to the desired results.
Management
agencies
personnel,
actions.
the
and
The
expertise)
provision
tendenc y
of
greater
zone
require
for
to
of
a
(including
available
for
adequate
resources
will
The
at
resources
be
agencies
priority.
management
adequate
to
treat
lack
of
regional
existing
local
implementation
assist
in
resources
level
is
as
being
for
a
of
reducing
programmes
available
and
finance,
coastal
particularl y
strong constraint on implementing actions.
A
further
are
not
there
of
problem
made
may
at
be
actions.
a
A
with
the
implementation
appropriate
number
clear
of
level
clearance
chain
of
may
of
where
authority.
points
command
arise
or
In
steps
that
decisions
other
in
the
delegates
levels of management should be outlined to avoid
having
be
referred
back
to
higher
levels
of
approval
authority
the various
to
words
to
decisions
management
for
approval.
6.3.9
The
Monitoring and Eval ua tion
final
step
monitoring
the
in
of
terms
and
the
performing.
the
earlier
has
controls
of
introduced.
of
this
the
For
other
plan
on
inadequate
and
can
process
a
in
be
evaluation
these
Monitoring
management
provides
be
involves
evaluating
strategy.
decision
may
alternatives
Monitoring
how
and
it
and
or
information
example,
is
making
actions
the
planning
implemented
therefore,
decision
information
Essentially
in
and
management
objectives
manner.
been
objectives,
planning
provide
steps
continuous
that
the
outcomes
evaluation
is
a
in
system
feedback
making
model
found
that
meeting
the
a
to
in
plan
defined
considered or further
ma y
also
identify
new problems that need to be dealt with.
At
and
present
there
evaluation
is no agency with a
of
the
effectiveness
clear mandate for
of
planning
the
and
monitoring
management
87
of the coastal zone.
of
the
West
in
the
system.
the
Monitoring and evaluation of the coastal environment
Coast
should
the
effecti veness
Regional
to
problems
functions
impacts
of
Water
monitoring
of
the
actions.
frequently
coastal
in catchment areas.
of
physical
developments.
management
Boards
in
involve
in
Since
one
evaluation
Catc hment
undertake
zone
and
changes
Boards
investigations
addition
to
of
and
related
their
management
Catchment Board is
responsible
for virtuall y the whole of the West Coast region. it maybe appropriate
for
this
with
agency
other
to
undertake
agencies
such
monitoring
as
the
functions
Regional
in
Planning
conjunction
Authority
and
government departments.
The
cost
and
of
obtaining
evaluation
This
constraint
critical.
obtain
to
quantify
that
the
well
as
means
There
to
be
as
data
is
other
that
usually
easy
or
to
for
overlooked
a
tendency
in
is
number
of
to
reasons.
on
that
This
does
on
process.
requirements
data
that
which
is
not.
is
easy
ensure
variables
include
is
difficult
however,
Important
These
monitoring
management
data
rely
obtained.
of
the
of
ignoring
nature.
data
restrictions
selection
quantify,
useful
most
place
aspects
the
a
qualitative
or
may
the
may
difficulty
in quantifying variables, ignorance or lack of knowledge, and uncertainties
with
regard
to
the
system.
Much
of the
ma y also be irrelevant or of little
6.3.10
The
USB
data
that
is easil y
obtained
to the problem being considered.
A Generalised Approach to Coastal Zone Planning and Management
planning
approach
(Figure
to
and
coastal
6.2).
objectives
The
of
decisions
will
provides
the
decision
model
outlined
zone
management
for
approach
involves
first,
management
be
making
made.
basis
in
order
Second,
for
to
an
the
West
defining
define
inventory
evaluating
suggests
the
a
general
Coast
the
region
goals
basis
on
and
which
of the existing situation
alternative
resource
uses
and
management problems. Third, choices are made between these alternatives,
invol ving
an
evaluation
achieving
the
desired
that
being
are
actions
that
alternative
result
pursued.
are
of
in
terms
Finally,
implemented
management
of
the
monitoring
provides
techniques
goals
and
the
and
objectives
evaluation
means
for
for
of
the
assessing
how well the management objectives have been met.
It
is
a
single
important
to
step-wise
recognise
procedure.
that
the
Instead
approach
does
not
involve
it
continual
process
is
a
88
Figure 6.2:
-
Conceptual framework of a generalised approach to
coastal zone planning and management for the West Coast.
Data Gathering and Inventory of
Existing Situation
,-- - Coastal Resources (sensitivity and
vulnerability to change)
..... ( H 'I""""----::iiI
0
4-<
c:
.....0
....
rd
El
H
0
4-<
.....c:
H
(l)
..d
....H
;:j
4-<
'1j
(l)
(l)
Z
Understanding of Coastal System
(e.g. sediment budget)
National Policy,
-
- Sources of negative impacts
tlO
.....c:
~
- Identification of sensitive areas
rd
~
1
c:
.....0
.....til
U
(l)
Q
Anal ysis of Inventory Data
- Identification of specific problems
- Definition of Goals and Objectives
• Related to problems identified
• Constrained by National Policy,
goals, objectives
· Adequacy of information?
Identify Alternative Courses of Action
- Zoning
- Preservation of sensitive areas
- Restrictions and controls on developments
- Construction set-back limits
- Location of developments
Selection of Preferred
A I ternati ves
- Specification of management actions
- Responsibilities of agencies
Monitoring and Evaluation
- Sensitive areas
- Development impacts
- Coastal system responses
Goals and
Objectives for
Coastal Zone
Management
(Legislation)
89
of
verification
phase.
This
pursuit
also
new
and
objectives,
be
from
that
of
the
of
the
inventory
useful
in
of
maybe
and
the
or
and
model
the
additional
and
evaluation
management
so
are
undertaken at
data
defining
monitoring
feedback
steps
phases
the
plans
further
several
analysis
may
feedbac k
modification
recognised
sequence
the
allows
of
be
through
techniques,
It
on.
not
in
once.
evaluation
objectives
should
a
strict
For example,
of
alternatives
and
identifying
further problems.
6.4
DECISION MAKING APPROACHES UNDER UNCERTAINTY
In
Chapter
system,
uncertainties
The
can
knowledge
institutional
aspects
for
management.
It
be
uncertainty
discussion
surrounding
and
dealt
A brief account
analysing
I.
uses
implications
approach.
for
uncertainties
resource
important
how
5
here
of
with
the
and
on
important
the
risk
means
of
is
physical
shown
to
to
overall
of uncertainty
assessing
centres
the
were
is
within
concept
of
consider
management
and
techniques
presented in
accounting
for
have
Appendix
uncertainties
in the decision making process.
In
a
will
quantitative
choose
balancing
that
the
the
is
best
be
more
of
easily
or
t
various
likely
uncertainties
approach
to
are
not
the
quantifiable
and
most
decision
data
means
This
rational
managers
approach
involves
uncertainties
desirable
result.
however,
the
quantified,
the
making,
.al ternati ve.
t
benefits
to
easil y
on
decision
optimal
costs,
lead
dependant
to
makers
that
in
Where
approach
judgement.
I
this
is
a
likel y
The
to
way
the
will
lack
be
the
constrained
by
case in many coastal zone management decisions.
In
practice,
therefore,
a
lac k
of
important
a
lack
of
information
Coast
creates
ments
(see
making
and
the
restrict
result
information
relating
difficulties
section
are
a
2.7).
lack
the
decision
alternative
I
of
making
opposed
affecting
to
the
or
of
at
maybe
the
the
that
pressure
to
Satisficing
identifying
best one)
is
the
West
of
develop-
influence
decision
make
quick
These
optimal
a
example,
for
impact
may
alternatives.
an
For
budget
likel y
determining
to the
decision.
sediment
constraints
overlooking
solutions.
aimed
makers
determining
time
capabilities
satisficing'
(as
in
Other
of
possibility
in
decision
selecting
that
will
limitations
decision
term used
and
decisions
a
to
and
describe
satisfactory
achieve a
minimally
90
acceptable
of
solution.
decision
rational
This
making
decision
approach
in
which
limited
by
recognises
decision
their
the
f
makers
bounded
will
inadequate
rationality'
make
information
the
most
and
their
ability to use this information (Simon, 1957).
Besides ignoring the possibility of determining better feasible alternatives,
however,
for
the
the
solution
to wrong or
The
decisions,
and
more
of
• bad I
involved.
in
satisficing
approach
complex
may
also
problems
and
involve
is
poor
more
decisions
likely
to
lead
decisions where there is a large degree of uncertainty
motivation
therefore,
complex,
for
dealing
becomes
outcomes
more
become
explicitly
urgent
more
as
with
uncertainty
decisions
uncertain,
larger
and
the
possible
in
the
decision
bad
decisions
all
decisions
consequences and their implications more unfavourable.
The
value
making
being
of
process
made.
will
dealing
have
that
This
made,
the
to
incorporate
does
also
be
of
outcomes.
so
Ii kel y
Where
as
that
uncertainty
to
course,
approach
information
flexible
with
more
not,
decision
new
is
it
favourable
is
should
is
explicitly
ensure
an
should
it
the
prevent
that
analysis
of
uncertainty
be
iterative
and
adaptive
becomes
available.
The
approach
responses
to
the
decision
problem
can be adjusted.
Methods
for
short-term
for
the
and
reducing uncertainty
decisions,
modification
actions
approach
and
that
is
of
action
As
each
assess
result
is
effects
are
a
in
actions.
of
incremental
strategy
implemented,
the
or
steps
changes
the
(Radford,
if
the
decision
the
decisions
1977).
by
on
present
courses
situation.
is
re-evaluated
be
altered
then
objectives
This
Braybrook
concentrating
to
may
mechanism
emphasising
strategy described
decision
met
include emphasising
feedback
and
involves
incremental
being
effective
sequence
The
and
not
an
management
involve
action
objectives
of
(1963).
that
the
creating
similar to the
Lindblom
in decision making
to
if
themselves
the
have
altered.
The
allow
it
basic
criticism
of
this
for
innovative
or
fundamental
requires
adjustments
of
small
the
to
approach
availability
be
decisions
implemented
may
lead
of
to
that
decisions
time
and
is
to
to
does
be
provide
evaluated.
a
it
adequately
made.
for
Although
fundamental
not
In
the
an
addition
adaptive
accumulation
decision,
there
is
91
no
guidance
very
or
of
reminiscent
in
section
an
approach
for
direction
6.3.1.
the
I
decisions.
tyranny
of
criticisms
These
that
these
incorporates
The
small
led
is
decisions I
Etzioni
elements
approach
of
described
(1967)
both
also
to
develop
fundamental
and
incremental decision making.
Although
the
decision
makers
This
especiall y
is
decision
criticisms
that
are
are
more
true
valid,
likely
where
incorrect
is
where
to
the
or
uncertainty
favour
are
involved
incremental
consequences
'bad'
is
of
a
decisions.
fundamental
extremely
unfavourable.
The incremental approach also provides a convenient means of implementing
decisions
that
need
to
be
made
on
the
information
available,
while
further information is being collected and anal ysed.
6.5
AN APPROPRIATE FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGEMENT
The
planning
for
decisions
In
order
levels
to
and
consider
the
decision
relating
agencies
involved
overall
or
zone
and
in
policies,
goals
the
management
framework
the
it
is
the
framework
objectives,
levels
agencies,
useful
Coast.
the
various
necessary
to
management
of
should
provide
of
and
approach
West
between
for
, overall
and
a
on
coordination
appropriate
management
describes
management,
national
This
identify
between
model
resource.
management
linkages
coastal
consistency
zone
guidelines,
to
making
ensure
an
coastal
national
and
define
legislative
management,
outline
define
various
tools
appropriate to achieving the desired objectives.
6.5.1 '
Goals and Ob ectives
Present
on
national
guiding
and
on
Little
zone
coastal
urban
or
to
consistent
guiding
for
is
and
with
the
New
recreational
given
integrating
resource use
in
and residential
providing
recognition
policy
to
other
form
development
development
in
opportunities
developments
national
A
part
of
has
other
development.
and
Zealand
policies
national
strong
the
(see
coastal
the
legislation
coastal
policy
zone
4.4.1) .
section
affecting
or
emphasis
coastal
affecting
should
be
the
overall
policies
and
nation
(United
Nations
Department
of
the
a
goals
of International Economic and Social Affairs, 1982).
Goals
and
defining
objectives
the
ends
to
which
for the achievement
coastal
of
those
zone
management
goals
must
be
aspires,
outlined
92
in support
be
of
defined
coastal
zone
in
means
a
Social
The
that
and
effective
or
of
policy
of
evaluation
and
step
to
be
avoid
the
developing
the
coastal
coordinated
differences
and
Economic
and
of
coastal
a
to
the
rationalisation
to
already
relating
within
need
to
may
International
relating
in
policies
policies
Department
objectives
objectives
other
sectoral
An
first
and
interactions
management
1982).
goals
an
complexity
Nations
Affairs,
goals
legislation
coastal
(Uni ted
policies,
These
individual
single
conflicts
policy.
existing
zone.
under
be
the
existing
zone
consistent
would
management
framework.
6.5.2
A
Appropriate Governmental Level of Management
variety
of
and
regional
All
are
or
authorities,
involved
national
and
jurisdictional
levels.
implement
often
Management
be
many
(United
are
character
interactions
of
elements
Affairs,
1982).
agencies
need
different
of
agencies
of
between
regard
considered
guidelines
of
to
the
either
institutions
confusion
or
actions,
the
local
administer
a
and
conflict.
that
so
as
there
that
Economic
wide
approach
and
regional
a
will
a
systematic
and
laws,
piecemeal
dictates
within
view,
regional
single-purpose
International
this
for
at
single-purpose
management
local
departments.
and
zone
including
government
numerous
coastal
Department
In
and
jurisdictions.
the
be
present
management
largel y
should
Nations
and
overlapping
at
Boards
provisions
actions
The
range
These
in
exist
Catchment
planning
the
resulting
result.
in
levels
Social
management
incorporation
of
actions
management
at
the
consistent
with national goals and objectives.
incorporation
The
local
level
local
authorities
This
within
problem
finance
and
of
a
and
is
planning
national
for
coastal
to
economic and
management
of
government
authorities
to
overlook
achievement
three
of
mechanisms
management;
first,
requires
agencies
by
support
arrangements
scientific,
framework
regional
intensified
technical
and
the
at
zone
many
levels.
management
poli tical
appropriate
insti tutional
possible
for
expanding
or
the
present
institutional
actions
mandate
of
of
related
functional
for
problems
arrangements.
the
between
expertise,
tendency
restructuring
refining
of
Appropriate
the
and
management.
The traditional
and
concerns
for
provision
require
functions.
departments
wider
coordination
responsible
inadequate
regional
local
for
the
There
are
governmental
an
existing
93
department;
the
to
second,
formation
existing
of
the
a
coordinating
agencies
and Social Affairs,
Expanding
and
the
(United
task.
interactions
between
of
to
This
solution
an
large
them,
mean
agency
a
body
Nations
of
The
responsibili ties
one
of
new
to
department;
oversee
and
Department of
or
third,
delegate
functions
International
Economic
1982).
mandate
difficult
creation
existing
number
and
that
it
incorporate
would
not
of
the
may
would
agencies
frequent
be
the
department
to
range
necessarily
involved,
overlapping
difficult
wide
be
expand
of
ensure
a
complex
the
various
of
statutory
the
functions
activities
involved.
coordina tion
between
all agencies and interests in coastal zone management.
The
creation
of
zone
management
time
necessary
a
new
would
for
the
existing
was
be
proposed,
then
it
this,
could
the
involve
with
possibly
problem
If
system.
and
a
responsibilities
new
a
related
the
of
the
of
and
functions
Environment
environmental
existing
coastal
cost
of
the
management
the
for
organisation
for
coastal
coordination
to
Ministry
responsibilities
include
of
with
problems
establishment
within
to
department
management,
section.
functions
Despite
of
other
agencies would remain.
The
third
oversee
option
and
management
despite
delegate
has
its
functions
made
appears
be
Within
the
formation
functions
to
substantial
problems
possibili ty.
could
involves
and
to
be
this
expanded,
of
existing
progress
inadequacies,
the
most
in
the
the
coordinating
agencies.
New
and
existing
maintained
or
body
Since
Zealand
coordination
desirable
possibility,
reduced,
a
coastal
already,
of
easily
to
existing
implemented
functions
clarified
of
to
agencies
facilitate
the coordination needed.
Essentiall y,
the
functional
would
(i.e.
the
remain
fisheries
management;
management
Ministry
Lands
of
and
Responsi bil ity
for
foreshore
for
da y-to-da y
management,
woul d
government
Agriculture
Survey
Ministry of Transport responsible for
of
and
controlling
departments
Fisheries
reserve
controlling
management;
harbours, transport and navigation).
management,
be
in
incl uding
the
hands
of
responsibility
regional
and
local planning authorities who would receive guidance from the coordinating
authority.
an
Catchment
extended
Boards
responsibility
and
for
Regional
collection
Water
of
Boards
physical
could
data
have
related
94
to
coastal
and
the
and
conditions,
support
the
activities
development
for
of
the
maintaining
National
of
the
Ministry
of
would
remain
the
Procedures.
The
monitoring
the
under
the
and
Soil
all
functions
Conservation
Authority
Evaluation
function
authority
of
management
Works.
Environmental
coordinating
functions
Water
quality
the
proposals
Environment
water
of
major
the
Commission
Protection and
Enhanc;:ement
would
the
of
be
responsible
management
agencies
for
invol ved
with guidance provided where goals and objectives are not being met.
The
coastal
zone
cannot,
unit.
Disaggregation
coast
should
different
be
of
the
based
a
problem
in
boundaries.
degree
the
by
between
the
at
order
and
large,
to
these
managed
best
coastal zone
beaches,
the
of
1973) .
while
into
different
nearshore
impacts
should
of
zone,
be
different
as
of
those
the
between
1983).
with
overcome
This
existing
to
a
large
ensure
compatability
natural
areas.
Furthermore,
planning
and
spill-over
level
dealt
affecting
only
Further
natural
resource
is
are
should
best
affect
by
local
the
planning
disaggregation
each
public
communi ties
categories
for
of
be
managed
national
necessary
within
management.
effects
they
with
level.
activities
sections
coincide
externalities
bluffs .•• )
planning
to
what
Where
local
not
of
or
single
(Amir,
maybe
level
at
those
the
may
adjoining
a
such
units
activities
externalities
problems
at
of
as
different
boundaries
problem
determine
Storey,
management,
and
of
of
of
divisions
appropriate
area
in
(AI bee
the
considered
biological
This
management
relevant
examined
or
coordination
determining
the
natural
that
governmental
be
management
on
geomorphological
presents
in
however,
of
are
the
(Estuaries,
the
those
anal ysis
categories
(Albee and Storey, 1973).
The
to
coastal
all
zone
areas
planning,
remains
including
and
governed
legislation
resource
by
the
governing
development
is
of
the
not
for
land
planning
exists
treated
in a
manner
area
(for
example,
the
use
of
coastal
various
acts
Country
Planning
waters
covering
Act
in
which
land
and
1977.
the
the
New
is
use,
regime
applied
town and
country
Nations
Zealand,
the
no
Department
use
Harbours
the
special
overall
seabed).
water
Act 1971 are not integrated together.
legal
of
1982). Al though a comprehensive
recognises
there
and
land
(United
International Economic and Social Affairs,
process
general
Act
governing
provisions
as
1950,
zone
characteristics
control
The
such
coastal
the
and
of
the
Town
and
the
Mining
95
This
the
emphasises
the
need
different agencies and
for
providing
horizontal
linkages
institutions responsible for
between
the administration
of these laws.
Generall y.
under
by
a
the
the
the
zone
existing
Town
needs to be
and
coastal
and
management
legislation
Country
strengthened
implementation
and
Planning
through
of
programme
within
Act
the
the
1977.
provision
management
could
be
structure
However.
of
actions
implemented
this
better
to
provided
structure
coordination
meet
specified
societal goals and objectives within an overall policy for the management
of
the
coastal
information
evaluation
(United
Affairs,
zone.
collection
of
Nations
1982).
various
Integrated
and
management
analysis.
development
Department
of
requires
linkages
between
economic
and
environmental
alternatives.
and
public
input
and
Social
International
Economic
96
CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCL USIONS
This study
has explored specific
that
under
exist
of
the
South
to
examine
the
present
Island
the
problems of coastal
management
was
adequacy
zone management
approach.
The
West
used to illustrate
these
of
management
the
existing
Coast
problems
and
approach
in dealing with these issues.
The objectives of the study were:
1.
To
isolate
management
uncertainties
zone
to
that
planning
the
West
concerns,
need
and
to
be
management,
Coast
and
the
specific
problems
addressed
with
present
in
and
coastal
particular
reference
management
approach;
and,
To
2.
for
in
present
the
approach
an
West
planning
Coast
and
coastal
to
that
accommodates
management
decisions
management
zone
uncertainties
within
an
overall
framework for coastal zone management.
An investigation of the phYSical system of the West Coast , developments
that are present or proposed in the coastal zone, and the institutional
aspects
of
management
decision
management
approach.
making
the
coastal
for
developing
facilitated
A generalised
process
system.
an
an
was
This
used
model
as
framework
anticipatory
analysis
of
a
was
approach
of
the
the
planning
framework
for
then
as
to
used
coastal
existing
and
examining
the
planning
basis
and
management applicable to the West Coast of the South Island.
Features of the coastal
zone of the
West Coast that have implications
for resource developments and management are:
the large input of sediments from rivers;
the
high
potential
for
sediment
transport
in
the
nearshore zone;
the
lack
of
knowledge
on
the
balance
between
sediment
supply and loss in the zone; and
the
prevalence
to increase.
of
erosion
and
potential
for
this
97
Resource
uses
within
the
coastal
zone
of
the
West
Coast
involve a
recognition of the dynamic nature of the physical
operating
in
needs
to
and
be
an
upon
to
and
management
assessment
of
how
resource
The
most
significant
system.
be
the
and
an
that
intercept
should
Planning
on
those
which
zone.
based
that
be
that
affect
the
sediment
assessed
in
supply
transport.
terms
cost-effectiveness
buffering
understanding
capabilities
of
of
of
the
the
material
protection
to
to
and
impact
are
the
offer.
dune
likely
coast
or
structures
overcome
they
uses
system
will
engineering
ability
beach
physical
developments
Protective
processes
resource
developments
of
their
the
of
of
should
problems
The
system
natural
should
be
encouraged and account taken of variations in the shoreline position.
The
coastal
Property
that
to
for
coastal
legislation
further
the
of
resource
use
the
is
at
the
into
to
publicly
be
line
defined
and
owned
assigned
with
polic y
for
local
level s .
the
consistency
in
a
manner
goals
the
provides
of
resource.
societal
and
management
ensure
to
a
Present
regional
relevant
integration
more
poorly
of
should
resource.
zone
management
of
character istics
private
management
the
has
rights
brings
the
of
zone
for
management
little. guidance
The
coastal
between
abundance
zone
needs
activities
on
land and water.
Specific
problems
and
management
issues
were
identified
as
from either the physical character of the coastal zone and interactions
with
the
resource
existing
present
to
developments,
management
management
or
approach.
approach
were
inadequecies in information
over
the
interactions
developments.
and
and
between
to
from
institutional
Several
deficiencies
identified.
knowledge,
the
aspects
These
physical
system
of
existing
deficiencies
the
in
are
producing
and
the
related
uncertainties
and
resource
institutional
arrangements for management.
Coastal
of
the
resources
physical
management
Decision
demands
the
on
impact
should
nature
the
approaches
makers
Information
management
is
need
also
coastal
of
these problems.
of
in
basic
needed
based
system
accordance
on
and
the
types
Questions
on
and
with
information
resources.
developments
be
the
those
about
of
the
understanding
development
can
then
be
of
characteristics.
physical
development
may
management
an
be
system.
that
place
asked
about
directed
towards
98
The
approach
suggested
for
the
management
of
the
coastal
zone
of the West Coast is an anticipatory approach involving an understanding
of
the
character
and
functioning
of
the
coastal
system
and
the general nature of developments that are likely in the zone.
A
sediment
budget
development
can
be
model
forms
proposals,
applied.
management
on
a
a
around
convenient
which
This
would
regional
scale
planning
allow
that
framework
a
and
for
decision
coordinated
avoids
the
assessing
making
approach
problems
to
associated
with decisions made independantl y.
Goals
and
objectives
environment
Scheme.
which
need
These
can
and
for
the
be
clearl y
to
provide
would
be
by
made
decision
management
defined
a
the
framed
the
in
basis
adopting
model
making
of
West
the
for
Coast
Regional
Planning
management
procedures
around
of
the
coastal
decisions
the
planning
sediment
budget
model.
Uncertainties
may
and
gathering
for
management
available,
be
dealt
information
decision
decisions
with
that
through
is
making.
that
are
a
system
of
as
being
established
Where
made
this
should
identifying
important
information
be
of
an
is
not
incremental
nature. A feedback mechanism that asSesses the quality and performance
of these decisions is essential in order to incorporate new information
into future
in
the
decision making.
decision
making
The explicit consideration of uncertainties
process
is
an
effective
means
of
reducing
a
publicl y
decision
systems
the likelihood of unfavourable outcomes from decisions.
Management
owned
from
at
of
resource
the
the
with
to
lower
so,
a
coastal
should
national
polic y
be
wi th
the
of
decisions
guidelines
of
the
a
hier arc h y
involve
through
levels
clear
zone
to
the
. at
delegation
highest
decision
of
local
hierarc h y
the
for
the
West
of
should
level.
to
as
level.
making
authority
Coast
Decisions
be
In
need
the
in
accordance
order
for
be
to
various
made
this
provided
levels
of
the hierarchy.
A
general
Zealand
Yet
this
in
framewor k
the
form
framework
for
coastal
of
has
town
a
zone
and
number
management
country
of
exists
planning
deficiences,
not
in
New
procedures.
the
least
99
of which are the inadequacy of the information base, the inappropriateness
and
of
existing
management
boundaries,
directives.
and
The
the
fragmentation
resolution
of
of
these
policies
deficiencies
requires the following measures:
A
clear
definition
of
national
policy
for
the
coastal
zone and development of management goals and objectives;
Guidance
on
the
means
of
achieving
those
objectives
at the regional and local level;
Better coordination between existing management agencies;
The
establishment
for
the
of
direction,
a
national
agency
coordination,
and
responsible
evaluation
of
coastal zone management.
Research
and
development
of
tools
for
coastal
zone
management.
The
implementation
for
existing
for
the
agencies,
should
to
policy,
coastal
expressed
in
ensure
management
these
should
laws
groups,
examined
to
compati bility
functions
measures
legislation,
zone
various
interest
be
of
of
and
and
has
implications
management.
A
draw
on
policy
statements
be
based
from
management
existing
on
and the
general
identify
where
of
management
the
several
the
various
input
public.
Existing
linkages
agencies
national
are
goals.
legislation
needed
The
maybe
order to define responsi bili ties and to coordinate actions.
policy
and
specific
altered
in
,100
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion
and
support
of
of
this
study
many.
I
owes
would
much
like
to
to
the
cooperation I
express
my
assistance
gratitude
to
these
people for their time and efforts in bringing this project to fruition.
Specificall y
and
Dr
Basil
ability
this
in
I
I
for
study
their
wish
to
Sharp,
thank
whose
discussion
my
two
advice,
and
constructive
comment
fields
was
a
Their
great
Dr
Bob
criticism,
throughout
helped to reduce the ordeal.
respective
supervisors,
the
and
Kirk
avail-
preparation
of
knowledge and enthusiasm
boost
to
my
interest
in
both
coastal studies and resource economics.
My
thanks
are
also
and
encouragement
due
to
throughout
Dr
my
John
Hayward
studies
and
for
his
particularly
inspiration
for
helpful
comments on this project.
To
other
staff
appreciation I
Pat
was
at
Pat
appreciated.
I
Centre
especially
Gibson.
friendship
the
I
to
for
Mr
Resource
Bill
Prendergast t s
would
Mr
assistance
Ii ke
also
Baker I
Management
to
Geoff
in
I
extend
Kerr
and
I
preparing
acknowledge
the
my
Mrs
diagrams
good
humour,
advice and support of all of my classmates.
In addition, I wish to thank those who assisted in the final preparation,
especially
my
and
Thorn
for
would
like
Kaye
Finall y,
I
mother for
throughout my studies.
her
to
her
time
and
assistance
thank
my
in
effort
in
typing the
proof -reading
parents for
their
the
manuscript
final
continued
copy.
support
101
REFERENCES
K.A.
Ackley,
1983.
in Natural Resource
Lincoln College.
Personal
Management,
Albee,
1973 .
Elements in a Decision
R.N. and Storey, D.A.
Planning
Framework for
the
Allocation of Coastal
Land and
Resources
with
illustration
for
a
Coastal
Water
Community.
Water
Resources
Research Centre
Report,
Massachusetts
Massachusetts University, Amherst.
Amir,
S.
1983.
'Tools for a Coastal
work
with
Multiple
Objectives I .
Management 17(2):121-132.
Anderson,
M.N. and others.
of
Conflict
in
Water
Centre
for
Resource
and Lincoln College.
Communica tion.
Senior Lecturer
Centre of Resource Management,
Resource
Journal
Management Frameof
Environmental
I n prep.
Towards a Resolution
Resource
Allocation.
Discussion
Paper,
Management,
University
of
Canterbury
NWASCA'~
Anon.
1984.
'Powers and functions of
20(2):30-33.
Bowen,
F. E.
1964.
Sheet 15 Buller (1st edition), Geological
Map of New Zealand I: 250 000.
Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, Wellington.
Braybrook, D. and Lindblom,
Free Press, New York.
C.E.
1963.
Soil and Water
A Strategy
of
Decision.
Brodie, J.W.
1960.
'Coastal Surface Currents Around New Zealand',
N.Z. Journal of Geology and Geophysics 3:235;..252.
Bryce,
D.H.
1984.
Personal Communication.
Development, Fletcher Challenge Limited.
Manager
Burch,
W.R. (Jr.)
1976.
'Social aspects in the allocation of
marine recreational fisheries'. In: Marine Recreational Fisheries,
Clepper, H. (editor), 72-82, Sport Fishing Institute, Washington
D.C.
Carter,
Lionel
1980.
'Ironsand in continental shelf sediments
off western New Zealand - a synopsis I . _N-,.,-,Z,-,.,--,-,J,-,o_u_r_n,-,a;.;..I_...;.o...;.f_G..;;;...;;.e...;.o...;.l...;.o-",g~y
and Geophysics 23: 455-468.
Carter,
L. and Heath, R.A.
1975.
'Role of mean circulation,
tides,
and
waves
in
the
transport
of
bottom
sediment
on
the
New
Zealand
continental
shelf I •
New
Zealand
Journal
of Marine and Freshwater Research 9: 423-448.
Chung,
C.
1984.
Al ternati ve Approaches to Coastal Hazard Zone
Management.
Unpublished
MSc
research
project
in
Resource
Management,
Centre
for
Resource
Management,
University
of
Canterbury, Christchurch.
Ciriarcy-Wantrup,
S.V.
1969.
'Natural resources in
growth:
the
role
of
institutions
and
policies I •
Journal of Agricultural Economics 58: 1314-24.
Resource
economic
American
102
Coastal Engineering
Research
Centre.
Manual
(3rd edition). U.S. Army,
Printing Office, Washington D.C.
1977 •
Corps
of
Shore
Protection
Engineers, Govt.
Commission for the Environment.
1982.
Coastal Zone
Seminar
1982.
(collected preprints and postprints,
Commission for the Environment, Wellington.
Dale,
E.
1973.
Management:
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Theory
and
Practice,
variation
Management
2 vols. ) ,
(3rd
Davies,
J. L.
1972.
Geographical
Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.
Ditton,
R.B.; Seymour, J.L.;
Resources
Management.
Books}, Massachusetts.
Ducsik,
Shoreline for the Public:
a Handbook
1974.
D.W.
and
Legal
Considerations
Regarding
Public
Social,
Economic
Recreational Use of the Nation's Coastal Shoreline. The MIT
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
and Swanson,
D.C.
Heath
in Coastal
edition),
G.C.
and
Ehrlich, P.R.; Ehrlich, A.H.; and Holdren, J.P.
Population, Resources, Environment. W • H.
San Francisco.
1967.
Etzioni, A.
decision-making' •
92.
Forbis,
Fox,
J.
16.
1974.
'Mixed
Public
1977.
Company
1977.
Freeman
Coastal
(Lexington
Ecoscience:
and Company,
Scanning
a
Administration
'third' approach to
Review
27(4):385-
the
and
----------------------------------'Man
and
Sea'.
Soil
Water
I.K.
1976.
'Institutions for water management
world'. Natural Resources Journal 16:743-58.
Furkert, F.W.
1947.
'Westport Harbour',
Royal Society of New Zealand 76(3 )373-402
Gale,
Development.
in a
Transactions
11(2):12-
changing
of
the
B. and Barr, D.
1977.
'Vegetation and coastal sand dunes'.
Beach Conservation 28, Beach Protection Authority of Queensland,
Brisbane.
Garner,
' Hydrology of New Zealand Coastal Water,
1961.
D.M.
Department of
Scientific and Industrial
1955'. N. Z.
Research
138,
(N. Z.
Oceanographic
Institute;
Memoir
Bulletin:
No.8) ,
Government Printer, Wellington.
Gibb.
, Rates of coastal erosion and accretion in
1978.
J . G.
New Zealand'. N.Z. Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
12(4):429-56.
Gibb,
J.G.
1979.
'Late Quaternary shoreline movements in New
Zealand'. Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University, Wellington.
N. Z.
Gibb,
J.G.
1982.
'Coastal Hazard mapping:
a technique
for
wise planning and management'. In:
Coastal Zone Management
Seminar
1982,
(collected
preprints).
Commission
for
the
Environment,
Session Two:
Contingency
Planning,
Wellington.
103
1980.
Possible physical impacts
R.D. and Kirk, R.M.
from offshore sand and
mInlng: Northland, New Zealand.
Report prepared for
the
seabed
prospecting areas
held
by
Landsea Minerals Limited, Whangarei, New Zealand, Department
of Geography, University of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Gillie,
1979.
'High sediment yields from major rivers
Griffiths, G.A.
Southern
Alps,
New
of the western
Zealand I .
Nature
282: 6163.
Gr iff it h s ,
G. A •
1981.
South Island catchments,
17(4):662-671.
and Glasby, G.P.
sediment
onto
the
Griffiths, G.A.
derived
I Mass'.
Hardin,
G.
48.
Some suspended sediment yields from
New Zealand I . Water Resources Bulletin
I
1968.
In
New
'The tragedy of the
prep.
Zealand
'Input of
continental
commons'.
Science
rivershelf :
162: 1243-
Harrison, P.
1978.
Decision information and coastal management:
some
preliminary
remarks.
Research
Notes
No.18
Geography
and
Regional
Planning,
Department
of
Geography,
University
of Ottawa.
Hayward, J .A.
1979.
'Mountain Stream Sediments', In,: Physical
Hydrology - New Zealand Experience. Murray, D. L. and Ackroyd,
P. (eds), - New Zealand Hydrological Society, Wellington.
Healey,
1980.
'Conservation and management of coastal
T.R.
resources: the earth science basis'. In: The Land Our Future:
Essa ys on Land Use and Conservation in New Zealand, Anderson,
A.G.
(editor),
239-260,
Longman
Paul and
the
New
Zealand
Geographical Society Inc., Auckland.
Heath,
R.A.
1969.
'Drift Card Observations of Currents in
the
Central
New
Zealand
Region' •
N. Z.
Journal
of
Marine
and Freshwater Research 3 (1): 3-12.
.......;......;~-~--=..~---=..----.......:.:......:.:.:.:.:-
Heath,
R.A.
1973.'
'Direct Measurements of
around
southern
New
Zealand'.
N . Z.
Journal
Freshwater Research 7(4):331-67.
coastal currents
of
Marine
and
.......;~~......;~~~-~-~~~~......;~~
Hill,
M.
1968.
I A
goals-achievement matrix for evaluation alternative
plans'.
Journal of the American Institute of Planners 34: 1929.
1966.
'The tyranny of small decisions:
imperfections and the
limits of economics' .
Kahn,
A.E.
failures,
19:23-47.
King,
C • A. M.
London.
Kirk,
R. M.
1979a.
I Coastal
zone erosion problems'. In: Environment
77. Proceedings 7 Coastal Zone Workshop, Knox, G.A. (editor)
47-54, Environment Centre (Canterbury) Inc.
Kirk,
1972 .
1979b.
R.M.
Southern Pegasus
Engineers Ltd.
Beaches
Dynamics
Bay. Report
(2nd
and management
to Morris and
edition).
market
Kyklos
Arnolds,
of sand beaches
Wilson Consulting
104
Kirk,
R.M.
1982.
'Putting
and Water 18(2):20-23.
Knox,
G.A. (Ed.)
1979.
Zone
Workshop,
The
Christchurch.
Lands
and
Survey Department.
third
biennial
Coastal
16-18 October, 1984.
Lello,
J . W.
1980.
'Seminars
seminars,
coastal
in the 80's?'. New Zealand Environment 28:6-11.
van
the
whoa
on
Washdyke
Beach'.
Soil
Environment 77. Proceedings 7, Coastal
Environment
Centre
(Canterbury)
Inc. ,
I n
Zone
prep.
Proceedings
Management
Seminar.
der
Linden,
W.J.M.
1969.
west
Nelson,
South
Island,
New
Geology and Geophysics 12: 87 -103.
, Offshore
Zealand',
of the
Nelson,
management
sediments,
NorthN .Z.
Journal
of
McDougall, J.C.
1975.
Cook Sediments, New Zealand
Insti tute
Chart,
Oceanic
series,
1: 1 000 000.
of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington.
Oceanograp hic
Department
McDougall, J.C.
1982.
Bounty Sediments, New Zealand Oceanographic
Institute
Chart,
Oceanic
series,
1: 1 000 000.
Department
of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington.
Mangin,
C.M.
1973.
'Coastal
Processes and
Development
in
the Southern .Karamea Bight'. Unpublished MA thesis, University
of Canterbury, Christchurch, N. Z.
Morton,
J.
1980.
28: 12-17 .
Morton,
J.; Thorn, D.; and Locker; R.
1973.
Seventies. Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland.
'Seacoast for the eighties'. New Zealand Environment
Seacoast
in
the
Ministry of Transport.
1980.
1980. Maritime Policy Branch,
(3 volumes).
Coastal
Ministry
Zone Management Seminar
of Transport, Wellington,
Ministry of Transport.
1983.
of Transport, Wellington.
Policies
for
Minister
of
Works
and
Development.
and
development.
Statement
by
Development, August 1974.
Ministry of
Works
and
Development.
and
management
in New
Zealand.
Division, MWD, Wellington.
the
the
coast.
Ministry
1974.
Coastal
planning
Minister
of
Works
and
1979.
Town and
Nicholson,
D.S.
1967.
'Distribution of
South Island
West
Coast
Beach Sands'.
of Science 10(June 1967):447-456
Coastal
Country
planning
Planning
Economic
Minerals in
New
Zealand Journal
Nicholson, D.S.; Cornes, J.J.S.; Martin, W.R.B.
1958.
'Ilmenite
de posit s
in
New
Zeal and'.
_N_e_w_ _Z_e_a_la_n_d_ _
J_o_u_r_n_a_l__o_f_ _G_e_o_l_o-,g~y
and Geophysics 1: 611-616
Norris,
R.M.
1972.
'Shell and gravel layers, western continental
s he If ,
New
Zeal and' •
_N_e_w_ _Z_e_a_l_a_n_d_ _J_o_u_r_n_a_l_ _o_f_ _G_e_o_l_o-"g,-,y,--_a_n_d_
Geophysics 15: 572-589.
105
New Zealand Institute of Engineers.
1974.
Regional Management
of Sea Coasts and Lake Shores. Proceedings of a symposium
held
in conjunction with the N.Z.I.E.
Conference,
Wellington
1974, N.Z.I.E., Technical Group of Water, Wellington.
New
Zealand
Institute
of
Surveyors
(Auckland
Branch).
1972.
Coastal
development.
The
proceedings
of
a
symposium
held
in
Auckland
on
29-30
August
1969.
New
Zealand
Institute
of Surveyors, Auckland.
Odum.
W. E.
1982.
'Environmental degradation
of small decisions'. Bioscience 32(9):728-29.
0' Riordan,
T.
1971.
Pion Limited, London.
Padan,
Per specti ves
on
and
Resource
the
tyranny
Management.
J. W. (Ed.)
1977 •
New England Offshore Mining Environmental
Study
(Project
NOMES).
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Administration Special
Report,
U.S.
Department of Commerce,
NOAA, Environmental Research Laboratories, Boulder, Colorado.
Pfahlert,
J.J.
1984.
Coastal dynamics and sedimentation at
Point
Elizabeth,
West
Coast,
South
Island,
New
Zealand.
Unpublished MSc Thesis,
Department of Geography,
University
of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Pickrill, R.A. and Mitchell, J.S.
1979.
'Ocean wave characteristics
around New Zealand I . N .Z.
Journal of Marine and Freshwater
~~~--~~~--~--~--------------------~Research 13(4):501-520.
Ra d for d , K • J •
1977 .
,; ;:.C. : ;o;.:;m:.:;.p£:. .: .le=x~-=D-=e:...:c:...:i-=s..::;i-=o.:::n~:::..P..::;r..::;o:...:b::..;l::..;e:...:m=s..;.:__---.,;A;.;;.n::.:-...;I:...:n:::..t:...:e;,.sg~r:...:a::..;t:...:e:...:d=_
Strategy
for
Resolution.
Reston
Publishing
Company
Inc.,
Reston, Virginia.
Randall, A.
19 81.
_R_e_s_o_u_r_c_e___E_c_o_n_o
__m_i_c_s_:____A_n__E_c_o_n_o_m
__i_c___A....p-'p~r_o_a_c_h
-=t-=o__;.;;.N~a::..;t:...:u:...:r:...:a:...:l~-=R..;.e::..;:::..s:::..o-=u:::..r..::;c..::;e_..::;a;.:;n:...:d~...;E=n=v~i:::..r:::..o.:::n.:::m.:::e:...:n:::..t:...:a::..;l~...;P...;o::..;l...;i:...:c~y. Grid Publishing
Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Reid,
S.J.
1981.
I Extreme
winds over
Zealand'. N.Z. Journal of Science 24:51-58.
Rowe, W.D.
1977 .
An
the
seas
around
New
of Risk. Wiley, New York.
----~~~~--------
challenging
A.A.
1972.
'Analytical institutional economics:
problems in the economics of resources for a new environment'.
American Journal of
Economics 53: 893-901.
Schmid,
~~~~~~~~~...;...;~~~~~~----~~~~
Short,
A.D.
1979.
'Three
of Geology 87(5):553-571.
dimensional
Simon,
1957.
Models of
H.A.
Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.
Man:
beach-stage
Social
Simpson, R.A. and Fyson, J.H.
1971.
'Westport
New Zealand Engineering 26(9):266-271.
and
model'.
Rational.
John
harbour entrance'.
1976.
'Circulation and hydrology off the West
Stanton, B. R.
Coast of the South Island,
New
Zealand'.
_N-='..::;Z:...:.~_J...;o.::..u.=.::..rn=a.::..I__. ::;o:..::..f
and Freshwater Research 10 (3): 445-67 •
106
United
Nations Department of International Economic and Social Affairs.
1982.
Coastal
Area
Management
and
Development.
Ocean
Economics and Technology Branch, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Wallace, C. (ed.)
1984a.
Mining Monitor 49: 1.
Wallace, C. (ed.)
and CRA'.
1984b.
Wallace, C. (ed.)
51:4-5.
1984c.
'Gold
Mines
ditch
I West
Coast ilmenite and
50:1-5.
Mikonui
dredge
licence'.
Wallace, C.
(ed. )
1984d.
I Mines
Division
licencing unchanged'. Mining Monitor 51: 6-10.
Kanieri'.
gold:
Fletcher
Mining
Monitor
restructures:
but
N. E. (ed.)
1984.
A Guide to Environmental Law in New
--------------~--------------------------Zealand (2nd edition). Brooker and Friend Ltd., for Commission
for the Environment, Wellington.
Wells,
West
dredge:
Coast United Council.
Proposed
Scheme
Greymouth.
West Coast Regional
West
Coast United
1981.
Sec tion One.
Planning
Council ,
Williams, G.J.
1974.
Economic Geology of New Zealand. Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Victoria.
Willis,
W• J •
1982.
• Coastal
zone planning and management:
a
progress
review' • In:
Coastal
Zone
Management Seminar
1982, (collected
postprints)' Commission for the Environment,
Session Five:
Planning and Management for the Coast, Wellington.
Young,
R.C.
1966.
'Goals and goal-settingl~
American Institute of Planners ·32: 76-85.
Zenkovich, V.P.
1967.
and Boyd, London.
Processes
of
Coastal
Journal
Development.
of
the
Oliver
107
APPENDIX I
ACCOUNT OF UNCERTAINTIES IN INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE
An
anal ysis
for
of
the
decisions
various
uncertainties
based
on
incomplete
sources
of
uncertainty
were
described
in
section
with
physical
processes,
and
institutional
problems for
involved
aspects
of
in
is
important
information
coastal
5.3.
These
the
impacts
management.
decision making,
an
and
zone
knowledge.
management
uncertainties
of
consideration
decisions
were
resource
Uncertainties
The
associated
developments,
present
complex
requiring the determination of appropriate
amanagement responses.
This
appendix
making.
of
The
discusses
discussion
uncertainty
and
means
is
based
ris k
presented by Kilby et aI.
of
and
anal ysing
on
a
the
uncertainty
consideration
processes
for
of
in
decision
the
concepts
their
assessment
(1984).
The Concept of Uncertainty
If
uncertainty
information
on
the
and
of
of
uncertainty.
of
variables
is
termed
absence
influence
descripti ve
there
is
relation
the
determination
the
coastline
of
Where
all
sediment
as
to
a
to
or
the
the
the
and
specific
available.
event,
the
identification
sinks)
values
of
an
the
to
two
the
relating
of
depend
There
are
types
identity
leads
measurement
to
what
uncertainty
to
uncertainty
erosion
sediment
identified
then
will
to
event
influencing
of
be
amounts
the
specific
1977).
descriptive
variables
rise
relating
Second,
(Rowe,
can
giving
information
zone,
variables
sources
knowledge
determine
of
limited
uncertainty
information
or
lack
only
of
uncertainty.
coastal
of
an
of
of
level
and
about
values of each of the variables
In
the
information
First,
that
where
possession
then
information
of
arises
from
knowledge,
amount
types
two
arises
variables
(for
of
sources
(for
measurement
ma y
surround
a
section
and
sinks.
example,
uncertainty
example
the
all
may
the
exist
quantities
of sediment involved may not be precise or may vary over time).
Uncertainty
this
Even
leads
where
can
to
also
arise
uncertainty
all
the
in
defining
related
alternatives
to
the
can
the
set
be
set
of
of
alternatives,
possible
specified
and
consequences.
there
may
still
108
be uncertainty
For
a
surrounding
example,
if
particular
each
all
area
effective
they
complexity
that
will
in
be
on
the
solving
the
interactions
consequences
within
of
of
means
could
have
be
consequences
alternative
coast
would
of
the
the
of
alternative
the
of
each
shore
identified,
effects
processes
problem
resource
protection
the
physical
the
alternative.
may
coastal
be
that
and
how
unclear.
The
environment
development
for
may
be
means
difficult
to identify, so that potential adverse impacts are hard to specify.
Anal ysing Uncertainty
Uncertainties
invol ves
can
three
be
dealt
phases:
with
using
developing
the
set
an
anal ytical
process
of
alternatives;
that
modelling to
quantify the relationships between alternatives and their consequences; and,
choosing
between
such
decision
as
decision
using
making
the
al ternati ves.
diagrams
under
sequential
Graphical
maybe
uncertainty.
analysis
used
and
tabular
to
provide
A decision
diagram
(Holloway,
be assigned to each outcome,
or
1979),
some
a
structure
maybe
where
performance
representations
for
analysed
probabilities
measure
can
correspond-
ing to each sequence of decisions and outcomes is available.
In
practice,
probabilities
or
objective
methods
from
of
past
the
assign
be
the
case
probability
an
the
distributions
judgement
large
degree
of
statistical
. estimates
basis
of
the
allow
it
event.
This
is
of
uncertainty
the
West
possible
to
experience
or
most
events
on the
explicit
analytical
of
data
likelihood
not
past
developed
or
the
from
zone
the
of
is
subjective
guesses,
data
probability
be
either
informed
Frequently
coastal
modelling
by
using
uncertain
may
to
assigned
example,
event).
the
of
as
mathematical
a
an
determining
such
intuition or
is
in
or
on
simulation
environment
into
of
probabilities
repeated
(for
experience,
occurrence
maybe
likely
in
a
Coast.
to
dynamic
Subjective
basis of an expert IS
incorporation of uncertainty
techniques.
associated
with
However.
subjective
there
estimates
and the results of. anal yses based on these should be viewed cautious I y.
Decision
theory
does.
between
alternatives
however.
in
these
offer
several
situations.
approaches
based
on
to
choosing
criteria
relating
to attitudes toward ris k.
In a
decision problem involving uIlcertainty,
rna y
still
the
be
decision
difficult
problem
even
if
a
completel y.
model
A
the choice of an alternative
can
simple
be
developed
expression
of
to
describe
the
decision
109
maker IS
preference,
of
alternative,
each
cannot
be
sure
(Holloway,
process,
and
this
(Kilby
et
not
to
a
methods
of
as
from
may
For
it
is
be
the
the
the
consequences
decision
maker
al ternati ve
chosen
Where
using
one
complex
difficult
once.
made
where
probability
some
level
of
some
decisions,
to
intuitive
alternative
all
the
can
distributions
aspiration
dominates
however,
consider
probabilities
the
an
but
maker
risk.
can
Where
the
irrespective
alternative
be
can
this
-factors
assigned,
or
comparing
be
used
or
If
pessimistic
be
foregone
(the
society
is
possible
probabilities
cannot
be
maker
has
possible
the
attitude
either
a
I
(see
the
be
(this
known
as
the
I
risk-
should,
is
decision
optimistic
maker
the
It
or
attitude
can
possibility
risk-neutral
his/her
gains
with
criterion) .
society
with
the
possible
the
al ternati ve
assigned,
or
losses
of
outcomes
risk-loving'
maximum
the
although
affecting the welfare of
consistent
the
maximin I
I
where
approach
the
chosen,
situation
with
of
criterion),
can
an
decision
chosen,
averse'
which
use
the
'maximax I
uncertain
for
attitude
that
resul t
simplified
at
meet
with
known,
be
as
assessing
faced
gains
inadequate
of
1979),
decision
to
assessment
will
1984).
decision
alternatives
Holloway,
be
al.,
important
are
usuall y
outcome
may
adequate
When
an
between alternatives
be
how
on
1979),
choice
ma y
is
which
A direct
others
based
is
greatest
of
is
large
minimum
gains
generally
risk-averse
therefore,
appl y
may
accepted
and
decisions
the
'maximin I
criterion, resulting in a conservative bias (Cooper, 1981).
The
irreversibility
for
the
due
to
evaluation
the
resources.
at
least
levels
of
environmental
of
uncertainty
In
in
of
resource
economic
impacts
terms,
development
the
that
has
developments
concerning
evaluating
impacts
future
that
are
in
in
demands
problem
result
important
the
coastal
for
use
essentially
lies
in
implications
of
coastal
irreversible,
determining
irreversible
zone
optimum
damage.
There
will be uncertainty surrounding the benefits of environmental preservation
but
time.
information
An
example
capabilities
involves
the
about
of
of
a
prohibitive
benefits
of
these
benefits
this
could
coastal
dune
economic
maintaining
the
be
is
the
to
increase
destruction
of
the
resulting
in
erosion
system,
costs
likely
to
protective
control.
buffering
Information
capabilities
of
with
the
that
about
dune
system
is
likely
to
increase
with
time
especially
developments
if
are contemplated in the inland area. Arrow and Fisher (1974) demonstrate
that
of
the
the
hold
prospect
costs
back
of
of
greater
future
environmental
developments
certainty
damage
that
are
mean
likely
about
it
that
to
the
is
result
magnitUde
optimal
in
to
irreversible
impacts.
Methods for Assessing Risk in Decisions
There
are
two
evaluating
making
main
variables
and
attainment
for
of
analytical
that
procedures
influence
assessing
how
specified
the
risks
various
societal
for
characterising
involved
in
decision
alternatives contribute
goals.
These
methods
and
to
are
the
first,
sensitivity analysis and second, risk simulation.
In
decisions
use
the
unless
is
involving
best
the
however
estimates
decision
available.
These
be
judgement
(Radford t
examining
the
are
least
the
until
element
changes
be
of
the
normally
involved,
better
information
somewhat
subjective,
the
anal ysis
in
will
variables
more or
to
Sensitivity
that
rna kers
all
likely
some
1977) •
effect
for
delayed
estimates
at
decision
available
can
involving
t
uncertainty
decision
is
a
estimate
maker I s
method
of
a
for
variable
have on the outcomes of the anal ysis. If some measure of the performance
of
an
alternative
information
on
is
how
used.
the
then. sensitivity
performance
varies
anal ysis
with
can
changes
provide
in
the
estimates of variable s.
If
changes
the
If
or
in
an
estimate
have
little
effect
on
the
analysis
then
decision is relatively independent of the accuracy of that estimate.
changes
the
result
result
of
in
the
significant
analysis,
the estimate of the variable
in
the
decision.
is
Sensiti vity
means
of
identifying
(i.e.
the
likelihood
variations
then
of
the
likely
to
analysis
performance
uncertainty
measure
associated
with
be an important consideration
is t
which
variables
of
unfavourable
an
the
therefore,
contribute
most
outcome)
an
to
involved
effective
the
in
risk
the
decision.
Risk
simulation
involves
the
an
of
variables
to
obtain
or
result
a
decision
The
of
random
samples
are
use
idea
of
random
of
varies,
thus
made
from
how
samples
the
indicating
of
the
performance
the
probability
risk
estimates
measure
involved.
distributions
for
III
the
variables.
where
from
data
the
is
which are
not
random
based on past data or determined subjectively
available.
sample
and
An estimate
used
in
the
for each variable
anal ysis
of
the
is
obtained
alternative.
The distributions are sampled repeatedly to provide numerous calculations
of
the
performance
probability
or
distribution
result
of
of
the
the
anal ysis.
result
of
This
the
allows
analysis
a
complete
which
then be evaluated in terms of the decision maker's goals or objectives.
can
112
REFERENCES
Arrow,
I Environmental
preservation,
1974.
K.J. and Fisher, A.C.
uncertainty, and irreversibility', Quarter! y Journal of Economics
88:312-319.
Cooper, C.
1981.
Economic
Hodder and Stoughton, London.
Holloway, C. A.
Models
and
Jersey.
Kilby,
1979.
Choices,
Evaluation
and
the
Decision
Making
Under
Prentice-Hall,
Englewood
Environment,
Uncertainty:
Cliffs,
New
C.E.; McIntyre, S.J.; and Rasmussen, N.F.
1984.
Uncertainty
and
Risk:
A Discussion
of
the
Concepts
and
Processes
for
their
Assessment.
Unpublished
Project,
Special
Topic
in Resource Economics, Centre for Resource Management, University
of Canterbury and Lincoln College.
Radford, K.J.
1977.
Complex Decision Problems: An Integrated
Strategy
for
Resolutions,
Reston
Publishing
Company
Inc. ,
Reston, Virginia.
Rowe, W.D.
1977 •
An Anatomy of Risk,
Wiley, New York.