The B.E. Journal of Economic
Analysis & Policy
Advances
Volume 10, Issue 1
2010
Article 31
Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving:
Evidence from Two Field Experiments
Imran Rasul∗
∗
†
Steffen Huck†
University College London, i.rasul@ucl.ac.uk
University College London, s.huck@ucl.ac.uk
Recommended Citation
Imran Rasul and Steffen Huck (2010) “Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving: Evidence from
Two Field Experiments,” The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy: Vol. 10: Iss. 1 (Advances), Article 31.
Available at: http://www.bepress.com/bejeap/vol10/iss1/art31
c
Copyright 2010
The Berkeley Electronic Press. All rights reserved.
Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving:
Evidence from Two Field Experiments∗
Imran Rasul and Steffen Huck
Abstract
In large-scale fundraising campaigns based on direct mailings, typically less than 5% of individuals donate to the charitable cause. We present evidence from two field experiments designed
to measure the existence of transaction costs that inhibit charitable giving in such fundraising campaigns, and shed light on the nature of such transaction costs. The experiments are designed in
conjunction with the Bavarian State Opera House. The first mail-out experiment was implemented
over two stages using a within-subject design. We develop a theoretical framework that makes precise the identifying assumptions under which we can exploit this two-stage design to measure the
following structural parameters among potential donors: (i) the share of donors who would make
a strictly positive donation in the complete absence of transaction costs and (ii) the probability that
a potential donor has sufficiently low transactions costs to make a strictly positive donation. Our
results imply response rates to mail-out solicitations would almost double in the complete absence
of transaction costs. The second field experiment provides more evidence on the nature of transaction costs. We distinguish between ex ante transaction costs, which prevent the choice problem
from being considered and ex post transaction costs, which prevent choices being implemented.
We find that the likelihood of a donation being made increases by 26% in response to even a small
reduction in ex post transaction costs.
KEYWORDS: charitable giving, field experiment, reminders, transaction costs
∗
We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the ESRC and ELSE. We thank the editor,
Thomas Buchmueller and two anonymous referees for suggestions that have helped improve the
paper. We also thank Stefano DellaVigna, Brendon McConnell, David H. Reiley and seminar participants at MPI Bonn, LBS-Westminster, Munich, Paris, St. Andrews, and Warwick for valuable
comments. We thank all those at the Munich Opera House, the Royal Opera House in Covent
Garden London, Actori, and Maurice Lausberg for making this project possible. This paper has
been screened to ensure no confidential information is revealed. All errors remain our own.
Erratum
The original citation for this article published on April 6, 2010 was as follows:
Rasul, Imran and Huck, Steffen (2010) “Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving: Evidence from
Two Field Experiments,” The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy: Vol. 10 : Iss. 1 (Advances), Article 31.
DOI: 10.2202/1935-1682.2494
Available at: http://www.bepress.com/bejeap/vol10/iss1/art31
The citation was corrected on June 9, 2010 as follows:
Huck, Steffen and Rasul, Imran (2010) ”Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving: Evidence from
Two Field Experiments,” The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy: Vol. 10 : Iss. 1 (Advances), Article 31.
DOI: 10.2202/1935-1682.2494
Available at: http://www.bepress.com/bejeap/vol10/iss1/art31
Rasul and Huck: Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving
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Table 1: The Design of the Reminder Experiment
Phase One Treatment
Reminder
Control
Lead Donor
Control-Reminder
Lead donor-Reminder
(1430)
(1431)
Control-No Reminder
Lead donor-No Reminder
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(720)
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No Reminder
Notes: The numbers in parentheses are the number of recipients in each treatment combination. Only non-donors to
the original mail-out treatment in phase one are treated in phase two. There are around 250 individuals that donated
in the original phase one treatments.
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Table 2: Random Assignment of Recipients into Treatments, by Experimental Phase
Mean, standard error in parentheses
P-value on test of equality of means with control group in box brackets
Treatment Description
Phase One: Control
Phase One: Lead donor
Phase Two: Control
Phase Two: Reminder
Number of Tickets
Number of
Average Value of Total Value of All Munich
Year of Last
Number of Female
Bought in Last 12 Ticket Orders in Tickets Bought in Tickets Bought in Resident Ticket Purchase
Recipients [Yes=1]
Months
Last 12 Months Last 12 Months
Last 12 Months [Yes=1]
[2006=1]
3787
3770
4253
8470
.466
6.30
2.23
86.6
416
.416
.565
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(.178)
(.047)
(.666)
(7.88)
(.008)
(.008)
.478
6.27
2.22
86.3
423
.416
.574
(.008)
(.153)
(.046)
(.650)
(7.73)
(.008)
(.008)
[.269]
[.906]
[.838]
[.687]
[.541]
[.980]
[.420]
.479
6.11
2.19
86.1
406
.418
.555
(.008)
(.145)
(.045)
(.615)
(6.80)
(.008)
(.008)
.470
6.19
2.20
85.7
415
.426
.568
(.005)
(.094)
(.032)
(.432)
(5.62)
(.005)
(.005)
[.341]
[.623]
[.847]
[.589]
[.313]
[.394]
[.160]
Notes: The tests of equality are based on an OLS regression allowing for robust standard errors. The "year of first entry" is the year in which the respondent is first recorded to have bought an opera
ticket. All monetary amounts are in Euros.
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Table 3: Outcomes for the Reminder Experiment
017
Mean, standard error in parentheses
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Phase Two Treatments
Phase One
Treatment
Row
Comparison Group
Column:
Control Group
Lead Donor
(1)
(2)
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Phase One Treatments
Control (No Reminder)
Response
Rate
Mean
Donation
Response
Rate
Mean
Donation
Response
Rate
Mean
Donation
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
.037
037
74 3
74.3
0
-
.017
017
63 8
63.8
(.003)
(6.19)
(.003)
(10.4)
.035
132
.015
96.6
(.003)
(14.3)
(.003)
(12.5)
[.564]
[.000]
[.765]
[.049]
0
-
Reminder
Notes: All monetary amounts are measured in Euros. The tests of equality in box brackets are based on a mean comparison t-test against a two sided alternative hypothesis. The final row
shows the p-value on a Mann Whitney test of the hypothesis that the two samples are from populations with the same distribution.Mean donations are conditional on giving.
Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2010
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Table 4: Outcomes for the Transaction Costs Field Experiment
Mean, standard error in parentheses
P-values on tests of equalities with comparison group in box brackets
Treatment
Row
Comparison Group
Column:
Control Group
Marked Letter (Ex ante TC)
(1)
(2)
Row (1) = Row (2)
Filled form (Ex post TC)
(3)
Row (1) = Row (3)
Marked Letter (Ex ante TC) and
(4)
Filled form (Ex post TC)
Row (3) = Row (4)
Response Rate
Mean Donation
(1)
(2)
.027
90.8
(.002)
(8.21)
.026
96.7
(.002)
(12.1)
[.593]
[.683]
.034
87.1
(.002)
(7.08)
[.034]
[.733]
.031
76.9
(.002)
(4.80)
[.489]
[.234]
Notes: All monetary amounts are measured in Euros. The tests of equality in box brackets are based on a mean comparison t-test against a two
sided alternative hypothesis. Mean donations are conditional on giving.
http://www.bepress.com/bejeap/vol10/iss1/art31
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The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, Vol. 10 [2010], Iss. 1 (Advances), Art. 31
Table A1: Random Assignment to Treatments Across Phases
Robust standard errors in parentheses
Ordered Probit
Phase One Treatment: Lead Donor
Observations
Bivariate Probit: Reminder Treatment
Assignment
Reminder Treatment
Assignment
R1
R2
-.003
.001
-.000
(.027)
(.009)
(.012)
21225
21225
21225
Notes: *** denotes significance at 1%, ** at 5%, and * at 10%. Robust standard errors estimated throughout, and marginal effects are reported
for the bivariate probit regressions. The reminder treatments are as follows -- R1: No Reminder; R2: Reminder. The reference category is the
individual being originally assigned to the Control group for the phase one treatment.
http://www.bepress.com/bejeap/vol10/iss1/art31
24
Rasul and Huck: Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving
Appendix: The First Field Experiment: Mail-Out Letter (Translated)
Bayerische Staatsoper
Staatsintendant
Max-Joseph-Platz 2, D-80539 München
www.staatsoper.de
[ADDRESS OF RECIPIENT]
Dear [RECIPIENT],
The Bavarian State Opera House has been investing in the musical education of
children and youths for several years now as the operatic the art form is in increasing
danger of disappearing from the cultural memory of future generations.
Enthusiasm for music and opera is awakened in many different ways in our children
and youth programme, “Erlebnis Oper” [Experience Opera]. In the forthcoming
season 2006/7 we will enlarge the scope of this programme through a new project
“Stück für Stück” that specifically invites children from schools in socially
disadvantaged areas to a playful introduction into the world of opera. Since we have
extremely limited own funds for this project, the school children will only be able to
experience the value of opera with the help of private donations.
[This paragraph describes each matching scheme and is experimentally varied as
described in the main text of the paper].
As a thank you we will give away a pair of opera tickets for Engelbert Humperdinck’s
“Konigskinder” on Wednesday, 12 July 2006 in the music director’s box as well as
fifty CDs signed by Maestro Zubin Mehta among all donors.
You can find all further information in the enclosed material. In case of any questions
please give our Development team a ring on [phone number]. I would be very pleased
if we could enable the project “Stück für Stück” through this appeal and, thus, make
sure that the operatic experience is preserved for younger generations.
With many thanks for your support and best wishes,
Sir Peter Jonas, Staatsintendant
Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2010
25
The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, Vol. 10 [2010], Iss. 1 (Advances), Art. 31
Appendix: The First Field Experiment: Mail-Out Letter (Translated)
“Stück für Stück”
The project “Stück für Stück” has been developed specifically for school children
from socially disadvantaged areas. Musical education serves many different functions
in particular for children and youths with difficult backgrounds -- it strengthens social
competence and own personality, improves children’s willingness to perform, and
reduces social inequality. Since music education plays a lesser and lesser role in home
and school education, the Bavarian State Opera has taken it on to contribute to it
ourselves. The world of opera as a place of fascination is made attainable and
accessible for young people.
In drama and music workshops, “Stück für Stück” will give insights into the world of
opera for groups of around 30 children. They will be intensively and creatively
prepared for a subsequent visit of an opera performance. These workshops encourage
sensual perception – through ear and eye but also through scenic and physical play
and intellectual comprehension – all of these are important elements for the
workshops. How does Orpheus in “Orphee and Eurydice” manage to persuade the
gods to let him save his wife from the realm of dead? Why does he fail? Why poses
the opera “Cosi fan tutte” that girls can never be faithful? It is questions like these that
are investigated on the workshops.
The workshops are also made special through the large number and variety of people
who are involved in them: musicians, singers, directors, and people from many other
departments, ranging from costumes and makeup to marketing. The participants in
each workshop work through an opera’s storyline, and are introduced to the
production and will meet singers in their costumes as well as musicians. This makes
the workshops authentic. After the workshops the participants are invited to see the
actual opera production.
Through your donation the project “Stück für Stück” will be made financially
viable so that we can charge only a small symbolic fee to the participants. This makes
it possible to offer our children and youth programme also to children from socially
disadvantaged backgrounds that can, thus, learn about the fascination of opera.
Note: In German, Stück für Stück is a wordplay --- “Stück” meaning “play” as in
drama and “Stück für Stück” being an expression for doing something bit by bit.
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26
Rasul and Huck: Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving
Appendix: The Second Field Experiment: Mail-Out Letter (Translated)
Bayerische Staatsoper
Staatsintendant
Max-Joseph-Platz 2, D-80539 München
www.staatsoper.de
[ADDRESS OF RECIPIENT]
Dear [RECIPIENT],
Some weeks ago you heard from us about our fundraising call for the project Stück für
Stück that forms part of the children and youth programme of the Bavarian State
Opera. As this call has expired now I am happy to inform you that we received many
generous donations, that supported the project [in the reminder with information
treatment (which we do not use for our analysis) it was also stated that over 150,000
euros had been raised].
Next to our artistic endeavour, cultural heritage, education, and the fostering of
creativity are a key part of the Bavarian State Opera's social responsibilities. Given
this background and the success of our fundraising call so far, we would like to give
you another opportunity to donate and invite you to support Stück für Stück also in the
coming weeks.
Please transfer your donation (for which you will receive a tax receipt) to our account:
Recipient: STOK Bayern, BuSt. München
Bank: Bayerische Landesbank Girozentrale
Sort code: 700 500 00
Account number.: 24592
Reference: „Kapitel 1581, Titel 28201 Kinder-/Jugendprogramm“
For donations from abroad:
BIC: BYLADEMM
IBAN-Nr.: DE36700500000000024592
USt-ID-Nr.: DE 814173346
If you have any queries please call our Development team at 089-2185-1106 any
time.
I would be glad if you could help to support Stück für Stück for school children from
deprived background to introduce them to the world of opera.
Many thanks for your help and best wishes,
Dr. Ulrike Hessler
Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2010
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The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, Vol. 10 [2010], Iss. 1 (Advances), Art. 31
The Second Field Experiment: Reducing Ex Ante Transaction Costs
The Second Field Experiment: Reducing Ex Post Transaction Costs
http://www.bepress.com/bejeap/vol10/iss1/art31
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Rasul and Huck: Transactions Costs in Charitable Giving
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