U2RARY
)-
OCT
4
Technical Approach
to the Utilization of
Wartime Motor
Fuel
By
W. H. PAUL
Professor of Automotive Engineering
Circular Series,
No. 8
August 1944
Engineering Experiment Station
Oregon State System of Higher Education
Oregon State College
5944
THE Oregon State Engineering Experiment Station was
established by act of the j3oard of Regents of the College
on May 4, 1927. It is the purpose of the Station to serve the
state in a manner broadly outlined by the following policy:
(1)To stimulate and elevate engineering education by
developing the research spirit in faculty and students.
(2) To serve the industries, utilities, professional engineers, public departments, and engineering teachers by making
investigations of interest to them.
(3) To publish and distribute by bulletins, circulars, and
technical articles in periodicals the results of such studies, surveys, tests, investigations, and researches as will be of greatest
benefit to the people of Oregon, and particularly to the state's
industries, utilities, and professional engineers.
To make available the results of the investigations conducted by the Station three types of publications are issued.
These are:
(1) Bulletins covering original investigations.
(2) Circulars giving compilations of useful data.
(3) Reprints giving more general distribution to scientific papers or reports previously published elsewhere, as for
example in the proceedings of professional societies.
Single copies of publications are sent free on request to
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tional copies, or copies to others, are sent at prices covering
cost of printing. The price of this publication is 25 cents.
For copies of publications or for other information address
Oregon State Engineering Experiment Station,
Corvallis, Oregon
Technical Approach to the Utilization
of Wartime Motor Fuel
By
W. H. PAUL
Professor of Automotive Engineering
Circular Series,
No. 8
August 1944
Engineering Experiment Station
Oregon State System of Higher Education
Oregon State College
1.Purpose3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. Introduction
3
.
2. Scope
3
Acknowledgments
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3
II. Properties of Gasoline --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------L Invariability of Gasoline --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3
3.
2. Especially Significant Properties
3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
4
III. Present and Pre.war Gasolines Compared ---------------------------------------------------------------------L Sources and Treatment of Data ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5
2.
3.
Gravity
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vapor Pressure
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5
5
6
Sulphur and Gum ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
5. Detonation Resistance ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7
Volatility ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
4.
6.
IV.
The Volatility Problem --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8
1. Effect of Volatility on Engine Performance
2. Equilibrium-Air Volatility ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
----------------------------------------------------------
V.
8
Warm-up Road Tests ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
1. Types of Inlet Manifolds ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
2. Factors Affecting Mixture Temperature ---------------------------------------------------------------- 14
3. Results of Warns-up Tests ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
VI. Suggested Means of Improving Engine Operation -------------------------------------------------------- 17
1. High Temperature Thermostats ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Adjustment of Automatic Chokes
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Clean Hot Spots ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pre-heated Inlet Air -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------SWarm-up Speed ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.
4.
6. Richer Carburetor Settings -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------VII.
VIII.
17
17
17
19
19
19
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
1. Known Petroleum Reserves -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
2. Estimated Potential Supply -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Petroleum Resources
References ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 23
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Figure 1. Typical A.S.T.M. Volatility Curve for Gasoline ----------------------------------------------------
4
Figure 2. Comparison of Pre.war and Present-day Gasoline Qualities ................................ 6
Figure 3. Average Octane Ratings of Pre-war and Present-day Gasolines .......................... 7
Figure 4. A.S.T.M. Volatilities of Present and Pre-war Gasolines ........................................ 9
Figure 5. A.S.T.M. and Corresponding Equilibrium-Air Volatility of Present and
Pre-war Gasolines ...................................................................................................... 11
Figure 6. Types of Induction Manifolds .................................................................................... 13
Figure 7. Warm-up Curves from Road Test of 1941 Model (Dc Soto) Car ...................... 15
Figure 8. Effect of Car Speed on Operating Temperatures ...................................................... 16
Figure 9. Effect of Jacket Temperature on Warm-up Mixture Temperature. Tests
with 1941 Model Car Having Water Jacketed Manifold .................................... 18
Technical Approach to the Utilization
of Wartime Motor Fuel
By
W. H. PAUL
Professor of Automotive Engineering
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Purpose. During the past year, as a result of war needs for petroleum.
it has been found necessary to alter some of the physical and chemical properties of motor gasoline in order to make available certain light petroleum fractions needed for such items as high output fuels, synthetic rubber, explosives,
plastics, etc. These changes, particularly in volatility and anti-knock quality,
have so markedly affected the operation of our motor car engines that every
vehicle operator is well aware of impaired performance.
This qircular has been prepared, partly as an historical summary of the
properties of present-day gasoline, but chiefly to analyze engine performance
in the light of these properties and to suggest means and expedients that
operators may apply in attempting to obtain highest possible performance from
these admittedly inferior fuels.
2. Scope. The important properties of motor fuel are discussed and present-day gasoline is compared with that of the pre-war period. An analysis of
the volatility problem is covered in some detail and the results of warm-up
studies from road tests are reported. Suggestions are made for modifying the
operation of engines with typical induction systems and practical hints are
offered on maintenance, operation, and for minor changes that may be made in
design to obtain more satisfactory engine operation with the fuels now available to civilian users.
3. Acknowledgments. The writer wishes to thank Professor S. H. Graf,
Director of Engineering Research, for valuable suggestions and for assistance
in editing the manuscript. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to those
members of the Society of Automotive Engineers, in Portland and elsewhere
on the Pacific Coast, who answered inquiries relative to the contents of this
publication.
II. PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE
1. Invariability of gasoline. The outstanding characteristic of gasoline,
as we know it over the entire nation, has always been its great uniformity
rather than diversity. From place to place and from one similar season to
another its quality has been held to such uniform specifications that the average
driver could, not distinguish between different brands of similar grade. True,
changes have been made in motor fuel quality, such as the gradual upgrading
in octane number in the years just preceding the war, but all like grades underwent the same changes at virtually the same time. Strangely enough that same
4
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
practice is being followed today in that the quality of all domestic gasolines has
been quite uniformly degraded.
2. Especially significant properties. It is now well established that the
important properties of gasoline comprise the items of detonation resistance,
volatility, and purity. These are the properties that can be specified to control
engine performance and life adequately.
PURITY includes sulphur content, gum, and any extraneous undissolved
material like water and dirt. Sulphur, reported as a percentage by weight, is
an undesirable constituent of gasoline because it tends to form mineral acids
that corrode vital parts of the engine. Gum, a resinous substance with varnishlike odor, is commonly reported in terms of milligrams of gum per 100 milliliters of gasoline and is an extremely objectionable agent when deposited on
valves, piston rings, and the inner surfaces of induction systems. Although solid
or liquid contaminants are obviously unwanted in gasoline, little annoyance is ex-
U
U
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F
0
20
40
60
80
PER CENT EVAPORATED
Figure 1. Typical A.S.T.M. Volatility Curve for Gasoline
100
UTILIZATION OF WARTiME MOTOR FUEL
perienced from this source as ample precautions are usually observed in hand
ling the fuel from refiner to consumer.
is generally thought of as the tendency to evaporate under
The condition under which gasoline evaporates in a carbureting engine is in the presence of air. This fact is the key to the solution
VOLATILITY
given conditions.
of the now existing volatility problem and will be discussed in some detail later.
The volatility of gasoline is usually expressed as a temperature at which a certain percentage by volume is evaporated over its own liquid at atmospheric
pressure. The well known A.S.T.M. distillation curve, of which Figure 1 is a
typical example, has been used extensively for many years to indicate the range
of boiling temperatures of gasoline whose volatility range is roughly between
100 F and 400 F.
DETONATION REsIsTANcE or anti-knock value of gasoline is the tendency of
the fuel to resist abnormally rapid burning as the combustion process nears
the end of its travel across the combustion chamber. The octane number scale
is now the accepted standard by which this detonating tendency is measured for
gasolines under 100 octane number.
Present-day gasolines will now be compared with those of the immediate
pre-war period chiefly in the light of these briefly discussed properties.
III. PRESENT AND PRE-WAR GASOLINES COMPARED
1. Sources and treatment of data. In Figure 2 are shown in bar
diagram form, comparisons of average pre-war and present-day gasolines for
the ordinary laboratory inspections of gravity, vapor pressure, sulphur, and
gum.
Data for these averages were compiled from Federal surveys, institutional laboratory reports, commercial laboratory tests, and the author's personal
data.
For all inspections indicated in Figure 2, except those for pre-war sulphur,
regular grade and premium gasolines were averaged together as a single fuel.
This was done because final averages disclosed such similarity between grades
for these particular fuel qualities, there seemed no point in differentiating
between regular and premium fuels.
2. Gravity. The American Petro1eun Institute (API) gravity is an
index of the relative weight or density of liquids. On this scale increasingly
large numbers indicate liquids of decreasing density. An API gravity of 10
indicates a liquid as heavy as water, and an API gravity greater than 10
indicates the relative weight of a liquid lighter than water.
Gasoline, which is normally about three-fourths as heavy as water, has an
API gravity of approximately 60. It will be noted from the chart that average
present-day gasoline has an API gravity of 55.5 which makes it slightly
heavier than its pre-war counterpart. The difference, however, is not especially
For example, a 60.3 API gravity fuel weighs 6.18 pounds per
gallon while one of 55.5 gravity weighs but 0.13 pounds less. In terms of
heat energy this reptesents an additional 2,650 Btu per gallon, which is on the
side of benefit to the consumer. Expressed in terms of fuel economy this
amount of energy could give an additional 0.5 mile per gallon, other items of
utilization remaining the same. Poorer fuel mileage with wartime gasoline
significant.
cannot therefore, be laid to gravity.
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
6
3. Vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of gasoline is stated in pounds
per square inch gage at 100 F as observed in the Reid bomb according to
standard test procedure. Typical values range from 5 to 12 psi, with a normal
average running about 7.5. This pressure is an index of the presence of "wild"
or low boiling compounds in a motor fuel and for this reason it has been used
widely as a correlating agent in predicting the vapor locking characteristics of
°
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Figure 2. Comparison of Pre-war and Present.day Gasoline Qualities
GRAVITY
As an example, a fuel having a Reid vapor pressure of 8.5 pounds
per square inch should be free of vapor lock if the fuel line temperature is kept
below 130 F at sea level, or if the altitude is less than 8,000 feet with normal
atmospheric temperature.
gasoline.
The slight increase in vapor pressure between pre-war and present-day
gasoline indicated in Figure 2 is not significant of any appreciable additional
hazard in the operation of carbureting engines. Vapor pressure can, therefore,
be disregarded in any consideration of significant changes in fuel quality.
4. Sulphur and gum.
These two items of purity, already briefly de-
scribed, may be considered under one heading for the purpose here intended as
it is only desired to compare the purity of motor fuel for the two periods under
consideration.
Referring again to Fiure 2, it is seen that the compiled results showed all
gasolines, pre-war and present, to contain approximately 0.1 per cent sulphur
r-
UTILIZATION OF WARTIME MOTOR FUEL
7
by weight. This is a well recognized, sufficiently low, value to insure corrosion-free operation and it meets the older conservative government specification. U. S. Army Specification 2-103B for motor vehicle fuel now allows
0.25 per cent sulphur.
The air jet gum content of 2 milligrams per 100 milliliters of fuel, shown
also in Figure 2, is eminently low for trouble-free operation. Army Specification 2-103B, referred to above, permits a maximum of 7 milligrams.
Summarizing then for the items of fuel quality, reported in Figure 2, the
general statement can be made that no deleterious effects in engine operation
should be encountered from minor changes which may have been made in
gravity, vapor pressure, sulphur, or gum.
PREWAR,1941
PRESENT, 1944
Figure 3. Average Octane Ratings of Prewar and Present.day Gasolines
5. Detonation resistance. Figure 3 compares the average octane ratings
of gasolines marketed in 1941 with those of the present. On the left are shown
the common grades of third structure, regular, and premium with indicated
octane numbers of 64, 74, and ,3. These averages represent the approximate
peak values ever attained by each grade in their steady climb during the past
decade.
To the right are shown the knock ratings of wartime regular and
premium gasolines having average octane numbers of 71.5 and 75.
It is at once apparent that present-day premium fuel is about equal in
knock resistance to pre-war regular grade. Further, th two classes of fuel are
now separated by only 3 octane numbers instead of 9 as beIore. If the statement is true that the least change in knock resistance that the ear can detect is
one effected by a change of three octane numbers, it might seem futile from
this standpoint only to pay an additional price for present-day premium fuel.
The principal reasons for lowered knock ratings are due to curtailment of
tetra-ethyl lead for use in domestic gasolines. On November 1, 1943, the
Petroleum Administrator for War set the upper octane number limit of premium gasoline at 76 and pegged all regular grade at 72. More recently, July
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
16, 1944, the upper limit of regular grade has been lowered to 70. Savings in
lead result not only from the lesser amounts used per gallon but from gasoline
rationing as well. When it is realized that 100 octane aviation fuel requires
over 4 cc of tetra-ethyl lead per gallon, the need for lead curtailment can be
realized.
Although the effect of this lowered octane rating on engine performance
is decidedly noticeable, even a little annoying at times, it does not affect the 35
mile per hour level road operation of passenger vehicles, as their octane requirement at such low load factors is considerably below 70. The audible
detonation, occurring under conditions of acceleration and climb, is usually of
such short duration and low intensity that no harmful effects occur. It is only
under conditions of sustained high intensity knock, with resulting high cylinder
and valve temperatures that detonation is liable to pass into pre-ignition, which,
if abnormally severe, can cause engine failure.
Properly trained truck drivers can avoid this situation by intelligent manip-
ulation of gears to keep engine rotative speeds up to recommended values,
thereby insuring maximum cooling and minimum knock.
In tolerating the additional "ping," may it be a reminder that the lead
shortage in our gasoline has been added to another gallon of fighting grade now
performing service in a plane on some battlefront of the war!
6. Volatility. By far the greatest change that has taken place in gasoline, and one that is disconcertingly apparent to every motor vehicle operator,
is the change in volatility. To illustrate what marked differences exist between
today's motor fuel and that of 1941, the curves of Figure 4 have been prepared
from the reliable compilations heretofore cited. It should be stated here that
these data apply particularly to the Pacific Coast area where the volatility is
even lower than in other parts of the Continental United States (1).
The three lower curves represent the familiar A.S.T.M. distillations of prewar third structure, regular, and premium grade gasolines while the upper
curve indicates today's average motor fuel, whether it be regular or premium.
There is so little difference in volatility between these two fuel types, that a
single curve can quite accurately describe them both.
In studying these curves, one is impressed by the fact that the volatility of
present-day gasoline has been lowered over the greater portion of its boiling
temperature range and that it is now inferior in this respect to pre-war third
structure grade. It is further evident that little change has been made in the
shape of the curve below the 10 per cent temperature. This similarity is by
no means accidental as the boiling temperatures of this lower 10 per cent fraction control two important operating characteristics of the carbureting engine,
namely, starting and vapor lock.
IV. THE VOLATILITY PROBLEM
1. Effect of .volatility on engine performance. So much is known
concerning the effect of gasoline volatility on engine performance that fuel
designers are now quite familiar with the limiting values of temperatures
which may be used in constructing a fuel to meet requirements for satisfactory
engine operation. Some of the performance items which can be controlled by
fuel volatility include starting, warm-up, acceleration, cruising, crankcase dilution, vapor lock, loss from tanks, fuel consumption, mixture distribution,
volumetric efficiency, and others.
UTILIZATION OF WARTIME MOTOR FUEL
9
It is beyond the scope of this writing to explain in detail how, or to what
extent, volatility can influence each of these performance factors, but it should
be made clear that whenever the volatility of gasoline deviates from the rather
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Figure 4.
A.S.T.M. Volatilities of Present and Pre-war Gasolines
10
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
narrow limits of an established pattern, any, or all, of these performance characteristics may be noticeably affected.
Referring again to Figure 4, there will be noted four vertical scales within
the diagram, named from left to right, starting, acceleration and warm-up,
cruising, and crankcase dilution. Numbers on these vertical scales indicate
Fahrenheit atmospheric temperatures. At the point of intersection of each of
these scales with the A.S.T.M. distillation curve, the atmospheric temperature,
below which trouble impends, is read.
As an example, all curves cross the starting scale at 7 F which indicates
satisfactory starting (in ten revolutions) at this, or any higher atmospheric
temperature, but unsatisfactory starting when the atmospheric temperature is
below 7 F. Complaints have been made on the starting characteristics of wartime gasoline, but it is the writer's opinion, based on experience and an analysis
of the data available, that such difficulty more likely can be charged to causes
other than fuel quality.
Intersections on the acceleration and warm-up scale reveal some interesting
facts.
It can be seen that an atmospheric temperature (not underhood or
carburetor inlet temperature) of approximately 7 F is necessary for acceptable
acceleration and warm-up without use of the choke. This temperature is approximately 30 F higher than required for pre-war third structure gasoline, a
fuel known to possess poor warm-up characteristics.
The cruising scale indicates a requirement of 67 F atmospheric temperature
for backfire-free operation on level road at 55 miles per hour. This requirement is, of course, not a cause for concern with 35 mile per hour speed limitations so far as smooth operation is concerned. Because of the greater influence
of poor distribution, however, combustion may be incomplete, and thus adversely
affect efficiency.
From the standpoint of fuel volatility, Figure 4 indicates freedom from
crankcase oil dilution with the wartime gasoline. This is at variance with
numerous reports from operators claiming increased dilution, dating from the
approximate time when low volatile fuels appeared. The dilution is probably
traceable to operational procedures, such as more cold starts per 100 miles and
decreased effectiveness of crankcase ventilating systems at lowered speeds,
rather than to an excess of heavy ends in the fuel.
A study of the three pre-war gasolines, as they lie in relation to one
another and to the present gasoline on the coordinates and scales of Figure 4,
should be of interest to the reader. Most difficulties experienced with wartime
gasoline are explained by the differences between these curves.
2. Equilibriumair volatility. The conventional induction system of a
carbureting engine is composed of the carburetor and a multi-ported inlet manifold. Starting from the time that liquid fuel is drawn from the carburetor jets
and mixed with the inflowing air, to the end of the combustion process, evaporation of various portions of the fuel can be taking place. Obviously, the fuel
is being evaporated in an atmosphere of air, and under such conditions the
partial pressure law controls the pressure of the fuel vapor and consequently
the boiling temperature of the entrained liquid.
The complex problem of determining the temperatures at which various
percentages of the fuel evaporate under equilibrium conditions, when the airvapor ratio is varied between the inflammable limits of 4 to 1 and 20 to 1 was
undertaken by the Bureau of Standards about fifteen years ago. The results
40
35
30
25
20
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20
40
60
80
PER CENT EVAPORATED
Figure 5. AS.T.M. and Corresponding Equilibrium-air Volatility of
Present and Pre-war Gasolines
11
100
12
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
of that investigation were reported by 0. C. Bridgeman (2), in the S.A.E.
Transactions for 1929. From this work it is now possible to calculate from the
A.S.T.M. volatility, the so-called equilibrium air distillation curves for a wide
volatility range of gasolines. Such curves have been constructed in Figure 5
for wartime gasoline and pre-war premium grade. These represent extremes in
volatility and will be discussed with special reference to the present warm-up
and acceleration problem.
The lower two curves of Figure 5 were calculated for 13 to 1 air-vapor
ratios and a total pressure (air plus vapor) of one atmosphere. Thirteen to
one is a power mixture and is usually required for accelerating performance.
Looking now at the E.A.D. curve for wartime gasoline, a temperature of 130 F
is read for the 100 per cent evaporated point. This is interpreted to mean that
a mixture temperature of 130 F is needed in the engine manifold to evaporate
completely all the fuel, assuming equilibrium conditions to obtain.
To insure good distribution, of an equal quantity of fuel being fed to each
cylinder, it is necessary that most of the fuel be evaporated before it enters
any leg of the inlet manifold. This is the reason for placing the "hot spot"
immediately after the carburetor flange.
From work on volatility conducted at the University of Michigan under
the direction of G. G. Brown (3), and carried on almost sinuiltaneously with
that done by the Bureau of Standards, it was concluded that aiproximately 75
per cent of the fuel should be evaporated in the engine manifold to obtain
satisfactory acceleration.
If this figure is used with the upper E.A.D. curve of Figure 5, it is seen
that a mixture temperature of 112 F is needed providing equilibrium conditions
prevail. By equilibrium is meant that no further evaporation would take place
at this temperature even though more time were allowed by increasing the
manifold length. It is an accepted fact that equilibrium is not complete in
engine manifolds and therefore, somewhat higher than equilibrium temperatures
must be maintained.
Another significant observation that can be made from the E.A.D. curves
is, that due to their flatness, a small increase in temperature can increase, by an
appreciable amount, the quantity of fuel evaporated. Thus in the case of the
E.A.D. curve for wartime gasoline, if the temperature is increased to 130 F,
just 18 F more, the remaining 25 per cent of the fuel will be evaporated. This
type of analysis provides the basis for design of intake manifolds adaptable to
fuels of various known volatilities.
V. WARM-UP ROAD TESTS
1. Types of inlet manifolds. Although inlet manifolds may be classified
in various ways, according to some special feature, such as direction of draft,
shape, number of ports, etc., attention is especially directed here to their individual differences on the basis of the means used to transfer heat to the fuelair mixture and control its temperature.
The four mediums available for carrying heat to the mixture are (1) the
underhood air, (2) the jacket coolant, (3) the lubricating oil, and (4) the
exhaust gases. To these might be added the metal of the engine block. No
single manifold design uses any one of these mediums to the exclusion of all
others, but many incorporate combinations of two or more with a preponderance of one.
Figure 6.
Types of Induction Manifolds
14
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
As an example, the design shown at "A" in Figure 6 is commonly known
as a water jacketed type, but heat is also transferred to the mixture from
the exhaust gases through the exhaust pipe and the cylinder block.
The exhaust heated inlet manifold, at "B," Figure 6, is the closest approach to a pure type, but even this design receives some heat from the surrounding air and the engine metal, particularly in the manifold branches leading from the hot spot.
The intake manifold on the V-8 engine, "C," Figure 6, receives most of
its heat from an exhaust jacket immediately after the carburetor, but the mixture may also be heated from such sources as the lubricating oil, underhood
air, and the block metal.
2. Factors affecting mixture temperature. Probably the most common method employed to control the fuel-air temperature in the intake manifold is that used in the exhaust hot spot system shown at "B" in Figure 6.
Here a butterfly valve under the control of a bi-metallic coiled spring is positioned, according to spring temperature, to by-pass a generous portion of the
exhaust gas around and across a rather small section of the inlet manifold
just after the carburetor. As the hi-metallic spring temperature increases due
to its proximity with the exhaust heat, the butterfly valve gradually assumes
a position which closes the hot spot opening and allows direct flow of exhaust
gases to the muffler. After the engine becomes warm, the exhaust heat is no
longer needed and the mixture temperature is controlled by a combination of
the underhood air and the cylinder block temperatures. In some designs, including modern engines, no automatic temperature control is used with the exhaustheated hot spot, and in such cases warm-up may be slower due to the necessity
of restricting the size of these exhaust passages which are open at all times.
The inlet manifold referred to as the water jacketed type relies on the
temperature of the cooling medium to regulate and control mixture temperature.
If the coolant temperature is increased there is a corresponding increase in
mixture temperature. Actual test results reported herein will show this
relationship.
Finally, mixture temperature can be influenced to a very marked degree by
the temperature of the air entering the carburetor. This temperature is not
always that of the underhood air. Intake cleaners and silencers have grown in
size and mass to a point where they have considerable heat capacity. The
incoming air, in traversing the passages through these devices, is warmed in
proportion to the air cleaner temperature. It is not uncommon to find a 30 F
rise in air temperature through the cleaner-silencer unit.
3. Results of warm-up tests. In order to compare the actual mixture
temperatures during the warm-up period with those calculated in equilibriumair distillation for present-day gasoline, a limited number of road tests were
made.
Thermocouples were installed on the engine at three locations, (1) in
carburetor air horn, after the air cleaner, (2) in the mixture stream after the
hot spot, and (3) in the jacket coolant on the engine side of the thermostat. A
Lewis pyrometer with multi-point switch was used as the temperature indicating instrument. Tests were usually made in the early morning when the
atmospheric temperature was lowest and after the car had stood in the open
during the night. Although inaccuracies, due to wet bulb effect, are known to
exist with this method of temperature measurement, the error introduced is
UTILIZATION OF WARTIME MOTOR FUEL
15
practically constant and therefore results expressed as temperature differences
should be reasonably accurate.
The procedure consisted of a one minute stationary warm-up period, at
approximately 1,000 rpm, followed by a level road run at 35 miles per hour in
high gear. Readings of the three temperatures, referred to above, were taken
at one minute intervals until steady conditions obtained.
Typical warm-up curves such as those shown in Figure 7 were plotted
from the test data. It is interesting to compare the rapid rate of temperature
rise for the jacket water with the lower rates of both the mixture and the carburetor inlet air temperatures. Further, it is seen that the mixture temperature
does not reach equilibrium until approximately ten minutes have elapsed; a
length of time commonly greater than that required for short runs to and
from work.
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Figure 7. Warm-up Curves From Road Test of 1941 Model (De Soto) Car.
15
16
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
Another significant observation brought out by the mixture temperature
curve is the point of leveling off at 105 F. Referring again to Figure 5, the
13 to 1 air-vapor ratio curve for present-day gasoline shows 65 per cent of
the fuel to be evaporated at equilibrium when the temperature of the mixture
is 105 F. Assuming equilibrium conditions to prevail in the engine manifold,
which they do not, the above data would indicate that the carburetor should
meter an 8.4 to 1 air-fuel ratio in order to produce a 13 to 1 air-vapor ratio
at this temperature. As carburetors are seldom set so rich as this, it is evident
20
±fl
-JACKET WATER
I1
IL
uJ
D14
I
iiIsi1Iii liii 111111
Lii
aLii
I
Ii'
o CARB. INLET AIR
10
20
30
40
50
CAR SPEED, MI PER HOUR
Figure 8. Effect of Car Speed on Operating Temperatures
UTILIZATION OF WARTIME MOTOR FUEL
17
that considerably less than 65 per cent of the fuel is actually evaporated at
105 F, and consequently inlet manifolds are required to handle excessively
wet mixtures.
Figure 8 calls attention to the effect of speed on the final steady tempera-
tures attained by the carburetor inlet air, the mixture, and the jacket water.
These observations were made on a car having a water-jacketed intake manifold
and equipped with a 180 F thermostat. It is interesting to note that the mixture
temperature faIls off with increased level-road speed. This fact might be useful
in the development of any device designed to increase mixture temperature.
VI. SUGGESTED MEANS OF IMPROVING
ENGINE OPERATION
1. High-temperature thermostats. One answer to the problem of low
volatility is to increase the mixture temperature in order to evaporate additional fuel.
On water-jacketed manifolds, some advantage can be gained by installing
high-temperature thermostats in the cooling system. Figure 9 shows two sets
of warm-up curves obtained under the test conditions previously described. By
increasing the jacket temperature 15 F, the inlet-to-carburetor temperature was
increased from 74 to 86 F, despite the lower atmospheric temperature of 55
instead of 65 F. Had the atmospheric temperature been 65 F it is likely that
the carburetor air temperature would have exceeded 90 F.
Of principal interest, however, is the rise in temperature of the mixture
from 110 to 118 F. This 8 degree rise is capable of evaporating an additional
12 per cent of the fuel according to Figure 5. In support of the reasonable
accuracy of the test methods here employed it was noted that the throttle
response, although not up to standard, was greatly improved by effecting this
temperature change.
If the mixture temperature could be made to rise at a more rapid rate
the warm-up period could be reduced. The 175 F thermostat did reduce this
time by about one and one-half minutes but better results than this should be
Attention should be called to the fact that thermostats set for this
higher control temperature should not be used with alcohol anti-freeze solutions as most of them boil below this temperature.
2. Adjustment of automatic chokes. Another way of increasing the
amount of fuel vapor in the induction system of an engiiw is to evaporate
partly a greater total quantity of fuel. This can be done by metering a richer
mixture from the carburetor. Automatic chokes serve this function by reducing the air supply, when the engine is cold, to approximately a 1 to 1 air-fuel
ratio. Most of these devices are controlled by the exhaust manifold temperaobtained.
ture which serves to open the choke valve gradually as that temperature
increases. Adjustment can be made on certain types of automatic chokes which
will cause them to remain closed until a slightly higher temperature is reached.
This has the effect of maintaining the required richer mixture for a little
longer time during the warm-up period. If properly adjusted the economy
setting of the carburetor will not be altered after the engine is warm.
3. Clean hot spots. Engines equipped with exhaust heated manifolds and
160 F thermostats show almost the same warm-up characteristics as those of
the water-jacketed type, as a comparison of Figures 7 and 9 will show. High
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
18
temperature water thermostats do not shorten the warm-up time of engines
equipped with this type of manifold, but the final mixture temperature is raised
due to a warmer underhood condition of both the engine and the atmosphere.
Somewhat better heat transfer from hot spot to fuel mixture can be expected, and realized, if the carbon is periodically removed from the hot-spot
surfaces. This can be accomplished best by sandblasting but ordinary scraping
is effective. No actual test results are available to show the effectiveness of
this maintenance practice but opinion is offered that it would not completely
solve the problem since little more could be done than to convert the surfaces
Lii
IjJ
0
(Li
I
0
5
10
-15
TIME, MINUTES
Figure 9.
Effect of Jacket Temperature on Warm.up Mixture Temperature. Tests
with 1941 Model Car Having Water Jacketed Manifold.
UTILIZATION OF WARTIME MOTOR FUEL
19
to their original condition; a design based on the use of very uniform pre-war
gasoline.
4. Pre-heated inlet air. One obvious way of increasing the mixture
temperature is to increase the temperature of the air entering the carburetor.
As the engine exhaust is the one source of quick heat, some form of stove,
built around the exhaust manifold, that would permit the air to be drawn over
this surface before entering the carburetor suggests itself as a possible solution.
Such a device would have to include means to control or cut off this supply
of warm air immediately after the warm-up period in order to avoid excessively
high carburetor temperatures that could lead to power loss and vapor lock.
5. Warm-up speed. Another suggested practice for decreasing the
warm-up time is to increase the speed of the engine from the customary 1,000
rpm to about 1,800 rpm. On engines equipped with exhaust heated hot spots
this would provide almost double the heat energy both to the hot spot and the
jacket water. It is true that additional fuel would be consumed during the
one minute warm-up period but by this time the automatic choke would be
partly open and less gasoline would be used during the first few minutes of
road travel.
6. Richer carburetor settings. Some operators have found a partial
solution to the low fuel volatility problem by adjusting the normal carburetor.
setting to a richer mixture. This can be done by increasing the size of main
jets or by replacement of metering pins. Another practice has been to raise the
carburetor float level about 1/64 inch. One taxicab operator, using heavy V-8
type engines, has found it necessary to use a 12.4 air-fuel ratio for satisfactory
operation. Obviously, richer mixtures tend toward poorer fuel economy, but,
depending upon the type of operation, this may not actually result. Richer
mixtures provide additional engine cooling which is an aid in suppressing detonation from fuels of lowered knock ratings.
The problem of low fuel volatility is a serious one, since the combination
of it and decreased driving speeds contribute to engine wear. Low volatility,
in itself, is an accident hazard. With 5,000 cars per day being withdrawn from
the country's supply and with little hope of getting new cars before 1946, every
effort should be made to increase the life of our transportation equipment.
If serious attempts are contemplated by fleet owners and automotive service
agencies to deal adequately with the problem of low fuel volatility, further
detailed study should be made by them. Investigation should be extended to
vehicles of different makes and to experimental devices designed to increase
the mixture temperature and its initial rate of temperature rise.
In a publication of this kind it is, of course, quite impossible to cover in
detail exact recommendations for all vehicles, but general principles have been
set forth to the extent that any interested operator or mechanic could pursue
the problem further by applying them to his particular equipment.
VII. PETROLEUM RESOURCES
Present restrictions in gasoline supply, due to the war, often cause questions
to be raised concerning the length of time that petroleum will be available.
Although not directly related to the subject of this writing, it still seems
appropriate here to make some mention of the world's potential supply.
20
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
1. Known petroleum reserves. During the past ten years many authorities have commented on United States proved reserves and almost without
exception those comments have presented a rather discouraging picture of our
dwindling petroleum supply. It is indeed encouraging then, in the light of these
predictions, to read Wallace E. Pratt in the American Scientist for April 1944
who points out that the common view of looking at our petroleum resources
from the static or petroleum reserves viewpoint, is completely misleading.
The story of United States petroleum reserves is commonly told by simply
stating that our known supply of crude oil amounts to approximately twenty
billion barrels and at the present rate of consumption, which is well over a
billion barrels annually, that supply will be exhausted in about fifteen years.
If it were strictly true that petroleum would be practically nonexistent in this
Country fifteen years hence, there would indeed be cause for grave concern.
Such is very unlikely to be the case, however, for a number of reasons.
2. Estimated potential supply. In the production of petroleum, it has
been common practice to recover only about 48 per cent or less of the total
volume of oil in an original deposit, leaving behind that portion which was
difficult and costly to remove. Taking into consideration our proved reserves
of 20 billion barrels and all of the oil that has been taken from the ground to
date, (about 48 billion barrels) there still remains in the earth beneath the
United States a known quantity of crude oil amounting to something like 100
billion barrels. With improved methods of secondary recovery, it seems certain that much of this will become available over a period of years.
While few new discoveries have been made during the past three years,
due in part to curtailment of exploration during a war emergency, there was
yet an adequate supply. There are well over a million square miles of unexplored possible oil-producing land in this country alone. This area is about
equal to the total explored and producing territory covered to date. Past
experience has shown that from one to two per cent of the promising area
tested has produced crude. It may then be justifiably expected to find considerable oil from these unexplored regions.
Now that man has discovered, and put into practice, the art of uniting
gaseous hydrocarbons to form liquid hydrocarbons of higher molecular weight,
it is possible to produce motor fuel from our large reserves of natural gas.
This process would not deplete the normal supply of natural gas as only the
heavier, unwanted constituents are removed for motor fuel. It has been estimated authoritatively, that in the proved reserves of natural gas of the United
States there arc the equivalent of 17 billion barrels of petroleum. Here alone
is a possible source of motor fuel for some time.
In addition to our domestic proved reserves of some 20 billion barrels,
American interests have proved reserves in other countries amounting to at
least an equal amount. These together with the petroleum equivalent of natural
gas total 57 billion barrels under the control of American petroleum interests.
To this can be added the 100 billion barrels remaining in the ground for a total
of 157 billion barrels.
Outside the United States there are at least five million square miles of
first class oil-promising land. Exploration over the surface of the earth has
hardly begun. Although this country now produces over 65 per cent of the
world's petroleum, time will probably show that less than 15 per cent of the
world's total oil had its origin in formations under the soil of the United
States. The possibilities of petroleum discovery are enormous and will be limited only by our ability to devise means and equipment adequately to explore and
develop these undiscovered resources.
-:'
UTILIZATION OF WARTIME MOTOR FUEL
21
VIII. REFERENCES
1.
0. C. National motor-gasoline survey, winter 1943-44. Report of
investigation No. 3758, U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines. June 1944.
2. BRIDGEMAN, 0. C. Present status of equilibrium-volatility work at Bureau
of Standards. S.A.E. Transactions 24:240-52, 1929.
3. BROWN, G. G. The volatility of motor fuels. Engineering research bulletin
No. 14, University of Michigan, 1930.
22
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION cIRcuLAR No. 8
OREGON STATE COLLEGE
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
CORVALLIS, OREGON
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
BulletinsNo. 1. Preliminary Report on the Control of Stream Pollution in Oregon, by C. V.
Langton and H. S. Rogers. 1929.
Fifteen cents.
No. 2. A Sanitary Survey of the Willamette Valley, by H. S. Rogers, C. A. Mockmore,
and C. D. Adams. 1930.
Forty cents.
No. 3. The Properties of Cement-Sawdust Mortars, Plain, and with Various Admix.
tures, by S. H. Graf and R. H. Johnson. 1930.
Twenty cents.
No. 4. Interpretation of Exhaust Gas Analyses, by S. H. Graf, G. W. Gleeson, and
W. H. Paul.
1934.
Twenty-five cents.
No. 5. Boiler.Water Troubles and Treatments with Special Reference to Problems in
Western Oregon, by R. E. Summers.
None available.
1935.
No. 6. A Sanitary Survey of the Willamette River from Sellwood Bridge to the Colum.
bia, by G. \V. Gleeson. 1936.
Twenty-five Cents.
No. 7. Industrial and Domestic Wastes of the Willamette Valley, by G. W. Gleeson
and F. Merryfield.
Fifty cents.
1936.
No. 8. An Investigation of Some Oregon Sands with a Statistical Study of the Predictive Values of Tests, by C. E. Thomas and S. H. Graf. 1937.
Fifty cents.
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1938 Progress Report on the Post Farm, by T. J. Starker, 1938.
Twenty-five Cents.
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Fifteen cents each.
No. 10. Precipitation.Static Radio Interference Phenomena Originating on Aircraft, by
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Seventy-five cents.
No. 11. Electric Fence Controllers with Special Reference to Equipment Developed
for Measuring Their Characteristics, by F. A. Everest. 1939.
Forty cents.
No. 12.
Mathematics of Alignment Chart Construction without the Use of Deter.
minants, by J. R. Griffith.
Twenty-five Cents.
1940.
No. 13. Oil Tar Creosote for Wood Preservation, by Glenn Voorhies, 1940.
Twenty-five cents.
No. 14. Optimum Power and Economy Air.Fuel Ratios for Liquefied Petroleum Gases,
by W. H. Paul and M. N. Popovich.
Twenty-five cents.
1941.
No. 15. Rating and Care of Domestic Sawdust Burners, by E. C. Willey. 1941.
Twenty-five cents.
No. 16. The Improvement of Reversible Dry Kiln Fans, by A. D. Hughes. 1941.
Twenty.five cents.
No. 17. An Inventory of Sawmill Waste in Oregon, by Glenn Voorhies. 1942.
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No. 18. The Use of Fourier Series in the Solution of Beam Problems, by B. F. Ruffner.
1944.
Fifty cents.
Circulars-
No. 1. A Discussion of the Properties and Economics of Fuels Used in Oregon, by
C. E. Thomas and G. D. Keerins. 1929.
Twenty-five cents.
No. 2. Adjustment of Automotive Carburetors for Economy, by S. H. Graf and G. W.
Gleeson. 1930.
None available.
UTILIZATION OF WARTIME MOTOR
Fu
23
No. 3. Elements of Refrigeration for Small Commercial Plants, by W. H. Martin. 1935.
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No. 4. Some Engineering Aspects of Locker and Home Cold-Storage Plants, by W. B.
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No. 5.
No. 6. The Use of a Technical Library, by W. E. Jorgensen.
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No. 7.
1940.
1942.
Saving Fuel in Oregon Homes, by E. C. Willey. 1942.
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No. 8. Technical Approach to the Utilization of Wartime Motor Fuels, by W. H. Paul,
1944.
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ReprintsNo. 1. Methods of Live Line Insulator Testing and Results of Tests with Diilerent
Instruments, by F. 0. McMillan. Reprinted from 1927 Proc. N. W. Else. Lt.
and Power Assoc.
Twenty cents.
No. 2. Some Anomalies of Siliceous Matter in Boiler Water Chemistry, by R. E.
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No. 3. Asphalt Emulsion Treatment Prevents Radio Interference, by F. 0. McMillan.
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No. 6. Water-Gas Reaction Apparently Controls Engine Exhaust Gas Composition, by
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No. 7. Steam Generation by Burning Wood, by R. E. Summers. Reprinted from April
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No. 10. Heat Transfer Efficiencl of Range Units, by W. J. Walsh. Reprinted from
Aug. 1937, Electrical Engineering.
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No. 11. Design of Concrete Mixtures, by I. F. Waterman.
Concrete.
None available.
Reprinted from Nov. 1937.
No. 12. Water-wise Refrigeration, by W. H. Martin and R. E. Summers.
from July 1938, Power.
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No. 13. Polarity Limits of the Sphere Gap, by F. 0. McMillan.
58, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Mar. 1939.
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Reprinted
Reprinted from Vol.
Influence of Utensils on Heat Transfer, by W. G. Short.
Reprinted from
Nov. 1938, Electrical Engineering.
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No. 15. Corrosion and Self.Protection of Metals, by R. E. Summers. Reprinted
from Sept. and Oct. 1938, Industrial Power.
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No. 16. Monocoque Fuselage Circular Ring Analysis, by B. F. Ruffner. Reprinted
from Jan. 1939, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences.
Ten cents.
No. 14.
No. 17. The Photoelastic Method as an Aid in Stress Analysis and Structural Design.
y B. F. Ruffner. Reprinted from Apr. 1939, Aero Digest.
len Cents.
24
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION CIRCULAR No. 8
No. 18. Fuel Value of Old-Growth vs. Second-Growth Douglas Fir, by Lee Gable.
Reprinted from June 1939, The Timberman.
Ten cents.
No. 19.
Stoichiometric Calculations of Exhaust Gas, by G. W. Gleeson and F. W.
Woodfield, Jr. Reprinted from November 1, 1939, National Petroleum News.
Ten cents.
No. 20. The Application of Feedback to Wide-Band Output Amplifiers by F. A.
Everest and H. R. Johnston. Reprinted from February 1940, Proc. of the
Institute of Radio Engineers.
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No. 21. Stresses Due to Secondary Bending, by B. F. Ruffner. Reprinted from Proc.
of First Northwest Photoelasticity Conference, University of Washington,
March 30, 1940.
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No. 22. Wall Heat Loss Back of Radiators, by E. C. Willey. Reprinted from November 1940, Heating and Ventilating.
Ten cents.
No. 23. Stress Concentration Factors in Main Members Due to Welded Stiffeners, b
W. It. Cherry. Reprinted from December, 1941, The Welding Journa,
Research Supplement.
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No. 24. Horizontal-Polar-Pattern Tracer for Directional Broadcast Antennas, by F. A.
Everest and W. S. Pritchett. Reprinted from May, 1942, Proc. of the Insti.
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No. 25. Modern Methods of Mine Sampling, by R. K. Meade. Reprinted from Janu.
ary, 1942, The Compass of Sigma Gamma Epsilon.
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THE ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT
STATION STAFF
G. W. GLEESON, Acting Dean and Director of Engineering.
S. H. G1F, Director of Engineering Research.
*A. L. ALBERT, Communication Engineering.
*F. A. EVEREST, Radio Engineering.
P. M. DUNN, Forestry.
G. W. GLEESON, Chemical Engineering.
BURDETFE Gr.ENN, Highway Engineering.
*J. R. GRIFFITH, Structural Engineering.
C. V. LANGTON, Public Health.
F. 0. MCMILLAN, Electrical Engineering.
W. H. MARTIN, Mechanical Engineering.
FanD MERRYFIELD, Sanitary Engineering.
C. A. MocxMoa, Civil and Hydraulic Engineering.
W. H. PAUL, Automotive Engineering.
B. F. RUFFNER, Aeronautical Engineering.
M. C. SHEELY, Shop Processes.
E. C. STA.m, Electrical Engineering.
A. W. ScHLEcHTEN, Mining and Metallurgical Engineering.
C. E. THOMAS, Engineering Materials.
GLENN V00RmES, Wood Products.
Technical Counselors
R. H. BALDOCK, State Highway Engineer, Salem.
IVAN BLOCH, Acting Chief, Division of Industrial and Resources Development,
Bonneville Power Administration, Portland.
R. R. CLARK,. Designing Engineer, Corps of Engineers, Portland District,
Portland.
DAVID DON, Chief Engineer, Public Utilities Commissioner, Salem.
C. B. MCCULLOUGH, Assistant State Highway Engineer, Salem.
PAUL B. McKEE, President, Portland Gas and Coke Company, Portland.
B. S. Mommw, Engineer and General Manager, Department of Public Utilities
and Bureau of Water Works, Portland.
F. W. LIBBEY, Director, State Department of Geology and Mineral Industries,
Portland.
J. H. POLHEMUS, President, Portland General Electric Company, Portland.
S. C. Scuwaz, Chemical Engineer, Portland Gas and Coke Company, Portland;
J. C. STEVENS, Consulting Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, Portland.
C. E. STRICKLIN, State Engineer, Salem.
S. N. WYCKOFF, Director, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Portland.
On leave of absence for military or civilian war service.
Oregon State College
Corvallis
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