July 2011
ALGAL RESEARCH IN THE UK
A Report for BBSRC
by B. Schlarb-Ridley
PREFACE
BBSRC Statement of Intent
“BBSRC wishes to understand whether and, if yes, how it should address fundamental research into the biology of algae in
the context of a feedstock for energy and other related products. BBSRC recognises that the routes to these products may
well be long term. This is an exploratory exercise by BBSRC – there is no commitment to follow-up funding.”
Context
This study takes into consideration the outcome of an algal stakeholder meeting called by DECC and facilitated through
NNFCC on 12 November 2009 1. Chapter 1 of this document – an overview of current and past activity on algal R&D in the
UK – is a direct response to one of the key recommendations made by the report on the outcomes of the DECC meeting.
The other recommendations are part of the evidence base considered for all sections of this document. Amongst others,
the study also builds on findings from the following reports:
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NREL Close-Out Report “A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from
Algae” (July 1998) 2
Report by the Algal Biotechnology for Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre “A Technology Review and Roadmap for
Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales” (2008) 3
NERC Proof of Concept Study for Marine Bioenergy (2008) 4
The Algal Industry Survey 2008 (published February 2009) 5
FAO-Report “Algae-based Biofuels: A Review of Challenges and Opportunities for Developing Countries” (May
2009) 6
US Department of Energy “National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap” (May 2010) 7
FAO-Report “Algae-based Biofuels: Applications and Co-products” (July 2010) 8
IEA Bioenergy Task 39 Report “Current Status and Potential for Algal Biofuels Production” (August 2010) 9
European Science Foundation Marine Board Position Paper 15 “Marine Biotechnology: A New Vision and Strategy
for Europe” (September 2010) 10
Milken Institute Financial Innovations Lab™ Report “Turning Plants into Products – Delivering on the Potential of
Industrial Biotechnology” (April 2011) 11
Nuffield Council on Bioethics Report “Biofuels: Ethical Issues” (April 2011) 12
AquaFUELS close-out reports (July 2011) 13
Web references throughout this report were accessed in June 2011.
1
available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk
available at [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
3
available at [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
4
available from NERC upon request
5
available at www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/algal-industry-survey.pdf
6
available at www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/aquaticbiofuels/docs/0905_FAO_Review_Paper_on_Algae-based_Biofuels.pdf
7
available at [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
8
available at www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/aquaticbiofuels/docs/1007_FAO_ABB_REPORT_2010.pdf
9
available at [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
10
available at www.esf.org/research-areas/marine-sciences/marine-board-working-groups/marine-biotechnology.html
11
available at www.milkeninstitute.org/publications/publications.taf?function=detail&ID=38801269&cat=finlab
12
available at www.nuffieldbioethics.org/biofuels
13
will shortly become available at [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
2
ii
Disclaimer
The report in Chapter 1 aims at establishing where in the UK algal research is being carried out, and what topics are being
investigated. The information presented is based on the responses received from participants in a questionnaire, and on
stakeholder engagement. The scope of the report did not allow for quality control of the stakeholder responses, and
hence no qualitative judgement is made of the participants.
While care has been taken to be fully inclusive in the report, the limits of scope and time mean that there will without
doubt be algal players who unintentionally have been overlooked, and information may have been misinterpreted. The
author would appreciate it if she could be notified of any omissions or corrections needed, so that the correct information
can be passed on to BBSRC.
Definition of Algae
Following the definition of RE Lee 14, the term ‘algae’ in this report is used to refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the
latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria, which are anoxygenic, are not included.
14
Lee RE: Phycology, 2008, Cambridge University Press, p.3
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was conducted by Beatrix Schlarb-Ridley (InCrops Enterprise Hub and Cambridge Bioenergy Initiative), with
substantial input from Michele Stanley (SAMS & NERC/TSB AB-SIG) on macroalgae and questionnaire design, Saul Purton
(UCL) on future opportunities for algae, and Steve Skill (PML) on UK algal industries.
The author is indebted to all algal researchers who have responded to the questionnaire on which Section 1.2 and
Appendix C are based, to Suzy Stoodley for invaluable support with collating the databases, and to Matthew Ridley for
proof-reading.
The draft report was reviewed by Derek Bendall, Chris Howe and Alison Smith; their helpful comments and provision of
additional information are gratefully acknowledged.
A particular thank you goes to Duncan Eggar, who commissioned this study, for highly constructive interaction from
conception to completion, and to colleagues who provided advice and input on specific areas of the report at various
stages. These include David Baulcombe, John Day, Enid MacRobbie, Joe McDonald, Vitor Vieira and in particular Adrian
Higson and Claire Smith, who under subcontract provided the majority of the market data in Chapter 3.
Images on Title Page
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Photobioreactor image (BioFence™): courtesy of Joe McDonald, Varicon Aqua Solutions Ltd
Electron micrograph (dinoflagellate Mesoporos perforates): courtesy of Ian Joint, PML
Seaweed image (Laminaria digitata in Dunstaffnage Bay): courtesy of John Day, SAMS
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS
AB-SIG
AD
AFRC
CCAP
CER
DoE
EPS
ETS
FAME
fte
GHG
HABS
HACCP
HRJ
HTL
HVO
IP
LCA
NOC
PBR
Pers. comm.
RD&D
PML
SAMS
sLoLa
SWOT
TRL
USW
NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group
Anaerobic Digestion
Agricultural and Food Research Council
Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa
Certified Emission Reduction
Department of Energy
Extra-cellular Polysaccharide
European Trading Scheme
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
full time equivalent
Green House Gas
Harmful Algal Blooms
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
Hydrogenated Renewable Jet Fuel
Hydrothermal Liquefaction
Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil
Intellectual Property
Life Cycle Analysis
National Oceanographic Centre
Photobioreactor
Personal communication
Research, Development and Demonstration (Deployment)
Plymouth Marine Laboratory
Scottish Association for Marine Science
strategic longer and larger grant
Strengths – Weaknesses – Threats – Opportunities
Technology Readiness Level
Ultra Short Wave
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
OVERVIEW
Over recent years, algae 15 have received much attention in the media on an international level, primarily as a potential
source of renewable transportation fuels. They have been highlighted as a feedstock that is not tainted with the ethical
dilemmas of current, food-based biofuels: they do not require arable land; need not compete for freshwater but can grow
in marine, brackish or nutrient-rich waste water; and in addition can be used to scrub CO2 and NOx from flue gasses.
Furthermore, growth rates tend to be considerably faster compared to land plants (doubling times as little as 8 hours), oil
yields per unit area for some species are more than 20x higher than e.g. for oil seed rape (Scott et al. 2010), and as a
group their tremendous metabolic diversity offers a wide spectrum of potential fuel molecules.
However, the potential of this immensely diverse group of organisms to address major global challenges extends far
beyond their use as an energy feedstock. Applications for food, animal feed, materials (e.g. replacements for
petrochemicals), speciality products and in bioremediation services are in several cases more advanced than fuel
applications, and often do not require the same scale of production. As a consequence, they are more attractive for
adoption in the UK where space is limited. Importantly, algae offer great potential for developing novel biotechnological
applications, to underpin building a bio-based economy.
In the light of the global interest in algae, BBSRC commissioned this study because it wishes to understand whether it
should address fundamental research into the biology of algae in the context of a feedstock for energy and other
products, and if so, how.
This study is split into two parts; in Part I, it takes stock of current and past algal activity in the UK (Chapter 1), gives an
overview of algal interests globally (Chapter 2), and reviews markets for algal products and services (Chapter 3).
Part II builds on this information to analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the light of current and
emerging opportunities for algal R&D, and in the context of international competition. It firstly reviews potential
opportunities for algal R&D to progress in plant science and biotechnology in general, with an emphasis on underpinning
food, energy and material security, and progressing biotechnology (Chapter 4). It then assesses the strengths of the UK
research capability on the global algae stage (Chapter 5), and moves on to analyse gaps in algal research value chains in
the UK (Chapter 6). Levels of risk, reward and importance of areas of RD&D required to promote the development of an
algal economy are assessed in Chapter 7. Finally, in Chapter 8, the outcomes of this study are compared to a previous
DECC report from 2009, entitled ‘Assessing the Potential for Algae in the UK’ 16; progress against the recommendations of
this report are considered, and further recommendations are made.
PART I: TAKING STOCK
Chapter 1 - Current and Past Algal Activity in the UK
The UK has a wealth of algal experience in the academic arena as well as in industry, relevant to the use of algae both as
an energy feedstock and in biotechnological and other higher value applications. Great benefits could be derived from
integrating this expertise to a greater extent.
15
Following the definition of RE Lee (Phycology, 2008, Cambridge University Press, p.3), the term ‘algae’ in this report is used to
refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria,
which are anoxygenic, are not included.
16
available from www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk
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Algal Expertise in Academia
Historic perspective (Section 1.1)
Pro- and eukaryotic algae have been – and continue to be – studied by a distinguished cohort of UK scientists. A
considerable proportion of their work has led to the elucidation of key metabolic pathways and physiological functions
with high relevance for both plant and animal biology, and has contributed to the foundations of algal biochemistry,
molecular biology, physiology, phylogeny, taxonomy and ecology. Furthermore, the UK has a strong history of excellence
in maintaining and expanding algal culture collections, and the foundations for several now globally-used algal engineering
solutions were laid by UK academics.
R&D on algae carried out in the UK over the last century has brought bioscience forward in general, and has laid strong
foundations that both algal research and several industrial applications are now building on world-wide.
Current Academic Expertise (Section 1.2)
To obtain an indicative 17 profile of the current algal research community in the UK, a list of researchers was collated from
discussions with stakeholders, and amplified by searching the online databases of funding bodies for grants awarded that
contained relevant key words. In this way, 322 UK academics were identified as contributing to algal R&D 18. To obtain an
up-to-date picture of the research expertise and interests of the identified researchers, a questionnaire was designed
jointly with the Director of the NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group (AB-SIG) and sent to both the collated list
and to the mailing list of the British Phycological Society. Of those who responded (170), 3/4 indicated that algae were at
the core of their research interest, and the remaining 1/4 that algae were a peripheral interest. Approximately 1/3 had an
interest in macroalgae, 2/3 in microalgae, with a small overlap. More researchers were interested in marine than in
freshwater algae, and equal numbers pursued fundamental and applied research. Of the given list of research interests,
environmental issues were chosen most frequently, followed by bioenergy, algal communities and algal productivity.
Bioprospecting and cosmeceuticals had the smallest number of interested researchers.
Based on the data collated from the questionnaires, the UK has particular strength in biological and ecological research.
Of the biological disciplines and research areas, photosynthesis research, molecular biology and physiology were most
widespread, followed by biochemistry, taxonomy, metabolism, phytoplankton research and biotechnology. Expertise in
the marine environment appears to be more widespread than in fresh water. There is also considerable expertise in the
applied areas of biomass / biofuel production and chemical and process engineering.
The extensive sample of the algal research expertise provided in Chapter 1 highlights the great wealth and breadth of
capability relevant to algal research which is currently present in the UK. Some initiatives already exist which bring several
of the groups and institutions together (c.f. Section 1.2.3), and participants in these initiatives have commented on the
immense benefit they have derived from exchange and collaboration with other groups. Overall, however, the community
describes itself as disjointed, which can in part be attributed to a lack of coherence in existing funding streams and
absence of strategic leadership 19. Step changes could be expected if the expertise of this community, whose excellent
research overall has been limited in impact by lack of integration, were to come together to apply their experience under
the umbrella of a strategic framework. This would enable the UK to capitalise on the strengths of the algal research
community, to compete strongly on the global stage and to address some of the key challenges which our society faces.
17
The report does not claim to be inclusive, and makes no judgement on the quality of the research expertise collated in this
chapter.
18
The methodology has clear weaknesses: Only the major funding bodies have public databases that can be searched, hence
researchers funded through smaller foundations, or through industry, would not have been captured unless they were known to
the group of stakeholders with whom the list was cross-checked. False positives were also observed. Despite the limitations, the
results obtained with this methodology provide a useful indication of the variety of algal expertise in the UK.
19
c.f. key outcomes of DECC report (www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk; p.3)
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UK Algal Industries (Section 1.3)
Over the past 30 years, the UK has produced a number of highly innovative algal companies whose work has driven the
algal field forward on an international level, although they have not always been commercially successful. Currently, a
small number of UK companies are well established on an international stage; these are either technology providers, or
service the high value spectrum of algal products from established species and strains. There are early beginnings of an
algal biotechnology industry, either through biorefining (e.g. of macroalgal biomass), or by developing microalgae as a
customised expression platform. Hardly any commercial activity exists in downstream processing.
Looking ahead to emerging opportunities for new industrial activities, considerable potential exists on the biological side
to build on the academic expertise in e.g. synthetic biology. Industrial biotechnology solutions could and are being
developed; these could then be commercialised through partnership with existing companies, or by forming university
spin-outs. On the engineering side, the greatest potential for the UK currently lies in the development of integrated
solutions for growth and processing, following the biorefining concept. Many academic groups and industrial technology
providers exist whose expertise could be drawn on to further develop such integrated algal solutions, once feasibility had
been confirmed and the sector had gained momentum.
Chapter 2 – International Key Players and Major Objectives
To assess its competitiveness and potential impact, the algal R&D capability in the UK needs to be put into the context of
global activity on algae. International interests are developing rapidly and are in constant flux; overall the biggest players
are the US (who pursue algae both from the point of view of energy security and for biotechnological solutions), and the
BRIC countries. The latter are investing heavily into algal R&D and are rapidly catching up with the longer-established
centres of expertise in Israel, Australia and the EU.
Nations which have a long-established history of expertise for macroalgae – chiefly in applications for food, fertiliser,
alginates, and pharmaceuticals – include China, Japan, the Philippines, Korea, Indonesia, Chile, and in Europe coastal
countries such as France, the UK, Norway and Portugal. For microalgae, the US 20, Australia, Israel, Japan, China, Taiwan
and several EU countries have well established capabilities, again chiefly in high value applications such as nutraceuticals.
The more recent biofuels boom has had a large influence especially in the US and the BRIC countries; considerable funding
has been invested there 21. A significant number of companies make unrealistic claims about productivities and profits,
which threaten the credibility of the field in general. The collapse of many new companies, including the high-profile MITspin-out GreenFuel Technologies Corporation in 2009, has led to more caution. Internationally the recognition is growing
that the pursuit of algae for bioenergy only will make successful commercialisation very difficult; the general trend is
towards integrative solutions that make use of the protein fraction for food and feed, as well as the oil fraction for fuel.
There is also an increasing trend to exploit algae as an industrial biotechnology platform; international leaders in this field
are the US, Israel, and the EU, although BRIC countries are catching up rapidly.
Several Algal Centres focusing on the scale-up of algal technologies have been established in the EU and internationally,
providing collaborative opportunities between academia and industry. In the EU, a large number of cross-national projects
are investigating a wide spectrum of algal issues, many with UK participation; these projects offer further opportunities for
UK academics and industries to engage in follow-up R&D activities.
To give stakeholders up-to-date information about the rapidly evolving landscape of international algal players and
interests, several bodies and initiatives have sought to collate and distribute information on algal expertise world-wide.
20
with its Aquatic Species Programme (the close-out report of which is available at [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb
2016], as well as pioneering nutraceutical companies
21
Examples of recent substantial funding support include $24 million awarded by the US Department of Energy in June 2010 to
three research consortia to address the existing difficulties in the commercialisation of algal-based biofuels.
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These include the EU programme AquaFUELS 22, the European Algal Biomass Association 23, the FAO Aquatic Biofuels
Working Group 24, the India-based information resource Oilgae 25 and the US-based Algae Industry Magazine 26.
Chapter 3 – Algal Products and Indicative Market Values
Algae can be cultivated to produce a wide range of end products. The market values for these products range from £100's
per tonne for energy products to £1000's per gram for very high value products. In most cases products derived from
algae need to break into established markets dominated by other, often petrochemical feedstocks, and compete with
well-established supply chains (e.g. for fuels and plastics). Some product groups exist (such as hydrocolloids or feed for
fish hatcheries) which can only be derived from algae, or where algal products have functional advantages over
alternatives; there are examples of such products that are already established on the market, and it is very probable that
more will be found.
Algal products can be classified into four categories based on monetary value:
1. Base commodities (high volume, low value)
2. Added value commodities (high volume, added value over energy)
3. Speciality products (low volume, high value)
4. ‘Ceuticals’ (very low volume, very high value)
In addition, algae can be used to perform bioremediation services.
Currently the only algal products on the general market are speciality products and some ‘ceuticals’. For microalgae, these
include pigments, omega-3 and -6 fatty acids, vitamins and whole algae as speciality food / feed items and for cosmetics;
for macroalgae they encompass speciality food / feed, fertilisers and hydrocolloids. Costs of existing products may be
lowered by adopting integrated biorefining approaches, coupled where possible with bioremediation services. Base
commodities such as bioenergy and bulk feed are not financially viable as yet, and production pathways for algal platform
chemicals still need to be developed.
At this time an area with particular development potential for the UK appears to be the exploitation of high value
chemicals for cosmeceuticals and nutraceuticals markets in the context of industrial biotechnology. Other areas of
significance include generating IP e.g. for liquid biofuels (to be applied internationally), replacing fishmeal in animal feed,
and developing integrated growth systems with anaerobic digestion and aquaculture. Given adequate support, algae have
the potential to become a substantial driver in the development of a bio-based economy in the UK.
PART II: WHAT NEXT
Chapter 4 - Potential Opportunities and Benefits of Algal R&D to Progress in Plant Science and Biotechnology
Evolution has led to immense diversity across all domains of life; a cornucopia that can be mined for bio-active molecules,
enzymes, pathways and traits for potential biotechnological applications. In this diversity across all forms of life, both
animals and land plants occupy a rather narrow phylogenetic space. Algae, however, are represented across almost the
entire tree of life (Fig. E.1), and are found in any imaginable habitat – be it deserts, arctic ice, salt lakes or hot springs.
Collectively they therefore provide a truly staggering richness of diversity – a resource that as yet has been little explored.
22
The final version of the AquaFUELS “Report on Main Stakeholders” is available at www.eabaassociation.eu/dl_misc/indexd1.3.html
23
The EABA is in a constant process of updating and expanding the AquaFUELS list, to deliver an “EABA Who’s Who Directory of
Algae Stakeholders”
24
www.fao.org/bioenergy/aquaticbiofuels/aquaticbiofuels-home/jp/
25
www.oilgae.com
26
Free daily email updates can be subscribed to via www.algaeindustrymagazine.com
viii
Fig. E.1: Phylogenetic tree highlighting the diversity and distribution of algae (boxed groups; colours indicate the
diversity of pigmentation) across the domains of life27. For comparison animals and land plants are encircled in red and
green, respectively.
If constructively supported algal R&D will contribute to solving major challenges, such as security of food, materials and
energy, and benefit the progress of biological and biotechnological disciplines in general.
Algal genomes and metabolomes can be mined for useful traits 28, such as tolerance to extremes of temperature,
irradiation, drought and salinity; these can be introduced into other crops. Likewise, valuable algal metabolites (e.g.
omega-3 and -6 fatty acids, vitamins, antioxidants, pigments, platform chemicals, precursors for plastics, pharmaceuticals)
can either be expressed in algae and/or their expression pathways introduced into other systems.
The field of artificial photosynthesis and solar fuels draws heavily on the wide design spectrum of light harvesting
solutions from pro- and eukaryotic algae. It is founded on the principles of nature, and uses them as starting points for
biomimetic systems. This also includes solar H2 production and CO2 reduction. Furthermore, the diversity of algal light
harvesting systems is the basis for engineering improved photosynthetic organisms that will use the entire visible
spectrum.
In addition, algal R&D can inform aspects of health and animal science, such as diseases caused by defective cilia, and can
further progress of fundamental science especially in the field of evolution.
One of the most promising areas, however, is the development of algae as a novel platform for industrial biotechnology.
This would not only address several shortcomings of existing cell-based expression systems, but importantly has the
potential to become a disruptive technology for plant sciences, i.e. a step to enable synthetic biology approaches to be
established and used in other plants and crops. Advantages of algal expression platforms such as Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii include
• fast growth
• short life cycles
• ease and low cost of culturing
• compatibility with high-throughput screening
• high expression levels and solubility of metabolites and proteins
• choice of chloroplast-based (i.e. resembling prokaryotic) or nuclear (i.e. eukaryotic) expression
• potential to secrete products into the vacuole or the medium
• minimal interference with inserted expression pathways.
27
adapted from http://www.keweenawalgae.mtu.edu/, with kind permission of Jason Oyadomari
This is already being developed commercially through a partnership between Sapphire Energy Inc. and Monsanto Company,
c.f. www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v29/n6/pdf/nbt0611-473b.pdf
28
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Chapter 5 – Strength of UK Capability on the Global Algae Stage
As the results of the survey described in Chapter 1 have highlighted, academia in the UK has great expertise in the
environmental and ecological sectors for both micro- and macroalgae, especially (but not exclusively) in the marine sector.
This capability is shared by some European countries. The UK’s ecological expertise is of great value and can help to
combat algal diseases and predators, and capitalise on helpful symbioses. If this capability can be integrated into budding
commercial activities, both nationally and internationally, it can both save costs and contribute to preventing ecological
disasters in scale-up of algal growth.
The UK’s expertise in life cycle analysis (LCA) is also of importance globally, since sound LCA is fundamental to any energy
application, and highly advisable for other applications. The UK is well placed to build further capacity to satisfy growing
global demand in this area (and also modelling in general, since these approaches – if supported by sound datasets – can
replace expensive experiments, allow exploration of a multitude of possible scenarios and thereby accelerate progress).
The algal culture collections in the UK are internationally leading 29; other important collections exist in e.g. Japan, the US,
Germany and France. Redundancy here is essential, to avoid contamination or natural disasters in one collection wiping
out access to important strains.
In terms of industrial activity, the UK has contributed to major breakthroughs in applied biology and engineering, which
have now been adopted by international players 30. Both academia and industry are actively involved in designing photo
bio-reactors (PBRs) and integrated systems for producing algal biomass (on an international level, activity in the field of
PBR design and biomass growth is particularly strong e.g. in Italy, Spain, Portugal, Germany, the US and Israel
Fundamental biology is one of the UK’s key strengths; major breakthroughs in photosynthesis research have been made in
the UK, and a wealth of experience exists in taxonomy, physiology, metabolism, biochemistry and molecular biology of
algae. This expertise is now increasingly being employed in a biotechnological context, with high relevance to
underpinning a bio-based economy. The US, Israel and several European countries also have considerable activity in this
area, and constitute serious competition to UK efforts. Nevertheless, the challenge posed by the world’s need to turn
from a petroleum to a bio-based economy is of such magnitude that parallel research approaches are needed to find
solutions on acceptable timescales. This represents a window of opportunity for UK expertise. The high quality of the UK
research base in this area, as well as creative approaches which are characteristic for UK-based scientific excellence, add
considerably to the UK’s competitiveness, and need to be fully made use of.
Chapter 6 – Algae Research Value Chains in the UK
To increase the impact of algal expertise in the UK, it is important to connect together the various research elements that
are needed to develop the outputs of fundamental research onwards into applications. In the UK context, it is helpful to
differentiate between two overarching value chains for algal research:
1. fundamental research leading to the development of novel high tech solutions and high value products
employing algae, with the end goal of building future generations of algal technology applications, and
2. further improvement and optimisation of existing applications in order to make them financially viable, more
profitable and/or environmentally acceptable.
Considerable expertise exists in the UK that can contribute to both of these value chains. Both in different ways – and with
input from different kinds of fundamental research – have potential to underpin the development of a bio-based economy
in the UK.
The first value chain requires intense, lab-based R&D (Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 1-4). This research tends to
produce stand-alone end products (a patented process or physical product) which are often taken to higher TRL levels
through spin-out companies from research institutes. Outputs include underpinning methods and technologies that can
be patented and licensed, as well as novel products.
29
www.CCAP.ac.uk; www.mba.ac.uk/culturecollection.php; www.mba.ac.uk/culturecollection.php; complemented by
www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/algaevision/index.html
30
The success of e.g. Martek Biosciences Corporation is based on a technology developed by the British company Celsys, now
closed
x
Bottlenecks for this value chain have included scarcity of dedicated funding support and of mechanisms by which
researchers can interact with industry in a meaningful way. Such interaction would help to identify pathways of
conducting world-class science; science which has outputs that are of high relevance to industry, and hence the potential
to identify routes to commercialisation. Encouraging steps in this direction have been taken by the Synthetic Plant
Products for Industry Network (SPPI-Net), who organised an Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop in London in March 2011 31.
The second value chain is intimately connected to the scale-up of algal production and hence requires integrated multidisciplinary work across a spectrum of science and engineering disciplines. Laboratory-based biological and
biotechnological work is in most cases still essential; however, it has to be informed by the requirements imposed by the
entire pipeline (since improvements in one area may introduce difficulties in another), and needs to develop integrative
approaches underpinned by sound LCA and ecological assessments. Outputs are likely to be in the form of co-products
and include: base commodities such as biomass for energy generation and bulk animal feed; high value products such as
speciality feeds / foods, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals; and bioremediation services such as waste water clean-up and
CO2 / NOx scrubbing.
Bottlenecks for this value chain include a lack of trained personnel with a sound grasp of algal biology, ecology and
engineering (this is a global problem 32), and of solid data that can feed into modelling approaches (especially the allimportant life cycle and sustainability analyses). A key gap is the provision of funding opportunities that encourage
researchers to collaborate and develop synergies between their research activities. Such funding would best be delivered
under the umbrella of a strategic research agenda which has been developed with the buy-in of the research community.
To address the bottlenecks in both value chains, it is recommended that BBSRC together with other Research Councils and
funding bodies such as TSB, and in consultation with academia and industry, develop a joined-up strategy for algal value
chains in the UK. This would need to be followed up with integrated funding 33 appropriate to the various bodies involved.
A strategic approach to funding will ensure that the algal research strengths, which the UK undoubtedly possesses, will be
counted on the international stage, and that the benefit of this expertise will be felt in the UK directly through
underpinning the development of a national bio-based economy.
Strategic funding should include a cross-council Graduate Training Programme to build capacity in graduates and postdocs with a sound understanding of the biological, engineering and environmental challenges, the integrated solutions to
which are so crucial for successful commercialisation of algal technologies. Another priority area should be the
establishment of a peer-reviewed, open access database for information to feed into modelling studies and life cycle and
sustainability analyses.
Chapter 7 – Areas of RD&D Required to Promote the Development of an Algal Economy
Algae have considerable potential to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy in the UK: through development of an
industrial biotechnology platform which underpins food, energy and material security, and through integrated biorefining
solutions for fuel, feed, (platform) chemicals and bioremediation services. Algae therefore have an important role to play
in two of BBSRC’s Priority Areas, Industrial Biotechnology & Bioenergy, and Food Security.
To establish the full extent of these opportunities, and to turn the potential into economic reality, considerable RD&D
needs to be carried out. The risks and rewards associated with different aspects of the broad spectrum of RD&D topics
vary considerably, as do their importance for progress of the overall field.
Regarding RD&D that will develop algae as a platform for industrial biotechnology, highest importance and reward at this
stage are attributed to:
•
•
31
further development of tool kits for algal synthetic biology
expanding the evidence base that highlights the advantages of using algal systems.
A summary of the outcomes of this meeting is available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf.
32
Availability of trained personnel has been highlighted as the second-most critical issue for global algal industries in The Algal
Industry Survey, Feb 2009 (p.7); available at www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/algal-industry-survey.pdf
33
It needs to be stressed that strategic focus, albeit highly important, must not be to the detriment of funding algal blue skies
research (which tends to produce the most innovative and ground-breaking solutions; a prominent example is Michael Faraday).
xi
Concerning RD&D that will further improve and optimise existing applications for energy, high value products and
bioremediation services, highest levels of reward and importance are ascribed to:
•
•
•
•
establishing test / pilot / demonstration sites for macro- and microalgal projects
capacity building for multidisciplinary work
achieving sustained growth of desired strains with stable desired characteristics
optimisation of growth on medium derived from AD liquid digestate.
The INTERREG initiatives BioMara and EnAlgae described in Chapter 1 34 will contribute to addressing these issues, but a
much larger coordinated effort across the UK is needed to fulfil the potential algae have to contribute to sustainable
economic growth.
In the medium and long term, the outputs of the RD&D areas described above should converge in the concept of an
integrated biorefinery, where algal biomass – dedicated crops and/or residual biomass after extraction of high value
compounds from industrial biotechnology approaches – would be fractionated into its useful components. Theoretically
these comprise
•
•
•
•
protein for food or feed
carbohydrates as feedstocks for biopolymers or bioalcohols
lipids for food, feed, oleochemicals or biodiesel
potentially metabolites for chemical applications.
Caveats include that only a subset of end uses will be appropriate for any given feedstock, and that all developments need
to be underpinned by sound life cycle and sustainability analyses. With these in place, however, algae can be developed
into a highly versatile branch of the bio-based economy.
Chapter 8 – Conclusions and Recommendations
The UK has a substantial biological expertise to offer in the establishment of algae as significant contributor to a bio-based
economy.
At the most fundamental level the study of algae has the potential to unlock solutions to many of the most pressing long
term challenges that planet earth faces in the 21st Century. As we seek answers to more immediate issues this must not
be overlooked; indeed it should be actively fostered as an essential and integrated element of algal R&D as outlined
below.
Short and medium term issues should be addressed both through stand-alone high tech approaches to build algae as an
industrial biotechnology platform, and by developing algal products and services. These are complemented by extensive
associated ecological expertise that helps to understand and model the role of algae in e.g. climate change and develop
them as bio-indicators for environmental impact.
Progress since 2009
This study follows on from a report35 on the outcomes of an algal stakeholder meeting called by DECC and facilitated
through NNFCC on 12 November 2009. The event aimed “to establish the potential for the UK in algae and to determine
how this area could progress forward” 36. While the input data to this study (collected in early 2011) is more extensive, the
outcomes reported here are in general agreement with the observations made in the DECC report. In the intervening 1.5
years since the stakeholder meeting progress has been made in some areas; in many others the situation has
deteriorated.
The research community still sees itself as fragmented and lacking impetus. Initiatives like BioMara, EnAlgae, the Carbon
Trust ABC 37 and – more informally – the SPPI-Net working group on algae 38 have begun to draw together sub-groups
across disciplines and universities as well as businesses, with promising initial results.
34
Section 1.2.3
The report is available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk.
36
ibid p. 7
37
c.f. Section 1.2.3; the future of the Carbon Trust ABC is uncertain, since public funding was withdrawn in March 2011
35
xii
The NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group (AB-SIG) is intended to provide a “centralised point for strategy
development, dissemination, information on funded projects and activity coordination” 39. However funding for the
Director (0.2 FTE) and the three research fellows (together 2.5 FTE) is only secured for two years. This initiative is an
excellent start, and has the potential to make a significant impact. If the momentum is to be maintained, it is essential that
follow-up funding (certainly for the strategic leadership aspects of the project) is secured, and preferably at increased
levels; the challenge of high-level coordination of R&D across the UK cannot be met appropriately with a 0.2 FTE
appointment.
Concerning funding for wider algal research, the situation has worsened since 2009. The withdrawal of funding from the
Carbon Trust ABC 40 in April 2011 has been a blow not only to the 12 research teams involved, but also to the reputation of
the UK internationally, since this project had been portrayed as the UK flagship for applied algal RD&D. As the 2009 DECC
report stated, “A combination of lack of leadership, focus and clear policy objectives has resulted in the UK missing
opportunities in algae development and it is clear the UK is now lagging behind other countries, most notably the USA”39.
This gap has widened in the intervening time; it has to be recognised that it will grow to unsustainable levels unless steps
are taken to mitigate the recent loss of funding and the lack of cohesion between algal researchers.
Recommendations
To develop the algal R&D field as a whole, it is recommended that BBSRC should work with the other Research Councils,
the AB-SIG and stakeholders in academia and industry to assess which areas of algal research value chains the UK is best
placed to develop, and thereby formulate a strategy for algal R&D in the UK. This strategy would best be realised by
bringing the currently fragmented multidisciplinary algal research community together under the umbrella of a UK Virtual
Centre of Excellence on Algae, with core funding being provided from across the Councils and Industry. Research would be
funded e.g. through directed responsive mode grants and strategic longer and larger grants; a condition of such grants
would be that the grantholder works with the Centre in the promotion of algal bioscience.
In order to pull algal R&D outputs through to commercialisation and consequently make their benefits tangible for the
UK’s emerging bio-economy, a joined-up approach across the Research Councils, TSB and all relevant Government
Departments is needed. The Government has recognised the importance of mechanisms that facilitate the translation of
the UK’s world class research capabilities into economic benefit, and with the initiative to create Technology Innovation
Centres has provided a funding mechanism to do so. The Research Councils may want to cooperate in engaging with the
relevant Government Departments and TSB to create a national strategy on algae that spans research, development and
deployment, and may recommend to the Government the establishment of an algal Technology Innovation Centre.
The combination of a strategically funded academic Centre of Excellence on Algae with a Technology Innovation Centre
that takes step-changing research outputs through to commercial application would provide a complete and strong
pipeline. Such a pipeline would guarantee high impact of UK algal research. It would provide direct benefit to the UK by
both determining and realising the potential that algae have to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy: it will in
the short to medium term develop tangible solutions, and at the same time ensure that underpinning science is being put
in place to address the long term challenges to mankind.
38
c.f. meeting report of SPPI-Net Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop on 24 March 2011, available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf
39
2009 DECC Report ‘Assessing the Potential for Algae in the UK’, p. 3; available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-thepotential-for-algae-in-the-uk
40
[Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. ii
BBSRC Statement of Intent ........................................................................................................................................... ii
Context .......................................................................................................................................................................... ii
Disclaimer..................................................................................................................................................................... iii
Definition of Algae ....................................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................................................... iv
Images on Title Page .................................................................................................................................................... iv
Glossary of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................ iv
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... v
1. Current and Past Algal Activity in the UK ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 History of Academic Algal Research Excellence in the UK ...................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 Underpinning the Progress of General Bioscience .......................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Laying Foundations for Algal Bioscience .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Current Algal Academic Expertise in the UK ........................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Collation of Directory of Algal Researchers in the UK...................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Questionnaire of Algal Researchers in the UK: Analysis of Responses ............................................................ 5
1.2.2.1 Statistics of keywords on research interests ............................................................................................ 5
1.2.2.2 Spectrum of Algal Expertise at Academic Institutions in the UK .............................................................. 6
1.2.2.3 Past and Present Funders of Algal R&D in the UK .................................................................................. 10
1.2.2.4 Key Challenges and Opportunities for Algal R&D, as Seen by Participants ............................................ 11
1.2.3 Named Current Algal Initiatives and Clusters of Activity ............................................................................... 13
1.2.3.1 BioMara ................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.2.3.2 NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group.................................................................................. 14
1.2.3.3 INTERREG IVB NW Europe Strategic Initiative ‘Energetic Algae’ ............................................................ 14
1.2.3.4 Algal Biotechnology Consortium ............................................................................................................. 15
1.2.3.5 Technology Innovation Centre at CPI...................................................................................................... 16
1.2.3.6 SURF / Oasis Network at Cranfield University ........................................................................................ 16
1.2.3.7 European Bioenergy Research Institute / Aston University ................................................................... 16
1.2.3.8 Carbon Trust Algae Biofuels Challenge ................................................................................................... 17
1.2.4 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.3 Past and Present Industrial Strengths on Algae in the UK .................................................................................... 19
1.3.1 Microalgae ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.3.1.1 History of Companies in the UK .............................................................................................................. 19
1.3.1.2 Companies Currently Operational .......................................................................................................... 21
1.3.2 Macroalgae .................................................................................................................................................... 22
1.3.2.1 History of Exploitation ............................................................................................................................ 22
1.3.2.2 Macroalgal UK Industries ........................................................................................................................ 22
xiv
1.3.3 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................... 23
1.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................................................... 24
2. International Key Players and Major Objectives......................................................................................................... 25
2.1 High-level Overview of International Algal Interests ............................................................................................ 25
2.2 International Algal Innovation Centres ................................................................................................................. 26
2.3 Large European Projects in Algal Biotechnologies ................................................................................................ 28
2.4 Sources of Information on Algal Stakeholders Internationally ............................................................................. 29
2.5 Conclusions and Trends ........................................................................................................................................ 30
3. Algal Products and Indicative Market Values ............................................................................................................. 31
3.1 Base Commodities................................................................................................................................................. 31
3.2 Added Value Commodities.................................................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Speciality Products ................................................................................................................................................ 32
3.4 ‘Ceuticals’ .............................................................................................................................................................. 33
3.5 Bioremediation Services ....................................................................................................................................... 34
3.6 Potential for the UK .............................................................................................................................................. 34
4. Potential Opportunities and Benefits of Algal R&D to Progress in Plant Science and Biotechnology in General ...... 39
4.1 Science Underpinning Food Security .................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.1 Tolerance to Extreme Conditions................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.2 Desired Food Products ................................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Science Underpinning Energy Security ................................................................................................................. 41
4.3 Science Underpinning Material Security............................................................................................................... 41
4.4 Benefits for Biotechnology.................................................................................................................................... 41
4.4.1 Synthetic Biology ............................................................................................................................................ 41
4.4.2 Biomimetic Catalytic Systems ........................................................................................................................ 42
4.4.3 Algal Transformation Systems ....................................................................................................................... 42
4.4.4 Environmental Applications ........................................................................................................................... 42
4.5 Benefits for Animal Science and Health ................................................................................................................ 43
4.6 Benefits for Fundamental Science ........................................................................................................................ 43
4.6.1 Understanding Evolution ............................................................................................................................... 43
4.6.2 General Fundamental Science ....................................................................................................................... 43
4.7 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................... 44
5. Strengths of UK Research Capability on the Global Algae Stage ................................................................................ 45
5.1 Overview of UK Strengths and Outline SWOT Analysis ........................................................................................ 45
5.2 Overlaps with International Activity / Expertise ................................................................................................... 46
5.3 Competition between UK and International Capability ........................................................................................ 47
5.4 Knowledge Gaps filled by UK Expertise ................................................................................................................ 47
xv
5.5 Key Contributions the UK Could Make.................................................................................................................. 48
6. Algae Research Value Chains in the UK – Analysis of Gaps and Recommended Activities ........................................ 49
6.1 Development of High Tech Solutions and High Value Products Employing Algae ............................................... 49
6.2 Further Improvement and Optimisation of Existing Applications ........................................................................ 50
6.3 Summary ............................................................................................................................................................... 51
7. Areas of RD&D Required to Promote the Development of an Algal Economy........................................................... 52
8. Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 55
8.1 DECC Algal Stakeholder Meeting in November 2009 ........................................................................................... 55
8.2 What Has Changed since 2009? ............................................................................................................................ 55
8.3 What Next? ........................................................................................................................................................... 56
8.3.1 Status Quo ...................................................................................................................................................... 56
8.3.2 Strategic BBSRC Funding ................................................................................................................................ 57
8.3.3 Cross-Council Strategic Initiative on Algae .................................................................................................... 57
8.3.4 Strategic Initiative on Algae across Research Councils and Government Departments ............................... 57
8.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................................................... 58
References for Academic Papers .................................................................................................................................... 59
Appendices ...................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Appendix A: ................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Appendix B .................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Appendix C: Tables of Results from Returned Questionnaires ................................................................................... 63
Table C.1: Compilation of Questionnaire Responses Received .................................................................................. 63
Table C.2: Overview of Questionnaire Participants Interested in Given Research Topics ......................................... 63
Table C.3: Questionnaire Responses Sorted by University / Institution ..................................................................... 64
Table C.4.1: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 5 Years ...... 74
Table C.4.2: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 10 Years .... 80
Table C.4.3: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 25 Years .... 84
Appendix D – Detailed Algae Research Value Chains in the UK ..................................................................................... 88
D.1 Base commodities................................................................................................................................................. 88
D.1.1 Microalgae ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
D.1.2 Macroalgae .................................................................................................................................................... 89
D.2 Added value commodities .................................................................................................................................... 90
D.3 High value products .............................................................................................................................................. 90
D.4 Bioremediation services ....................................................................................................................................... 91
D.5 Benefits of Integration.......................................................................................................................................... 91
xvi
PART I
TAKING STOCK – ALGAL ACTIVITY IN THE UK & ELSEWHERE, AND RELEVANT MARKETS
BBSRC commissioned this study because it wishes to understand whether it should address fundamental research into the
biology of algae 41 in the context of a feedstock for energy and other products, and if so, how. To facilitate this, the study in
Part I takes stock of current and past algal activity in the UK (Chapter 1), then gives an overview of algal interests globally
(Chapter 2), and finally reviews markets for algal products and services (Chapter 3). Part II will build on this information to
analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the light of current and emerging opportunities for algal R&D,
and in the context of international competition.
With 23 pages, Chapter 1 makes up 40% of the entire report; an indication of the wealth of algae-related expertise in the
UK. Those for whom a detailed picture of past and present algal expertise in the UK is not of interest, may find it helpful to
read the overview of Chapter 1 in the executive summary, and move from there to the chapters that are of highest
relevance to their interests. Chapters are designed to be to a certain extent self-contained 42.
1. CURRENT AND PAST ALGAL ACTIVITY IN THE UK
Over recent years, algae41 have received much attention in the media on an international level, primarily as a potential
source of renewable transportation fuels. They have been highlighted as a feedstock that is not tainted with the ethical
dilemmas of current, food-based biofuels: they do not require arable land; need not compete for freshwater but can grow
in marine, brackish or nutrient-rich waste water; and in addition can be used to scrub CO2 and NOx from flue gasses.
Furthermore, growth rates tend to be considerably faster compared to land plants (doubling times as little as 8 hours), oil
yields per unit area for some species are more than 20x higher than e.g. for oil seed rape (Scott et al. 2010), and as a
group their tremendous metabolic diversity offers a wide spectrum of potential fuel molecules.
However, the potential of this immensely diverse group of organisms to address major global challenges extends far
beyond their use as an energy feedstock. Applications for food, animal feed, materials (e.g. replacements for
petrochemicals), speciality products and in bioremediation services are in several cases more advanced than fuel
applications, and often do not require the same scale of production. As a consequence, they are more attractive for
adoption in the UK where space is limited. Importantly, algae offer great potential for developing novel biotechnological
applications, to underpin building a bio-based economy in the UK.
Be it for use as energy feedstock or in biotechnological and other higher value applications, the UK has a treasure of
relevant algal experience both in the academic arena, and in industry; great benefits could be derived from integrating this
expertise to a larger extent.
This chapter gives an overview of the breadth of expertise, and provides underpinning databases of algal research
capability in the UK. It looks both at the history of academic and industrial expertise in the UK, and reviews current
activity 43. Information on the history of academic algal research (Section 1.1), and on past and current industrial activity
(Section 1.3), has been collated from numerous conversations with stakeholders in the field, whose time and input is
gratefully acknowledged. The overview of current academic expertise (Section 1.2) is based on responses to a
questionnaire sent to algal grant holders and members of the British Phycological Society.
41
Following the definition of RE Lee (Phycology, 2008, Cambridge University Press, p.3), the term ‘algae’ in this report is used to
refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria,
which are anoxygenic, are not included.
42
This leads to a certain level of repetition; those who read the report in its entirety are kindly asked to be tolerant of that fact.
43
The report aims at giving representative examples of the spectrum of algal expertise, but – due to the limit in scope and
available time – cannot claim to be exhaustive. In particular, the scope did not allow for quality control of the stakeholder
responses, and hence no qualitative judgement is made of the participants.
1.1 History of Academic Algal Research Excellence in the UK
1.1.1 Underpinning the Progress of General Bioscience
Pro- and eukaryotic algae have been – and continue to be – studied by a distinguished cohort of UK scientists. A
considerable proportion of the work has led to the elucidation of key metabolic pathways and physiological functions with
high relevance for plant and animal biology. Prominent examples include:
•
Nitrogen fixation: The mechanisms of this important metabolic pathway have been studied using
cyanobacteria by e.g. GE Fogg FRS (Bangor) since the late 1950s (Fogg and Tun 1958) and William DP Stewart
FRS (Dundee) since the early 1960s (Stewart 1962) 44.
•
Ion transport: In the 1960s and 70s giant algal cells were used as a model organisms for ground-breaking work
elucidating protoplasmic streaming and ion transport physiology by e.g. the group of Enid AC MacRobbie FRS
(Cambridge) (Macrobbie EAC 1969).
•
Cell development: Major progress on understanding the mechanisms of Ca2+ signalling and cell development
using Fucus serratus has been made by Colin Brownlee and co-workers (Plymouth MBA) since the 1980s
(Brownlee 1986).
•
Photo protection: Major contributions to the understanding of photo protection through carotenoid
production have been made by Andrew J Young (Liverpool John Moores); this work now also underpins
commercial astaxanthin production internationally (Young 1991).
•
Structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus: Cyanobacteria and microalgae have been used for
many years as molecular-genetic systems for elucidating the structure and function of the electron-transfer
complexes involved in light-capture and energy transduction, and as source material for structural studies of
these complexes (e.g. the determination of the electron transfer pathway in Photosystem I by Mike Evans
and colleagues at UCL (Nugent 2003), and the crystal structure of Photosystem II by So Iwata and Jim Barber
at Imperial College (Iwata and Barber 2004)).
1.1.2 Laying Foundations for Algal Bioscience
Many UK researchers have contributed to the foundations of algal biochemistry, physiology, phylogeny, taxonomy and
ecology, often with high relevance to plant science more generally. The expertise of those who are still in post is described
under ‘Current algal academic expertise in the UK’ (Section 1.2). Many pioneers have now retired; a non-exhaustive list
that indicates the wide spectrum of their contribution to the progress of algal bioscience is displayed in Table 1.1:
44
The latter is also an example of a brilliant phycologist who then moved on to gain national political influence, first as Head of
AFRC, and then as Chief Scientific Advisor to the Thatcher Government (1990-95).
2
Table 1.1: Examples of now-retired UK pioneers in algal biology who have contributed to the foundations of algal
biochemistry, physiology, phylogeny, taxonomy and ecology, often with high relevance to plant science more generally
(ordered chronologically by early publications)
Research area
Researcher
Organisation
Ecological, taxonomic, classificatory, morphological and
evolutionary aspects of phycology
Felix E Fritsch
Seasonal cycles, eutrophication, long term changes, culture
studies (notably bioassay), whole or part lake experiments
and taxonomy of algae
First electron micrographs of algae
John WG Lund
FRS
Queen Mary, University
of London (Founding
Father of Freshwater
Biological Association)
University of Sheffield,
later Freshwater
Biological Association
Leeds
Algal photosynthesis
CP
Whittingham
Frank E Round
FT Walker
Diatom ecology and taxonomy
Mapping of seaweed in Scotland
Algal cell walls
The ecology of algae and cyanobacteria
Gas vesicles and buoyancy; cyanobacterial heterocycsts
Algal photosynthesis
Dinoflagellates
Irene Manton
Donald H
Northcote FRS
Brian A
Whitton
Tony (AE)
Walsby, Peter
Fay
John Raven
Barry
Leadbeater
Cambridge and Queen
Mary
Bristol
Institute of Scottish
Seaweed Research
Cambridge
Manton and
Clarke 1950
Whittingham
1952
Round 1953
Walker 1954
Durham
London (Westfield) /
Bristol
Fay and
Walsby 1966
Dundee
Birmingham
Raven 1967
Leadbeater
and Dodge
1967
Hood and Carr
1969
Talling 1970
NG Carr
Liverpool and Warwick
Fundamental physiology, photosynthesis , eco-physiology
Freshwater Biological
Association
Leeds
Evolution of photosynthesis; metallo-proteins; bioenergy;
PBRs
John F (Jack)
Talling
Len V Evans,
AO Christie
David O Hall,
KK Rao
Carbon metabolism
Cyanobacterial toxins
A J Smith
GA Codd
Aberystwyth
Dundee
Photosynthetic electron transfer
Mike Evans,
Jonathan
Nugent
Dave Adams
University College
London
John R Sargent
Stirling
Cyanobacteria: cell division, gliding motility, cellular
differentiation and plant symbiosis
Algal lipids
Lund 1942
Northcote et
al. 1958
Whitton 1965
Metabolism and molecular biology of cyanobacteria
Biofouling
Early
publications
Fritsch 1903
King’s College London
Liverpool and Leeds
Evans and
Christie 1970
Hall et al.
1971; Rao et
al. 1971
Smith 1973
Codd and
Stewart 1973
Evans et al.
1976; Nugent
et al. 1981
Adams and
Carr 1981
Sargent et al.
1985
3
Algal culture collections
The UK also has a strong history of excellence in maintaining and expanding algal culture collections. Ernst G Pringsheim
brought his collection from Prague to England, where he worked with Eric A George in Cambridge from the 1940s onwards
on a resource that has become the Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa 45, which is one of the key global algal culture
collections. Another important culture collection is held at the Marine Biological Association in Plymouth 46. These are
complemented by the databases of AlgaeVision at the Natural History Museum 47.
Engineering solutions for algae
Foundations for several now globally-used algal engineering solutions were laid by UK academics. Examples include
•
•
•
•
The integration of photobioreactors with anaerobic digestion, established in 1983 by Steve Skill, Lancaster
University, as a consequence of BBSRC funded research.
The first tubular photobioreactors, designed by Prof. John Pirt, Queen Elizabeth College, London in 1986 –
now a very common design used for high value algal products.
A method of fuelling diesel engines with powdered microalgae, developed by Dr Paul Jenkins of the University
of the West of England in collaboration with Biotechna Ltd 48.
Early wall photobioreactors (Biofence) were adapted from the Biocoil design (Biotechna Ltd) by Dr Paul
Jenkins of the University of the West of England in 1995 49. The Biofence mantle has since been taken up by a
succession of companies including Applied Photosynthetics Ltd, Biosynthesis Ltd, CellPharm Ltd, Biofence Ltd
and latterly Varicon Aqua Ltd.
The examples from recent history given above highlight how R&D on algae carried out in the UK in the last century has
brought bioscience forward in general, and has laid strong foundations which both algal research and several industrial
applications are now building on world-wide.
1.2 Current Algal Academic Expertise in the UK
1.2.1 Collation of Directory of Algal Researchers in the UK
To obtain an indicative 50 profile of the current algal research community in the UK, a list of researchers was collated from
discussions with stakeholders, and amplified by searching the online databases of funding bodies for grants awarded that
contained relevant key words 51. The final list, ordered by university affiliation, and containing the relevant grant
information for those entries derived from funders’ databases, is displayed in Appendix A. In this way, 322 UK academics
were identified as contributing to algal R&D in the UK. The methodology has clear weaknesses: only the major funding
bodies have public databases that can be searched, hence researchers funded through smaller foundations, or through
industry, would not have been captured unless they were known to the group of stakeholders with whom the list was
45
www.CCAP.ac.uk; now held at the Scottish Association for Marine Science
www.mba.ac.uk/culturecollection.php
47
www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/algaevision/index.html
48
The prototype system consisting of a modified Perkins diesel CHP unit coupled with a Biocoil PBR was later featured on BBC
Tomorrows World.
49
Dr Paul Jenkins continued to develop the Biofence at UWE but tragically, he was fatally injured in a road traffic accident,
ironically on the same day he had been informed of a successful application for government funding to develop his Biofence
(pers. comm., Steve Skill).
50
The report does not claim to be inclusive, and makes no judgement on the quality of the research expertise collated in this
chapter. The scope of the report did not include quality control of the stakeholder responses received.
51
Online databases of the following funding bodies were searched for grants awarded that contained the term *alga* or
cyanobacteri* (*=wildcard) or seaweed*: BBSRC, EPSRC, NERC, ESRC, UKERC, TSB, Leverhulme Trust, EU (Cordis). The Royal
Society and The Gatsby Foundation were approached for the same information; the former was at the time unable to disclose
such information due to data protection issues, the latter had no records of grants on algae. The final list was cross-checked with
the Director of the NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group (AB-SIG) and several other stakeholders.
4
46
cross-checked. False positives were also obtained 52. Despite these limitations, the results gained with this methodology
provide a useful indication of the variety of algal expertise in the UK, and – in response to the recommendations of the
2009 DECC-report on algae 53 – could be used as a starting point for establishing centralised access to information on
funded projects and research activities 54.
1.2.2 Questionnaire of Algal Researchers in the UK: Analysis of Responses
To obtain an up-to-date picture of the research expertise and interests of the identified researchers, a questionnaire
(designed jointly with the Director of the NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group (AB-SIG)) was circulated
amongst identified algal researchers. Both questionnaire and cover letter can be viewed in Appendix B. The questionnaire
asked the researchers to describe their spectrum of expertise in free text, and to indicate if algae were at the core or
periphery of their research interests. Participants were also invited to choose from a list of given keywords those which
matched their research interests, highlighting those which constituted a primary interest, and to add interests that were
not included in the given list. This information is made available in Appendix C (Table C.1). Further information, which was
used in an anonymised form for the analysis in the sections below and is not part of Table C.1, was also requested; this
included the participants’ views on the key challenges and opportunities for algal research in the next 5 / 10 / 25 years,
and their past and present funders of algal research.
The questionnaire was emailed to a final list of 322 UK academics, and also forwarded to the mailing list of the British
Phycological Society (460 members). 186 replies were received; of those 129 indicated algae were at the core of their
research interest, for 41 algae were a peripheral interest, and 16 responded they were not sufficiently involved with algal
R&D to participate in the survey. The latter may partially have been due to the emphasis given to life sciences and
engineering topics in the questionnaire design, which did not resonate e.g. with academics who deal with algae as part of
geological research. Any future surveys may also want to address this group of experts.
1.2.2.1 Statistics of keywords on research interests
As indicated above, the questionnaire asked participants to tick from a list of keywords any that matched their research
interests, and to indicate which constituted a primary research interest. Table 1.2 displays this information, including a
compilation of further research interests which participants added under the heading ‘Other’. An expanded version for
each keyword, which names the universities and their staff members who have indicated this topic to be a primary
research interest, can be found in Appendix C (Table C.2).
Of those who responded, 1/3 had an interest in macroalgae, 2/3 in microalgae, with a small overlap. A larger number of
researchers was interested in marine than in freshwater algae, and equal numbers pursued fundamental and applied
research. Of the other keywords, environmental issues were ticked most frequently, followed by bioenergy, algal
communities and algal productivity. Bioprospecting and cosmeceuticals had the smallest number of interested
researchers.
The many further topics that were provided by participants under the keyword ‘Other’ (see final row of Table 1.2)
emphasise the diversity of interests and research expertise related to algae in the UK. Most frequently mentioned were:
genomics (x4), biodiversity (x3), biomass processing (x3), (chemical) ecology (x3), pathogens (x3) and viruses (x3).
52
Several researchers indicated that, although they had been in receipt of a grant that contained one of the relevant keywords
mentioned in Footnote 6, algae were too peripheral to their research interest for them to participate in the questionnaire.
53
Report on algal stakeholder meeting called by DECC and facilitated through NNFCC on 12 November 2009
(http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk); p.3
54
The list of stakeholders has been assembled in collaboration with the Director of the NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special
Interest Group (AB-SIG), and will feed into that initiative.
5
Table 1.2: Summary of questionnaire responses: Number of researchers interested in each keyword, and subset for
whom this is a primary research interest.
Keyword
Number of UK researchers involved
Subset: primary research interest
Macroalgae
Microalgae
Marine
Freshwater
Applied research
Fundamental Research
Environmental issues
Bioenergy
Algal communities
Algal productivity
Photosynthesis
Carbon capture
Food/feed
Waste water treatment
Bioremediation
Nutraceuticals
Platform chemicals
Integrated industrial growth
Photobioreactor design
Pharmaceuticals
Aquaculture
Biofouling
Synthetic biology
Bioprospecting
Cosmeceuticals
55
15
127
33
101
21
80
8
98
14
98
19
73
14
66
16
63
10
62
8
48
9
43
5
38
5
32
5
30
5
27
2
24
4
24
3
23
4
22
1
21
5
20
3
18
1
16
0
14
1
Other: algae/seaweed fly interactions, algal interface, bacteria-algae cross talk, beached wrack ecosystems, behaviour, being
able to generate sterile cultures of macroalgae to allow accurate sequencing of transcriptomes and genomes, benthic C
cycling, biodiversity (x3), biofilms, biofuels, biogeochemistry, biogeography, biological oceanography, biomass processing (x3),
calcification, cavitation for cell destruction, cell biology, (chemical) ecology (x3), chloroplast (x2), climate change (x2), cloud
formation and coastal regional climate, coastal particle formation, conservation, development, diseases, drinking water
supply, ecological impacts of surf raking, economic impact & analysis (x2), (eco)toxicology (x6), EPS production,
eutrophication control, evolution (x2), fertilizer recycling, financial viability, gene control of development, genomics (x4),
HABS, HTL, human health, impact of large algal fields on atmospheric chemistry (e.g. emissions of halocarbons), impact of
microalgal biopolymer exudate on the formation and properties of primary marine aerosol and their climate impacts, invasive
species, lichenized algae, life support systems, macroalgal emissions of iodine and impact on gaseous photochemistry,
metabolomics, microbial fuel cells, modelling, monitoring, motility, nature conservation, nutrition, ocean acidification,
palaeobiology, pathogens (x3), phenotypic plasticity, phylogenetics, polysaccharides (x2), predator-prey interaction,
reproductive biology, scaling up, soil crusts, speciation, taxonomy, temporal & spatial distribution, trace gases (x2), USW cell
filtration, viruses (x3)
1.2.2.2 Spectrum of Algal Expertise at Academic Institutions in the UK
The questionnaire asked participants to describe their spectrum of expertise. Table 1.3 gives an overview of the responses
received, sorted by University / Institute in alphabetical order. Again, the rich diversity of research expertise in the UK is
evident. An analysis of key strengths emerging from the responses follows at the end of this section, and is discussed in an
international context in Chapter 5. Since the questionnaire was forwarded to the mailing list of the British Phycological
Society, responses were also received from outside the University arena; those entries are given under the name of the
respective institution. An extended table that (where applicable) breaks the responses down by university departments
and also indicates past and present funding bodies can be found in Appendix C (Table C.3). It is important to stress that
the scope of the report did not allow for quality control of the stakeholder responses, and hence no qualitative judgement
is made of the indicated expertise.
6
Table 1.3: Algae-related research expertise at research institutions in the UK, as given by respondents to questionnaire
University /
Institute
Aberdeen
Spectrum of expertise
Bangor
bioactive natural products from marine organisms; deep time algal ecology ; algal culture; isotope
enrichment; fatty acid analysis; fate of algal material in marine ecosystems; oomycete-algae
interactions
chemical engineering applied to bioenergy and biofuels; bioenergy, intermediate pyrolysis, gasification,
biochar, algae
biology, physics and economics large scale algal biomass/biofuels production
Bath
electrochemistry, solar energy conversion, materials chemistry, photo-microbial fuel cells
Birmingham
algal bioadhesion and biofouling; plant development and evolution; environmental toxicology;
improved light delivery and photobioreactors
microalgal culture, physiological assessment, flow cytometry, metabolic stains
Aston
Bournemouth
Bristol
Cambridge
Cardiff
Centre for
Environment,
Fisheries and
Aquaculture Science
algal photosynthesis; impact of pesticides on biofilms; distribution patterns of macro and microalgae;
UK expert diatom taxonomy; use of algae to assess ecological status; freshwater polar algal ecology;
Polar microbiology, biogeochemistry, aquatic microbial ecology
molecular biology, biochemistry and evolution of biosynthetic pathways and photosynthesis in plants
and algae, bioenergy; functional genomics tools (RNAi); algal-bacterial symbiosis; freshwater ecology,
bioremediation; process engineering, carbon capture; biological physics, fluid dynamics, nonlinear
dynamics; artificial photosynthesis, solar fuels; algal biophotovoltaics; molecular genetics of algae;
eukaryotic flagellar dynamics and synchronization; colloidal physics; biological chemistry,
microdroplets, microfluidics; engineering/chemical engineering and reactors; evolutionary paleobiology
productivity, photophysiology, coastal erosion and biostability; lipid biochemistry and molecular
biology
flow cytometry, phytoplankton, productivity/biomass, North Sea
Centre for Ecology
and Hydrology
Countryside Council
for Wales
Coventry
phytoplankton, physiology and ecology
Cranfield
microbiology, biocatalysis; large scale production of biofuels, bioprocessing technology & innovation;
outdoor offshore microalgae mass cultivation for biofuel production systems: productivity modelling
and engineering; algae growth, harvesting and processing systems; environmental microbiology,
biological processes
freshwater diatom ecophysiology, taxonomy, morphology with interest in using diatoms as bioindicators and possibility of using algae as food & fuel source
Department for
Communities and
Local Government
Dundee
Durham
East Anglia
Edinburgh
Environmental
Research Institute
Essex
marine macroalgal field studies, ecology, communities
environmental control, extraction of lipids and chemical components, enhanced growth
biophysics, biochemistry, physiology, ecology, evolution, environmental change; hydrogen and
hydrogenases; molecular biology
cell biology of metals; lipid metabolism, DNA array, photosynthesis, enzymology, cyanobacteria gene
regulation and transformation
functional genomics and reverse genetics, evolution, photosynthesis, lipids, cell division, growth,
metatranscriptomics; microalgae: physiology, biochemistry, ecology; biological oceanography, some
work on seaweeds; specialist interests in role of algae in global biogeochemical cycles; production of
trace gases of atmospheric and climatic significance by marine micro- and macroalgae
experimental evolution in microalgae, microbial ecology in high CO2 environments; chemistry of the
polysaccharides of charophytes in relation to early land plant phylogeny
intertidal ecology, impacts of renewable energy on benthic environments
photosynthetic energy conversion, microalgal culturing, environmental stress (light and temperature),
nutrient requirements and limitation, algal proteomics, resource allocation strategies (optimality
modelling), phytoplankton ecology; ecophysiology of marine algae, production of trace gases;
physiology and photosynthesis (phytoplankton, corals), chlorophyll a fluorescence, marine nutrient
cycling and environmental change; photosynthesis, carbon allocation and production of extracellular
products
7
University /
Institute
Exeter
Glasgow
Greenwich
Imperial
Kings College
London
Lancaster
Environment Centre
Leeds
Liverpool
Spectrum of expertise (continued)
lipid metabolism, primary carbon and nitrogen metabolism, antioxidant systems and reactive oxygen
species
synthesis of bioactive marine natural products; behaviour of swimming algae (e.g. gravitaxis, gyrotaxis,
phototaxis); bioconvection (flows induced by suspensions of biased swimming cells); flow fields around
individual swimming cells; effect of environmental stress on behaviour; biofuel production (lipids and
hydrogen); intracellular dynamics; mathematical modelling; physics based experiments; reconstructing
climate using coralline algae; marine biogeochemical cycling
bioremediation, integration of algal growth with AD
water and wastewater treatment technologies; molecular biology and biochemistry of cyanobacteria,
algae and chloroplasts with emphasis on photosynthesis and biofuels; environmental and economic
assessment of algal biofuel systems; Life Cycle Analysis
natural products, molecular biology, bioinformatics
molecular ecology, taxonomy, molecular markers, harmful algae
algae-based wastewater treatment in middle- and low-income countries; benthic geochemistry and
ecology; biofuels and biorefinery, hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), microwave processing, pyrolysis,
upgrading of fuels, characterisation of fuels, nutrient recycling, combustion, emission behaviour; plant
cell walls, polysaccharides
fluid dynamics; motility of micro-organisms
Liverpool John
Moores University
Loughborough
algal and nutrient relationships, algal ecology
Manchester
atmospheric science, marine boundary layer chemistry, photochemistry, aerosol processes, aerosolcloud interactions; metal accumulation and remediation, calcium signalling; molecular genetics;
fermentation process development, biorefinery engineering; ultrasound standing wave cell filtration,
concentration and destruction
algal cell biology, phytoplankton molecular biology, algal development and signalling; isolation and
culturing of marine microalgae; molecular biology, virology
ecology and diversity of cyanobacteria, phylogenetics; algal physiology, algal culturing, gene expression;
algal systematics, phylogenetics, genomics and conservation; evolution, genomics, phylogenetics, gene
transfer, endosymbiosis
chemical engineering, intensification of downstream processes; algae chemical signalling; chemical
manipulation; growth and lipid production; bioactive metabolites; biogas; anaerobic digestion;
harvesting and dewatering; offshore production; seaweed fibre rheology and human gut function; algal
functional groups, intertidal macroalgal ecology, plant-animal interactions, algal defence mechanisms,
release of CDOM by macroalgae
bacterial cell-cell signalling, quorum sensing, cross-talk; chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments,
palaeolimnology, aquatic ecology; lichen ecology, nitrogen fixation in cyanobacterial lichens
isotopic fractionation in the calcareous nanoplankton; isotope geochemistry of algal biominerals and
organic components; algal remains as tracers of past climate change; ecological and biogeochemical
response to environmental change; chloroplast development; evolution of land plants; carbon
acquisition by marine algae, geochemistry of calcite and silica produced by algae, Rubisco kinetics and
CCM function, paleoclimate
macroalgal ecology, carbon sequestration, ocean acidification e.g. biophysics of photosynthesis; solar
conversion efficiency
molecular biology, protein chemistry, drug discovery; marine environmental research, phytoplankton,
algal, pigments, biotechnology; algal biochemistry and biotechnology; algal biochemistry and
biotechnology; optics, photosynthesis, primary production, phytoplankton biology, remote sensing;
algal molecular biology; algal virology; biofuel production; algae, algal viruses, bioprocessing,
biocatalysis
biogeochemistry, algae-nutrient interactions; molecular ecology; population biology/genetics; marine
‘aliens’
cell biology, biophysics, regulation of photosynthesis, biogenesis and turnover
Marine Biological
Association
Natural History
Museum
Newcastle
Nottingham
Oxford
Plymouth
Plymouth Marine
Laboratory
Portsmouth
Queen Mary London
Queen's Belfast
diatom ecology and palaeoecology, biogeochemistry of silica, limnology
algal systematics, life histories, some applications; physiological ecology of marine algae; applications
and aquaculture of seaweeds; economic exploitation of macroalgae; water movement and macroalgal
growth
8
University /
Institute
Reading
Spectrum of expertise (continued)
Rothamsted
Research
Royal Botanic
Garden Edinburgh
Scottish Association
for Marine Science
lipid metabolism & metabolic engineering
Scottish
Environment
Protection Agency
Scottish Crop
Research Institute
Sheffield
Southampton
(including National
Oceanography
Centre)
St Andrews
gut fermentation, health benefits of phytochemicals
biology of microalgae, especially diatom systematics and evolution; desmids- ecology, community
ecology, taxonomy and climatic distribution, with a habitat focus on scottish blank mires
biological resources, algal biofuels, algal biotechnology, protistan cryopreservation, protozoan & algal
culturing; algal diseases and pathogens, algal functional and environmental genomics; oomycete-algae
interactions; biological resources, algal biofuels, algal biotechnology
taxonomy and ecology; monitoring of macroalgae for regulatory agency, including development of
monitoring tools
phytochemsitry of seaweeds related to health benefits
photosynthesis and primary metabolism in diatoms; metabolic engineering; synthetic biology; systems
biology; proteomics; bioreactor design, transport processes; enzymology, membrane assembly,
spectroscopy; algal growth, physiology, biotechnology
molecular biology of chloroplast development; photobiology; tetrapyrroles; algal biofuel,
photosynthesis in marine systems, structure/evolution of photosynthetic enzymes; algal bloom control,
marine taxonomy
Stirling
fisheries; bioactive products; microalgal defence; bioinformatics, genomics, phylogeny; diatoms, coastal
ecology, biodiversity and ecosystem function; coastal ecology and sediment dynamics
evolutionary ecology, conservation biology; underwater optics, remote sensing, cyanobacteria
Strathclyde
regional economic-energy-environment modelling
Surrey
modelling and optimisation
Swansea
algal growth and nutrition (experimental and modelling); plankton predator-prey and hence biosecurity
issues etc. (experimental and modelling); microalgal biomass production (esp PBRs); algal
bioremediation; algal use in aquaculture; photo-bioreactor design; downstream processing of algal
biomass; algal biotechnology and physiology; biochemical engineering, membrane filtration; bioprocessing – microalgal harvesting, disruption & fractionation; microalgal physiology
diatoms, lake processes & production
Ulster
University College
London
West of England
diatoms; ecology and palaeoecology; shallow lake and pond palaeolimnology, limnology;
palaeoecology, diatoms, wetlands, lakes; algal biotechnology, genetic engineering, orgenelle biology,
photosynthesis
molecular ecology of marine picocyanobacteria and photosynthetic picoeukaryotes; niche adaptation
mechanisms in marine picocyanobacteria; picocyanobacterial genomics and molecular biology; metal
homeostasis in cyanobacteria and other organisms, in particular zinc; bio-analytical chemistry including
elemental analysis and mass spectrometry; environmental microbiology, methylotrophy, trace gas
metabolism
microbiology, microbial fuel cells, microbial volatiles, robotics; molecular biology, biochemistry
Westminster
microalgal life cycles; dinoflagellates; taxonomy (traditional and molecular); isolation and culturing
York
atmospheric chemistry, halogen chemistry, ocean-atmosphere interactions, macroalgal volatile
emissions; mass spectrometry, separations, natural products, arsenic metabolism, algal
polysaccharides; microwave pyrolysis, nanoparticles, mesoporous materials, polysaccharides,
heterogeneous catalysis
Warwick
Analysis of expertise
Based on the outcome of the questionnaires, the UK has clear strength in ecological research – the key word ‘ecology’
was mentioned by 26 institutions as part of their expertise, ‘environmental’ by 11 institutions. Biological expertise was
similarly prevalent (‘biology’ mentioned by 20 institutions). Of the biological disciplines and research areas,
photosynthesis research, molecular biology and physiology were most widespread, followed by biochemistry, taxonomy,
metabolism, phytoplankton research and biotechnology.
9
Expertise in the marine environment appears to be more widespread than in fresh water (mentioned by 13 versus 3
institutions, respectively; indeed the decline of freshwater science in the UK was highlighted by several contributors, c.f.
Section 1.2.2.4 and Appendix C, Tables C.4.1/2/3).
There is also considerable expertise in the more applied areas of biomass / biofuel production and chemical and
process engineering (mentioned by 7 and 6 institutions, respectively).
An overall assessment of how this wealth and diversity of expertise may be brought together to capitalise on its
strengths, and to address key challenges our society faces, is given in Section 1.2.4.
1.2.2.3 Past and Present Funders of Algal R&D in the UK
BBSRC, who commissioned this report, was also interested in an overview of the funding landscape for algal research; in
order to determine this, the questionnaire asked participants to indicate past and present funding sources. The responses
can be viewed in Appendix C, Table C.3; key statistics derived from the data are summarised below (Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1: Comparison of how many times key funding bodies were mentioned in participants’ contributions (based on
data in Appendix C, Table C.3). It is not indicative of the amount of funding provided.
denoi t ne ms e m
i t f o r eb mu
70
60
50
40
30
20
Past
10
Present
0
Of past and present funders, NERC plays the most significant role in the responses received (mentioned 109 times in Table
C.3), followed by EU/EC funding (mentioned 58 times). BBSRC comes next, followed by EPSRC (mentioned 44 vs 33 times).
Significant funding is also provided by the Royal Society (mentioned 23 times), the Carbon Trust (pre-funding cuts;
mentioned 20 times) and the Leverhulme Trust (mentioned 14 times). Only a few groups have reported funding from ERC,
TSB and ESRC (mentioned 6, 5 and 1 times respectively). Industry plays a significant role in the funding landscape.
Based on the questionnaire results, the number of algal researchers receiving funding from NERC, the Royal Society, TSB
and ESRC has decreased, whereas the pool of those receiving funding from the EU/EC, EPSRC, Carbon Trust (pre funding
cuts) and ERC has increased. No change was seen in the number of algal researchers receiving funding from BBSRC and the
Leverhulme Trust. However, it needs to be stressed that this is based on the responses of 185 researchers only, and no
indication on the amount of funding in each case is given, hence this is a poor indicator of levels of, and commitment to,
funding for algal research.
The impact of the funding landscape, and in particular of the apparent lack of coherence and overall strategy on algae
across the spectrum of funders, has been commented on in the 2009 DECC report55, and is discussed further in Section
1.2.4.
55
c.f. key outcomes of DECC report (http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk; p.3)
10
1.2.2.4 Key Challenges and Opportunities for Algal R&D, as Seen by Participants
When asked in the questionnaire where they saw the key challenges and opportunities for algal research in the next 5 / 10
/ 25 years, participants provided a large body of data which is given in Appendix C (Tables C.4.1, C.4.2 and C.4.3,
respectively). A pictorial representation of the frequency with which key words were mentioned was obtained by feeding
the collated responses, after deleting the terms alga / algae / algal, into the online resource www.wordle.net – see Figs 1.2
and 1.3 below. Size of the depicted words is correlated to the frequency with which they were mentioned; choice of
colours and colour-depth are arbitrary. The largest number of responses was received for the 5 year timescale (137),
fewer for the 10 year timescale (110) and fewest for the 25 year timescale (80). The answers provided have also been fed
into the SWOT analysis in Chapter 5 (Table 5.1), and into the overview of RD&D needed to develop algal products and
services (Chapter 7; Table 7.1).
Fig. 1.2: Wordle depiction of challenges for algal research given by participants on a timescale of 5 (top), 10 (middle)
and 25 (bottom) years
11
Fig. 1.3: Wordle depiction of opportunities for algal research given by participants on a timescale of 5 (top), 10 (middle)
and 25 (bottom) years
12
Analysis of Challenges
On the 5 year timescale, the most widely recognised 56 challenges included increasing understanding15x of algae through
research17x, and addressing energy issues ((bio)fuel(s)18x, (bio)energy7x). Funding17x was seen as a major issue, followed by
addressing environmental / climate change12x, efficiency and scale-up of production12x, and working in a systems11x
context (model / growth / environmental systems and systems biology).
Moving to the 10 year timescale, the energy sector was seen as the primary challenge ((bio)fuel(s)12x, (bio)energy6x),
followed by the effects of climate8x change, and developing efficient production8x systems. Maintaining, expanding,
integrating and applying the knowledge5x base were still seen as challenging, as were developing both systems and
synthetic biology6x.
Finally, on the 25 year timescale, the energy sector had firmly moved into 1st position ((bio)fuel(s)15x, (bio)energy6x),
followed by issues surrounding scale-up of production9x for industrial use, climate and environmental change7x, and
management5x of resources, wastes and processes.
Analysis of Opportunities
The opportunities given for the 5-year timescale to some extent mirrored the priorities of the challenges: novel research
outputs17x and increased understanding9x were seen as key opportunities, linked in with the development7x or discovery of
new12x models, strains, tools, technologies, networks, bioactives and products. Again the energy sector was rated highly
((bio)fuel(s)18x, energy7x), as was solving issues around production14x.
On the 10 year timescale, production10x at scale11x had become the most recognised opportunity, and followed by the
energy sector ((bio)fuel(s)11x, (bio)energy9x). In terms of research, marine, synthetic, molecular, systems and ecosystem
biology6x was given a high profile, so was the development of new products7x, strains5x and technologies5x.
In analogy to the challenges, on the 25 year timescale again the energy sector scored highest ((bio)fuel(s)10x, energy5x),
followed by production9x of chemical, food, feed, energy and bespoke products in a biorefining context and at scale6x.
Synthetic biology6x, and integration4x of production with other processes were also highlighted as areas of great potential
at this timescale.
In summary, on a short timescale the importance of increasing fundamental understanding through research was
highlighted; lack of funding, and of qualified personnel, was seen as a major threat. Production was a key issue
throughout, with the need for progression from the current RD&D stage through the different levels of scale-up to full
industrial scale. Likewise, mitigation of the effects of climate change, and addressing the energy challenge, played a major
role throughout, and were given increased relative importance with increasing timescale. In parallel to the development
of efficient and integrated production systems for low and high value products in the medium and long term, participants
emphasised the opportunities created by advancing research outputs, such as systems biology / omics, and synthetic
biology.
1.2.3 Named Current Algal Initiatives and Clusters of Activity
In addition to the expertise of individual universities, as summarised in Section 1.2.2.2 and Table 1.3, clusters of activity
have also formed across universities and in interaction with industry. A non-exhaustive overview is given below; centres of
algal activity (such as e.g. PML, SAMS, NOC and others) that are mentioned as part of one of the collaborative projects are
not listed again separately. 57
1.2.3.1 BioMara (www.biomara.org)
The Sustainable Fuels from Marine Biomass project (BioMara) is a UK and Irish joint project under INTERREG IVA that aims
to demonstrate the feasibility and viability of producing third generation biofuels from marine biomass. It commenced in
56
based on an analysis of the number of contributions mentioning each key word, given as superscripts to the key word
The scope of the report did not allow for quality control of the information provided on the quoted websites, and hence no
qualitative judgement is made of the indicated expertise.
13
57
2009 and will run to 2012. Its research investigates macro- and microalgae for their potential to provide sustainable fuel,
and studies the environmental, social and economic impacts of using marine biofuel.
The project is funded by the European Union (INTERREG IVA), the Governments of the Republic of Ireland, Northern
Ireland and Scotland, the Crown Estates and the Highlands & Islands Enterprise.
Participants and their research areas are:
• Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) at the Scottish Marine Institute (www.sams.ac.uk; Lead Partner):
Analysis of microalgal strains (screening of microalgae cultures, development of gene probes for monitoring oil
production, analysis of oil content, optimising growth conditions, macroalgal cultivation, environmental impacts
of using storm caste seaweed for biofuel production, Anaerobic Digestion, bioethanol production)
• The Centre for Renewable Energy at Dundalk Institute of Technology (CREDIT), Ireland
(ww2.dkit.ie/research/research_centres/credit): Biomass for Anaerobic Digestion and bioethanol production
(Anaerobic Digestion (AD), bioethanol production)
• Fraser of Allander Institute, University of Strathclyde, Scotland (www.strath.ac.uk/fraser/): Economic, social and
techno-economic impacts of the generation of biofuel from marine algae (microeconomic cost-benefit analysis,
macroeconomic impacts of the development of a mari-fuels industry in Scotland and the North of Ireland, technoeconomic evaluation of systems and options)
• Centre for Sustainable Technologies and Nanotechnology and Integrated Biotechnology Centre, University of
Ulster, Northern Ireland (www.nibec.ulster.ac.uk; www.cst.ulster.ac.uk/): Involved in economic, social and
techno-economic impacts; expertise also in pyrolysis of biomass to produce gas and oil, extraction of useful
chemicals from biomass
• Institute of Technology, Sligo, Ireland (www.itsligo.ie): Involved in biomass for Anaerobic Digestion and bioethanol
production
• The Questor Centre, The Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland (http://questor.qub.ac.uk/): Development
of downstream processing (expertise in steam processing and reforming of hydrocarbons for bioenergy from
marine algae)
1.2.3.2 NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group
The Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group (AB-SIG) is a network set up in 2010 to bring together academic research and
industry to pool knowledge on algal products, processes and services, including, but not limited to, bioenergy products.
The AB-SIG is supported but the Natural Environment Research Council and the Technology Strategy Board, and facilitated
by the Biosciences KTN. It has funding for two years, and is overseen by a part-time Director (Dr Michele Stanley, SAMS),
two research fellows (one on macro- and microalgae each) and a part-time knowledge exchange fellow.
1.2.3.3 INTERREG IVB NW Europe Strategic Initiative ‘Energetic Algae’ (EnAlgae; website to be announced shortly)
This initiative, funded from 2011 for 4.5 years, comprises 19 partners from the UK (7), Belgium (5), Germany (3), Ireland
(2), The Netherlands (1), and France (1), and is led by the UK (Swansea University).
Energetic Algae aims to reduce CO2 emissions and dependency on unsustainable energy sources in NW Europe, by
accelerating the development of sustainable technologies for algal biomass production, bioenergy and greenhouse gas
mitigation from pilot phase to application and marketable products, processes and services. This is achieved by bundling
know-how, finance and political support together. The project comprises three Work Packages:
WP1: To maximise the transnational value of pilot scale algal culture facilities across NW Europe, by creating an integrated
Network that incorporates an up-to-date inventory of current and planned pilots. Representative pilots collect and share
data and best practices in a standardised manner, and provide demonstrations to diverse project partners, observers and
stakeholders.
WP2: To identify the political, economic, social and technological opportunities to exploit algal biomass within the context
of NW Europe, delivering much needed information for policy makers, industry and investors on which algal production
systems, standards and end use markets are applicable in the region.
WP3: To combine information across the algal bioenergy delivery chain into an ICT tool that can guide decisions, identify
gaps in knowledge and capability and provide a roadmap to help stakeholders focus future actions in NW Europe.
UK partners in EnAlgae are:
• Swansea University, Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Research (CSAR) (Lead Partner)
• National Non-Food Crop Centre, York Science Park
14
•
•
•
•
•
Birmingham City University, Centre for Low Carbon Research
InCrops Enterprise Hub, at the University of East Anglia, with subpartners Cambridge University, BioGroup
Ltd, British Sugar
Plymouth Marine Laboratory
Scottish Association for Marine Science
Queen’s University Belfast
Several scale-up facilities that are part of this initiative are, or will be, located in the UK:
• The InCrops Enterprise Hub (www.incropsproject.co.uk) is working towards an Algal Innovation Centre to
collaborate with interested industries on implementing algal technologies across the entire value spectrum.
• The Nottingham Algal Biorefinery Facility (NABF) is an existing commercial microalgal production and
biorefinery facility that is being co-developed by PML with industrial partner Boots. It will be a benchmark in
the EnAlgae Project. The facility employs a proprietary 32,000 L closed photobioreactor to propagate
microalgae utilising waste CO2 flue gas emissions directly from a gas fired power station. Microalgal strains
have been selected for development potential within the pharmaceutical, health care and cosmetics market.
The primary focus of the installation is on use of the lowest energy systems to cultivate, harvest and extract a
range of petroleum replacement products from the proprietary microalgal strains. 58
• EnAlgae lead partner Swansea will upgrade its “series of proprietary tubular photobioreactors (PBRs) devoted
to applied research on integrated technologies for microalgae production and effluent remediation (aqueous
effluents, industrial flue gases). This infrastructure comprises 2 x 600 L PBRs located in a climate controlled
greenhouse (with supplemental external lighting) adjacent to a large aquaculture research facility, plus 1 x
400 L volume PBR located in a fully controlled environment laboratory. These PBRs are integrated with
extensive laboratory and pilot scale bio-processing equipment, which will contribute key information to
stakeholders on nutrient recycling for microalgal production, and dewatering and downstream processing of
microalgal biomass.” 59 The expanded facility will “incorporate a new proprietary columnar PBR system,
designed to operate using recycled nutrients from anaerobic digestion, thereby levering EnAlgae’s capacity to
address environmental sustainability issues surrounding algal bioenergy.”59
• Expansion and upgrading of existing micro- and macroalgal growth facilities will also be carried out at Queen’s
University Marine Laboratory, including “installation and maintenance of new longlines in Strangford Lough
[…]. The Lough is one of only three Marine Nature Reserves in the UK and is strongly tidal. […] (The upgrade)
will provide equipment that will monitor and model how hydrodynamic factors affect marine macroalgal
cultivation […] (and) enable the extension and improvement of the closed microalgal photobioreactor […].
Bioreactor capacity will be doubled and heterotrophic facilities added to allow and optimize the culturing of
microalgal strains native to NW Europe.”59
1.2.3.4 Algal Biotechnology Consortium (www.bioenergy.cam.ac.uk/abc.html)
The Algal Biotechnology Consortium (formerly Algal Bioenergy Consortium) is an informal, multidisciplinary group of
scientists with a range of public and industrial funders who aim to use algae 60 for a number of different applications in the
biotechnology and bioenergy industries. This consortium brings together molecular biologists, physiologists, chemists,
engineers and chemical engineers to facilitate the integrated development of future algae-based solutions in collaboration
with industry.
The work falls into the following main topics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The development of tools in algal molecular and synthetic biology for accumulation of desired products
The production of algal biomass, including sequestration of CO2 from flue gases, and treatment of wastewater
Use of microalgae for the production of bio-photovoltaic panels
Photosynthetic and biomimetic hydrogen production and CO2 reduction
The consortium is also actively involved in increasing both energy awareness and public understanding of the
opportunities and challenges biotechnology and bioenergy provide.
58
pers. comm. Carole Llewellyn and Steve Skill
source: EnAlgae Project Proposal; used with permission of authors
60
including cyanobacteria
59
15
Participating institutions are:
• Cambridge University (topics 1, 2, 3, 4)
• Rothamsted Research (topic 1)
• University College London (topics 1, 2)
1.2.3.5 Technology Innovation Centre at CPI (www.uk-cpi.com)
The Centre for Process Innovation (CPI) has been working on the development of processes using algae since 2006 with
practical work starting in 2009. CPI is working to tackle some of the major issues in the production of algal biomass that
have hampered widespread commercial uptake such as: reactor design, growth conditions and integrated process
technology from pre-treatment to extraction.
CPI is leading or is a major partner in a number of projects to develop algae-based products as well as use algae in carbon
capture and storage. Recent projects have included co-firing of algal biomass to replace fossil fuel, the use of algae in
carbon capture from large scale industrial processes, converting algae to biofuels and algae growing for medical
applications. These projects are in collaboration with major industry players such a Tata Steel, Arup and Cemex.
CPI has invested in a range of open access facilities for the growth and processing of algae based products. These include a
dedicated algae laboratory, which has facilities for growing and processing microalgae under controlled conditions. In
addition to being fully equipped with all essential equipment for a microbiology lab, CPI also has airlift and stirred photobioreactors that are supplied with CO2, air and nitrogen, as well as floor-standing illuminated growth cabinets with
controllable temperature and lighting. In addition CPI is designing and trialling a number of novel reactors.
In addition to the above, CPI also has a range of scale-up facilities for a wide spectrum of industrial biotechnology
processes up to 10,000 L. These are available to organisations that are developing algae based products and processes. CPI
has a public/ private asset based innovation role to support the industrial commercialization of process technology by
supplying assets, market knowledge and technology development that provide an integrated approach to the commercial
realisation of what is a complex technology. 61
1.2.3.6 SURF / Oasis Network at Cranfield University
(www.cranfield.ac.uk/soe/departments/ope/oena/page48488.html)
Cranfield University announced an algal biofuels project for aviation in September 2010, which it is developing in
collaboration with an aviation consortium. The project is called “Sustainable Use of Renewable Fuels” (SURF) and is based
on Cranfield’s “Sea Green” algae biofuels process. The project is planning to commence producing commercial quantities
of biofuel for test purposes by 2013.
SURF will address five major considerations for the successful use of renewable fuels from microalgae: environmental
impact; processing capacity and distribution; commercial; legislation and regulation. Specific studies will look at future
sustainability modelling and environmental lifecycle assessment. Cranfield has operated a pilot plant producing
experimental quantities of aviation fuel since 2007. The eventual objective is to demonstrate scalability of the “Sea Green”
process both on coastal land and on in-shore ocean facilities.
Cranfield has also been commissioned by the EU to run the Oasis Network, an initiative to develop a supply chain in the
East of England for the processes and equipment used to extract bio-fuel from marine microalgae.
1.2.3.7 European Bioenergy Research Institute / Aston University62
The Bioenergy Research Group at Aston University is a founder member of the European Bioenergy Research Institute
(EBRI). EBRI carries out research on growing algae in bioreactors and also on the conversion of the biomass using pyrolysis
techniques. Flue-gas CO2 is captured and used in the algae cultivation as part of the “Aston zero waste bioenergy cycle”.
61
62
text kindly provided by Graham Hillier, CPI
adapted from a presentation by Juan Matthews, UKTI R&D Specialist , November 2010
16
1.2.3.8 Carbon Trust Algae Biofuels Challenge
The future of this project is uncertain, since public funding was withdrawn in March 2011. It is nevertheless included in
considerable detail because of the spectrum of UK algal expertise it demonstrates.
The Carbon Trust is a publicly supported charitable organisation that works with industry to advance low carbon
technologies; one of its aims is establishing algal biofuel production for aviation and road transport by 2020. The Algae
Biofuels Challenge was set up to be a £18M project with 11 university partners to tackle a number of key problems on the
path to the introduction of algal biofuels.
Between 2008 and 2011 over £3m were invested, to assess the opportunity, set up the initiative, run a competition
(to select the best 12 research teams from over 80 applications to meet the technical objectives), secure licenses to all
intellectual property, and conduct the first year of research in Phase 1 (from January 2010 to March 2011). The 12
research teams involved in Phase 1 comprised 74 research scientists from 11 UK research institutions (25 full time
equivalents). The 12 teams were supported by a Technology Advisory Panel comprised of four leading international
experts in microalgae biofuels (Dr John Benemann, Prof. Ami Ben-Amotz, Prof. Mario Tredici, Dr Ausilio Bauen).
The programme was set up to provide those research teams which achieve their goals in the laboratory with the
opportunity to test their conclusions at a demonstration facility which was to be developed under Phase two.
The original sources of public funding for this work ceased at the end of March 2011, leaving the employed contract
research staff in a vulnerable position, and damaging the UK’s international reputation, since the ABC had been promoted
as the UK’s flagship programme on algal bioenergy R&D. The Carbon Trust is currently seeking alternative sources of
funding to continue the work, which through encouraging collaboration of previously unconnected experts had already
begun to yield promising results.
Overview of research areas covered, and research centres involved:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The isolation and development of novel marine micro-algal strains for biofuel production (PML)
Improvement of solar conversion efficiency in marine microalgae (Southampton)
Screening and random mutagenesis to isolate improved algal strains for lipid production in mass culture (QMUL)
Nutrient optimisation for high lipid yield and productivity (Manchester)
Characterization of lipid-overproducing algae isolated using environmental stress and development of high
throughput screening methods (Sheffield)
System requirements for low-cost energy-efficient algal biomass cultivation for biofuel production (Southampton)
Application of chemical communication principles to sustained mass algal culture (Newcastle)
Control of protozoan grazers (SAMS)
Ultrasonic extraction of biofuel precursors from single cell algae (Manchester)
R&D into cost effective techniques for the extraction of oils/valuable co-products from algae using ultrasound and
ionic liquids (Coventry)
Water-tolerant extraction of algal biofuels (Newcastle)
Algal biomass production and processing: modelling, optimisation and economic and life cycle analyses (Swansea,
Bangor, PML)
Further details on participants and their projects:
• University of Sheffield Bioenergy Research Group: The project uses environmental stress to choose the
correct strain of microalgae with high lipid production. The main criterion is the overproduction of neutral
lipids. After initial screening, mass spectrometry is used to detect lipids with greater precision. The aim is
to develop a set of experimental techniques that will allow the identification of suitable algal strains. The
Process Fluidics Research Group at Sheffield is also a prize winning centre for the development of
bioreactors for growing algae.
• Queen Mary’s Photosynthesis Research Group: The project uses "forced evolution" to adapt marine algae for
intensive cultivation, and to improve their production of biofuel precursors. A fluorescence imaging technique
identifies strains with photosynthetic properties likely to lead to improved growth and biofuel production under
the conditions required.
• Newcastle University (two projects): The first project is to develop a chemical toolbox to manipulate and
regulate open pond cultures. By harnessing the alga’s own communication systems we endeavour to exert
a gentle, yet decisive influence on the growth and community patterns with open ponds. The strategy is to
work with nature, not against it. The second project involves evaluating the water-tolerance of three
different conversion technologies with a view to achieving significantly
17
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
more cost-effective algal biofuel production. This is achieved by removing process steps, and by reducing the
energy requirements.
The Sonochemistry Centre at Coventry University (http://wwwm.coventry.ac.uk/researchnet/Sonochemistry):
The Centre has a long history of R&D in the use of ultrasound to control algal blooms, and has acquired
knowledge of the effects of ultrasound on algal cells. Based on this expertise, the Centre’s research endeavours to
find the correct combination of ultrasonic conditions and solvents in order to obtain oil from algae.
Swansea University’s Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Research (CSAR) and Centre for Complex Fluids
Processing (CCFP), in collaboration with Bangor University: The project uses modelling to define the
operational envelope for the economic production of biofuels from microalgae. A combination of physical,
biological and economic modelling enables a cost-benefit analysis taking into account reactor
specification and location, algal ecophysiology, engineering costs of harvesting, dewatering and cell cracking,
and nutrient recycling.
The University of Manchester (two projects): The first project assesses algal culture conditions that give maximal
cellular lipid content whilst maintaining a high cell density. Metabolic and gene expression profiling of the algae
are used to understand the molecular mechanisms of lipid induction. The second project looks at ultrasonic
techniques to disrupt the algal cells walls to enable the extraction of oils.
The School of Ocean and Earth Science (SOES) at University of Southampton (www.southampton.ac.uk/soes/):
The project is developing cost-effective innovative low-energy methods for carbon enrichment. The efficiency of
these is matched to the demand for carbon in open channels at different flow depths and velocities. Carbon
demand and conversion efficiency are assessed in laboratory-scale rigs and pilot-scale raceways simulating
different surface areas and retention times.
The National Oceanographic Centre (NOC), located at the Universities of Liverpool and Southampton
(http://noc.ac.uk/): The project addresses the efficiency of photosynthetic conversion, which limits the
commercial productivity of algal biofuels. A team of NOC scientists with expertise in studying algae in nature are
applying novel technologies in the selection and manipulation of algae that maximise photosynthetic efficiency.
Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML; www.pml.ac.uk): The project aims to screen thousands of new algal strains by
using a combination of traditional and state-of-the-art methods to identify and isolate novel lipid-accumulating
algae for the production of biodiesel.
The Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS; www.sams.ac.uk): The project “Control of Grazers” aims to
develop robust methodologies for the early detection of protozoan “infection” of algal mass-cultures. In addition,
management strategies are developed to prevent or reduce damage caused by protozoan grazing.
1.2.4 Conclusions
The overview presented in Section 1.2 represents but a sample of the entire algal UK research expertise, provided chiefly
by the 170 researchers who submitted their responses to the questionnaire. This sample alone already highlights the great
wealth and breadth of capability relevant to algal research that is currently resident in the UK. Some initiatives already
exist which bring several of the groups and institutions together (c.f. Section 1.2.3), and participants in these initiatives
have commented on the benefit they have derived from exchange and collaboration with other groups, including the
generation of patentable ideas in the very first meeting of one such cross-group initiative (pers. comm.; source
confidential). Overall, however, the community describes itself as disjointed, which can in part be attributed to a lack of
coherence in existing funding streams and absence of strategic leadership 63. Step changes could be expected if the
expertise of this community, whose excellent research overall has been limited in impact by lack of integration, were to
come together to apply their experience under the umbrella of a strategic framework. This would enable the UK to
capitalise on the strengths of the algal research community, to compete strongly on the global stage and to address some
of the key challenges which our society faces. Aspects of how algal research may contribute to solving challenges such as
food, energy and material security are discussed in Chapter 4.
63
c.f. key outcomes of DECC report, p.3 (available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk)
18
1.3 Past and Present Industrial Strengths on Algae in the UK
The advancement of knowledge through research undertaken at academic institutions is complemented by the
development of expertise and processes in industry. Involvement of industrial stakeholders in research proposals is
increasingly encouraged by Research Councils through Industrial Partnership Awards, LINK-type projects and Industry
Clubs 64 such as IBTI and BRIC, since this increases the potential for wider impact of the research outputs. TSB and various
EU initiatives also offer funding opportunities for collaborative R&D between academia and industry. It is therefore highly
relevant to review the industrial landscape for algae in the UK. This section will look at micro- and macroalgal industries
separately, since both their history and the relevant challenges are largely distinct, and will conclude with a discussion of
industrial trends and emerging opportunities. Again, despite care to be inclusive the information provided is unlikely to be
comprehensive, and the scope did not allow for quality control of information provided by stakeholders or on companies’
web pages. The author would appreciate being informed of omissions or necessary amendments.
1.3.1 Microalgae
The UK has been the birthplace of several microalgal biotechnologies through knowledge transfer from lab to business.
Innovative and quality-driven technologies for a wide range of microalgae have been developed through the years with
the emergence of new business. This section first reviews the history of microalgal companies in the UK, and then gives an
overview of currently active companies.
1.3.1.1 History of Companies in the UK
Some of the early companies active in the field have gone out of business, but were pioneers and clearly ahead of their
time. Their closure was mostly due to reduced market focus and lack of experience in production at pilot level. Some
examples are given below (adapted from Vieira, 2010 65, with pers. comm. from Steve Skill, John Day and Joe McDonald):
In the 1980s Cell Systems Ltd (Trade name: Celsys) (Cambridge, closed 1991 - was the first ‘non Chlorella’ microalgae
fermentation company with production of Tetraselmis, amongst others, for spray-dried aquaculture feed. The company
developed the applied research and solutions that contributed to the current success of Martek in the US and Protos
Biotech (Nutrinova) in Germany, resulting in the commercial production of DHA from microalgae. The company was 10
years ahead of the R&D field, but few of their results were published. Some of the expertise has stayed in the UK, e.g.
former employee Dr John Day is now Head of the Culture Collection for Algae and Protozoa (CCAP) at the Scottish
Association for Marine Science.
In 1983 Blue Green Biotech (Nottinghamshire, closed 1986) was established as a cooperative, inspired by a BBSRC funded
research project of Steve Skill’s to isolate heterocyst specific gene sequences from blue green algae. It constructed a 1000
L closed artificially illuminated photobioreactor (PBR) integrated with a 10,000 L anaerobic digester to provide heat,
power, nutrients and CO2 for Spirulina 66 cultivation. The harvested biomass was dried and formulated into pills as a
nutritional supplement. Whilst the venture was not entirely a commercial success, valuable experience was gained from
the project.
As an extension to his work at Queen Elizabeth / King’s College, London, Professor John Pirt established Photobioreactors
Ltd in 1986 and patented a novel tubular PBR design. A pilot plant was constructed at Reading University Research Farm
and in the late 1980's, investment had been secured to construct two PBR production sites in Spain. Initially, a pilot plant
was constructed in Santomera but not long after, a full scale commercial plant was commissioned in 1990 at Santa Anna
near Cartagena. The PBR consisted of 200,000 metres of polyethylene tubing but following a major algal culture crash in
1991, the plant was closed. The company was dissolved in 1993. Inadequate management, insufficient culture circulation,
biofouling and contamination were the main causes of the failure. The tubular design with improved operational
procedures is now widely used on a global scale.
In 1987, Lee Robinson (ex Chairman of the Warren Spring Laboratory) and Angus Morrison patented the Biocoil PBR and
established Biotechna Ltd (London) to licence the IP and develop cutting-edge microalgae biotechnologies. Biotechna
64
http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/innovation/sharing-challenges/
‘Feasibility study for the development of an algal innovation centre in the East of England’ June 2010; report for the InCrops
Project (www.incropsproject.co.uk). Non-confidential sections can be made available on request.
66
Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the term Spirulina internationally especially when
referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new nomenclature.
19
65
initially constructed pilot Biocoil plants in Luton (for Spirulina 67 production) and Livingstone (for wastewater treatment
using Chlorella). In 1990, the company developed a 5000 L Biocoil PBR installation at Severn Trent's Stoke Bardolph
sewage treatment plant under Steve Skill’s leadership, demonstrating the use of flocculating consortia of microalgae for
wastewater treatment 68. A pilot plant coupling thermophilic AD of poultry manure with a Biocoil-based digested liquor
treatment by photosynthetic anaerobes, followed by a Chlorella/Scenedesmus consortium for nutrient polishing, was
established near Cork in Ireland. Biotechna also collaborated with
i.
Dr Paul Jenkins of the University of the West of England to jointly develop the concept of an Algal Power Station
by coupling Biocoil PBR algal biomass production on sewage, with direct combustion of the harvested biomass in
a modified Perkins diesel combined heat and power unit 69
ii.
the marketing company Green Cycle Ltd (High Wycombe, founded in 1993, closed in 1996) on the installation of a
two-stage pilot Biocoil PBR facility in Portugal to produce natural Beta Carotene from Dunaliella
iii.
the Olin Corporation (US) to apply Biocoil PBR technology to mitigate agricultural discharges which were causing
devastating Pfeisteria infestations in North Carolina water bodies
iv.
Prof. Bill Oswald (Berkeley), aimed at reducing the land area requirement of microalgae based Advanced
Integrated Ponding System for sewage treatment.
In 1994, Biotechna Ltd went public on the Alberta Stock Exchange raising $5.5m (Canadian). In 1997, the company was
taken over by a US concern and in 1998 the US leadership terminated all UK operations (and innovation).
Dr Paul Jenkins continued his work at UWE and incorporated the Biocoil’s main features into the Biofence PBR. Following
the untimely death of Dr Jenkins, Manchester University’s Campus Ventures Ltd continued working on the Biofence PBR
and in 1996 a spin-out company Applied Photosynthetics Ltd (APL) was formed to market Biofence technology, managed
by Dr Jonathan Mortimer. APL constructed a multiple array of Biofences for wastewater treatment at the Earth Centre
near Doncaster in 1997, although not long after the facility went bankrupt.
After Dr Mortimer left APL, he formed a number of Biofence marketing companies based in Wales including; Biofence Ltd
(closed 2001), Biosynthesis Ltd (closed 2002), and CellPharm Ltd (closed 2007). In 2003, the Biofence rights were acquired
by Varicon Aqua Ltd, who continue to market the system today as research photobioreactors and in aquaculture as live
feed production systems.
In 1990 the PBL Group of companies (Reading, founded in March 1986, now closed) scaled up the first biofence tubular
photobioreactor, currently used by several aquaculture hatcheries and research applications. This system inspired the
large scale photobioreactor of Algatechnologies (Israel) and several others in Europe and around the world.
In 1999 Sherwood Forest Tilapia was established by Steve Skill, an intensive Tilapia farm with 100% water recycling
provided by a unique microalgal biofilm system. Since then, the microalgal biofilm process has been further developed as
a low cost method to convert sewage in to biofuel and fertiliser.
Seasalter Continuous Algal Production Systems (SeaCAPS; Kent, founded 2000, closed 2010) have developed an innovative
approach to economical Continuous Algal Production Systems. Technological advances developed over the past three
decades with these systems along with customized hatchery designs have been installed at both fish and shellfish farms in
15 countries. The parent company Seasalter Shellfish (Whitstable) Ltd (Kent, founded in 1986), under whose umbrella the
development of the Algal Production Systems started, are still operational; however, the company’s involvement in algal
production is being phased out.
Oxford Algaetech, founded in March 2009 as a research and development organisation addressing bioenergy, pigments
and pharmaceutical applications of algae, closed in Oct 2010.
Some British phycological expertise has moved abroad, and has benefited algal industries internationally. Examples
include J Michael Armstrong, who headed Thallia Phamaceuticals - a company investigating pharmacologically active
products from algae, with pilot scale facilities in France. The company folded in 1999 due to conflicts of interest amongst
the shareholders; its Technical Director Dr Tony Hall then set up AquaArtis, a company focusing on cultivating and
screening fractionated extracts from microalgae and cyanobacteria for new pharmaceutical and nutraceutical products
such as zeaxanthin. The company folded in 2004 due to lack of investment 70.
67
Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the term Spirulina internationally especially when
referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new nomenclature.
68
featured in National Geographic, March 1994
69
featured on BBC Tomorrow’s World 1993, c.f. www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7N8uBV1byE
70
pers. comm. John Day, Olivier Lépine and Tony Hall
20
1.3.1.2 Companies Currently Operational
All Seasons Health (Hampshire, founded 1994), sell Spirulina 71 and Chlorella as nutraceuticals, including certified organic
products. The algal biomass is currently grown by high quality producers abroad, Spirulina in Tamil Nadu, Southern India,
and Chlorella in Taiwan. The company is interested in sourcing feedstocks from the UK, should biomass that is certified by
the Soil Association as organic become available at competitive prices.
Varicon Aqua Solutions Ltd (VAS) (Malvern, founded 2004) is a well-established technology provider in the Algae PBR
sector, working with academia (e.g. Birmingham City and Aston Universities) and industry to develop and improve knowhow in the algae biomass sector. Their patented BioFence™ PBRs are operational across the globe in fish hatcheries,
universities, cosmetic producers, nutraceutical production facilities, power utilities researching carbon abatement and
plant science groups developing optimised algal strains for the emerging algae bio-fuels market.
PML Applications Ltd (the commercial arm of Plymouth Marine Laboratories, founded 2001) collaborates amongst others
with Boots on growing algae for cosmeceutical and nutraceutical applications, and employ proprietary photobioreactor
solutions under licence from Steve Skill.
Downstream processing of microalgae is addressed e.g. by the engineering company Pursuit Dynamics plc (Cambs;
founded 2001); they apply their fluid processing technology to extraction of lipids from algal biomass. The company is
collaborating with Wageningen University and is building links with Cambridge University.
A different approach to exploiting microalgae is being taken by H+Energy Ltd, a spin-out of Cambridge University (founded
2006): they investigate the use of cyanobacteria and eukaryotic microalgae as solar energy collectors in BioPhotoVoltaic
Cells, and are now part of Ortus Energy Ltd. The company R&D is embedded in Cambridge University; collaboration also
exists with Bath University.
Scottish Bioenergy Ltd (founded 2007) is developing algal bioreactors that utilise distillery flue gas and effluent from the
Scotch Whisky Industry to produce high value co-products, such as copper-enriched pig feed. The systems also operate
symbiotically with anaerobic digesters and fermenters. They have completed a two year pilot study in the Scotch Whisky
sector with encouraging results, and are now teaming with Whisky producers and academic organisations to scale the
systems up to a commercial level. They collaborate with Napier, Newcastle and Strathclyde Universities.
A number of companies are focusing on high value products from algae: Supreme Biotechnologies Ltd (London, founded
2007) produces high quality Astaxanthin for nutraceutical, cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical uses from Haematococcus
pluvialis cultivated in artificially illuminated photobioreactors in Nelson, New Zealand 72, and extracted using Super Critical
CO2. The company has links with University College London, and is interested in sourcing feedstocks from the UK, should
biomass of suitable quality become available at competitive prices.
New Horizons Global Ltd (a Northern Ireland company whose main operation is based near Liverpool, founded 2008)
produce omego-3 lipids heterotrophically from a proprietary strain of microalgae (developed through Hull University) for
applications including the feed, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical sectors. The company has an 800,000 L fermentation
capacity at a 12 acre facility, and also has links with Liverpool University.
Algae Biotechnology Products Ltd (Glasgow) was founded in April 2009 as an enterprise that aims to produce a variety of
products from algae, including nutraceuticals, biofuels and bioplastics.
Nutrabio Ltd (Essex; founded 2009) collaborates with Proalgen Biotech Ltd in Chennai, India on a Spirulina71 product with
the trade name Nutralina (enriched in antioxidants though media manipulation during growth, and suitable as a food
additive), and endeavours to establish growth of this product in the UK.
In 2010, the Welsh company Merlin BioDevelopments Ltd (founded January 2009) patented a process to turn the nutrientrich liquid residue from AD into an algal growth medium that out-performs synthetic media and is completely sustainable.
The growth of the algae is further boosted by using CO2 from CHP flue gases. The biomass is being used to generate
nutraceuticals and animal feed. The company has existing links with the Universities of Bangor, Bath and Swansea.
Other companies that are pursuing the integration of algal growth with Anaerobic Digestion include Adnams BioEnergy
Ltd/ BioGroup Ltd (Suffolk; founded 2008) and Anthill Environmental Ltd (Cambs; founded 2003).
A biotechnological approach is being taken by Spicer Biotech (Bedford), founded in 2010 as a new research division of the
engineering company Spicer Consulting. With combined engineering and biological expertise, the company is developing
71
Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the term Spirulina internationally especially when
referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new nomenclature.
72
Reasons for production in New Zealand include extensive expertise in scaled growth at Cawthron Institute, Nelson NZ (from
where the PBR technology has been licensed) and NZ Government grant support (pers. comm. Mahesh Shah).
21
novel laboratory scale photobioreactors for testing and modelling algal productivity prior to outdoor pilot phase scale-up.
A second arm develops a molecular tool-kit for modified algal strains. The company collaborates with the Universities of
Cambridge and Cranfield.
Photobioreactor.co.uk (PBR-UK; Nottingham, founded 2010) develops micro-algae cultivation technology to capture
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and produce commodity biomolecules. The company also employs micro-algae cultivation
as a means to recycle wastewater. PBR-UK provide proprietary micro-algae cultivation engineering solutions either under
license or as joint ventures.
The company Enlightened Designs Ltd (Devon, founded 2010) is in early stages of developing a novel design of outdoor
photobioreactors. The thin flat panel PBRs aim to exploit the flashing light effect in sunlight, will use microporous
membranes to enhance gas transfer and will be constructed in light-weight polymers to reduce cost and enable a
manufacturing process which is linearly scalable. The company collaborates with Exeter University and PML and is
pursuing collaborations with the University of Plymouth, North Wyke/Rothamsted and the Eden Project.
A promising underpinning technology for algal screening and cultivation has been developed by Sphere Fluidics Ltd
(Cambridge, founded 2010). The Company is a spin-out from the ESPRC-funded Microdroplets collaboration between
Cambridge University and Imperial College. Their lab-on-a-chip technology can select, store and retrieve picodroplets
containing a unique, single cell from vast background populations. Algal colonies can be grown from these single cells in
their picodroplets, which can consequently be split, sorted and screened for e.g. growth characteristics, response to
changes in environment and metabolite profile. The technology can be applied to discovery of unique algae strains for
application in industries including: biofuels, food and cosmetics.
Finally, all major oil companies fund various levels of algal R&D in collaboration with universities; however, project topics
and partners are confidential.
1.3.2 Macroalgae 73
1.3.2.1 History of Exploitation
Harvesting of kelp dates back in Europe to before the 17th century where it was used extensively as a fertilizer. In the 16th
and 17th centuries, it was discovered in France that the soda and potash required for making glass and glazing pottery
could be produced from kelp (Neushul 1987). The industry spread to Scotland, the Orkney Islands and Norway. Kelp was
an ideal source of materials for explosives, the potash being an ingredient of gun powder and the acetone, another kelp
derivative, a key component of cordite, a smokeless powder used extensively by the British (Kelly and Dworjanyn 2008).
This was followed by the discovery that kelps contain alginates, which is still currently one of their main uses.
Within Europe the most common system for obtaining seaweed biomass is by harvesting natural stocks in tidal coastal
areas with rocky shores. Scotland potentially has Europe’s largest area of standing stock. Walker (1947- 1955) from the
Scottish Seaweed Research Association surveyed 8500 km of Scottish coast. From this he estimated that there was some
8000 km2 of seaweed habitat, with the main areas occurring round the Shetlands, the Outer Hebrides and Orkney (Kelly
and Dworjanyn 2008).
In Europe, knowledge of seaweed cultivation is scattered across several R&D groups and a few industrial groups with the
only seaweed cultivation in the UK.
1.3.2.2 Macroalgal UK Industries
Within the UK, The Hebridean Seaweed Company Ltd (founded 2005; near Stornoway, Isle of Lewis) is the largest
industrial seaweed processor. The company has a permit to harvest wild Ascophylum nodosum and manufactures
seaweed products for use in the animal feed supplement, soil enhancement, alginate and nutraceutical sectors. But it
must be noted that the UK no longer has an active alginate production industry, the last processing plant in Girvan ceased
alginate production in 2009.
73
Based on pers. comm. Michele Stanley
22
Orkney Seaweed Company Ltd, founded in 1988, manufactures a range of products based on liquid extraction from
seaweed harvested off Orkney in Scotland. Their liquid seaweed products are used in both conventional and organic
horticulture and agriculture due to a range of plant growth promoting properties.
Böd Ayre Products Ltd (founded 2003, Shetland) processes seaweed hand-picked at the Shetland coast into organic
products including edible seaweed for human consumption, animal feed and plant fertiliser. The company runs two trial
seaweed cultivation farms, and collaborates with Leeds University on a TSB project for extraction of high value algal
ingredients for the cosmetics industry. Seaveg (Finest Quality Sea Vegetables), a Scottish company, are also offering handpicked seaweeds from the North West Coast of Ireland to the niche dietary supplement market.
In Northern Ireland, Irish Seaweed (previously Dolphin Sea Vegetable Company) was established in 1990 as a family run
business which hand harvests a range of different types of edible seaweeds from around the Irish coast.
An integrative approach is being taken by the salmon farm Loch Duart Ltd (Edinburgh, founded 1999), who are combining
sea urchin, seaweed and salmon farming in integrated aquaculture, and by Neo Argo Ltd (Essex, founded 2009) who are
investigating the use of macroalgae to filter out microalgae in ecologically sensitive areas (though adsorbtion or
repulsion).
To develop the commercial potential of macroalgae in the UK, the Crown Estate is now actively involved in discussions
(through their Macroalgal Forum) with researchers, the aquaculture industry and customer partners to move forward with
plans to establish a pilot commercial-scale cultivation of macroalgae for energy and other commercially valuable products.
Their first meeting took place in June 2010 at Stirling, a follow-up meeting occurred in March 2011. At this second
meeting the Crown Estate stated they were in the process of commissioning a study to investigate valorisation chains that
might be able to extract higher value compounds from macroalgae that would ultimately be destined for use as biofuels.
1.3.3 Conclusions
Over the past 30 years, the UK has produced a number of highly innovative algal companies whose work has driven the
algal field forward on an international level. Currently, a small number of UK companies are well established on an
international stage; those are either technology providers, or service the high value spectrum of algal products from
established species and strains. There are early beginnings of an algal biotechnology industry; either through biorefining
e.g. of macroalgal biomass (investigated by Böd Ayre Ltd), or by developing microalgae as a customised expression
platform (e.g. Spicer Biotech, and providers of underpinning technologies such as Sphere Fluidics Ltd). Hardly any
commercial activity exists in downstream processing.
In addition to the companies named above who are directly engaged in algal activities, there are many others who are
currently not directly involved, but are following the development of the field with a view to enter once suitable
opportunities arise. This includes particularly
•
•
•
technology providers (such as Eco-Solids International Ltd, NPM Heat Recovery and P&M Pumps Ltd) whose
expertise could be applied to parts of the algal production and processing value chain
AD companies with an interest in adding value to and reducing the need to store their liquid digestate
farming estates who are looking to either diversify their crops, or for integrated solutions for energy generation
and bioremediation
Two algal stakeholder meetings for algal industries (with an emphasis on those located in the East of England) were
organised in January and March 2011 by the InCrops Enterprise Hub. As a consequence of these meetings, industry
representatives have set up an UK Algal Biomass Association Group on the professional social networking site LinkedIn 74
(this has as yet no officially links with the European Algal Biomass Association, but serves as an informal discussion forum
for the industry, and is open to any interested party). Discussions on setting up a Trade Association for Algal Industries
were also started at these meetings (and were still under way when this report was finalised), in order to give the industry
a united voice and raise its profile towards decision makers.
Looking ahead to emerging opportunities for new industrial activities, considerable potential exists on the biological side
to build on the academic expertise in e.g. synthetic biology. Industrial biotechnology solutions could and are being
developed; these could then be commercialised through partnership with existing companies, or by forming university
spin-outs. On the engineering side, the greatest potential for the UK currently lies in the development of integrated
74
www.linkedin.com/groups?gid=3744614&trk=myg_ugrp_ovr
23
solutions for growth and processing, following the integrated biorefining concept; many academic groups and industrial
technology providers exist whose expertise could be drawn into further developing such integrated algal solutions, once
feasibility had been confirmed and the sector had gained momentum.
1.4 Summary
This Chapter has given an overview of current and past activity concerning algae in the UK both in the academic and
industrial arena. Academic algal research in the past has underpinned progress of bioscience in general, and laid solid
foundations for algal bioscience. The UK currently has a strong and diverse knowledge base of relevance to algae, with
clear strengths in ecology and fundamental biology. Overall, however, the community describes itself as disjointed, which
can in part be attributed to a lack of coherence in existing funding streams and absence of strategic leadership 75.
Industrial activity is slowly increasing. The turn-over of companies has been high, but valuable contributions to the field
have been made by now dissolved companies during their life time. Most of the currently active companies have some
existing collaborations with UK universities; this facilitates the translation of breakthroughs in fundamental academic
research into industrial applications. Step changes could be expected if the expertise of the academic and industrial
communities were to come together to apply their experience under a strategic framework, rather than on an ad hoc
basis, to address key challenges that our society faces.
75
c.f. key outcomes of DECC report, p.3 (available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk)
24
2. INTERNATIONAL KEY PLAYERS AND MAJOR OBJECTIVES
To assess its competitiveness and potential impact, the algal R&D capability in the UK needs to be put into the context of
global activity on algae. This activity is in constant flux, with a high turn-over especially on the industrial scene. It is outside
the scope of this study to give a comprehensive review of the international RD&D efforts on algae. Instead, this chapter
gives a high-level overview of global interests relating to algae, lists prominent algal innovation centres world-wide, gives
an overview of relevant EU projects and refers to initiatives where detailed and frequently updated information can be
obtained. Following chapters will discuss UK expertise, and opportunities to capitalise on it, with reference to
international activities.
2.1 High-level Overview of International Algal Interests
Significant differences exist between international activities for macro- and microalgae. Macroalgae are chiefly produced
for food, fertiliser, alginates, and pharmaceutical applications. Existing industries with large scale macroalgal cultivation
plants are located in Asian countries (principally in China, the world’s largest producer of cultivated seaweed, but also in
the Philippines, Korea, Indonesia, and Japan) and in Chile. The European industry, mainly focused on alginate production,
has centres in France, the UK and Portugal; most biomass here is harvested from the wild rather than cultivated. To
produce seaweeds as a bioenergy feedstock (e.g. for biogas or ethanol production), the concept of marrying mariculture
with offshore wind farms is being investigated in Germany, Denmark, Netherlands and the US; Pacific South West
University are currently carrying out research funded by the DOE in the areas of site selection for cultivation,
thermochemical and fermentation of the biomass (Stanley et al. 2008).
Established microalgal industries produce high-value products such as nutraceuticals, pigments and fish feed for
hatcheries; leaders here are Australia 76, Taiwan and Japan 77, the US 78 and Israel 79. A multitude of companies have sprung
up investigating the use of microalgae for production of liquid biofuels, with very high turn-over; highest activity is seen in
the US 80, but also in India (where Oilgae 81, a global information support resource for the algae fuels industry, has its base),
China, and other parts of Asia.
R&D efforts in academia follow similar geographical trends – they are very strong and well-funded in the US, where not
only biofuels 82 but also high value biotechnological applications for algae are being intensively investigated, often leading
76
e.g. Cognis’ 400 ha Dunaliella ponds (for β-carotene) at Whyalla and Hutt Lagoon; c.f.
77
for the production of Chlorella and Spirulina (Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the
term Spirulina internationally especially when referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new
nomenclature)
78
e.g. Earthrise (c.f. [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]) and Microbio Resources, both Imperial Valley, CA: they
produce
Spirulina and Dunaliella, respectively; Cyanotech Co, Hawaii (www.cyanotech.com): their products are Spirulina and
79
e.g. NBT Ltd, Eilat, who produce Dunaliella, and Seambiotic, Ashkelon: their products are Nannochloropsis (for omega-3 fatty
astaxanthin
acids) and diatoms (for biofuels)
80
for examples see the AquaFUELS “Report on Main Stakeholders”, available at www.eabaassociation.eu/dl_misc/indexd1.3.html
81
www.oilgae.com
82
This activity follows on from major investment into the Aquatic Species Programme, which the U.S. Department of Energy’s
Office of Fuels Development funded from 1978 to 1996 to develop renewable transportation fuels from algae. Examples of
recent substantial funding support include $24 million awarded by the US Department of Energy in June 2010 to three research
consortia to address the existing difficulties in the commercialisation of algal-based biofuels. The consortia are: 1. Sustainable
Algal Biofuels Consortium (Mesa, Arizona): Led by Arizona State University, this consortium will focus on testing the
acceptability of algal biofuels as replacements for petroleum-based fuels. Tasks include investigating biochemical conversion of
algae to fuels and products, and analyzing physical chemistry properties of algal fuels and fuel intermediates. (DOE share: up to
$6 million). 2. Consortium for Algal Biofuels Commercialization (San Diego, California): Led by the University of California, San
Diego, this consortium will concentrate on developing algae as a robust biofuels feedstock. Tasks include investigating new
approaches for algal crop protection, algal nutrient utilization and recycling, and developing genetic tools. (DOE funding: up to
$9 million). 3. Cellana, LLC Consortium
(Kailua-Kona, Hawaii): Led by Cellana, LLC, this consortium will examine large-scale production of fuels and feed from microalgae
grown in seawater. Tasks include integrating new algal harvesting technologies with pilot-scale cultivation test beds, and
25
to spin-out companies 83. The BRIC countries are investing heavily in algal R&D and are rapidly catching up with the longerestablished centres of expertise in Israel, Australia and the EU. Israel has a 30 year track record of developing
biotechnological applications, and works e.g. on algal breeding programmes 84 for energy, food/feed and high value
applications, on the integration with bioremediation, and on photobioreactor design. The EU, like Israel, has extensive
expertise in photobioreactor design, and focuses mainly on high value algal applications, and on integrated solutions for
bioenergy generation. An overview of EU projects on algae that provides a more fine-grained picture of R&D interests is
given in Section 2.3.
A high level summary of the key interests various countries have in algal academic and industrial activity is given in Table
2.1. This is based on the spectrum of entries in existing directories of algal stakeholders (c.f. Section 2.4), and on personal
communication with UK and international stakeholders.
Table 2.1: High-level overview of international objectives for algal RD&D
Key countries
involved
EU
US
Canada
Israel
Australia
India / SE Asia
China
Brazil
Japan
Chile
Major objectives (for macro- and / or microalgae)
high value products, bioremediation, and integrated energy solutions / integrated biorefining
jet fuel and energy security; nutra-/pharmaceuticals; high tech solutions (e.g. synthetic biology)
sustainable (aviation) fuels, aquaculture, nutraceuticals
high value products, bioremediation, high tech developments
high value products; low and high tech technologies
low and high tech applications for bioremediation and bioenergy; nutraceuticals
low and high tech approaches; energy, food and high value products; bioprospecting for
pharmaceutical compounds from algae
integrated bioenergy solutions; bioremediation for aquaculture; food & feed
high value products; CO2 capture
biofuels and high value products
2.2 International Algal Innovation Centres
The transition from laboratory to industrial scale has been recognised as one of the major bottlenecks for algal
technologies, not just in the UK, but also globally. To overcome this bottleneck, several Innovation Centres dedicated to
scaling up algal technologies have been established internationally. Test facilities that are located in the UK have been
introduced in Section 1.2.3; to put these into a global context, some international examples are outlined below. They give
a flavour of the expertise and priorities in their host countries, and highlight global trends in RD&D. Most of these centres
are associated with universities, but work closely with industrial stakeholders.
• AlgaePARC (Wageningen, The Netherlands) www.algae.wur.nl/UK/projects/AlgaePARC/: This facility is in the
process of being completed at the University of Wageningen. The aim of AlgaePARC (Algae Production And Research
Centre) is to conduct research into sustainable and economically viable microalgae cultivation systems, and to fill the
gap between fundamental research on algae and full-scale algae production facilities. This will be done by setting up
flexible pilot scale facilities to perform applied research and obtain direct practical experience. It claims to be the first
research centre in the world that allows comparison of different outdoor photobioreactor designs. The pilot facility
comprises four large (24 m2) and three small (2.4 m2) photobioreactors. The centre is interested in developing the full
process chain to produce algal biomass for food, feed, bulk chemicals and biofuels.
• Estación Experimental de la Fundación Cajamar (Almeria, Spain): This facility was established in 2006 and
works in collaboration with the University of Almería, and with industry. Its pilot plant employs closed tubular
photobioreactors and focuses on the production of microalgae for food and nutradeveloping marine microalgae as animal feed for the aquaculture industry. (DOE funding: up to $9 million).
83
e.g. PhycoBiologics Inc. (www.phycotransgenics.com/), Phycotransgenics LLC
(www.phycotransgenics.com/standard/index.html) (prominent algal academics involved: Stefan Surzycki / Richard Sayre)
84
e.g. Jonathan Gressel’s spin-out TransAlgae Ltd (www.transalgae.com)
26
pharmaceuticals; however, the center also works to expand the catalog of products that can be obtained from
microalgae: dietary supplements for human consumption, pharmaceutical compounds, food for aquaculture, animal
feed or production of biofertilizers and biofuels. A particular emphasis is placed on the development of a complete
production process of lutein for human use. Research projects study the whole process chain, starting with strain
selection, over production system with integrated removal of CO2 from flue gas, down to harvesting and product
purification.
• CEVA - Centre d'Etude et de Valorisation des Algues (Pleubian, France) www.ceva.fr/en/ceva/domaines.html: Unlike
the previous two centres, which focused on production of microalgae, CEVA embraces both macro- and microalgae.
It was established in 1982 to assist local communities in dealing with undesirable accumulation of washed-up
seaweeds. Shortly after its inception, it refocused its activities towards companies wishing to make use of algae
instead. This change in direction resulted in the construction in 1987 of new premises in Pleubian (Côtes d'Armor Bretagne). It now provides services for companies interested in developing industrial products derived from marinebased ingredients (macroalgae, microalgae, marine plants and sea-water), and to the local municipalities faced with
the problems of increasing amounts of washed-up seaweeds and other sea plants. Their facilities include a 400 m²
site for algae cultivation on land, and a 6 ha marine seaweed cultivation farm.
• MBL - Microalgal Biotechnology Laboratory (Beer Sheva, Israel): The laboratory has been engaged in algae research
since 1975, and has a record of commercializing algae production systems for the feed and nutraceutical
markets. The overall aim of research in the MBL is to develop the biotechnology involved in mass
production of microalgae for various commercial purposes, using brackish or sea water, and the high temperature
and solar irradiance that abound year round in the desert. Research topics include: biosynthesis of natural products
such as astaxanthin and PUFAs, and factors influencing their yield in scaled-up production; limiting factors for
biomass yields in outdoors growth, such as effect of high light and its interaction with other environmental
parameters; potential applications of N2-fixing cyanobacteria in bioremediation; and photobioreactor
design. MBL’s outdoors facilities (> 2 ha) for large-scale the cultivation of microalgae include open ponds as well as
flat panels and airlift tubular photobioreactors.
• SD-CAB - Center for Algae Biotechnology (San Diego, California, USA) http://algae.ucsd.edu/: The centre was
established in 2008 as a consortium of researchers from The Scripps Research Institute (TSRI), the University of
California, San Diego (UCSD), and Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO), in partnership with private industry. Its
mission is to support development of innovative, sustainable, and commercially viable microalgae-based
biotechnology solutions for renewable energy, green chemistry, bio-products, water conservation, and CO2
abatement. The centre incorporates international research scientists from the fields of biology, chemistry,
engineering, economics, and policy. It also trains young scientists, educates the public, collaborates with private
sector partners, and facilitates discussion with regional, state and national policy makers regarding the use of algae
for energy independence and conservation of land and water. SD-CAB's test facility is located on 16 ha in California's
Imperial Valley. The facility includes 11 large raceway ponds (760 m3 of culture volume each), and 30 smaller-scale
raceways (400 L to 230 m3 each).
• AzCATI – Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (Mesa, Arizona, USA) www.azcati.com: Funding for
this centre was announced in late 2010; it is being built at Arizona State University's Polytechnic campus in Mesa. Its
stated aim is to partner with the rapidly growing microalgae industry, to propel Arizona to the forefront of innovation
in biofuels and bio-product research and development. AzCATI intends to: serve as a state-wide and international
intellectual and resource hub for algae-based goods; find innovative commercial uses for algae; operate as a learning
environment for next generation scientists; facilitate collaboration between higher education, industry and national
entities; and be a national "test bed" for algae technology.
• PRAJ-Matrix - The Innovation Center (Pune, India): This R&D center (a division of Praj Industries Ltd) was
inaugurated in 2008. It includes an Algal Sciences Centre of Excellence with core expertise in the isolation,
characterization, preservation, cultivation and harvesting of microalgae. Research projects include: novel cultivation
techniques for lipid and carbohydrate production; algal technologies for bioremediation of polluted environments;
integration of algal systems with existing industrial plants; and production of value added chemicals, nutrients and
minerals from algal resources. Their facility includes algal cultivation systems that range from 15 L tanks to 10,000 L
raceway ponds.
In addition to these centres that are dedicated to developing algal technologies, many more divisions focusing on algal
research exist as part of centres for biofuels research. Examples include:
• CABS – Center for Advanced Biofuel Systems (Saint Louis, Missouri, USA) www.danforthcenter.org/cabs/: This
centre is situated at the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and is one of the 46 Energy Frontier Research Centers
that have been funded with a total of $777 million in 2009 for 5 years, through the U.S. Department of Energy’s
27
Office of Science 85. Its mission is to increase the thermodynamic properties and kinetic efficiency of biofuel
production in microalgae and the terrestrial oil crop camelina, using rational metabolic engineering approaches
coupled with the expression of enhanced enzyme complexes.
• EBTIPLC Biofuel Research & Development Centre (Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India) www.ebtiplc.com: This centre (a
division of Enhanced Biofuels & Technologies India (P) Ltd) conducts research into both microalgae and the
terrestrial oil crop jatropha as feedstock for biofuels.
The work of international centres is referred to in following chapters, where relevant to the discussion of UK expertise.
2.3 Large European Projects in Algal Biotechnologies
Across the EU, a number of collaborative, often cross-national R&D projects on algae have been funded in recent years.
Their titles, given in Table 2.2, give a flavour of the research priorities and expertise that exist in the EU. Unlike the
Innovation Centres introduced in Section 2.2 above, many of these projects deal with fundamental science with relevance
to macro- and microalgae. They also indicate opportunities for UK academics and companies to engage in further
collaborative work, following on from these current / recent projects.
Table 2.2: Overview of collaborative RD&D projects in the EU
Name /
Abbreviation
AIM-HI
ALGICOAT
ALGOHUB™
ALLGas Oil
AQUAFUELS
AQUAMAR
ASIMUTH
BIOALGAESORB
BIOCOMPLEX
BIOFAT
BIOMARA
CENIT BIOSOS
CENIT CO2
CENIT SOST CO2
CHEM-FREE
CLEAN WATER
COMBINE
COSI
CYANOBACRESPIRATION
CYCLOSIS
DIMBA
DIRECTFUEL
85
Full Title
Acoustic Imaging of Macrophytes and Habitat Investigation
Production of coatings based on lipids from microalgae and at same time CO2
fixation
Exploitation and use of microalgae in Nutrition & Health
Industrial-scale Demonstration of Sustainable Algae Culture for Biofuels Production
Algae and aquatic biomass for a sustainable production of 2nd generation biofuels
Marine Water Quality Information Services
Applied simulations and Integrated modelling for the understanding of toxic and
harmful algal blooms
Enabling European SMEs to remediate wastes, reduce GHG emissions and produce
biofuels via microalgae cultivation
Physical aspects of the evolution of biological complexity
BIOfuel From Algae Technologies
Sustainable biofuels from marine biomass
“BIOrefinería SOStenible”
Development of an industrial process for the production of bioethanol from
microalgae by using flue gasses from a coal power station
“Nuevas Utilizaciones Industriales Sostenibles del CO2”
Development of a chemical-free water treatment system through integrating UV-C,
ultra sound and fibre filters
Water detoxification using innovative vi-nanocatalysts
Coccolithophores morphology, biogeography, genetic and ecology database
Chloroplast signals
Organization and Dynamics of Respiratory Electron Transport Complexes in
Cyanobacteria
The biophysics of cytoplasmic streaming in Chara corallina
Disease and immunity in marine brown algae
Direct biological conversion of solar energy to volatile hydrocarbon fuels by
engineered cyanobacteria
Start Date
08/11/2010
01/04/2008
2008
2011
01/01/2010
01/04/2010
01/12/2010
01/08/2010
01/01/2010
2011
2009
2010
2006
2008
01/07/2006
01/06/2009
18/08/2008
01/07/2008
01/08/2010
01/03/2008
01/09/2008
01/10/2010
c.f. www.danforthcenter.org/documents/Danforth_Leaflet_Summer_2009.pdf, http://science.energy.gov/bes/efrc/centers/
28
Abbreviation
ECTOTOX
ENVICAT
EUREKA ALGANOL
EUREKA BIOFIX
EVO500
GIAVAP
GRACE
HARVEST
InteSusAl
LABONFOIL
MABFUEL
MAMBO
MAREX
MARPAH
MIDTAL
OCEANSAVER
PROTOOL
REPROSEED
SBO SUNLIGHT
SENS BIOSYN
SHAMASH
SHELLPLANT
SOLAR-H2
SUNBIOPATH
SUPRA-BIO
SYMBIOSE
VICI
WETSUS ALGAE
Full Title (continued)
A toxico-genomic study of the model brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus
ENVIronmental control of CyAnoToxins production
Production of biofuels from micro-algae with a high content of starch and lipids
using flue gas CO2 as a carbon source
Use of carbon dioxide from flue gas for production of microalgae
Origin of a cell differentiation mechanism and its evolution over 500 million years
of life on land
Genetic Improvement of Algae for Value Added Products
Genetic Record of Atmospheric Carbon dioxidE
Control of light use efficiency in plants and algae - from light to harvest
Demonstration of Integrated & Sustainable Enclosed Raceway and Photobioreactor
Microalgae Cultivation with Biodiesel production and validation
Laboratory skin patches and smartcards based on foils and compatible with a
smart-phone
Marine algae as biomass for biofuels
MicroAlgae, starting Material for BioOil
Exploring Marine Resources for Bioactive Compounds: From Discovery to
Sustainable Production and Industrial Applications
Marine micro-algae as global reservoir of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
degraders
Microarrays for the detection of toxic algae
Dramatically reducing spreading of invasive, non-native exotic species into new
ecosystems through n efficient and high volume capacity Ballast Water Cleaning
System (OCEANSAVER)
Productivity tools: Automated tools to measure primary productivity in european
seas. A new autonomous monitoring tool to measure the primary production of
major European seas
REsearch to improve PROduction of SEED of established and emerging bivalve
species in European hatcheries
Production of lipids and process design with diatoms.
Biosensors for industrial biosynthesis of commercial antioxidants
Biofuel from microalgae autotrophs
Development of a novel production system for intensive and cost effective bivalve
farming
European solar-fuel initiative - renewable hydrogen from sun and water; science
linking molecular biomimetics and genetics
Towards a better sunlight to biomass conversion efficiency in microalgae
Sustainable products from economic processing of biomass in highly integrated
biorefineries
Symbiose: Coupling microalgae cultivation and anaerobic digestion
Photosynthetic cell factories
Advanced water treatment
Start Date
01/10/2009
01/01/1970
01/01/2009
01/01/2006
01/10/2010
01/01/2011
01/09/2008
01/10/2009
2011
01/05/2008
01/06/2009
01/05/2009
01/08/2010
20/10/2008
01/09/2008
01/11/2004
01/09/2009
01/04/2010
2009
01/12/2006
01/01/2010
01/02/2008
10/02/2010
10/02/2010
2009
2.4 Sources of Information on Algal Stakeholders Internationally
Several bodies and initiatives have sought to collate information on world-wide algal expertise. The EU programme
AquaFUELs has assembled a directory of expertise; the final version of their “Report on Main Stakeholders” is available at
http://www.eaba-association.eu/dl_misc/indexd1.3.html. This directory “lists 419 stakeholders, including 88 European
Industrial Stakeholders, 124 Non European Industrial Stakeholders, 164 European Research/Academia Stakeholders and
43 Non European Research/Academia Stakeholders. In Europe, (industrial) 86 players from Belgium (15), Spain (14),
86
Italicised text in brackets added to original quotation of AquaFUELs report to increase clarity
29
Germany (12), France (11), Italy (8) and the Netherlands (7) rank first, but industrial partners can be found in most
European countries. [...] The vast majority of Non European Industrial main stakeholders can be found in the US (86), well
ahead of Australia (5), Israel (5), Japan (5), Taiwan (4), India (4) and Israel (4). [..] Most of the 164 European Researchers
and Academia are located in the United Kingdom (52 researchers) 87. As (was seen) 88 for industry players, Belgium (18),
France (16), Germany (15), Italy (14), Spain (14) and to a lesser extent Czech Republic and Ireland appear ahead of other
European countries. […] From the 43 Non European Research/Academia Stakeholders, the US (9), India (6) and Israel (6)
have the greatest number of stakeholders, even if research appears to be taking place in all continents” (pp 20-22 of
AquaFUELs report).
The European Algal Biomass Association is constantly updating and expanding this list, to produce an “EABA Who’s
Who Directory of Algae Stakeholders”. So far, two updates have been sent to EABA members (one in Dec 2010 with an
additional 300 entries, another in Feb 2011 with a further 234 entries). These documents appear not to be available on
the EABA website, but members have been invited to forward them and feedback questionnaires to their relevant
contacts; EABA also invites feedback and submissions for inclusion in the directory via their website 89. Updates on
activities (especially on the algal industrial side) can also be obtained from Algae Industry Magazine 90, and useful
information and discussion fora are provided by Oilgae 91. Further relevant information is often included in Biofuels
Digest 92.
Participants in the questionnaire described in Chapter 1 of this study have been made aware that their interest in
algae will be forwarded to EABA unless they object, for inclusion in the updated EABA directory. In general, all
stakeholders are invited to submit the EABA questionnaire available via http://eaba-association.eu/index.php in order to
get included in the directory. Up-to-date and accurate information in such directories will greatly help to display UK
expertise on the international stage, and should aid in building consortia e.g. for EU funding opportunities.
2.5 Conclusions and Trends
A large number of academic and industrial players are active on the international algal stage. Nations which have a longestablished history of expertise for macroalgae – chiefly in applications for food, fertiliser, alginates, and pharmaceuticals
– include China, Japan, the Philippines, Korea, Indonesia, Chile, and in Europe coastal countries such as France, the UK,
Norway and Portugal. For microalgae, the US (with its Aquatic Species Programme, as well as pioneering nutraceutical
companies), Australia, Israel, Japan, China, Taiwan and several EU countries have well established capabilities, again
chiefly in high value applications such as nutraceuticals
The more recent biofuels boom has had a large influence, especially in the US and the BRIC countries; considerable
funding has been invested there. The advantages of algae – no need for arable land or freshwater to produce the crop,
and the possibility to boost yields with CO2 from flue gasses, to name but a few – are intuitive and attract investors’
attention. The difficulties of producing algal fuels at scale – including: the energy burden for mixing, harvesting and
processing; culture collapse and contamination / grazer control – are much less intuitive, but have proved very hard to
overcome. To attract funding, a significant number of the new companies that have been formed make unrealistic claims
about productivities and profits; however, this threatens the credibility of the field in general. In addition, the collapse of
many new companies, including the high-profile MIT-spin-out GreenFuel Technologies Corporation in 2009, has led to
more caution. Internationally, recognition is growing that the pursuit of algae only for bioenergy will make successful
commercialisation very difficult; the general trend is towards integrative solutions that make use of the protein fraction
for food and/or feed as well as the oil fraction for fuel. This is also shown by the priorities of the Algal Innovation Centres
introduced in Section 2.2; all of them are interested in a range of algal products and processes, rather than on algal
biofuels only.
There is also an increasing trend to exploit algae as an industrial biotechnology platform; international leaders are
the US, Israel, and the EU, although BRIC countries are catching up rapidly.
The international landscape of algal expertise impacts on the competitiveness of the UK-based algal R&D capability that
has been reviewed in Chapter 1. Part II of this study will analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the light
of current and emerging opportunities for algal R&D, and in the context of the international competition that this chapter
has outlined.
87
Emphasis added by author
Italicised text in brackets added to original quotation of AquaFUELs report to increase clarity
89
http://eaba-association.eu/index.php
90
Free daily email updates can be subscribed to via www.algaeindustrymagazine.com
91
www.oilgae.com
92
Free regular email updates can be subscribed to via http://biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/
88
30
3. ALGAL PRODUCTS AND INDICATIVE MARKET VALUES
Algae can be cultivated to produce a wide range of end products. The market values for these products range from £100's
per tonne for energy products to £1000's per gram for very high value products. In most cases, products derived from
algae need to break into established markets dominated by other, often petrochemical feedstocks, and compete with
well-established supply chains (e.g. for fuels and plastics). However, some product groups exist (such as hydrocolloids or
feed for fish hatcheries) which can only be derived from algae, or where algal products have functional advantages over
alternatives. While some such products are already established in the market, others are still to be discovered from the
cornucopia of algal diversity.
Algal products can be classified into four categories based on monetary value:
1. Base commodities (high volume, low value)
2. Added value commodities (high volume, added value compared to energy)
3. Speciality products (low volume, high value)
4. ‘Ceuticals’ (very low volume, very high value)
In addition, algae can be used to perform bioremediation.
This section gives an overview of the key products, how close they are to market, and what role the UK might play in
developing their potential. Currently available details of products that are, or could be, derived from algae, their price,
market size and key producers are summarised in Table 3.1 93.
3.1 Base Commodities
Base commodities include energy and animal feed products. Prices of up to £1000 per tonne can be expected.
Energy products which might be derived from algae include liquid biofuels such as biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester
(FAME) derived from triacylglycerides) or ‘green diesel’ (various forms of hydrocarbons with properties resembling fossil
diesel), jet fuel (e.g. isoprenoids), ethanol and higher alcohols (from fermentation of carbohydrates), biogas (from
Anaerobic Digestion of wet biomass), and electricity / heat (from co-firing in power / CHP plants, or potentially from algal
biophotovoltaic cells).
Prices for current bioenergy products fluctuate, often tracking the variation in price for fossil fuels, and in March 2011
were on average £750 (£715-£790) per tonne for bioethanol and £760 (£632-£884) per tonne for biodiesel (c.f. Table 3.1
for details).
Although immense R&D efforts are being made internationally on generating microalgal biofuels, truly photosynthetically
generated algal biofuels are not yet commercially viable (Solazyme Inc. successfully use heterotrophically rather than
photosynthetically grown algae to manufacture their jet fuels under contract to the US Navy 94). All major oil companies
have algal R&D projects, and a multitude of start-up companies are promising imminent break-throughs, but none have
materialised as yet: indeed, there have even been prominent collapses of high-profile companies such as the MIT-spin out
GreenFuel Technologies Corporation (which had attracted investments of $70M). Key challenges include the energy
burden of harvesting and processing of algal biomass, as well as scale-up of growth. The jury is hence still out as to
whether or not bulk algal biofuels will ever become a commercial reality; however, any progress made on lowering the
energy expenditure and cost of algal cultivation will benefit the higher value uses of algal biomass.
For the UK, owing to the high population density, producing algal biofuels at appreciable scale is only realistic if they are
grown at sea. The EU-funded Oasis Network, run from Cranfield University, addresses the considerable engineering
challenge associated with off-shore algal growth; Newcastle University is also actively researching in this area (c.f. Section
1.2). A further opportunity for the UK lies in using its R&D excellence to develop IP that can be applied in places more
suited to large-scale algal production. This was the approach taken by the Carbon Trust’s Algae Biofuels Challenge, which
brought together academic excellence across the UK to tackle bottlenecks in the commercialisation of algal biofuels
produced abroad, and which in its short period of existence – through providing a platform for exchange and collaboration
93
The majority of the market data in this chapter and in Table 3.1 has been provided under subcontract by Drs Claire Smith and
Adrian Hickson, NNFCC.
94
c.f. [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
31
between experts – had created valuable outputs. The withdrawal of funding for this project, which had been portrayed as
the UK flagship on algal biofuels R&D, has caused damage on an international level to the credibility of the UK’s
commitment to produce sustainable transport fuels.
Bioenergy derived from algae could play a role in the UK as one of a range of products outputted from an integrated
biorefinery, where algal biomass is grown using, wherever possible, byproducts of the other industrial processes – CO2
from flue gasses, nutrients from waste water streams, and low grade heat (to stabilise temperatures during winter
months). The integration of algal growth with Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is being actively pursued by the academic and
industrial community in the UK (c.f. Sections 1.2 and 1.3); storage of the liquid digestate during the months where
spreading as fertiliser is not possible can become a bottleneck for AD systems, and its transformation into an algal growth
medium could address this issue. The algal biomass could, in the simplest arrangement, be fed straight back into the AD
process for the production of biogas, or processed in a biorefining context for other bioenergy products. If higher value
products are included in the biorefinery outputs, their market size needs to be matched to avoid market saturation /
flooding and hence price decay.
Prices for bulk animal feed are between £50-1100 per tonne on a dry basis with pricing dependent on nutritional value.
Algal animal feed has to compete against a wide range of protein sources in the current animal feed market; its most
natural place is as a replacement for fishmeal, which is a highly sought after but unsustainable feed (traded at £1120 per
tonne). Macroalgal feed is already established (e.g. Ascophyllum, or Laminaria); several projects submitted to the recent
TSB Call on Sustainable Protein Production address the development of microalgae for animal feed. Regulatory restrictions
permitting, using whole cracked microalgae grown in conjunction with AD for animal feed is one of the most promising
areas of development for the UK.
3.2 Added Value Commodities
Added value commodities sell at a premium to energy and feed products. Products in this category include the
commodity chemicals lactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates (both used e.g. for production of bioplastics) and butanol.
Market volumes for this type of product will range from 100,000 tonnes to 10's of millions of tonnes; prices range from
£1000 to £5000 per tonne. Commodity products compete on terms of price within an open market with multiple
producers. These products need to compete with petrochemical counterparts and therefore price is critical, although the
market for certain products will accommodate a small premium for an environmentally friendly bio-based product.
Developing bio-alternatives in this context is a considerable challenge that would be greatly aided by concrete and longterm government policies and focused R&D funding. This has been deliberated in detail in a recent report by the Milken
Institute 95.
Substantial R& D in biology, biotechnology, process engineering (all underpinned with sound life cycle analysis) is still
needed to exploit the potential algae have to contribute in this area. The research base in the UK, particularly with its
emerging strength in synthetic biology and integrated biorefining, is very well suited to address these challenges, and to
aid in underpinning the transition from fossil- to bio-based materials.
3.3 Speciality Products
Speciality products cover a wide range of products and application areas. Products in this class include anti-oxidants,
pigments 96, vitamins, PUFAs, hydrocolloids and whole algae for speciality food 97 and feed applications. They are sold on
95
The Milken Instute: ‘Turning Plants into Products: Delivering on the Potential of Industrial Biotechnology’, April 2011, available
at http://www.milkeninstitute.org/publications/publications.taf?function=detail&ID=38801269&cat=finlab
96
The major pigments include chlorophyll a, b and c, β-carotene, phycocyanin, xanthophylls (astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, lutein)
and phycoerythrin. These pigments have existing applications in food, feeds, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and there is an
increasing demand for their use as natural colours in textiles and as printing dyes. The value of these pigments lies not only in
their colorant properties, but also as antioxidants with demonstrated health benefits. Source: Report by the Algal
Biotechnology
for Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre “A Technology Review and Roadmap for Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales” (2008), p.10
97
The documented bioactive properties of microalgae have led to a well developed market for dried biomass as a human
nutritional supplement, sold in different forms such as capsules, tablets and liquids. The most important microalgae species
32
for this purpose are Dunaliella salina, Arthrospira sp, Chlorella sp and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. These are mainly
produced in
the basis of their effect during use, and their value can depend on the application area. These products complete against
other effective products rather than fossil equivalents. Application areas include cosmetics, personal care and food
ingredients. Some types of animal feed ingredients fall into this area particularly feed for aquaculture e.g. astaxanthin 98
and live microalgae for hatcheries 99. Products in this category have a price of £5 to £300 per kilogram. Market volumes
will range from 1000 tonnes to 100,000 tonnes. Algal-derived products may carry a premium over synthetically-derived
alternatives, especially where there are tangible performance benefits (e.g. the increased antioxidant activity of the
naturally occurring 9-cis stereoisomer of beta carotene relative to the synthetic all-trans isomer; (BenAmotz and Levy
1996)). Most of the commercially available algal products to date fall into this category. In the UK, a small number of
companies work in this area (c.f. Section 1.3), although most of the biomass is currently grown abroad. An example is
Supreme Biotechnologies Ltd 100, a UK company specialising in algal astaxanthin production, whose production site is in
New Zealand; reasons include pre-existing collaboration with a research institute there (from which the PBR technology
has been licensed) and NZ Government grant support (pers. comm. Mahesh Shah). The development of industrial
biotechnology and integrated biorefineries could see production in the UK increase substantially, since the value of the
products would warrant artificial illumination.
A current EU project which addresses (amongst other things) the use of microalgae as feedstock for speciality products is
BioAlgaeSorb 101 – UK partners include the Universities of Durham and Swansea, Varicon Aqua Solutions Ltd and the British
Trout Association.
3.4 ‘Ceuticals’
The ‘ceuticals’ market includes a very diverse range of algal natural products used in small volumes but commanding very
high market values. This category includes pharmaceuticals and high-end nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals. The price of
products in this area reflects the research and development costs of bringing the product to market rather than
manufacturing costs. Products in this category have market prices above £2000 per kg. The research base in the UK,
through industrial biotechnology, bioprospecting and synthetic biology, is very well suited to develop the potential algae
have to contribute to this constantly evolving market.
UK pioneers in this field are PML Applications Ltd (PMLA). Since 2002, NERC, BBSRC and TSB have funded collaborative
projects with Boots PLC which have lead to the construction of the UK’s first carbon capture biorefinery. Emissions from
outdoor ponds or shallow raceways, but also in closed photobioreactors at more northerly latitudes including Europe.
Certain cyanobacteria, for example Arthrospira platensis and A. maxina (formerly Spirulina) are also marketed as whole
food, being particularly protein-rich (up to 77% dry mass) and containing all essential amino acids, a number of important
essential fatty acids (EFAs) and vitamins of the B, C, D and E groups. […] The sector is currently maturing beyond basic
and sometimes unproven supplements to one of delivering more subtle benefits that aid absorption of nutrients, and
prevent a range of conditions relating to energy metabolism, such as diabetes. Source: Report by the Algal Biotechnology
for Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre “A Technology Review and Roadmap for Microalgal Biotechnology in
Wales” (2008), p.11
98
Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are used e.g. for colouring the flesh of farmed salmon. Increasing demand for organically
farmed fish has expanded the market for microalgae-derived astaxanthin. Adapted from: Report by the Algal Biotechnology for
Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre “A Technology Review and Roadmap for Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales” (2008), p.11
99
Microalgae are used ubiquitously as a feed source in the commercial hatchery production of juvenile marine fish and
shellfish. There are thousands of marine hatcheries globally, producing billions of juvenile fish and shellfish annually. A
relatively small number (~6-10) of easy-to-rear microalgae species have been adopted for this purpose. In most cases, the
microalgae are cultured on site by hatchery personnel and presented live to the fish / shellfish larvae. […] However, there is a
growing trend for hatcheries to purchase proprietary microalgae concentrates in order to simplify on-site operations. These
concentrates are
supplied by companies specialising in the large scale production and processing of microalgae. […] There is further scope to
develop the sector by introducing better quality products, since it is widely acknowledged that existing concentrated
products still do not match live microalgae for hatchery applications (nutritional composition; physical attributes; product
stability). Dried microalgae biomass (especially Arthrospira) is also widely used as an ingredient in formulated feeds for
aquaculture species and terrestrial animals (farmed livestock, poultry, pets), where it has been demonstrated to have health
promoting effects. Source: Report by the Algal Biotechnology for Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre “A Technology
Review and Roadmap for Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales” (2008), p.9-10
100 c.f. [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
101
c.f. www.bioalgaesorb.com/
33
Boots’ 15 MW gas turbine power plant are utilised as a carbon source in a 32,000 L PBR 102. In the PBR, PMLA cultivate a
proprietary robust strain of microalgae that delivers extracts with sun-screening, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and
other proprietary properties. Boots PLC and Cognis (BASF) are currently formulating these extracts into consumer
cosmeceutical products. As part of the project, PMLA have sequenced the algal strain’s genome and an efficient
transformation system has been developed. This molecular toolkit will enable both the up-regulation of targeted gene
sequences and the insertion of novel biosynthetic pathways into the strain in the near future.
3.5 Bioremediation Services
In addition to providing the saleable products described above, algae can also be used in the bioremediation of wastes,
most notably carbon dioxide and waste water. Both of these sectors are developing and as yet, there is no clear indication
of the value that these services may attract. There appears to be no financial incentive for using algae for carbon dioxide
scrubbing in the EU, as current policy does not allow producers to claim any allowances under the CER or the EU ETS for
technologies using algae; the algal community is advised to lobby for this to be amended. The value of algae in waste
water treatment will depend upon the stage of the process at which they are utilised. If algae are used in a secondary or
tertiary treatment, potentially on the sludge liquor arising from anaerobic digestion, it could have a value of between £35
and £55 per tonne of chemical oxygen demand. Utilisation in other waste water treatment processes would require either
new standards to remove nitrogen and phosphorus from final effluents and/or need to demonstrate significant reduction
in operating costs. Although as yet not a discrete income stream, growing the algae using CO2 emissions and on waste
water does have additional value in terms of avoiding the cost of bottled CO2 and synthetic nutrients for the growth
medium.
3.6 Potential for the UK
In summary, an area with particular development potential for the UK at this time appears to be the exploitation of high
value chemicals for cosmeceuticals and nutraceuticals markets in the context of industrial biotechnology. Residues after
extraction can be used for anaerobic digestion and the resulting biogas injected into the gas grid, although co-digestion
with another feedstock will be needed to provide the necessary economies of scale. Biomass production costs can be
lowered by growing the algae on nutrient-rich waste water and with waste CO2; appropriate regulatory standards would
need to be met. Other areas of significance include generating IP e.g. for liquid biofuels (to be applied internationally),
replacing fishmeal in animal feed, and developing integrated growth systems with anaerobic digestion and aquaculture.
Given adequate support, algae have the potential to become a substantial driver in the development of a bio-based
economy in the UK. This will be discussed in further detail in Part II.
102
TSB Technology Programme: Collaborative Research & Development, Autumn 2007. “Biorefinery carbon capture and
conversion into industrial feedstocks as direct replacements for petrochemicals. (CCIF). S. Skill (PI). The photobioreactor
engineering design is licensed to the project from S. Skill.
34
Table 3.1: Overview of the key products that could be derived from algae, including (where currently available) their price, market values and key market players. Companies
actually providing algal products are highlighted in red; products that cannot be derived from algae, but are competing with algal products and are given as a price comparison are
highlighted in blue. Sources of information are given as numbered footnotes. Products in the same category are not necessarily equivalent, since many algal products serve
speciality markets (c.f. Sector ‘Fertilisers’).
Sector
Item
Price Estimates
Market (Global)
Bioenergy
Ethanol 103
In 2010, prices ranged from €60-€69/hectolitre*.
Biomethane 104
1.5-5 pence/kWh (was natural gas price 2008-2010 for
manufacturing industry), plus supplement: 10p/kg for
Transport; 6.7p/kWh for Gas Grid; £45.49-£53.27/MWh for
Electricity (2008-March 2011))
Prices ranged from £38.2-£79.2/hectolitre (ex duty) for UK in
2010‡.
£443- £488/tonne (2010) (assumed 10% premium for bio)
58.2mn tonnes
(2009)
EU: 8.3 Mtoe /
25.2 TWh
(2009) 105
Biodiesel (FAME) 106
Jet Fuel - Kerosene 107
Chemicals
15.53mn tonnes
(2009)
EU: 60 mn
tonnes (2010)
Jet Fuel - HVO/HRJ
(hydrogenated vegetable oil /
hydrogenated renewable jet
fuel)106
£443- £488/tonne (2010) (assumed 10% premium for bio)
Butanol 108
£1100/tonne (2010)
$5bn (3mn
tonnes)
In 2010, prices ranged from €60-€69/hectolitre*.
40bn L (2003)
£1200-4000/tonne (2010)
<1000 tonnes
(2009)
285,000 tonnes
lactic acid
~90,000 tonnes
PLA
~30,000 tonnes
Ethanol102
Polyhydroxy-alkanoates
107
Lactic acid107
ex works: £800-950/tonne (2011)
Succinic acid107
£2000-3000/tonne (2010)
Market Players (companies providing algal
products in red)
UK Players: Ensus, British Sugar, Vivergo
UK Players (to grid): SGN/Centrica/National Grid,
BioGroup
UK Players: Argent, Harvest Energy
UK Players: British Airways/Solena
Neste Oil, Petrobras, UOP, Dynamic Fuels,
Sustainable Oils and Altair
UK Players: Solvert, Butamax, Green Biologics.
Rest of World: Gevo, Cobalt, Metabolic Explorer,
Cathay Industrial Biotechnology, Terravitae
Mirel
Purac, Galactic, Natureworks
Myriant, BioAmber, Reverdia
* Ethanol prices generally track the price of oil. Prices for 24 March 2011 varied from €66 to €73/hL (£56 to £62/hL, or £715 to £790/tonne).
‡ Biodiesel prices generally track the price of oil. Average prices for March 2011 were between £57 and £79/hl (£632 to £884/tonne, assuming average density of 0.88 kg/L).
103
ICIS Chemical Business
104
UK National Statistics; Renewable Transport Fuel Certificate Value March 2011; DECC Renewable Heat Incentive Table of Tariffs, p. 52; roc http://www.eroc.co.uk/
http://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/What%20we%20do/UK%20energy%20supply/Energy%20mix/Renewable%20energy/policy/renewableheat/1387-renewable-heat-incentive.pdf;
105
toe = tons of oil equivalent; data source: “Biogas Barometer”, a study carried out by EurObserv’ER. SYSTÈMES SOLAIRES, le journal des énergies renouvelables N° 200 (2010), 104-118
EnAgri Market Database
107
Based on ICIS Jet Kerosene Price Report plus adding a 10% premium for bio-based product (NNFCC DfT Study, in preparation).
108
Industry Source
106
Sector
Item
Food / Nutraceutical
Carotenoids 109
Astaxanthin107
Astaxanthin107
Price Estimates
Cosmeceuticals/ Nutraceuticals/Aquaculture: Prices range
from £150 to £1,250/kg (2011).
Specific health care markets: Can be 10 times the price of
Astaxanthin sold into aquaculture markets.
Cosmeceuticals/ Nutraceuticals/Aquaculture: Prices range
from £150 to £1,250/kg (2011).
Specific health care markets: Can be 10 times the price of
Astaxanthin sold into aquaculture markets.
Astaxanthin &
Canthaxanthin108
Lutein 110
$766mn ($1.07bn
2010)
$234mn (2007)
$234mn (2007)
Market Players (companies providing algal
products in red)
Alga technologies, BioReal (Fuji Chemical
Company), Cyanotech, Mera Pharmaceuticals,
Parry Nutraceuticals, Blue Biotech International
GmBH, LycoRed, Valensa
Alga technologies, BioReal (Fuji Chemical
Company), Cyanotech, Mera Pharmaceuticals,
Parry Nutraceuticals, Blue Biotech International
GmBH, LycoRed, Valensa
$150mn
$105.1m (2006)
Tocopherol107
Beta carotene 111
£21/kg (2011)
£47/kg (2011)
(allo-)Phycocyanin107
€3-50/mg, depending on provider and quantity ordered
(2011)
Marine oil (concentrates): $12-120/kg (2008); Algal oils: $70160/kg (2008)
EPA & DHA Omega 3
ingredients 112
Market (Global)
Whole Cell (Spirulina spp)107
varies between €5/kg and €150/kg, depending on quality
(2011)
Whole Cell (Chlorella spp)107
$18/kg (2011)
$247mn (2007),
$392 (2010)
$1,286mn (71,000
tonnes) (2008)
Kemin Industies, LycoRed, Overseal (Naturex),
Phytone, Chr. Hansen, BASF, Cognis
Carotech, LycoRed
BASF, DSM, Cognis, Allied Biotech
Blue Biotech International GmBH, Greensea,
Prozyme
Marine Oils - ONC, Pronova, EPAX, Croda,
Denomega, DSM, Napro Pharma, and Nissui; Blue
Biotech International GmBH, Martek Biosciences
Blue Biotech International GmBH, Cyanotech,
Earthrise Nutritionals, Hainan Simai Enterprises,
Parry Nutraceuticals
Taiwan Chlorella Manufacturing Co
109
BCC Research 'The Global Market for Carotenoids' 2008
Frost and Sullivan (2007) Strategic Analysis of the Global Markets for Lutein in Human Nutrition.
111
Industry Source & BCC 'The Global Market for Carotenoids' March 2008; www.ubic-consulting.com/template/fs/documents/Nutraceuticals/The-World-Beta-Carotene-Ingredient-Market.pdf
112
Frost & Sullivan and the Global Organization for EPA and DHA Omega-3. Global Overview of Marine and Algal Oil EPA and DHA Omega-3 Ingredients Markets 3rd September, 2009
110
36
Sector
Item
Price Estimates
Market (Global)
Animal Feed (DCP is
Digestible Crude
protein)
Brewers grains (20t tipped) 113
£38/t (0.09p/g DCP) (2011)
€1000M26
Distiller Dried Pellets (imported
meal)112
£210/t (2011)
Fishmeal Pure112
Maize Gluten (imported
Pell/Meal) 112
Palm Kernal Expell Meal:
Milando112
Rapeseed Meal: home
produced112
£1120/t (0.2p/g DCP) (2010)
£203/t (2010)
Soya Bean Meal HiPro112
Sugar Beet Pulp Dried
(imported Unmol pellets)112
Wheatfeed pellets112
Macroalgae: dried
Ascophyllum107
£329/t (0.08p/g DCP) (2010)
£223/t (2010)
£190/t (0.15p/g DCP) (2010)
€1 per kg (ex factory) or £860/t
Hebridean Seaweed Co, Arramara Teo, Böd Ayre
Macroalgae: dried
Ascophyllum107
live microalgae paste107
€1.1/kg (ex factory) or £860/t
Arramara Teo
dried Ascophyllum107
liquid algal fertiliser107
AD digestate 114
Compost 115
Inorganic fertiliser; blended
20.10.10 (a blend of nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium) 116
€1/kg (ex factory)
£1760/kg
£3.60 per wet tonne (2010)
£40-80/t (2011)
£220-325/t (2009-2010)
Aquaculture feed
Fertiliser
Market Players (companies providing algal
products in red)
£178/t (0.15p/g DCP) (2010)
£225/t (0.06g/p DCP)(2010)
$210/kg (€38/l of of 18% paste)
EU: 40,000 L of
12% paste
Blue Biotech International GmBH, Scottish
Bioenergy, Seasalter Shellfish
Orkney Seaweed, Hebridean Seaweed Co
Hebridees Liquid Seaweed, Böd Ayre
113
Reed Business Information
The Andersons Centre (NNFCC biogas calculator)
115
Wrap prices March 2011
114
37
Sector
Item
Personal care
Personal Care Market 117
Vitamin B5/Pro-B5
(Pantothenic acid)107
Vitamin C116
Vitamin A107
Vitamin E107
Price Estimates
Market (Global)
Market Players (companies providing algal
products in red)
€110bn
D-Panthenol: £5-6/kg (2010); Calcium Pantothenate: £15/kg
(2010)
Ascorbic Acid / Sodium Ascorbate (all 2010): £8/kg (Chinese
bulk £6/kg); Sodium Ascorbyl Phosphate: £60/kg; Ascorbyl
Glucoside: £280/kg; Ascorbyl Palmitate: £50/kg
Retinyl Palmitate: £60/kg (2010)
Tocopheryl acetate: £10/kg (2010)
$1bn (2010)
(110,000 tonnes,
2010)
Bioremediation
Services
Waste Water Treatment107
£38-£55/t of COD treated in Activated Sludge Plant (2010)
(highly indicative prices and dependent upon degradability)
Hydrocolloids
Agar 118
$18/kg (2009)
$173 Mn
Alginates117
$12/kg (2009)
$318 Mn
Carrageenans117
$10.5/kg (2009)
$527 Mn
Algas Marinas (Chile), Agarindo Bogatama
(Indonesia), Setexam (Morocco), MSC co (Korea),
Hispanager (Spain), Huey Shyang Seaweed
Industrial Company (China)
FMC international, Danisco, Cargill, Food Chemifa
Co, Hebridean Seaweed Co.
CP Kelco, FMC Biopolymer
116
WRAP
Frost & Sullivan Report "Vitamins in personal care - Is it a wrinkle-free future?" 2008
118
Bixler, H.J. & Porse, H. (2011). A decade of change in the seaweed hydrocolloids industry. Journal of Applied Phycology 23:321-335
117
38
PART II
WHAT NEXT: ASSESSMENT OF UK POTENTIAL FOR ALGAL R&D
Part I of this study has taken stock of algal 119 expertise in the UK, given an overview of algal interests globally, and
reviewed markets for algal products and services. Part II will analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the
light of current and emerging opportunities for algal R&D, and in the context of international competition.
It will first review potential opportunities for algal R&D to progress plant science and biotechnology in general (Chapter 4),
then assess the strengths of the UK research capability on the global algae stage (Chapter 5), and move on to analyse gaps
in algal research value chains in the UK (Chapter 6). Chapter 7 will assess levels of risk, reward and importance of areas of
RD&D required to promote the development of an algal economy, and Chapter 8 will put the conclusions of this report
into the context of the 2009 DECC report on the potential of algae 120 and present scenarios of how BBSRC might address
the algal field in the future.
4. POTENTIAL OPPORTUNITIES
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN GENERAL
AND
BENEFITS
OF
ALGAL R&D
TO
PROGRESS
IN
PLANT SCIENCE
AND
As global (and UK) society needs to move away from its reliance on fossil resources, biomass once again becomes
resurgent as a principal feedstock Of the biological sciences, plant science and biotechnology in particular will need to
provide solutions to key challenges facing our planet. Algal R&D has already in the past provided step changes in both
disciplines (c.f. Section 1.1), and has the potential to accelerate the needed progress.
Evolution has led to immense diversity across all kingdoms of life, providing a cornucopia of bio-active molecules,
enzymes, pathways and traits that are all targets for potential biotechnological applications. In this diversity across all
forms of life, both animals and land plants occupy a rather narrow phylogenetic space (c.f. Fig. 4.1). Algae, however, are
represented in almost all domains of life, and therefore collectively provide a truly staggering richness of diversity – a
resource that as yet has hardly been used.
The following paragraphs will outline how algal R&D – by tapping into and developing this resource – may contribute to
solving major challenges, such as security of food, energy and materials, and benefit the progress of biological and
biotechnological disciplines in general. Many aspects of this have also been discussed in detail in the European Science
Foundation Marine Board Position Paper 15 “Marine Biotechnology: A New Vision and Strategy for Europe” (September
2010) 121.
119
Following the definition of RE Lee (Phycology, 2008, Cambridge University Press, p.3), the term ‘algae’ in this report is used to
refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria,
which are anoxygenic, are not included.
120
available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk
121
The full report, as well executive summary and recommendations, are available at www.esf.org/research-areas/marinesciences/marine-board-working-groups/marine-biotechnology.html
Fig. 4.1: Phylogenetic tree highlighting the diversity and distribution of algae (boxed groups; colours indicate the
diversity of pigmentation) across the domains of life 122. For comparison animals and land plants are encircled in red and
green, respectively.
4.1 Science Underpinning Food Security
In addition to algae playing an increasing role as food (especially protein- and mineral-rich animal feed in aquaculture and
beyond), much can be learnt from studying algae that will be of benefit to crop science generally. Some examples are
given in the sections below.
4.1.1 Tolerance to Extreme Conditions
Algae can be found in any imaginable habitat, and have evolved mechanisms with which to withstand extremes of
temperature, irradiation, drought and salinity. With the increasing ease and speed of genome sequencing, this rich, as yet
hardly tapped resource of genetic diversity can be mined for novel enzymes that are involved in conferring such tolerance
and adaptability. Indeed, Monsanto Company through partnership with Sapphire Energy Inc. already runs such an algal
genome mining programme 123. Enzymes that are found to be effective for desired traits, e.g. increased salt / heat /
drought tolerance or cryo-protection, may be transferred into crop plants to reduce risk of crop failure and maintain the
usefulness of arable land which might otherwise be rendered useless by the effects of climate change. As metabolomic
technologies and microfluidic 124 cultivation and selection systems for algae mature, similar mining may be carried out on
algal metabolomes, and pathways for desired metabolites may be transferred into conventional crop plants.
122
adapted from http://www.keweenawalgae.mtu.edu/, with kind permission of Jason Oyadomari
c.f. www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v29/n6/pdf/nbt0611- 473b.pdf
123
124
c.f. work of the Microfluidics Group at Cambridge and Imperial College, and of their spin-out company Sphere Fluidics Ltd
40
4.1.2 Desired Food Products
Long-chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are a well-known example of an important class of nutraceuticals that we
currently derive from a diet of oily fish, or via fish oil capsules, but which originate from algae at the beginning of the
marine food chain. The elucidation of the biosynthesis pathways has made it possible e.g. for the group of Johnathan
Napier at Rothamsted to introduce enzymes for PUFA synthesis into conventional oil crops, thereby paving the way for
mass-production of vegetable oils with additional health benefits (Venegas-Caleron et al. 2010). Similar approaches could
be taken for other valuable algal metabolites (e.g. other oils, vitamins (such as Vitamin B12, especially beneficial for
vegetarians), antioxidants, pigments), or the unusual starch structure found in green algae (Hicks et al. 2001), which may
influence digestibility and food processing properties such as gelling.
4.2 Science Underpinning Energy Security
Algae are hotly pursued as a feedstock for bioenergy – be it for their biomass or as self-repairing “solar panels” in
biophotovoltaic cells (Adrian Fisher et al., Cambridge) – but their usefulness for underpinning energy security extends
further than this: the field of artificial photosynthesis draws heavily on the rich design spectrum of light harvesting
solutions that exist in pro- and eukaryotic algae, learning from the principles of nature and using them as starting points
for biomimetic systems. This also applies to the use of algal – especially cyanobacterial – enzymes as a blueprint for solar
H2 production and CO2 reduction (Erwin Reisner, Cambridge) 125. UK centres of activity that drive forward the development
of artificial photosynthesis include Glasgow (Richard Cogdell et al.), Queen Mary, University of London (Steve Dunn, Jon
Nield, et al.), Imperial College (Peter Nixon, James Durrent et al. 126), Sheffield (Neil Hunter et al.) 127, and the SolarCAP
consortium (UEA, Manchester, Nottingham, York) 128. This diversity of algal light harvesting systems is also the basis for the
engineering of improved photosynthetic organisms that will use the entire visible spectrum (‘black is the new green’ –
pers. comm. Chris Howe / Saul Purton). Furthermore, algal synthetic biology could be used to produce desired high-spec
biofuel molecules (see below under ‘Benefits for biotechnology’).
4.3 Science Underpinning Material Security
While each individual algal species needs to keep its genome comparatively lean, the large number of algal species,
coupled with their distribution over most of the phylogenetic tree of life (c.f. Fig. 4.1), means that collectively they display
enormous metabolic versatility. This versatility can not only be mined for novel chemicals (platform chemicals, precursors
for plastics, pharmaceuticals), which could either be harvested in algae or transferred into bacterial or plant systems, but
can also inform material science: diatoms, for example, have evolved the ability to lay down the most intricate silicate
nanostructures in 3D, whereas nanoscientists are currently only able to manufacture 2D structures. This is being
researched by Thomas Mock (UEA), and has attracted considerable interest from the computer industry. Diatom
nanostructures also have the potential to be adapted as slow-release nanocapsules for pharmaceuticals. As with Energy
Security, desired platform molecules could be produced through algal synthetic biology (see below under ‘Benefits for
Biotechnology’).
4.4 Benefits for Biotechnology
4.4.1 Synthetic Biology
Turning living cells into factories to produce whatever compound is required has been a major target of biotechnology,
and sophisticated approaches exist to accomplish this for bacterial and yeast systems; for more demanding applications,
plant, insect and mammalian cell cultures are available at considerably higher cost. Algae are now being developed as
125
This is also being researched e.g. by the Center for Bio-Inspired Solar Fuel Production at Arizona State University:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/efrc/centers/cbisfp/, one of the 46 Energy Frontier Research Centers funded through the US DoE.
126
c.f. www3.imperial.ac.uk/solar/people
127
This is also being researched e.g. by the Photosynthetic Antenna Research Center (led by R. Blankenship, St Louis, Missouri:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/efrc/centers/parc/), one of the 46 Energy Frontier Research Centers funded through the US DoE.
The Universities of Glasgow and Sheffield are partners in the Center.
128
www.solarcap.org.uk/
41
‘green yeast’, offering a considerable versatility which complements existing systems: for example, they are able to grow
autotrophically (in either freshwater or marine conditions), and can overexpress e.g. plant secondary metabolites, as well
as proteins, at high levels. Furthermore, the option exists to locate genes for the target proteins either in the chloroplast,
hence mimicking a prokaryotic expression system (while achieving high yields and high solubility of protein products), or in
the nucleus, hence following a eukaryotic expression path 129. The existence of a vacuole offers the option for
compartmentalised storage; secretion pathways into the medium can also be exploited.
As platforms for synthetic biology, microalgae offer particular advantages compared to terrestrial plants, such as fast
growth (growth rates can be >10 times greater than terrestrial plants), short life cycles, increased tractability, comparative
ease and low cost of culturing, and small size, all of which facilitate high-throughput screening. An algal industrial
biotechnology platform could therefore become a “disruptive technology for plant sciences, and a [..] step to enable
synthetic biology approaches to be established and used in other plants and crops” 130.
Algae have the additional advantage of being ‘naïve hosts’, where host species can be chosen that demonstrate minimal
interference with inserted pathways. The first stage of algal synthetic biology – using conventional vectors – is already
being commercially exploited e.g. to develop edible vaccines (by e.g. Phycotransgenics LLC, Worthington, OH / Richard
Sayre). However, much more sophisticated systems are being developed according to a building-brick principle, where a
suite of enhancers, silencers, promoters, targeting sequences, tags, resistance cassettes, etc are equipped with standard
cloning sites to enable mixing and matching of desired features around the gene of interest. Potential applications of this
technology are very broad and far-reaching indeed.
4.4.2 Biomimetic Catalytic Systems
As described in Section 4.2, the richness of algal diversity (e.g. use of wide range of substrates; unusual chemical
conversions of metabolites) can be exploited through biomimetic systems. The key catalytic features of novel algal
enzymes, which may be prohibitively expensive or difficult to express for industrial applications, can be identified and
copied by chemical approaches (c.f. work of Erwin Reisner, Cambridge).
4.4.3 Algal Transformation Systems
Model organisms such as the cyanobacterium Synechocystis, the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and the diatom
Phaeodactylum tricornutum are comparatively easily transformed (Walker et al. 2005), and results are achieved orders of
magnitude faster than for transformations in higher plants. This can be exploited to screen transformation targets for
interesting effects before embarking on laborious transformations in higher plants (c.f. Section 3.4.1). Work on this in the
UK is, amongst others, being carried out by Plymouth Marine Laboratory, who have developed efficient transformation
systems for a commercially significant cyanobacterial strain as part of their algal biorefinery project (Farnham et al., 2011,
in preparation) 131.
4.4.4 Environmental Applications
Algal systems to treat nutrient-rich waste water streams and soils contaminated e.g. with heavy metals and toxic
hydrocarbons already exist (e.g. Oswald's (Berkeley) microalgae-based Advanced Integrated Ponding System for sewage
treatment (Green et al. 1996); and the algal turf scrubber 132), but the potential to develop much more sophisticated
remediation services exists e.g. for integration in the built environment. Furthermore, algal metabolism may be put to use
in algal sensors detecting pollutants.
In terms of greenhouse gas mitigation, algal biomass is already being used to scrub CO2 and NOx from flue gasses; mostly
this results in cycling rather than sequestration of CO2. However, coccolithophores such as Emiliania huxleyii form calcified
shells that provide a mechanism for CO2 capture and storage; especially in the context of an integrated biorefinery. This
potential could be amplified to provide an additional option alongside conventional CCS.
129
It still remains to be established how similar glycosylation pattern in algae are to those in mammalian cells (pers. comm.,
Christoph Griesbeck and Saul Purton)
130
c.f. meeting report of SPPI-Net Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop on 24 March 2011, available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf
131
output of TSB Technology Programme: Collaborative Research & Development, Autumn 2007 “Biorefinery carbon capture and
conversion into industrial feedstocks as direct replacements for petrochemicals. (CCIF). S. Skill (PI)
132
www.algalturfscrubber.com
42
4.5 Benefits for Animal Science and Health
The structures of human cilium and the flagellum of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii are virtually identical, C. reinhardtii has
served for many years as the premier model system for molecular-genetic and biochemical studies of cilia/flagellar
biogenesis and function (Silflow and Lefebvre 2001). This is of relevance to many human diseases where defects in cilia are
involved, such as lung and kidney diseases, eye problems and infertility (Pan 2008).
As has already been suggested in the preceding paragraphs, the diversity of algal proteomes and metabolomes can be
mined for novel antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals. Algae are already being developed as expression platforms for
drug molecules such as edible vaccines (c.f. Section 4.4.1), and with the onset of algal synthetic biology not only proteinbased pharmaceuticals, but also secondary metabolites from other organisms can be expressed in algal chasses. While
algae may not always be the expression system of choice, they add a valuable new component to the range of options. In
some cases they might be the most cost effective solution; in other cases they may add benefits over chemical synthesis
(such as selectivity for the naturally occurring, most efficacious stereoisomer) which may justify potentially higher costs
compared to conventional production.
4.6 Benefits for Fundamental Science
Algae have served as a platform for elucidating processes that underpin our fundamental understanding of living beings
for many decades (c.f. Section 1.1.1), and continue to play an important role in this field; examples include:
4.6.1 Understanding Evolution
Algae are absolutely essential to understanding plant evolution: the leap from prokaryote to eukaryote can be studied by
comparing cyanobacteria with unicellular eukaryotic algae. This includes the field of multiple endosymbioses, evidenced
by chloroplasts with multiple membranes and nucleomorphs (Larkum et al. 2007) 133.
Algae also shed light on the evolution of multicellularity, as demonstrated by intermediates between unicellular
microalgae and multicellular macroalgae (e.g. communicating colonies like Volvox). Furthermore, they provide us with
insights into the development of symbioses (e.g. interdependency that obtain micronutrients such as Fe or Vitamin B12
from bacterial symbionts, which in return benefit from fixed carbon) and horizontal gene transfer (e.g. in the
chlorarachinophyte Bigelowiella natans (Raymond and Blankenship 2003)).
4.6.2 General Fundamental Science
From the comparison of unicellular photosynthetic pro- and eukaryotes information can also be derived about functional
diversity in general (e.g. the diversity of approaches to light harvesting (Boichenko 2004; Neilson and Durnford 2010) and
to carbon storage molecules 134), and conversely about the diversity of ways in which the same function can be achieved
(different electron carriers, and different charge patterns on electron transfer proteins leading to similar photosynthetic
turnover; (Bendall et al. 2011)).
Furthermore, important functional genomics tools like RNAi have been developed – spearheaded by UK scientists such as
David Baulcombe – for the model alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to study the fundamentals of cell biology (Schroda
2006; Molnar et al. 2009; Zhao et al. 2009; Godman et al. 2010). 135
133
It is interesting to note that all eukaryotic algae outside the green and red algae (e.g. diatoms, kelps) are the result of a
secondary endosymbiotic acquisition of a eukaryotic alga.
134
Lee RE (2008): Phycology, Cambridge University Press; pp. 20-23
135
Tools like RNAi will also be invaluable in developing algae for the applications in food, energy and materials.
43
4.7 Conclusions
The examples given above provide a flavour of the potential that algal research has to benefit the progress of plant
science and biotechnology, both in terms of fundamental / blue sky research, and addressing urgent issues such as food,
energy and material security. The as-yet hardly tapped, rich resource of algal diversity has the potential to become a
major contributor to underpin the development of a bio-based economy in the UK.
To realise this potential, however, algae will need the same genomic resources as other crops: full and fully annotated
genome sequences, functional genomics and links with expression profiling, metabolic profiling, epigenome profiling,
understanding of natural variation, RNAi knock down collections for the whole genome in selected species, and insertion
mutant collections. In effect, algal improvement programmes would need to be developed in parallel to the improvement
programmes in terrestrial crops.
Both the expertise and the will exists in the UK to develop the majority of the opportunities shown in this chapter; some
examples of UK researchers already pursuing relevant work have been given, and many more names could be added (c.f.
expertise showcased in Section 1.2). The next chapter will address how algal research in the UK may capitalise fully on
these strengths, and stay competitive in a well populated and rapidly moving international field.
44
5. STRENGTHS OF UK RESEARCH CAPABILITY ON THE GLOBAL ALGAE STAGE
In a globalised society, capabilities that exist on a national level need to be assessed in the light of activities on the
international stage. Looking at this bigger picture makes it possible to determine where the UK expertise can achieve the
highest impact, and highlights the challenges associated with staying internationally competitive.
This chapter gives a high-level overview of the strengths of current algal research capability in the UK, identifies overlaps
with expertise internationally (and competition arising), assesses knowledge gaps and draws out key contributions the UK
could make on the global algal stage.
5.1 Overview of UK Strengths and Outline SWOT Analysis
As the results of the survey in section 1.2 have highlighted, academia in the UK has great expertise in the environmental
and ecological sectors for both micro- and macroalgae, especially (but not exclusively) in the marine sector. Fundamental
biology is also a key strength; major breakthroughs in photosynthesis research have been made in the UK, and a wealth of
experience exists in taxonomy, physiology, metabolism and biochemistry of algae. The latter two are now increasingly
being employed in biotechnological contexts, with high relevance to underpinning a bio-based economy (c.f. examples in
Chapter 4). In general, the UK benefits from an enormous breadth of expertise that is of relevance to algae, but struggles
to capitalise on this since the relevant researchers belong to different communities, which traditionally have not been in
active dialogue.
The UK algal culture collections are also internationally leading 136, and are complemented by the database AlgaeVision at
the Natural History Museum 137.
In terms of industrial activity (c.f. Section 1.3), the UK has contributed to major breakthroughs in applied biology and
engineering, which have now been adopted by international players such as Martek Biosciences Corporation, and both
academia and industry are actively involved in PBR design and integrated systems for producing algal biomass (e.g. PML,
Universities of Newcastle, Swansea and Cranfield; Varicon Aqua Solutions Ltd, PBR-UK, Merlin BioDevelopments Ltd,
Scottish Bioenergy Ltd).
While it is essential to be fully aware of the strengths the UK has to offer, in order to draw informed conclusions it is also
valuable to put them in the context of known weaknesses of the general UK set-up, and to be mindful of both
opportunities and threats associated with algal research in the UK. To facilitate this process, an outline SWOT analysis is
given in Table 5.1. More detail has already been given in Chapter 4 on the range of opportunities for progressing plant
sciences and biotechnology in general through algal research. The high level overview given in Table 5.1 has also been
informed by the responses to the question concerning challenges and opportunities for algal research on a 5 / 10 / 25 year
timescale, which was part of the questionnaire described in Section 1.2 and Tables C.4.1/2/3.
Further discussion relating to opportunities and threats at European level for marine algae can be found in the European
Science Foundation Marine Board Position Paper 15 “Marine Biotechnology: A New Vision and Strategy for Europe”
(September 2010) 138.
136
www.CCAP.ac.uk; www.mba.ac.uk/culturecollection.php
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/algaevision/index.html
138
The full report, as well executive summary and recommendations, is available at: http://www.esf.org/research-areas/marinesciences/marine-board-working-groups/marine-biotechnology.html
45
137
Table 5.1: Outline SWOT analysis of algal research in the UK (informed by questionnaire responses, c.f. Section
1.2)
Strengths
• Ecological / environmental R&D, especially marine,
impacts of climate change
• Fundamental
biological
R&D:
photosynthesis,
physiology, phylogeny, taxonomy, whole organism
biology, biochemistry, systems/molecular/microbiology,
biotechnology
• Strong Omics infrastructure
• Diversity of research base
• International lead on algal culture collections
• Focus on integrated systems in applications
Weaknesses
• Lack of cohesion between the constituent research
communities
• Small number of people with combined engineering
and biological expertise 139
• Decline in freshwater expertise
• In common with other scientific endeavours:
• Less flexible in responding to new opportunities than
US / BRIC countries
• Comparatively poor track record of successful
commercialisation of R&D outputs, compared e.g. to US
Opportunities 140
• Use environmental expertise to forecast environmental
consequences of large-scale algal growth, and to
develop algae as bio-indicators for environmental
change / impact
• Improve reliability and uptake of modelling and LCA
through improved datasets, to pre-empt expensive
mistakes and accelerate progress
• Rising oil prices and potential breakthroughs in low cost,
sustainable integrated algal production / biorefining at
scale may make algal bioenergy (and other bulk
products) commercially viable
• Increase sustainability of CO2/heat/waste water
producing industries and aquaculture through
integrated algal growth systems and bioremediation
• Use expertise to develop algae as industrial
biotechnology platform with increasing number and
diversity of model systems, making use of novel
approaches such as epigenetics
• Develop novel products from bioprospecting and mining
of growing body of Omics data
• Exploit benefits if coordinated interdisciplinary work, if
UK research community can be united
• Increase collaboration on international scale, access
international funding
Threats139
• Loss of lead in current strengths due to being diluted /
crowded out by well-funded international competition
(especially US and BRIC countries; loss of funding for
the Carbon Trust ABC is an example of how expertise
and momentum is being wasted through lack of
support)
• Loss of expertise: through staff retiring and insufficient
numbers of new people entering the field (especially in
traditional disciplines such as taxonomy), and loss of
talent to other countries with more funding / more
flexibility in commercialisation
• First-rate UK R&D outputs being commercially exploited
mainly abroad, with little benefit coming back to UK
• Disappointment of unrealistic expectations may lead to
blindness in funding bodies, politicians, business and
the public for real opportunities algae offer
5.2 Overlaps with International Activity / Expertise
Ecological expertise is shared with some other European players such as Germany (e.g. Alfred Wegener Institute 141). The
US, Israel and most European countries, notably Germany, Italy, Spain and France also have considerable expertise on
photosynthesis and fundamental biology, and often have stronger commercial activities applying the fundamental
knowledge to biotechnological applications. Israel has a 30 year track record in algal biotechnology 142. The US is also very
active in this area (c.f. examples given in Section 5.3), and the BRIC countries are rapidly catching up.
139
This is a problem on an international level: it has been highlighted as the second-most critical issue for global algal industries
in The Algal Industry Survey 2008 (p.7), available at www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/algal-industry-survey.pdf.
140
More details on opportunities and threats (challenges) can be found in Appendix C, Tables C.4.1/2/3.
141
www.awi.de/en/home/
142
c.f. [Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016] and Chapter 2
46
Culture collections internationally have a strong history e.g. in Japan (MCC at NIES 143; NBRC at NITE 144), the US (e.g.
UTEX 145; CCMP 146), Germany (CCAC 147, SAG 148) and France (PCC at CRBIP 149); an overview of international collections can
be found at http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/utex/otherResources.aspx.
Leadership in the field of PBR design and biomass growth internationally is shown by e.g. Italy (e.g. Mario Tredici,
Florence), Spain (e.g. University of Almeria), Portugal (e.g. Vitor Vieira, Necton / AlgaFuel), Germany (e.g. Otto Pulz,
Potsdam), and Israel (e.g. Sammy Boussiba, Ben-Gurion).
5.3 Competition between UK and International Capability
All overlaps have the potential to turn into competition. This is less of an issue for ecological and environmental research
and fundamental biology, where broadening the knowledge base can increase momentum and produce synergies
(although it increases pressure to be the first to publish), and for culture collections, where a certain level of redundancy is
essential to avoid contamination or natural disasters in one collection wiping out access to important strains. Competition
becomes a threat wherever results can be commercialised. Of the overlaps listed in Section 5.2, competition is particularly
a threat to biotechnological RD&D, and especially for high-value applications where algae can be grown in closed, highly
controlled systems, since unlike technologies applicable to open systems they can be transferred to virtually any location.
There is considerable activity especially in the US to develop algae as a biotechnological platform; not only Craig Venter’s
company Synthetic Genomics Inc., but also companies like Solazyme Inc., Sapphire Energy Inc. and Joule Biotechnologies
Inc. on the energy side have an active interest in employing genetically modified algae. The San Diego Center for Algae
Biotechnology (c.f. Section 2.2) develops algae not only for bioenergy, but also for expression of therapeutic proteins.
Vaccines and other high value products from algae are also being pursued by companies such as PhycoBiologics Inc and
Phycotransgenics LLC, both in the US. In Israel, the university spin-out TransAlgae Ltd has been set up as an algal breeding
company for a wide spectrum of applications. In the UK, considerable expertise in this area is located within academia
(e.g. at UCL, Cambridge, UEA, SAMS, PML), but on a commercial basis only the company Spicer Biotech appears to work in
this space.
In addition to the substantial funding that is being poured into this kind of research especially in the US, competition is
also increasing from Asia, in particular China, Japan and Korea 150.
5.4 Knowledge Gaps filled by UK Expertise
Communication with algal stakeholders has highlighted that – while much work remains to be carried out – not many gaps
in expertise exist in the algal field. In addition, the increased global interest in algae, especially through new players from
the BRIC countries, and through the large influx of funding in the US, is leading to closure of remaining gaps. Even in its
traditional areas of strength, the UK is in danger of being diluted, if not crowded out. The expertise in algal culturing,
molecular biology / synthetic biology and on photosynthesis is shared by others who often benefit from stronger funding.
Nevertheless, the challenge posed by the world’s need to turn from a petroleum- to a bio-based economy is of such
magnitude that parallel research approaches are needed to find solutions on acceptable timescales. This represents a
window of opportunity for UK expertise. The high quality of the UK research base in this area, as well as creative
approaches characteristic for UK-based scientific excellence, add considerably to the UK’s competitiveness, and need to be
fully made use of.
Furthermore, the UK’s ecological expertise is of great value and can help to address e.g. algal diseases / viruses (e.g.
through experts at SAMS, PML), and symbioses (e.g. Cambridge, SAMS, UEA). If this expertise can be integrated into
budding commercial activities, both nationally and internationally, it can both save costs and contribute to preventing
ecological disasters in scale-up of algal growth.
143
[Reference/webpage no longer available – Mar 2016]
www.nbrc.nite.go.jp/e/
145
www.sbs.utexas.edu/utex
146
[Reference/webpage no longer available – Mar 2016]
147
[Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
148
http://epsag.uni-goettingen.de/
149
http://www.pasteur.fr/ip/easysite/pasteur/fr/recherche/les-collections/crbip/informations-generales-sur-les-collections#
150
Pers. comm. John Day
144
47
Expertise in the underpinning disciplines of phylogeny and taxonomy, although not unique to the UK, is internationally on
the decline, and hence may turn into a gap which the UK would be well placed to fill, provided its own level of national
expertise is maintained.
The experience in life cycle analysis (LCA; e.g. Swansea, Imperial, Cambridge, Cranfield) is also of importance globally,
since sound LCA is fundamental to any energy application, and highly advisable for other applications. The UK is in a good
position to build further capacity to satisfy growing global demand in this area (and also modelling in general, since these
approaches – if supported by sound datasets – can replace expensive experiments, allow exploration of a multitude of
possible scenarios and thereby accelerate progress 151).
5.5 Key Contributions the UK Could Make
The UK could make a number of key contributions to the global algal field. Its strength in environmental and ecological
RD&D can be used to forecast environmental consequences of large-scale algal growth. The NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy
Special Interest Group (AB-SIG) in intended to achieve this for the UK context initially, but the reach of the UK expertise
could extend further. For commercial applications, especially those culturing algae outdoors, and for low and medium
value products, the expertise on algal diseases, predators and symbioses will be of particular value to ensure culture
stability and lower the cost of production. Again, unification of the research community will be an essential step, as will
making both the commercial world and the international academic arena aware of the value of what it has to offer.
Integration of algal growth with aquaculture promises ecological and economic benefit on a national as well as global
level, and the UK research community (especially Swansea, Stirling and the Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum) is well
placed to increase sustainability of the aquaculture industry.
With respect to energy applications, the UK could join up with other EU players in LCA (such as KIT, Germany) to improve
current methodology, expand the body of data used in LCA, design user-friendly tools and train researchers, so that this
highly critical assessment can be used with increased confidence in more and more algal applications. This also extends to
the entire field of modelling, which is relevant to a multitude of algal disciplines150.
In the area of culture collections, the UK is expected to continue its lead e.g. in the development of cryopreservation
techniques.
Finally, especially in light of the threat from well-funded international competition, the UK should make sure to capitalise
on its R&D strengths in genetics, molecular biology and biochemistry to develop algae as an industrial biotechnology
platform. This would employ functional genomics, algal breeding, metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, as part of a
global effort to transition into a bio-based economy (c.f. Chapter 4). The platform could be developed with the aid of an
underpinning infrastructure in Omics, such as TGAC (Norwich) and the Hinxton Campus, and could feed into the
developing Technology Innovation Centres (TIC) on High Value Manufacturing, as well as becoming part of the pipeline for
any potential future RD&D initiatives on Industrial Biotechnology.
151
c.f. pertinent questionnaire response for challenges on 25 year timescale, Kevin Flynn (Table C.4.3): “Good data sets to
support effective modelling - this is a basic and recurrent problem in algal research, one upon which I have written and talked
frequently over the 25+ years that I have worked in the subject area. [..] The acid test of our knowledge is whether we can
model it properly and thence explore the multitude of possible scenarios which we cannot seriously explore empirically. This is
needed for all aspects from ecological biogeochemical work, to commercial exploitation. And that modelling effort is crippled
repeatedly by poor and/or inadequate data collection, conducted all too often in unsuitably designed experiments. Unless there
is a real drive by people who understand this problem, and the opportunities that exist in solving it, then we will advance
nowhere fast and continue to waste resources and time. I have repeated the challenges and opportunities because this is a
cyclic problem, as it has been for the last 25+ years.”
48
6. ALGAE RESEARCH VALUE CHAINS IN THE UK – ANALYSIS OF GAPS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIVITIES
To increase the impact of algal expertise in the UK, it is important to connect together the various research elements that
are needed to progress the outputs of fundamental research onwards into applications. In the UK context, it is helpful to
differentiate between two overarching value chains for algal research:
1. fundamental research leading to the development of novel high tech solutions and high value products
employing algae, with the end goal of building the next generation of algal technology applications, and
2. further improvement and optimisation of existing applications in order to make them financially viable, more
profitable and/or environmentally acceptable.
Considerable expertise exists in the UK that can contribute to both of these value chains. Both in different ways – and with
input from different kinds of fundamental research – have potential to underpin the development of a bio-based economy
in the UK. This chapter will give an overview of each in turn, indicate current gaps, and make recommendations which will
be expanded on in the final two chapters. A more fine-grained indicative analysis of value chains for certain algal products
and services (following the categories introduced in Chapter 3) is provided in Appendix D.
6.1 Development of High Tech Solutions and High Value Products Employing Algae
By its nature this value chain requires intense, lab-based R&D (Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 1-4) and, although mostly
founded in multidisciplinary approaches, tends to produce stand-alone end products (a patented process or physical
product). These are often taken to higher TRL levels through spin-out companies from research institutes. Those spin-outs
in turn are frequently acquired by larger companies who implement the technology in their operations. The research value
chain in this instance would start with fundamental lab work; generation of protected IP that can be sold or licensed could
be considered an end point.
All products and applications mentioned in Chapter 4 fall into this category; examples from Industrial Biotechnology
include:
 Underpinning methodologies that can be patented / licensed:
o algal synthetic biology toolkits
o algal transformation systems
o high-throughput screening technologies for algal bioprospecting (microfluidic cultivation
and selection systems; systems biology / omics service development)
 Novel products:
o platform chemicals
o pharmaceuticals
o nutraceuticals
o energy products: e.g. algal biophotovoltaics; solar H2 production and CO2 reduction (through
biomimetic catalytic systems, based on algal enzymes)
o ecological applications (ecosystem services in the built environment; algal sensors for
pollutants)
The indicative list above represents a highly diverse spectrum of approaches, and will need to be driven forward by R&D
teams with very different expertise in each case. Indeed, many of these novel approaches (not only the examples above,
but all opportunities mentioned in Chapter 4) could develop into full value chains of their own, with the potential to
overtake currently identified algal applications in scope and importance.
It is outside the remit of this report to review gaps and make recommendations for each of these individually;
however, several common features can be drawn out:
Gaps and Bottlenecks
The UK is fortunate to have a wealth of brilliant algal scientists who have a track record of innovative thinking. Bottlenecks
for capitalising on this have included scarcity of strategic funding support and of mechanisms by which researchers can
interact with industry in a meaningful way. Such interaction would help to identify pathways of conducting world-class
49
science; science which has outputs that are of high relevance to industry, and hence the potential to identify routes to
commercialisation. 152
Recommendations
The numerous opportunities that exist to build algae as an industrial biotechnology platform could be best assessed and
developed in a forum that will bring academics and industry together to discuss the overlap in priorities for R&D for both
parties, and that will feed into a strategic funding initiative. In such a forum, it can be discussed and clarified which of the
technically feasible and intellectually rewarding projects would provide most benefit in an industrial and economic
context. Issues such as the advantages of algal systems over current methods, the best choice of model organisms and the
most relevant tools and target molecules can be addressed, leading to research outputs that will have high relevance for
industry. A very encouraging start in this direction was made in March 2011, when under the auspices of the Synthetic
Plant Products for Industry Network (SPPI-Net), Biosciences KTN facilitated an Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop in
London. A group of algal researchers met with industry representatives to discuss the potential of algae as a platform for
industrial biotechnology, using synthetic biology approaches; an overview of the outcomes is available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf.
However, discussions – no matter how illuminating – will remain fruitless unless they are accompanied by funding
pathways that enable the identified priorities to be translated into successful research projects. BBSRC could best support
the field by moving from funding this research through responsive mode only to issuing strategic funding calls for those
novel solutions based on algae which have been identified as most promising and strategically important. Such focused
funding support could in the first instance be delivered through a call on algal industrial biotechnology (which could be
part of a relevant existing Industry Club), or in the future by creating a dedicated Club. Out of constructive dialogue with
relevant industries additional opportunities for focused joint work are likely to arise, such as CASE studentships and
Industrial Partnership Awards (several indeed already have arisen, and some have received funding from BBSRC).
However, relying on those on their own would not give the field the strategic and joined-up push that it requires to be
competitive on the international scene. 153
6.2 Further Improvement and Optimisation of Existing Applications
While the research value chain discussed above largely produces high-tech stand-alone solutions based on algae, this
value chain is intimately connected to the scale-up of algal production and hence requires integrated multi-disciplinary
work across a spectrum of science and engineering disciplines. Laboratory-based biological and biotechnological work is in
most cases still essential; however it needs to be informed by the requirements imposed by the entire pipeline (since
improvements in one area may introduce difficulties in another), and needs to develop integrative approaches
underpinned by sound LCA and ecological assessments. Most of the products and services described in Chapter 3 belong
to this category, including:



base commodities – biomass energy products, bulk animal feed
existing high value products – speciality feeds / foods, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals
bioremediation – waste water clean-up, CO2 / NOx scrubbing
The value chain for all of the above consists of: selection (and/or development) of algal strains and ecologically sensible
locations for cultivation, growth of biomass, harvesting, processing, down to distribution, sales and marketing, with
refinement of the whole process through iterative life cycle, sustainability and economic assessment. Research in
152
A further bottleneck that is shared with commercialisation of other bioscience outputs is presented by the fact that
researchers often are still not too familiar with how to take brilliant ideas, inventions and developments further: starting with
appropriate IP protection combined with identifying industries for which the IP is relevant, and then by building teams with the
right mix of skills to move to the next stage. An increased awareness among researchers of the relevance of their expertise to
commercial applications, and of the opportunities that could arise from taking their research outputs further through
development, would accelerate the flow of algal R&D into novel biotechnological applications. Other helpful skills include
knowing when to draw in other expertise (e.g. business know-how), and when to let go – understandably scientists who have
developed a new process or product tend to be keen to retain control; however, to get to the next level, business and marketing
experts increasingly need to be in charge if commercialisation is to be successful.
153
It needs to be stressed that strategic focus, albeit highly important, must not be to the detriment of funding algal blue skies
research (which tends to produce the most innovative and ground-breaking solutions; a prominent example is Michael Faraday).
50
fundamental bioscience underpins all aspects of this chain up to distribution; relevant research areas include (for a more
fine-grained picture see Appendix D):
-
for strain selection and growth:
algal breeding, metabolic manipulation through media composition, disease control, symbioses
for harvesting and processing:
biological/biochemical flocculation; cell wall composition / manipulation / degradation; enzymology;
biochemical fractionation, separation and purification techniques
overall: life cycle and sustainability assessment based on sound data; modelling of scenarios
Details of the individual research value chains for base and value added commodities, high value products, bioremediation
services and integrative approaches can be found in Appendix D, including an indication of current players and gaps in
each case. While details for each of the product groups vary, some gaps and bottlenecks in the research value chain are
shared:
Gaps and Bottlenecks
A key bottleneck lies in Human Resources: Individuals each of whom understands different sections of the value chain are
required, and they are in short supply. Major capacity building is needed especially of scientists who have a sound grasp of
both biology and engineering; more extensive integration with ecological expertise would also be helpful. This is a gap on
a global level: availability of trained personnel has been highlighted as the second-most critical issue for global algal
industries in The Algal Industry Survey 2008 154.
Furthermore, the field would greatly benefit from an increased body of solid data that can feed into modelling
approaches, especially the all-important life cycle and sustainability analyses.
The final major bottleneck is the provision of funding opportunities that encourage researchers to collaborate and
develop synergies between their research activities under the umbrella of a strategic research agenda. While pockets of
funding are accessible to algal researchers, they are not joined up and do not provide strategic direction. Funding has
been withdrawn from the one initiative that had endeavoured to provide strategic leadership (although the direction had
been questioned by several stakeholders), the Carbon Trust ABC (c.f. Section 1.2.3.8).
Recommendations
To address the bottlenecks mentioned above, it is highly recommended that BBSRC together with other Research Councils
and funding bodies like TSB, and in consultation with academia and industry, develop a joined-up strategy for algal value
chains in the UK. This would need to be followed up with integrated funding appropriate to the various bodies involved.
Only a cohesive strategic approach with appropriate funding will ensure that the algal research strengths, which the UK
undoubtedly possesses, will be counted on the international stage, and that the benefit of this expertise will be felt in the
UK directly through underpinning the development of a national bio-based economy.
Strategic funding should include a cross-council Graduate Training Programme to build capacity in graduates and
post-docs with a sound understanding of the biological, engineering and environmental challenges that are so crucial for
successful commercialisation of algal technologies. Another priority area should be the establishment of a peer-reviewed,
open access database for information to feed into life cycle and sustainability analyses and modelling studies.
6.3 Summary
Both research value chains discussed above build on biological R&D strengths in the UK, and in different ways have
potential to underpin the development of a bio-based economy. The development of stand-alone novel solutions based
on algal biology, such as the examples from Industrial Biotechnology referred to in Section 6.1, can be supported by BBSRC
directly through strategic funding calls and in the context of Industry Clubs. Cooperation with other funding bodies that
have overlapping interests would further add value and momentum. The optimisation of integrated algal solutions for
eventual production of base commodities, high value products and adoption of bioremediation services at scale also
encompasses many aspects of fundamental biological research that falls under the remit of BBSRC. Funding initiatives for
this value chain would best be delivered under a national strategy for algae, which builds on the strengths of the UK and
joins up the RD&D outputs across disciplines and technology readiness levels along the entire pipeline.
154
available at www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/algal-industry-survey.pdf
51
7. AREAS OF RD&D REQUIRED TO PROMOTE THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALGAL ECONOMY
As highlighted in previous chapters, algae have considerable potential to contribute to a bio-based economy in the UK:
through development of an industrial biotechnology platform which underpins food, energy and material security (c.f.
Sections 4.1-4.4 and 6.1), and through integrated biorefining solutions for fuel, feed, (platform) chemicals and
bioremediation services (c.f. Sections 6.2 and Appendix D). Algae hence have an important role to play in two of BBSRC’s
Priority Areas, Industrial Biotechnology & Bioenergy, and Food Security.
To establish the full extent of these opportunities, and to turn the potential into economic reality, substantial RD&D needs
to be carried out for each of the value chains outlined in Chapter 6 / Appendix D. The risks and rewards associated with
different aspects of the broad spectrum of RD&D topics vary considerably, as do their importance for progress of the
overall field. Assessing which research needs to be carried out, and how risky, rewarding and important it is, will help to
form a strategy for algae in the UK.
Table 7.1 provides an overview of the RD&D currently needed (informed by the challenges and opportunities given
in questionnaire responses, c.f. Section 1.2.2.4 and Appendix C, Tables C.4.1/2/3). The first row refers mainly to the first
research value chain described in Chapter 6 (high tech solutions based on algal biology; Section 6.1), subsequent rows
relate to the second value chain (optimisation of integrated algal solutions; Section 6.2), with RD&D needs broken down
by algal product or service. The levels of risk, reward and importance given are an assessment by the author, informed by
general interaction with stakeholders. The indicative information provided in this chapter provides a starting point for
further detailed discussions with the academic and industrial algal communities to shape a UK strategy; both the RD&D
needs themselves and their assessment may change dramatically as the field moves forward and economic and
environmental factors change.
For the first research value chain, with a particular focus on developing algae as a platform for industrial
biotechnology, highest importance and reward at this stage are attributed to further development of tool kits for algal
synthetic biology, and to expanding the evidence base that highlights the advantages of using algal systems instead of
those currently employed (c.f. Section 4.4).
For the second value chain, further improvement and optimisation of existing applications, highest levels of reward
and importance are ascribed to establishing test / pilot / demonstration sites for macro- and microalgal projects, and to
capacity building for multidisciplinary work, especially for combined expertise in biology and engineering. Achieving
sustained growth of desired strains with stable desired characteristics and optimisation of growth on medium derived
from AD liquid digestate were also ranked highly. The INTERREG initiatives BioMara and EnAlgae described in Section 1.2.3
will contribute to addressing these issues, but a much larger coordinated effort across the UK is needed to fulfil the
potential algae have to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy.
Table 7.1: Overview of RD&D needed for algal products and services, including levels of risk, reward and importance;
this is indicative rather than definitive; assessment may drastically change as research progresses
Topic
Algal product /
service
RD&D needed 155
Risk level
Reward
level
Importance
for field
Industrial
biotechnology
platform
Pharmaceuticals,
platform
chemicals
- identification of molecules of interest
already made by known algae
- bioprospecting and mining of Omics data
for new molecules
- expanding the evidence base highlighting
the advantages of algal systems rather than
bacterial / yeast / plant / insect /
mammalian cell systems (functional,
economic, life cycle analyses)
- further develop tool kits for algal
synthetic biology and stain improvement
(broader base of model organisms, transformation protocols, fully annotated
genome sequences, functional genomics,
expression/metabolic/epigenome profiling)
low
medium
medium-high
high
mediumhigh
mediumhigh
medium-high
mediumhigh
HIGH
155
high
medium
HIGH
Further details on RD&D needs can be found in Appendix C, Tables C.4.1/2/3 (questionnaire responses to challenges on 5, 10,
25 year timespan)
52
Topic
Algal product
RD&D needed
Biomass
production
(applicable to all
of the below)
fundamental and applied science:
- sustained growth of desired strains with
stable desired characteristics, incl. control
of diseases and grazers (underpins
everything)
- strain selection, cultivation, harvesting,
processing: entire pipeline for micro- and
macroalgae
associated needs / complementary
optimisation tools / studies:
- clarify production potential of the UK
- microalgae: clear cost-benefit analysis and
LCA of open vs closed growth
- macroalgae: clarify the potential for offshore farming integrated with wind farms
- capacity building for multidisciplinary
work, especially for combined expertise in
biology and engineering
- test / pilot / demonstration sites
- sound data to underpin LCA& modelling
- prioritisation of land and end uses
- public perception
- pretreatments
- microbial fermentations (biology)
- compatibility with existing infrastructure
- sustained growth at high oil levels
- low energy harvesting and extraction
- hydrocarbons instead of TAGs
- fermentability of algae
- optimisation of growth on medium
derived from AD liquid digestate
- optimisation of energy return
Bioenergy
Bioalcohols
Biodiesel / kerosene
Biomethane
Food /
nutraceuticals/
cosmeceuticals
Animal feed
Bioremediation
Thermochemical
conversion
products
Whole algal
biomass,
pigments,
PUFAs, novel
products
Replacement for
fish- / soymeal;
aquaculture feed
Waste water
treatment
CO2 / NOx
scrubbing
Integrated
biorefinery
Protein,
carbohydrates,
oils, metabolites
- lowering cost of production
- integration with other industrial processes
- influence / co-develop regulatory
framework
- bioprospecting for novel products
- as above
- clarification of UK potential for
production, on-farm integrated systems
- sound LCA
- engineering and biology expertise in LINKtype programmes with the water industry,
and other industries producing nutrient
rich waste waters / run-offs
- integration of algal growth with CO2
producing industries
- testing coccolithophores for carbon
sequestration
- integrated growth
- low cost fractionation techniques
- economics
- sound LCA
Risk
Reward
Importance
medium
high
HIGH
low-medium
high
HIGH
medium
medium
high
high
high
high
high
high
medium-high
low
HIGH
HIGH
medium
low
medium
medium-high
medium
medium
low
high
high
medium-high
low
low
HIGH
high
high
medium
high
medium
high
HIGH
high
high
medium
HIGH
HIGH
high
medium
medium
medium
medium
low
high
HIGH
medium
medium
HIGH
medium
medium
low
medium
medium
medium
high
high
high
high
HIGH
high
high
mediumhigh
medium-high
medium
high
medium
low
low
high
high
high
high
medium
high
HIGH
low
high
medium
medium
medium-high
medium
low
high
high
high
high
HIGH
medium
high
high
53
Priority Areas of Development to Benefit the UK Economy
To capitalise on the strengths in world-class biological R&D the UK possesses, and to build a high-tech innovation cluster
that will underpin the establishment of a bio-based economy, algae should be developed as an industrial biotechnology
platform. Such a platform will serve to overexpress proteins and metabolites for chemical and pharmaceutical
applications. Its development needs to be accompanied by mining the vast diversity of algae for useful traits, enzymes and
metabolites through bioprospecting, and by crop improvement programmes for algae: this will underpin food and
material security as described in Chapter 4, and is expected to lead to the discovery of novel bio-actives and
pharmaceuticals.
The second value chain introduced in Chapter 6 (i.e. further improvement and optimisation of existing applications) also
has potential to benefit the UK economy. In addition to improving the as yet unfavourable economics of algal bioenergy
and bulk products, high priority should be assigned to realising the full potential of algae to contribute to high value
food/feed production and integrated bioremediation: particularly useful areas include algal growth as part of integrated
aquaculture, as well as the use of AD liquid digestate as nutrient feedstock – wherever possible in conjunction with CO2
and NOx scrubbing from flue gasses. The most appropriate use of the biomass created in these integrated applications
would be, regulation permitting, as animal feed to replace fish meal, or fertiliser. If regulatory frameworks do not permit
these uses, the biomass can be used as feedstock for AD (although implications for end use of AD byproducts would need
to be considered).
In the medium and long terms, the output of both value chains should converge in the concept of an integrated
biorefinery, where algal biomass – dedicated crops and/or residual biomass after extraction of high value compounds
from industrial biotechnology approaches – would be fractionated into its useful components. Theoretically these
comprise protein for food or feed, carbohydrates as feedstocks for biopolymers or bioalcohols, lipids for food, feed,
oleochemicals or biodiesel, and potentially metabolites for chemical applications. Caveats include that only a subset of
end uses will be appropriate for any given feedstock, and that all developments need to be underpinned by sound life
cycle and sustainability analyses. With these in place, however, algae can be developed into a highly versatile branch of
the bio-based economy.
54
8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
BBSRC commissioned this study because it wishes to understand whether it should address fundamental research into the
biology of algae in the context of a feedstock for energy and other products, and if so, how.
To facilitate this, the study in Part I has taken stock of current and past algae-related activity in the UK (Chapter 1),
given an overview of algal interests globally (Chapter 2), and reviewed markets for algal products and services (Chapter 3).
Part II has built on this information to analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the light of current
and emerging opportunities for algal R&D, and in the context of international competition. It has firstly reviewed potential
opportunities for algal R&D to underpin food, energy and material security, and progress biotechnology (Chapter 4), and
then assessed the strengths of the UK research capability on the global algae stage (Chapter 5). Gaps in algal research
value chains in the UK have been analysed (Chapter 6), and levels of risk, reward and importance of areas of RD&D
required to promote the development of an algal economy have been assessed (Chapter 7).
In this final chapter the outcomes of the current study will be compared to a previous report from 2009, entitled
‘Assessing the Potential for Algae in the UK’ 156; progress against the recommendations of this report will be considered,
and further recommendations will be made.
8.1 DECC Algal Stakeholder Meeting in November 2009
As indicated, this study follows on from a report155 on the outcomes of an algal stakeholder meeting called by DECC and
facilitated through NNFCC on 12 November 2009. The event aimed “to establish the potential for the UK in algae and to
determine how this area could progress forward” 157. The report made the following key recommendations 158:
a. The UK needs to develop a focused and integrated approach to algae.
b. Algal production should follow integrated approaches and be developed in demonstration projects.
c. High value products from algae, especially in the context of integrated biorefining, should have higher priority
than fuel production.
d. The UK has world-class algal expertise which has suffered from scarce and disperse funding; strategic and linkedup funding packages with industry input are required to move forward.
It concluded with three principal take-home messages: “for both macro and microalgae –
1) There is a need for a central co-ordination point.
2) There is a need for co-ordinated funding for R&D.
3) There is a need for demonstration projects.”156
8.2 What Has Changed since 2009?
While the input data to this study (collected in early 2011) is more extensive, the outcomes reported here are in general
agreement with the observations made in the DECC report. In the intervening 1.5 years since the stakeholder meeting
progress has been made in some areas; in many others the situation has deteriorated.
Concerning point 1 (and a.) above, the research community – according to stakeholder responses – still sees itself as
fragmented and lacking impetus. Initiatives like BioMara, EnAlgae, the Carbon Trust ABC (c.f. Section 1.2.3) and – more
informally – the SPPI-Net working group on algae 159 have begun to draw together sub-groups across disciplines and
universities as well as businesses, with promising initial results. The NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group (ABSIG) is intended to provide this “centralised point for strategy development, dissemination, information on funded
156
The report can be downloaded from http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk
ibid p. 7
158
summarised from ibid p. 3
159
c.f. meeting report of SPPI-Net Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop on 24 March 2011, available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf
55
157
projects and activity coordination” 160, but funding for the Director (0.2 FTE) and the three research fellows (together 2.5
FTE) is only secured for two years. This initiative is an excellent start, and likely to make a significant impact. If the
momentum is to be maintained, if is essential that follow-up funding (certainly for the strategic leadership aspects of the
project) is secured, and preferably at increased levels; the challenge of high-level coordination cannot be met
appropriately with a 0.2 FTE appointment. The information provided on funded projects in Appendix A and the overview
of UK expertise in Chapter 1 of this study aims to aid in developing the centralised overview needed for strategy
development. BBSRC may consider planning a further stakeholder engagement workshop to follow on from this study, in
collaboration with the AB-SIG, to increase momentum and cohesion in the algal research community, and to shape
strategy.
Concerning point 2 (and d.) above, the situation has worsened since 2009. The withdrawal of funding from the Carbon
Trust ABC 161 in April 2011 has been a blow not only to the 12 research teams involved, but also to the reputation of the UK
internationally, since this project had been portrayed as the UK flagship for applied algal RD&D. As the 2009 DECC report
stated, “A combination of lack of leadership, focus and clear policy objectives has resulted in the UK missing opportunities
in algae development and it is clear the UK is now lagging behind other countries, most notably the USA”159. This gap has
widened in the intervening time. Even during the US recession, the US Department of Energy in June 2010 awarded $24
million to three research consortia to address the existing difficulties in the commercialisation of algal-based biofuels 162.
Synergistic funding is also being provided at a state level: e.g. in Sept 2010, the governor of Arizona announced a $2
million investment in the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (AzCATI 163). In addition, further competition
has arisen from BRIC countries who invest heavily into applied algal RD&D. It has to be recognised that the gap will grow
to unsustainable levels unless steps are taken to mitigate the recent loss of funding.
Concerning point 3 (and b./c.) above, BioMara and EnAlgae (c.f. Section 1.2.3) are starting to provide some test facilities,
and companies such as PML Applications Ltd, Scottish Bioenergy Ltd and Merlin BioDevelopments Ltd (on microalgae), and
the Crown Estate (on macroalgae), are investigating the scaling up of algal growth in a UK context. However, a higher
density of pilot and demonstration sites – established in close collaboration with industry, and embedded in industrial
activity – for the entire spectrum of integrative growth approaches and end uses would be desirable.
8.3 What Next?
In commissioning this study, BBSRC wished to understand whether it should address fundamental research into the
biology of algae in the context of a feedstock for energy and other products, and, if yes, how to do so. Based on the
analysis of previous chapters, this section presents scenarios for future action BBSRC may wish to take.
8.3.1 Status Quo
In parallel with other Research Councils, BBSRC already funds algal research as part of its responsive mode (c.f. Section
1.2.2.3). If no particular action was to be taken, some high quality algal research funded under the existing mechanism will
still be carried out; however, the outputs will lack strategic direction. Since no centralised pipeline for pull-through into
commercial application exists, the benefit of research outputs for developing a bio-based economy in the UK will be
limited and largely determined by the connections and commercial awareness of individual Principal Investigators, and the
aptitude of Technology Transfer Offices at individual research organisations. Feedback on current developments amongst
the research community will largely be limited to presentations at general conferences and personal connections; some
facilitated exchange across universities will happen for those who belong to one of the current algal initiatives mentioned
in Section 1.2.3. Increase in momentum will be limited, and capacity building will remain slow. The gap between the UK
and other key international players in the algal field is likely to increase further, and the UK will sooner or later lose its
competitiveness in algal technologies.
160
161
ibid p. 3
[Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
162
[Reference/webpage no longer available – Feb 2016]
www.azcati.com
163
56
8.3.2 Strategic BBSRC Funding
Of the two research value chains outlined in Chapter 6, the first (high tech solutions based on algal biology, with a
particular focus on developing algae as a platform for industrial biotechnology) falls directly within the remit of BBSRC. In
the short term, a focused funding call such as a sLoLa could be issued to invite proposals along the lines of the R&D needs
outlined for this value chain in Chapters 6 and 7. Industrial involvement in shaping the focus of the call would be highly
desirable. The meeting of algal researchers with industry representatives at the SPPI-Net Algal Synthetic Biology
Workshop 164 in London in March 2011 provided an excellent basis that BBSRC could build on. In the medium and long
terms, strategic funding calls on research underpinning the development of an algal industrial biotechnology platform
would ideally be part of an Industry Club that also draws in other councils and funders. This would ensure interdisciplinary
connectivity and ongoing relevance of the world-class research to industrial developments, and provide a pipeline for
licensing and commercialising research outputs.
8.3.3 Cross-Council Strategic Initiative on Algae
Sizeable sections of the second research value chain introduced in Chapter 6 (optimisation of integrated algal solutions to
improve financial viability and minimise environmental impact) fall within the remit of BBSRC (c.f. Table 7.1). However,
close integration with engineering and environmental expertise is needed in order to make meaningful progress across
the pipeline as a whole. To develop the algal R&D field as a whole, it is recommended that BBSRC should work with the
other Research Councils and the AB-SIG to assess which areas of algal research value chains (and which algal products and
services) the UK is best placed to develop, based on its research strengths and on the benefits of research outputs to a
bio-based economy in the UK. Leading on from this assessment, the Councils may wish to formulate a strategy for algal
R&D in the UK. The identified strategic R&D aims would best be realised by bringing the currently fragmented
multidisciplinary algal research community together under the umbrella of a virtual UK Centre of Excellence on Algae, with
core funding being provided from across the Councils and Industry. It needs to be stressed that strategic funding should
also include unrestricted blue sky research on algae, without which the pipeline of innovative algal solutions is likely to
collapse.
The Centre could embrace both algal research value chains, and for value chain two, should work closely with a network of
industry-led pilot and demonstration sites. Such collaborations could be funded through LINK-type projects, and would
underpin the optimisation and deployment at increasing scale of those integrated algal solutions which the strategy has
identified as particularly relevant to the UK. The creation of and support for such a Centre would provide cohesion, focus
and momentum for the high quality, but currently disjointed algal research community, would build capacity, and
establish a firm foot-hold for UK expertise on the international algal stage.
8.3.4 Strategic Initiative on Algae across Research Councils and Government Departments
A cross-council strategy on algae would be a very helpful step, and would lead to co-ordinated funding initiatives with
focused, joined-up and industrially relevant research outputs. However, unless those outputs are developed beyond the
Technology Readiness Levels that are the remit of the Research Councils, pull-through to commercialisation and
consequent benefit for the UK’s emerging bio-economy may be limited.
To realise the full potential of algae for the UK economy, a joined-up approach across the Research Councils, TSB and all
relevant Government Departments is needed. The Government has highlighted the importance of mechanisms that
facilitate the translation of the UK’s research capabilities into economic benefit, and with the initiative to create
Technology Innovation Centres has provided a funding mechanism to do so. The Research Councils may want to cooperate
in engaging with the relevant Government Departments and TSB to create a national strategy on algae that spans
research, development and deployment, and may recommend to the Government the establishment of an algal
Technology Innovation Centre. The combination of a strategically funded academic Centre of Excellence which builds on
the strengths of the algal research community in the UK with a Technology Innovation Centre that takes step-changing
research outputs through to commercial application would provide a complete and strong pipeline. Such a pipeline would
guarantee high impact of UK algal research, and would provide direct benefit to the UK by both determining and realising
the potential that algae have to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy.
164
c.f. www.sppi-net.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf
57
Through smaller-scale initiatives (such as the algal INTERREG programmes BioMara and EnAlgae, and the Carbon Trust
ABC (c.f. Section 1.2.3)) that have required collaborative work across research groups and with industrial stakeholders, the
algal community has demonstrated an eagerness to overcome its fragmentation. The response of the community to a
national strategic initiative on algae is expected to be highly positive, and would put the UK back on the map as a serious
international player in this highly competitive field.
8.4 Summary
The UK has a wealth of biological expertise to offer to establish algae as part of a bio-based economy, both through high
tech approaches to build algae as an industrial biotechnology platform, and by developing algal products and services in
the concept of integrated biorefining. This is complemented by extensive ecological expertise that helps to understand
and model the role of algae in climate change and develop them as bio-indicators for environmental impact.
This wealth of knowledge has not been made best use of in the UK, for two principal reasons:
1. A lack of integration of the research community across the breadth of relevant disciplines: this needs to be catalysed
by providing funding for multidisciplinary research programmes, where possible linked to collaborative demonstration
sites with industry.
2. Progress in the field has been seriously hampered by lack of funding. With the withdrawal of funding from the Carbon
Trust ABC, this situation has further deteriorated in the last months. The UK is in grave danger of being marginalised
on an international scale, since especially the US and BRIC countries have been and are investing heavily in this arena.
Unless this situation is remedied, further opportunities will be lost. The quality and size of the knowledge base is likely
to diminish through brain-drain to well-funded RD&D activities abroad. It would lead to first-rate UK R&D outputs
again 165 being commercially exploited mainly abroad, with little benefit coming back, and the UK would be forced to
adopt technologies from abroad which could and should have been developed nationally.
The development of a virtual UK Centre of Excellence on Algae would provide cohesion and much needed capacity
building in multidisciplinary expertise. Such a centre would need to receive core funding from the Research Councils to
support fundamental scientific research, underpinning the development of novel algal products and services. It would
work closely with a network of industry-led pilot and demonstration sites on LINK-type projects. These would facilitate the
optimisation and deployment of integrated algal solutions at increasing scale. In parallel, the Research Councils may want
to recommend to the Government and TSB the establishment of an algal Technology Innovation Centre (TIC). A TIC would
provide the pull-through to commercialisation beyond the Technology Readiness Levels which fall under the remit of the
Research Councils. The combination of a strategically-funded academic Centre of Excellence that builds on the strengths
of the algal research community in the UK with a Technology Innovation Centre that takes step-changing research outputs
through to commercial application would provide a complete and strong pipeline. Such a pipeline would guarantee high
impact of UK algal research. It would provide direct benefit to the UK by both determining and realising the potential that
algae have to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy: it will in the short to medium term develop tangible
solutions, and at the same time ensure that underpinning science is being put in place to address the long term challenges
to mankind.
165
The success of e.g. Martek Biosciences Corporation is based on a technology developed by the British company Celsys, now
closed
58
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60
APPENDICES
Appendix A: List of algal researchers / grantholders with algal keywords, as of 22 December 2010 (electronic .xls copy
available on request)
Appendix B: Cover Letter and Questionnaire sent to researchers
Dear Colleague,
As you will know, interest in algal R&D has grown in the last years, both internationally and in the UK. The UK has a
strong knowledge base especially in fundamental underpinning research relating to algal biology and ecology, and in
the relevant engineering sciences essential for optimised and scaled up growth. However, the research community is
both fragmented and poorly supported. This hinders the progress of the field as a whole, and restricts the UK’s
competitiveness.
There is a recognition within the Research Councils that a more integrated approach needs to be taken to algal
research. As a result, BBSRC has commissioned an inventory of the algal community in the UK, with a view to
increase the level of information available on the strengths and capabilities of the UK algal community which might
in turn lead to research funding, and will create a framework through which the algal community can capitalise on
for example European funding opportunities such as EERA (European Energy Research Alliance). This is being carried
out in partnership with the NERC/TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group. Please note that this survey is NOT
only aimed at those interested in energy issues, we would like to hear from anyone who has a research interest in
algae. An essential starting point is collating a contact list of all algal R&D players, their research interests, and their
past and present funders of algal work. The latter information will help the research councils to evaluate the current
funding landscape and will aid in targeting any future initiatives appropriately.
We have accessed publically available data on grants awarded by the Research Councils and TSB to start this
list, but the most reliable information about current expertise and research interests will come from the researchers
directly. We would therefore appreciate if you could take the time to complete the brief questionnaire below, so we
can make sure we have the most accurate information to feed back to the Research Councils.
You may also be aware that the European Project ‘AquaFUELs’ have been collating a directory of Algal Expertise
(http://www.eaba-association.eu/dl_misc/indexd1.3.html), and that the European Algal Biomass Association EABA is
working on updating and expanding this directory. Unless you object (or are already included), we would also like to
make the EABA aware of your expertise.
You will have received this email because either a colleague has put you forward, or because you have
received a grant by the Research Councils in which algae (pro- or eukaryotic) played a role. Should you feel you have
received this in error, since your research interests neither in the past nor present included algae, please accept my
apologies, and please let me know so you will not receive any follow-up emails.
We would very much appreciate hearing from you by 28 Feb 2011, and look forward to your reply. Please also
forward this message to colleagues who may be interested, since our mailing list is unlikely to be comprehensive.
Yours sincerely
Beatrix Schlarb-Ridley – on behalf of BBSRC
Michele Stanley – on behalf of the NERC / TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group
61
QUESTIONNAIRE OF ALGAL RESEARCHERS (on behalf of BBSRC & NERC/TSB-AB SIG):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Title and Name:
e.g. Dr John Example
Position:
e.g. Royal Society Research Fellow
Telephone:
e.g. 01234 56789
Spectrum of expertise:
e.g. biophysics of photosynthesis; solar conversion efficiency
Are algae at the core or periphery of your research interests? core
periphery
6. Research interests
(please tick as many as apply, and highlight primary interest in bold):
macroalgae
microalgae
marine
freshwater
applied research
fundamental research
photosynthesis
bioprospecting
synthetic biology
algal communities
photobioreactor design
algal productivity
biofouling
other:______________
bioenergy
bioremediation
carbon capture
waste water treatment
environmental issues
(platform) chemicals
algae for food/feed
nutraceuticals
cosmeceuticals
pharmaceuticals
integrated industrial growth
aquaculture
other:______________
other:______________
7. Where do you see the key challenges and opportunities for algal research in the next 5 / 10 / 25 years?
Timeframe (years)
5
10
25
challenges
8. Funders of algal R&D – past:
9. Funders of algal R&D – present:
10. UK Collaborators:
opportunities
e.g. EPSRC, TSB, industrial funder (name confidential)
e.g. UKERC, Royal Society
e.g. Prof. Jean Xyz (Essex University); Dr Carola Mustermann (Glasgow
University); Mr William Sample (company Abc)
11. International collaborators:
e.g. Dr Antonio Fernandez (UCLA, San Diego, US); Ms Sabrina Smith
(AlgaCompany, Israel); Prof Xu Yu (Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China); intl company in
nutraceutical sector, not to be named
12. Do you know of any other interested parties either within your organisation or elsewhere we should
contact?
Name
Institution
email
13. For Data Protection Issues are you prepared to have your name and anonymised responses included in the
final report submitted to BBSRC?
Name:
Yes
No
Anonymised responses:
Yes
No
Thank you for your participation!
62
Appendix C: Tables of Results from Returned Questionnaires
Table C.1: Compilation of Questionnaire Responses Received (electronic .xls copy available on request)
Table C.2: Overview of Questionnaire Participants Interested in Given Research Topics
Keyword
No UK researchers
involved
Subset:
primary
research
interest
Universities where this is primary research interest, and name of
researcher
Macroalgae
55
15
Microalgae
126
32
Marine
100
21
Freshwater
79
9
Applied
research
97
14
Fundamental
Research
97
19
Environmental
issues
72
14
Bioenergy
65
15
Algal
communities
63
10
Algal
productivity
Photosynthesis
62
8
Aston, T Bridgwater. Birmingham, J Coates. Glasgow, N Kamenos & H Burdett. Plymouth
MBA, C Brownlee. Newcastle, G Caldwell & S Marsham. Oxford, M Hermoso. Portsmouth,
W Farnham. Queens University of Belfast, M Dring & G Savidge. Scottish Association For
Marine Science, C Gachon. SEPA, C Scanlan. Stirling, A Gilburn. BioMara, J Macgregor
Birmingham, M Callow & L Macaskie. Cardiff, I Guschina. Cranfield, L De Nagornoff.
Department for Communities and Local Government, D Rose. Dundee, G Codd. East
Anglia, T Mock. Environmental Research Institute, A Jackson. Essex, R Geider, M Steinke,
D Suggett & G Underwood. Glasgow, M Bees. Lancaster Environment Centre, R Groben.
Greenwich, P Harvey. Liverpool John Moores University, J Fisher. Loughborough, D Ryves.
Marine Biological Association, C Brownlee & D Schroeder. Natural History Museum, A
Jungblut. Newcastle, G Caldwell & A Harvey. PML, K Weynberg & M Allen. The Queens
University of Belfast, C Mullineaux. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, D Mann. Sheffield, J
Gilmour. Southampton, T Bibby & D Purcell. St Andrews, R Aspden. Stirling, P Hunter.
Warwick, H Schaefer. Westminster, J Lewis.
Aston, T Bridgwater. Birmingham, M Callow. Cranfield, L De Nagornoff. East Anglia, T
Mock. Essex, R Geider & D Suggett. Glasgow, N Kamenos. Marine Biological Association,
C Brownlee. Newcastle, G Caldwell & A Harvey. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer. PML, C.
Llewellyn, S. Skill, M Allen & K Weynberg. The Queens University Belfast, C Mullineaux, M
Dring & G Savidge. Scottish Association For Marine Science, C Gachon. SEPA, C Scanlan.
Sheffield, J Gilmour. Southampton, D Purcell. Warwick, H Schaefer.
Bristol, A Anesio. Cambridge, D Aldridge. Cardiff, I Guschina. Department for Communities
and Local Government, D Rose. Natural History Museum, A Jungblut. Plymouth Marine
Laboratory, S Skill. Queen Mary University of London, C Mullineaux. Stirling, P Hunter.
University College London, C Sayer.
Aston, T Bridgwater. Birmingham, M Callow. Cambridge, D Aldridge. Cardiff, I Guschina.
Cranfield, L De Nagornoff. Newcastle, G Caldwell. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer. PML, C.
Llewellyn, S. Skill. The Queens University Belfast, M Dring. Sheffield, J Gilmour. Stirling, A
Gilburn. West of England, J Greenman.
Cardiff, I.Guschina. Cranfield, L De Nagornoff. East Anglia, T Mock. Edinburgh, S Collins.
Essex, R Geider, M Steinke & D Suggett. Leeds, P Knox. Marine Biological Association, C
Brownlee & D Schroeder. Oxford, J Langdale. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer. PML, C Llewellyn
& M Allen. The Queens University Of Belfast, C Mullineaus & C Maggs. Scottish
Association For Marine Science, C Gachon. Stirling, A Gilburn. Warwick, D Scanlan. M
Clegg.
Birmingham, M Viant. Cardiff, I Guschina. Cranfield, L De Nagornoff. Department for
Communities and Local Government, D Rose. Dundee, G Codd. Essex, R Geider & D
Suggett. Liverpool, J Fisher. MBA, C Brownlee. Newcastle, G Caldwell. Plymouth, J HallSpencer. SEPA, C Scanlan. The Queens University Belfast, G Savidge.
Aston, T Bridgwater. Bath, P Cameron. Birmingham, L Macaskie. Cranfield, L De
Nagornoff. Dundee, G Codd & F Sargent. Edinburgh, C O'Rourke. Exeter, N Smirnoff.
Greenwich, P Harvey. Newcastle, G Caldwell & A Harvey. Plymouth Marine Laboratory, K
Weynberg, S. Skill. Queen Mary University of London, C Mullineaux. The Queens
University Belfast, M Dring. Sheffield, J Gilmour. Southampton, T Bibby.
East Anglia, T Mock. Essex, R Geider. Lancaster Environment Centre, R Groben. Liverpool
John Moores University, J Fisher. Marine Biological Association, C Brownlee. Natural
History Museum, A Jungblut. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer. SEPA, C Scanlan. Southampton, T
Bibby. The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, E Goodyer.
Aston, T Bridgwater. Bristol, A Anesio. Essex, R Geider. Leeds, D Mara. Oxford, R Rickaby.
Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer. Sheffield, J Gilmour. Swansea, A Silkina.
48
9
Carbon capture
42
5
Bristol, A Anesio. Cambridge, C Howe. Essex, R Geider & D Suggett. Queen Mary
University of London, C Mullineaux. The Queens University Belfast, M Dring. Sheffield, N
Hunter. Southampton, M Terry & T Bibby.
Birmingham, L Macaskie. Leeds, D Mara. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer. Plymouth Marine
Laboratory, S Skill. Sheffield, J Gilmour.
63
Cardiff, I Guschina. Cranfield, L De Nagornoff. Leeds, D Mara. Newcastle, G Caldwell.
Plymouth Marine Laboratory, C Llewellyn York, J Thomas-Oates.
Leeds, D Mara. Plymouth Marine Laboratory, S Skill. The Queens University Belfast, M
Dring & G Savidge. Shefield, J Gilmour.
Food/feed
37
6
Waste water
treatment
Bioremediation
31
5
29
5
Cambridge, D Aldridge. Manchester, J Pittman. The Queens University Belfast, M Dring &
G Savidge. Swansea, R Shields.
Nutraceuticals
26
3
Photobioreactor
design
23
3
Newcastle, G Pearson. Plymouth Marine Laboratory, C Llewellyn & S Skill. Rothamsted
Research, J Napier.
Birmingham, L Macaskie. Plymouth Marine Laboratory, S Skill. Sheffield, W Zimmerman.
Platform
chemicals
23
4
Aston, T Bridgwater. Cranfield, L De Nagornoff. Dundee, G Codd. Glasgow, J Clark
Integrated
industrial growth
23
3
Aston, T Bridgwater. Cranfield, L De Nagornoff. Newcastle, G Caldwell
Pharmaceuticals
22
21
1
5
20
18
3
1
Newcastle, G Caldwell
Cambridge, D Aldridge. Leeds, D Mara. Newcastle, G Caldwell. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer.
Queens University of Belfast, M Dring.
Birminham, M Callow. Cambridge, D Aldridge. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer.
East Anglia, T Mock.
16
14
0
1
Aquaculture
Biofouling
Synthetic
biology
Bioprospecting
Cosmeceuticals
Other
Plymouth Marine Laboratory, C Lewellyn & S Skill
algae/seaweed fly interactions, algal interface, bacteria-algae cross talk, beached wrack ecosystems, behaviour, being
able to generate sterile cultures of macroalgae to allow accurate sequencing of transcriptomes and genomes, benthic
C cycling, biodiversity (x3), biofilms, biofuels, biogeochemistry, biogeography, biological oceanography, biomass
processing (x3), calcification, cavitation for cell destruction, cell biology, (chemical) ecology (x3), chloroplast (x2),
climate change (x2), cloud formation and coastal regional climate, coastal particle formation, conservation,
development, diseases, drinking water supply, ecological impacts of surf raking, economic impact & analysis (x2),
(eco)toxicology (x6), EPS production, eutrophication control, evolution (x2), fertilizer recycling, financial viability, gene
control of development, genomics (x4), HABS, HTL, human health, impact of large algal fields on atmospheric
chemistry (e.g. emissions of halocarbons), impact of microalgal biopolymer exudate on the formation and properties of
primary marine aerosol and their climate impacts, invasive species, lichenized algae, life support systems, macroalgal
emissions of iodine and impact on gaseous photochemistry, metabolomics, microbial fuel cells, modelling, monitoring,
motility, nature conservation, nutrition, ocean acidification, palaeobiology, pathogens (x3), phenotypic plasticity,
phylogenetics, polysaccharides (x2), predator-prey interaction, reproductive biology, scaling up, soil crusts, speciation,
taxonomy, temporal & spatial distribution, trace gases, USW cell filtration, viruses (x3)
Table C.3: Questionnaire Responses Sorted by University / Institution
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Aberdeen
Chemistry
bioactive natural products from
marine organisms
BBSRC, Leverhulme Trust,
SMEs
Aberdeen
Geology and
Petroleum
Geology
Institute of
Biological and
Environmental
Sciences
School of
Medical
Sciences
Engineering
and Applied
Science
Chemical
Engineering
School of
Ocean Sciences
deep time algal ecology
NERC, hydrocarbon
industry
Scottish Funding Council
(Scottish University Life
Science Alliance)
NERC, hydrocarbon
industry
Aberdeen
Aberdeen
Aston
Aston
Bangor
algal culture; isotope enrichment;
fatty acid analysis; fate of algal
material in marine ecosystems
NERC
oomycete-algae interactions
NERC
NERC
chemical engineering applied to
bioenergy and biofuels
EPSRC
EPSRC
bioenergy, intermediate pyrolysis,
gasification, biochar, algae
biology, physic and economics large
scale algal biomass/biofuels
production
industrial funder (Varicon
Aqua)
Shell
industrial funder
(Varicon Aqua)
Carbon Trust
64
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Bath
Chemistry
Birmingham
School of
Biosciences
electrochemistry, solar energy
conversion, materials chemistry,
photo-microbial fuel cells
algal and adhesion
Birmingham
School of
Biosciences
School of
Biosciences
School of
Biosciences
Birmingham
Birmingham
Birmingham
School of
Biosciences
Bournemouth
Bristol
Biological
Science
Bristol
Cambridge
Geographical
Sciences
Applied
Mathematics &
Theoretical
Physics
Applied
Mathematics &
Theoretical
Physics
Biochemistry
Cambridge
Biochemistry
Cambridge
Cambridge
Chemical
Engineering &
Biotechnology
Chemical
Engineering &
Biotechnology
Chemistry
Cambridge
Chemistry
Cambridge
Engineering
Cambridge
Earth Sciences
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Past funders
EPSRC
BBSRC, NERC,
International Paint
International Paint, EC,
US Office of Naval
Research (ONR)
bids in to BBSRC and
Leverhulme Trust
NERC
none
MRC/EPSRC/BBSRC
Discipline Hopping
Award
BBSRC, NERC, Office of
Naval Research (USA),
European Commission
NERC, Royal Society
Office of Naval Research
(USA), European
Commission
Marine Management
Organisation, Royal
Society - Pending
Water companies; EN,
NERC, FBA
plant development and evolution
environmental toxicology
on algae: complete beginner.
Improved light delivery and
photobioreactors: not yet on the
radar with publications but we have
an ongoing RC-project.
algal bioadhesion and biofouling
microalgal culture, physiological
assessment, flow cytometry,
metabolic stains
algal photosynthesis; impact of
pesticides on biofilms; distribution
patterns of macro and microalgae;
UK expert diatom taxonomy; use of
algae to assess ecological status;
freshwater polar algal ecology.
polar microbiology, biogeochemistry,
aquatic microbial ecology
biological physics, fluid dynamics,
nonlinear dynamics
Present funders
Water companies; EN,
NERC, FBA
NERC, Nuffield
Foundation, Royal Society
BBSRC, EPSRC, ERC
NERC, EU
eukaryotic flagellar dynamics and
synchronization; colloidal physics
FP7 (Marie-Curie
Program)
EPSRC
biochemistry, molecular biology and
evolution of photosynthesis,
bioenergy
molecular genetics of algae
BBSRC, Leverhulme Trust
EPSRC, industrial funder
(name confidential)
Wellcome Trust,
Broodbank Trust, BBSRC,
Leverhulme Trust,
Newton Trust
Leverhulme Trust
process engineering, carbon capture
EPSRC via DTA
industrial funder
(confidential)
biological chemistry, microdroplets,
microfluidics
artificial photosynthesis, solar fuels
EPSRC
EPSRC
engineering / chemical engineering
and reactors
evolutionary paleobiology
BBSRC, EPSRC, ERC
Private industrial (name
confidential)
NERC, Royal Society,
National Geographic
65
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Cambridge
Plant Sciences
BBSRC
Cambridge
Zoology
molecular biology and biochemistry
of biosynthetic pathways in plants
and algae; algal-bacterial symbiosis
freshwater ecology, bioremediation,
close collaborations with the UK
water industry
UKERC - NERC, BBSRC,
EPSRC, industrial funder
(confidential)
NERC, Anglian Water
Cardiff
School of Earth
and Ocean
Sciences
School of
Biosciences
Cardiff
productivity, photophysiology,
coastal erosion and biostability
World Bank, UK water
industry, Broads
Authority, Environment
Agency
NERC, BBSRC, CEH,
CEFAS, Royal Society
NERC, BBSRC, CEH,
CEFAS, Royal Society
lipid biochemistry and molecular
biology
flow cytometry, phytoplankton,
productivity/biomass, North Sea
Royal Society
Austrian Academy of
Sciences
NERC, DEFRA (Cefas),
INTERRE.G. - DYMAPHY
(EU)
phytoplankton, physiology and
ecology
NERC, Water Industry
and Regulators
Water Industry, Biofuels
industry
marine macroalgal field studies,
ecology, communities
CCW – Welsh Assembly
Government
CCW – Welsh Assembly
Government
Environmental
Sciences
environmental control, extraction of
lipids and chemical components,
enhanced growth
University, China
collaborations
Biomolecular
and Sports
Science
School of
Applied
Sciences
School of
Applied
Sciences
School of
Engineering
environmental control, extraction of
lipids and chemical components,
enhanced growth
microbiology, biocatalysis
University, China
collaborations
PI for the Coventry
University Carbon Trust
funded project (ABC
programme)
Carbon Trust (ABC
challenge to finish)
environmental microbiology,
biological processes
CNPq/Brazil
Cranfield
School of
Engineering
Cranfield
School of
Engineering
outdoor offshore microalgae mass
cultivation for biofuel production
systems: productivity modelling and
engineering
algae growth, harvesting and
processing systems
freshwater diatom ecophysiology,
taxonomy, morphology with interest
in using diatoms as bio-indicators
and possibility of using algae as food
& fuel source
Centre for
Environment
Fisheries and
Aquaculture
Science
Centre for
Ecology &
Hydrology
Countryside
Council for
Wales
Coventry
Coventry
Cranfield
Cranfield
Cranfield
Department
for
Communities
and Local
Government
Dundee
College of Life
Sciences
EU FP7, EPSRC
large scale production of biofuels,
bioprocessing technology &
innovation
Internal funding –
Cranfield University
Ministry of Defence,
Airbus (France), Rolls
Royce, British Airways,
UoP, Finnair, EU,
Gatwick Airport
Ministry of Defence –
Centre for Defence
Enterprise
MoD, Industrial funders
(names confidential)
NERC, Natural History
Museum, University of
Plymouth, University of
Westminster, UCL
MoD, Industrial funders
(names confidential)
NERC, EC, BBSRC UK and
overseas Environmental
Agencies, UK water
Utilities, British Gas etc
Belgian National
Research Council;
consultancy
66
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Dundee
School of Life
Sciences
NERC, BBSCR, Scottish
Executive
Dundee
Molecular
Microbiology
biophysics, biochemistry, physiology,
ecology, evolution, environmental
change
hydrogen and hydrogenases;
molecular biology
Durham
Chemistry
cell biology of metals
Not applicable: officially
retired and unable to
apply for funding as PI
none (I am a bacterial
person with a view to
moving into Algae)
BBSRC
Durham
School of
Biological and
Biomedical
Sciences
Environmental
Sciences
lipid metabolism, DNA array,
Photosynthesis, Enzymology,
Cyanobacteria gene regulation and
transformation
microalgae: physiology,
biochemistry, ecology. Biological
Oceanography. Some work on
seaweeds. Specialist interests in role
of algae in global biogeochemical
cycles. Production of trace gases of
atmospheric and climatic significance
by marine micro and macroalgae.
functional genomics and reverse
genetics, evolution, photosynthesis,
lipids, cell division, growth,
metatranscriptomics
experimental evolution in
microalgae, microbial ecology in high
CO2 environments
chemistry of the polysaccharides of
charophytes in relation to early land
plant phylogeny
intertidal ecology, impacts of
renewable energy on benthic
environments
photosynthetic energy conversion,
microalgal culturing, environmental
stress (light and temperature),
nutrient requirements and limitation,
algal proteomics, resource allocation
strategies (optimality modelling),
phytoplankton ecology
ecophysiology of marine algae,
production of trace gases
physiology and photosynthesis
(phytoplankton, corals), chlorophyll a
fluorescence, marine nutrient cycling
and environmental change
photosynthesis, carbon allocation
and production of extracellular
products
lipid metabolism. Primary carbon and
nitrogen metabolism. Antioxidant
systems and reactive oxygen species.
BBSRC, JSPS
BBSRC, LINK projects
with Industry, Harvest
Energy- Sealsbank UK
NERC, EU, ELSA
NERC
Department of Energy
(DOE, USA), NERC, Royal
Society, 454 Roche
NERC, Royal Society,
BBSRC, Leverhulme
Trust
NERC
Royal Society, ERC
climate change studies
The Leverhulme
Foundation
East Anglia
East Anglia
Environmental
Sciences
Edinburgh
Institute of
Evolutionary
Biology
School of
Physics &
Astronomy
Edinburgh
Environmental
Research
Institute
Essex
Biological
Sciences
Essex
Biological
Sciences
Biological
Sciences
Essex
Essex
Biological
Sciences
Exeter
Biosciences
Glasgow
Chemistry
synthesis of bioactive marine natural
products
NERC, EC
Scottish Funding
Council, Highlands and
Islands Enterprise, ERDF
NERC, EC
NERC
NERC
NERC, Royal Society
NERC, EU
NERC, EU, NSF
NERC
EPSRC, Pfizer
(studentship) - synthesis
NERC (studentship),
Industry (Shell Global
Solutionscyanobacteria)
EPSRC - synthesis
67
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Glasgow
Mathematics
EPSRC
EPSRC
Glasgow
Faculty of
Physical
Science
behaviour of swimming algae (e.g.
gravitaxis, gyrotaxis, phototaxis);
bioconvection (flows induced by
suspensions of biased swimming
cells); flow fields around individual
swimming cells; effect of
environmental stress on behaviour;
biofuel production (lipids and
hydrogen); intracellular dynamics;
mathematical modelling; physics
based experiments
reconstructing climate using coralline
algae
NERC
NERC, Royal Society of
Edinburgh
marine biogeochemical cycling
NERC, Geological Society
NERC, Assemble
water and wastewater treatment
technologies
EPSRC, water companies
molecular biology and biochemistry
of cyanobacteria, algae and
chloroplasts with emphasis on
photosynthesis and biofuels
environmental and economic
assessment of algal biofuel systems
natural products, molecular biology,
bioinformatics
molecular ecology, taxonomy,
molecular markers, harmful algae
BBSRC
Glasgow
Imperial
Imperial
Imperial
Kings College
London
Lancaster
Environment
Centre
Leeds
Leeds
Leeds
Leeds
Liverpool
Liverpool
John Moores
University
Loughborough
Manchester
Manchester
Manchester
Environmental
Science and
Technology
Natural
Sciences
Natural
Sciences
School of
Pharmacy
Civil
Engineering
School of
Geography
School of Earth
and
Environment
Centre for
Plant Sciences
Mathematical
Sciences
School of
Natural
Sciences &
Psychology
Geography
Earth
Atmospheric &
Environmenal
Sciences
Faculty of Life
Sciences
Faculty of Life
Sciences
EPSRC
EU Commission – FP7
Leverhulme Trust
BBSRC
NERC, EU, Environment
Agency, Sellafield Ltd
NERC, EU
algae-based wastewater treatment
in middle- and low-income countries
benthic geochemistry and ecology
EPSRC and ODA (now
DFID)
NERC
biofuels and biorefinery,
hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL),
microwave processing, pyrolysis,
upgrading of fuels, characterisation
of fuels, nutrient recycling,
combustion, emission behaviour.
plant cell walls, polysaccharides
EPSRC, industrial funding
(confidential)
fluid dynamics; motility of microorganisms
algal and nutrient relationships, algal
ecology
EPSRC
Antarctic Science Ltd.
EPSRC (Supergen),
EPSRC (feasibility),
Royal Society
BBSRC CASE studentship
with Böd Ayre
NERC
diatom ecology and palaeoecology,
biogeochemistry of silica, limnology
atmospheric science, marine
boundary layer chemistry,
photochemistry, aerosol processes,
aerosol-cloud interactions
metal accumulation and
remediation, calcium signalling
NERC, EU, Carlsberg
Foundation
NERC
molecular genetics
AFRC, BBSRC
NERC, NSF
NERC, EU
Leverhulme Trust,
Carbon Trust, BBSRC
studentship DTA
68
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Manchester
School of
Chemical
Engineering &
Analytical
Science
School of
Chemical
Engineering &
Analytical
Science
Marine Biology
fermentation process development,
biorefinery engineering
none
industry (oil & gas)
ultrasound standing wave cell
filtration, concentration and
destruction
The Carbon Trust
The Carbon Trust
algal cell biology, phytoplankton
molecular biology, algal development
and signalling
isolation and culturing of marine
microalgae
NERC, BBSRC, EU
NERC, BBSRC, EU
NERC
Marine Biology
molecular biology, virology
NERC, FP6
EU ACP Science &
Technology Programme,
EU Interreg Programme
NERC, FP7
Botany
ecology and diversity of
cyanobacteria, phylogenetics
Botany
algal physiology, algal culturing, gene
expression
Botany
algal systematics, phylogenetics,
genomics and conservation
Zoology
evolution, genomics, phylogenetics,
gene transfer, endosymbiosis
School of
Chemical
Engineering
and Advanced
Materials
[CEAM]
Marine Science
& Technology
chemical engineering, intensification
of downstream processes
Manchester
Marine
Biological
Association
Marine
Biological
Association
Marine
Biological
Association
Natural
History
Museum
Natural
History
Museum
Natural
History
Museum
Natural
History
Museum
Newcastle
Newcastle
Newcastle
Newcastle
Nottingham
Marine Biology
Institute for
Cell &
Molecular
Biosciences
Marine Science
& Technology
Faculty of
Medicine &
Health
Sciences
algae chemical signalling; chemical
manipulation; growth and lipid
production; bioactive metabolites;
biogas; anaerobic digestion;
harvesting and dewatering; offshore
production
seaweed fibre rheology and human
gut function
algal functional groups, intertidal
macroalgal ecology, plant-animal
interactions, algal defence
mechanisms, release of CDOM by
macroalgae
bacterial cell-cell signalling, quorum
sensing, cross-talk
NERC, Royal Society,
British Phycological
Society
NERC (not taxonomy
directly though), British
Phycological Society,
(internally: Natural
History Museum)
NERC (Biodiverse FP6)
Carbon Trust
Carbon Trust, EPSRC,
NERC, ITI Energy/Scottish
Enterprise, industrial
funder (name
confidential)
EPSRC, Carbon Trust,
industrial funder (name
confidential)
MRC, BBSRC, industrial
funder (name
confidential)
BBSRC and two
industrial funders
NERC
NERC
69
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Nottingham
Cemex UK Ltd, NERC
Oxford
Earth Sciences
Oxford
Earth Sciences
Oxford
Plant Sciences
Plymouth
School of
Marine Science
& Engineering
chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments,
palaeolimnology, aquatic ecology
lichen ecology, nitrogen fixation in
cyanobacterial lichens
isotopic fractionation in the
calcareous nannoplankton
isotope geochemistry of algal
biominerals and organic
components; algal remains as tracers
of past climate change; ecological
and biogeochemical response to
environmental change
carbon acquisition by marine algae,
geochemistry of calcite and silica
produced by algae, Rubisco kinetics
and CCM function, paleoclimate
chloroplast development; evolution
of land plants
macroalgal ecology, carbon
sequestration, ocean acidification eg
biophysics of photosynthesis; solar
conversion efficiency
Freshwater Biological
Association
European Science
Foundation
Oxford
School of
Geography
School of
Biology
Earth Sciences
Nottingham
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Sea & Society
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Sea & Society
Portsmouth
Portsmouth
Sea & Society
Marine Life
Support
Systems
School of Earth
&
Environmental
Sciences
Faculty of
Science
Portsmouth
Queen Mary
London
Queen's
Belfast
School of
Biological and
Chemical
Sciences
School of
Biological
Sciences
NERC; JSPS (Japan Society
for Promotion of Science)
NERC
ERC & NERC
ERC & NERC
ERC
NERC, Royal Society,
Esmee Fairbairn
Foundation, EU eg EPSRC,
TSB, industrial funder
(name confidential)
TSB, BBSRC, DEFRA, NERC
NERC, EU eg UKERC,
Royal Society
Confidential
BBSRC-DEFRA, Carbon
Trust
Shell
BBSRC
algae, algal viruses, bioprocessing,
biocatalysis
industrial (confidential)
Carbon Trust, BBSRC,
industrial (confidential)
biogeochemistry, algae-nutrient
interactions
NERC
NERC
molecular ecology; population
biology/genetics
marine aliens
NERC/EC
EC
NERC, DoE
cell biology, biophysics, regulation of
photosynthesis, biogenesis and
turnover
BBSRC
Systematics Ass.,
Porcupine Soc
BBSRC, Carbon Trust,
EU FP7
algal systematics, life histories, some
applications
NERC, BP
algal biochemistry and biotechnology
Sea from Space
NERC
optics, photosynthesis, primary
production, phytoplankton biology,
remote sensing
molecular biology, protein chemistry,
drug discovery
marine environmental research,
phytoplankton, algal, pigments,
biotechnology
algal molecular biology; algal
virology; biofuel production
TSB, BBSRC
Marine Insitute
(Ireland), AXA
Foundation, Esmee
Fairbairn foundation
70
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Queen's
Belfast
School of
Biological
Sciences
School of
Biological
Sciences
Food and
Nutritional
Science
Sustainable
Pest and
Disease
Management
physiological ecology of marine
algae; applications and aquaculture
of seaweeds
economic exploitation of
macroalgae; water movement and
macroalgal growth
gut fermentation, health benefits of
phytochemicals
NERC, EU, Invest NI,
Marine Institute (Ireland),
ITI Energy
EU, NERC, Invest
Northern Ireland
EU, Marine Institute
(Ireland), Scottish
Enterprise
EPSRC, EU
lipid metabolism & metabolic
engineering
None
EU FP7, BBSRC
(Studentship)
biology of microalgae, especially
diatom systematics and evolution
BBSRC, NERC, EU,
institutional core funding
Institutional core
funding, EU
Queen's
Belfast
Reading
Rothamsted
Research
Royal
Botanic
Garden
Edinburgh
Royal
Botanic
Garden
Edinburgh
desmids - ecology, community
ecology, taxonomy and climatic
distribution, with a habitat focus on
Scottish Blank Mires
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Scottish
Crop
Research
Institute
Scottish
Environment
Protection
Agency
Scottish
Environment
Protection
Agency
Sheffield
Sheffield
Sheffield
EC FP7
Scottish Natural
Heritage (SNH) and
Scottish Environment
Protection Agency
(SEPA)
EU, NERC, Carbon Trust
biological resources, algal biofuels,
algal biotechnology, protistan
cryopreservation, protozoan & algal
culturing
algal diseases and pathogens, algal
functional and environmental
genomics
EU, NERC, Pharma sector,
SMEs
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
oomycete-algae interactions
NERC
EU Reintegration Grant
(ERG), 1 Marie Curie
PhD studentship, NERC
Oceans 2025-SOFI
initiative
NERC
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
biological resources, algal biofuels,
algal biotechnology
EU, NERC, SMEs
EU, NERC, Carbon Trust
phytochemsitry of seaweeds related
to health benefts
Local sources
none
taxonomy and ecology
Heriot Watt University
Scottish Environmental
Protection Agency
monitoring of macroalgae for
regulatory agency, including
development of monitoring tools
SEPA; EA
photosynthesis and primary
metabolism in diatoms
metabolic engineering; synthetic
biology; systems biology; proteomics
NERC
NERC
EPSRC; Carbon Trust;
industry (confidential)
EPSRC; Industry
bioreactor design, transport
processes
TSB
TataSteel, Perlemax
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
Animal and
Plant Sciences
Chemical &
Biological
Engineering
Chemical &
Biological
Engineering
EU EIF Marie Curie
fellowship
71
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Sheffield
Molecular
Biology and
Biotechnology
Molecular
Biology and
Biotechnolog
Biological
Sciences
enzymology, membrane assembly,
spectroscopy and
BBSRC, EPSRC
BBSRC, EPSRC, US DOE
algal growth, physiology,
biotechnology
NERC
Carbon Trust, UKERC,
TSB
Sheffield
Southampton
Southampton
Southampton
St Andrews
St Andrews
St Andrews
St Andrews
Stirling
Stirling
Strathclyde
Surrey
Swansea
Swansea
Swansea
School of
Ocean and
Earth Science
National
Oceanography
Centre
School of
Biology
School of
Biology
School of
Biology
School of
Biology
Biological and
Environmental
Science
Biological and
Environmental
Science
Economics
Faculty of
Engineering
and Physical
Sciences
School of the
Environment
and Society
School of the
Environment
and Society
School of
Engineering
Swansea
School of
Engineering
Swansea
Biosciences
Swansea
Biosciences
molecular biology of chloroplast
development; photobiology;
tetrapyrroles
algal biofuel, photosynthesis in
marine systems, structure/evolution
of photosynthetic enzymes
algal bloom control, marine
taxonomy
bioactive products; Microalgal
defence
bioinformatics, genomics, phylogeny
Carbon Trust
BBSRC, NERC
Carbon Trust
UK Water Companies,
Imperial College, SETI
Institute, USA
BBSRC, Aquapharm BioDiscovery Ltd.
NERC, Carbon Trust
NERC, EU
NERC, EU
diatoms, coastal ecology, biodiversity
and ecosystem function
coastal ecology and sediment
dynamics
evolutionary ecology, conservation
biology
European Union
(MARBEF), NERC
NERC, BBSRC, Carnegie
Trust
underwater optics, remote sensing,
cyanobacteria
NERC, ESRC, British
Phycological Society
regional economic-energyenvironment modelling
EU through SEUPBfunded “BioMara”
consortium (INTERREG
IVA)
internal
modelling and optimisation
algal growth and nutrition
(experimental and modelling);
plankton predator-prey and hence
biosecurity issues etc. (experimental
and modelling)
microalgal biomass production (esp
PBRs); algal bioremediation; algal use
in aquaculture
photo-bioreactor design;
downstream processing of algal
biomass
bio-processing – microalgal
harvesting, disruption &
fractionation
algal biotechnology and physiology
biochemical engineering, membrane
filtration
NERC, British
Phycological Society
NERC; Royal Society /
Leverhulme
NERC; FP7; Leverhulme;
Carbon Trust; private
venture
EC Framework
Programme
EC Framework
Programme; Welsh
Assembly Government;
EC Framework
Programme; Welsh
Assembly Government
EC Framework
Programme;
Carbon Trust
EC Framework
Programme; Welsh
Assembly Government;
private sector (various)
Welsh Assembly
Government, A4B
program
72
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Swansea
Biosciences
microalgal physiology
Ulster
Past funders
Present funders
NERC
diatoms, lake processes &
production
NERC, Royal Society,
INTAS, DENI, NATO
Royal Society, EU
Framework programmes,
Environment Agency,
SEPA, Natural England,
CCW, SNH, NIEA, NERC,
SNIFFER, Marine Harvest
NERC
Part of a DICYCLE
proposal to EC Marie
Curie Fund
EU FP7, Environment
Agency, NERC
University
College
London
Geography
diatoms; ecology and palaeoecology
University
College
London
University
College
London
University
College
London
Warwick
Geography
shallow lake and pond
palaeolimnology, limnology
Geography
palaeoecology, diatoms, wetlands,
lakes
NERC, EU
UK DEFRA, Darwin
Molecular
Microbiology
BBSRC, Leverhulme Trust,
Royal Society, RITE
(Japanese funder), EU
NERC, EU, Leverhulme
Trust, Royal Society
BBSRC, EU FP7, Industry
Warwick
Chemistry
Royal Society
NERC, Leverhulme Trust
Warwick
Warwick HRI
West of
England
West of
England
Westminster
Sciences
algal biotechnology, genetic
engineering, organelle biology,
photosynthesis
molecular ecology of marine
picocyanobacteria and
photosynthetic picoeukaryotes;
niche adaptation mechanisms in
marine picocyanobacteria;
picocyanobacterial genomics and
molecular biology
metal homeostasis in cyanobacteria
and other organisms, in particular
zinc; bio-analytical Chemistry
including elemental analysis and
mass spectrometry
environmental microbiology,
methylotrophy, trace gas metabolism
microbiology, microbial fuel cells,
microbial volatiles, robotics
molecular biology, biochemistry
none
EPSRC
York
Chemistry
York
Chemistry
York
Green
Chemistry
Centre of
Excellence
Biological
Science
Plant Sciences
School of Life
Sciences
microalgal life cycles; dinoflagellates;
taxonomy (traditional and
molecular); isolation and culturing
atmospheric chemistry, halogen
chemistry, ocean-atmosphere
interactions, macroalgal volatile
emissions
mass spectrometry, separations,
natural products, arsenic
metabolism, algal polysaccharides
microwave pyrolysis, nanoparticles,
mesoporous materials,
polysaccharides, heterogeneous
catalysis
NERC
SWRDA, University
EU; NERC; Royal Society;
MAFF; CEFAS; Lloyds
Register; NRA
NERC
EU
EPSRC
BBSRC
White rose
TSB
73
Table C.4.1: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 5 Years
Each row corresponds to the entry of one questionnaire participant.
Challenges – 5 year timescale
Most of this is in the report - http://www.esf.org/researchareas/marine-sciences/marine-board-working-groups/marinebiotechnology.html
Recognising algal responses to rapid environmental change in
the geological record, particularly in high resolution records of
annual variation across key events
The economic crisis will make funding for fundamental algal
research very challenging
Growing and harvesting
Growing algae on secondary fertiliser sources
Clarifying economic potentials. Engineering suitable
organisms. Collection and provision of CO2 for raceway
systems. Treatment of waste material and recycling of
nitrogen and particularly phosphorus by anaerobic digestion
Understanding electron transfer from algae to external
electrodes
Translating progress in the ‘omics’ revolution for ‘model’
algae, to address economically relevant problems, such
marine biofouling, thereby raising potential IMPACT in this
sphere of research.
Via interdisciplinary and international collaborations
Gene discovery in macroalgae (particularly green algae)
Reduction of photobioreactor reactor footprints
Continued use in toxicity testing
Bringing about international collaboration into mass algal
culture for various applications
Diversity
Convince funders that algae are as useful as Arabidopsis
Scaling-up from lab successes to field-scale commercial
applications; Impacts of habitat change and invasive species
on commercial developments
To integrate the palaeontological record with ancient
geochemical and modern biochemical data; to resolve the
systematic relationships and early evolutionary patterns of
cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae; to determine the
coevolutionary interplay between life and the planet.
For fuel production, substantial increase in algal productivity.
Demonstration by paper studies that fuel production is
feasible.
Evolution of multicellularity
Persuade funders to recognize importance of basic science for
algae and photosynthesis. develop improved genetic tools for
algae . enhanced public perception
Opportunities – 5 year timescale
Complete genome sequences of the most important algae will
become available within the next 5 years, giving lots of
opportunities
Major source of biomass for energy and chemicals
Lowering the production costs and reaching level of other
energy carriers
Understanding how electrons exit algal cells and how the
algae interact with redox molecules/proteins is key to
harnessing algae efficiently in photo-microbial fuel cells for
the production of energy or hydrogen.
Biofouling caused by marine algae is an economically
important, but largely neglected area of research at the level
of fundamental, molecular and cellular processes. There is at
least one good, genetically-tractable, model algal system that
is also relevant to biofouling, and in which there is some effort
to develop an understanding of adhesion in relation to surface
properties, viz. Ectocarpus. If the right communities were
brought together in an integrated project there is every
prospect that we could start to understand what critical
functions/pathways are involved in the selection/colonisation
of surfaces.
EC
Next-generation sequencing, de novo transcriptomics and
genomics.
Integration of carbon capture and energy generation
Interdisciplinary working, carbon offsetting
New molecular methods
Algae as indicators of climate change/environmental impact
Keen interest from geochemists and molecular biologists
promises to shed important new multidisciplinary light on the
early evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and
biosphere
Related lineages amenable to study
Use public interest in algae to enhance photosynthesis
education in schools
74
Challenges – 5 year timescale
Demonstrating a commercial success
Maximising algal growth and productivity
Transformation protocols
Funding availability
Algae in trophic web chains
Understand geochemical processes of carbon exchange
involving plankton
Non-native algal invasions
Enhanced growth and extraction
Enhanced growth and extraction, control
Efficient algae separation/bioenergy production
Algae strains: Identification and improvement of most suitable
algae strains. Screening and development of new strains.
Cultivation systems:- Downstream technologies and
harvesting - Overcome limitation of each cultivation system Identify efficient large-scale cultivation systems -Identify
efficient algae biomass harvesting systems. Algae Biorefinery:
Screening for relevant active substances from algae. System
analysis: - Produce reliable LCAs that are well known for
algae-to-biofuels large scale production processes - Maximise
and evaluate the cost-competitiveness of large biofuels
production chain- Assess global impact of algae biofuels
production
Upscaling of current biofuel from microalgae production
systems to develop a energy positive, carbon
neutral/negative, cheap micro and medium (102 L to 104 L of
biofuel per week) production system
Production efficiency versus light availability
Sustainable growth systems
Funding. Professional accreditation
Appropriate selection/modification of strains for biofuel
production, C capture technology and bioactive product
production. Hazard characterisation of emerging toxins of
microalgae and cyanobacteria and risk management
Develop easy genetic tools for modification/engineering
Engineering new metabolic products, bioreactor design,
reduction cost nutrients to grow algae
A) FUNDING!!! Especially from BBSRC B) Bioinformatics
Moving beyond using a few model species. Developing
population genetics tools to enable us to use long term
datasets (such as the CPR data). Technical challenges wrt
molecular genetics with model systems such as Chlorella and
Chlamydomonas that would allow better biofuels research
Opportunities – 5 year timescale
Development of algal metabolic engineering
Genome Analyses
Biofuels, climate change, sustainability
Few current projects in the laboratory and as collaboration
with Vienna University and Ben-Gurion University
Collaboration with oceanographers
Biomass
Environmental protection, Fuels and nutriceuticals
Environmental protection, Fuels and nutriceuticals
Technology transfer
Identify the conditions leading to the optimisation of algae
and/or lipid biomass production potential Identify new algae
strains.Develop optimised and stable algae-to-biofuels
conversion technologies. Develop procedures for determining
algae oil quality. Demonstrate improved downstream
technologies Develop/implement procedures for the isolation
of new active substances. Manage environmental large scale
cultivation issues and minimisation of negative impacts
Local modular, robust, low resource footprint biofuel
production facility (ideal for military applications, remote
scientific bases, remote communities)
Prove capacity of biomass and oil production
Pilot research and scale up
More collaborative and cross-discipline work.Whilst there are
‘societies’ one can join, there is no single professional body for
the algae community which can support and professionalise the
various activities, offer CPD training and accreditation like most
other ‘professionals’ This could form the basis of what the
Reaserch Councils are looking for. Building ‘recognised’
professional expertise would help in gaining funding, consultancy
work and cross-discipline working
Process maximisation with multiple product formation. Health
and safety assurance (water quality and safety, and in algal
biotech. process work practices and products
None
A) Specific calls (BBSRC) to promote algal research. More
referees from the int. alga community. Cutting edge research
in the UK and not in other countries such as US. B) New
genome and transcriptome sequences from environmentally
and biotechnologically relevant algae. Highly needed because
of unexplored diversity. Good example is the Gordon and
Betty Moore Foundation (GBMF) and their programme to
support algal research (Marine Microbial Initiative).
Developing marine model systems for long-term studies.
Marine ecology (especially incorporating viruses into marine
nutrient cycling)
75
Challenges – 5 year timescale
Opportunities – 5 year timescale
Bioenergy
Understanding potential responses by marine micro-algal
biofilms to climatic change. Understanding impacts of
biofouling on tidal energy devices
Bio-indicators, waste water treatment
Automated systems for monitoring chl content of offshore
waters as tool to support offshore aquaculture – applications
can be about resources of food and risk of harmful algal
blooms.
(1) Development of a predictive understanding of how algal
communities will respond to environmental change (e.g.,
climate change and associated ocean acidification; coastal
eutrophication).
(2)
Elucidating
structure-function
relationships at the molecular level. (3)
Conducting
experiments for systems biology studies of single celled algae
as model systems for basic research in plant/algal
photosynthesis and metabolism.
(1) Obtaining an objective and realistic assessment of the
potential of algae for food/fuel/feedstock production given
the inherent energetic and resource allocation constraints
that dictate biomass production and the engineering
constraints on the operation of algal culturing systems. (2)
Assessing the potential environmental impacts of large scale
algal culturing including those on microclimate, nutrient
cycling and greenhouse gas production.(3) Development of
models of algal growth of varying degrees of sophistication
from simple optimum resource allocation strategies to
complex systems biology models.(4) Elucidating structurefunction relationships at the molecular level.
Response of algae to ocean acidification
Data handling as move to ‘omics’ based research
Realistic expectations
More genome sequences. Curation of genomic/genetic
resources for key algal groups. Development of facile genetic
transformation systems for “key” species.
Development of sensitive tests for detection of algal toxins in
seafood
Invasive species
Defining baseline
Increasing presence of alga in natural water systems and
reservoirs
Development of toolbox to do synthetic biology and
understanding of metabolic flux
Poor data quality, inappropriate extrapolation of lab based
results to estimate system performance
Genetic manipulation
Secure funding, showing the importance of algal research to
funders & public
Increase wastewater treatment in middle and low-income
countries from current levels of <10% to ~20% and linked to
use of treated wastewater for fish culture and crop irrigation
Quantifying biodiversity in algae?
Quantification of algal responses to environmental change
Proof of principle biofuel show: energy in << energy out
Making algae biotech applications, particularly biofuel,
commercially viable. Funding issues – underfunded compared
to other biosciences
Controlled mass cultivation
Tools for model systems
Understanding mechanisms at the molecular level that
underlie major biogeochemical processes
Isolation & culture of more strains
Understanding its true biodiversity and ecosystem function
Predict winners and losers of increased CO2
More sensor development for high biomass algal growth
(industrial) systems
Novel compounds, manipulation of pathways
Understanding the metabolic and physiological diversity and
plasticity of microalgae and the implication for primary
production, ecosystem stability, bioprospecting and
sustainable biofuel production.
Identification of bioactive algal natural products as potential
leads for drug discovery
Determine spread
Quantify the current role algae have in elemental cycles and
in ecosystems
Approaches to, and methods for, controlling algal populations
Metabolic engineering for production of biofuels and high
value products
Completed genome sequences
Use of algae as source for commercial applications
Research into use of high-rate algal ponds after high-rate
anaerobic ponds to reduce both land and carbon footprint of
wastewater treatment. [High-rate anaerobic ponds also need
research for design optimization for maximal biogas
production.]
Investigation of diversity (intra and interspecific)
DNA
taxonomy;
non-linear/complex
modelling
of
communities & ecosystems; Algal biofuels (proof of concept)
Many new applications from new interactions between
biologists and engineers
Improved genomic technologies/sequence availability for
benefit to many applications
Oil production
Developing critical mass of researchers
Genome data availability.
Increased multidisciplinary
collaborations
Utilising strains already in culture
Discover novel strains and processes
76
Challenges – 5 year timescale
Opportunities – 5 year timescale
Obtaining funding from UK sources, particularly research
councils, for fundamental algal research, particularly in fields
of taxonomy, genomics etc. Lack of posts for people with algal
skills. Lack of individuals with the appropriate skills. Not
enough (if any) exposure to algae in schools. Turning the hype
about biofuels using algae into something ‘real’ and
environmentally sustainable. Making sure that the whole
environment is taken into consideration with any initiatives.
A great time for the algae so a chance to use this momentum
to get the algae firmly in the research game and in the public
eye. There are things happening in phycology (e.g. Global
Seaweed Network, an initiative that I am driving) and this is a
great time for these initiatives to come to the fore and
potentially be given the funding boost they need. A chance to
getting working on curricula in schools to get the subject
integrated (especially after e.g. the House of Lords and
councils taxonomic review). Genome research for the
macroalgae. We are already underway with this. Using the
lessons of the past to make sure we don’t mess up the
environment with new initiatives.
Find new algal forms
Understand the diversity of photosynthetic life
Obtain baseline data of microalgal biodiversity to detect
change such as climate change. Resolve environmental
processes shaping microalgal communities & diversity to
detect change such as climate change. Contribution of
microalgae to carbon fluxes. Bioprospecting for bioactives
Main challenge is sustained funding for R&D, particulalry in
the UK. Most algae technologies are not even close to scale
up. Unrealistic expectation and demand for quick return on
investment may prove destructive.
Economic processing
Biofuels monopolising available algal supplies
Algal biofuels
Climate regulation
Being able to do genetics in macroalgae
Understanding physiology and CCMs
Modelling phytoplankton response to climate and integration
with climate models; forward modelling of sedimentary algal
remains;
modelling
net
carbon
capture/loss
by
algae+biominerals in response to major climate (temperature)
and environmental (pH, CO2, nutrient) change
Scaling up from lab based studies
PBR design. Algae based wastewater treatment system design
with biofuel and fertiliser as outputs.
Understanding metabolic pathways and physiology of marine
algae
Bioprocessing. Dealing with large volumes of water in an
energetically favourable way.
Too few people entering the field and loss of taxonomy and
other field based and whole organism expertise, including
physiology. Resilience and shifts in phytoplankton
communities in changing environments. Developing an
understanding of genome-environment interactions and their
contribution to ecosystem function. Developing and
understanding of the implications of genomic plasticity in
cyanobacteria
RCUK should enhance support for basic R&D and not blindly
expect that the private sector will drive the research. This
would be terribly short sighted.
New technologies
Isolation of new Bioactives and new roles for current
bioactives
Renewable energy funding to support research
Genetic engineering of CCMs perhaps into terrestrial plants
Apply mechanistic models to re-evaluate existing data and
concepts concerning ecological and environmental change.
Identify and develop algal biofuels; couple with waste water
and gas treatment
We are currently applying the lowest energy, high rate PBR (S.
Skill Proprietary) to carbon capture for the commercial
production
of
platform
chemicals,
nutraceuticals,
cosmeceuticals and pharmaceuticals. UK’s largest carbon
capture PBR being now being commissioned. The technology
is applicable globally. Simple biofilm based algae wastewater
treatment system has been developed and collaborators are
sought for demonstration projects
New data from genomics, proteomics etc will uncover novel
products
Current interest in algae as a source of biofuel, justified or
not, will up the profile of these organisms and perhaps
encourage interest among the next generation of scientists.
Similarly phycologists need to ensure that that importance of
algae in global processes is more fully appreciated. In essence
an interest in algae and cyanobacteria is more likely to be
engendered through an appreciation of their contribution
“systems”. As in some other fields I suspect that the days of
taxon-based biology are limited, but we do still need to have
people who understand individual system components
Taxonomy & systematics
77
Challenges – 5 year timescale
Opportunities – 5 year timescale
More efficient biodiesel production by microalgae, carbon
capture
Obtaining sufficient funding for research
To develop cost effective techniques for mass culture of
micro- and macro-algae, and for extracting energy from them;
to develop economic techniques for sustainable harvest of
natural seaweed populations.
Funding/functional foods
Recognition from funding agencies that algae are a viable and
established production platform
Molecular cell biology: understanding the biogenesis of the
complete photosynthetic apparatus
Genomics exploitation; capitalizing on fuel shortages
To identify high-value chemicals for medical, industrial or food
additive uses that will subsidise culture and harvest costs.
Maintaining and encouraging expertise in fundamental
biology of algae; new culture methods for ‘recalcitrant
species; developing ‘barcode’ or other methods for identifying
and labelling species and clones; combining new genomicsand molecular genetic-based approaches with insights from
previous generations of researchers (there’s a lot of waste in
current research, through failure to take account of and see
the relevance of existing knowledge in ‘unfashionable’ areas);
frankly, some rsearch leaders are clever but uneducated;
understanding the role of algae in controlling climate and
climate change
Generating fundamental knowledge: physiological, molecular,
chemical engineering
Algal genomics/ systems biology is perceived by reviewers to
fall halfway between the remit of BBSRC and NERC. BBSRC
strategic investment on biofuels (via TGAC and BSBEC) is
currently limited to land plants. A more coherent phycological
community will not emerge unless more adequate funding
opportunities are made available to federate researchers.
phycology is not a mainstream discipline in most university
curriculums
The fallout of the global financial crisis will make funding for
fundamental algal research in some key western countries (in
particular, the UK) probably very hard
Generating fundamental knowledge: physiological, molecular,
chemical engineering
Biofuels
Indicators of climate change
To demonstrate growth of microalgae outdoors in the UK on a
commercial scale
understanding assembly dynamics and organisation of
photosynthetic membranes
Regulation
Genetic tools
Energy efficiency of dewatering, co-products with biofuels
Establishing algal research as a major funding area in cell and
molecular biology. Understanding the diversity of algal cell
and molecular biology.
Understanding diversity
Algal bloom control, marine taxonomy
Identify most efficient products and integrated culture
systems for biofuel exploitation; maintain expertise in
taxonomy; increase abilities to genetically manipulate algae
Functional annotation of genes and proteins
Nutraceuticals
Algae are great synthetic biology chasis. The use of algae in
systems-based approaches to define important metabolic
pathways (e.g. synthesis of vitamins and omega-3 fatty acids)
Discovery and production of novel compounds, including
pharmaceuticals, novel bioceramic materials, improved
aquaculture feeds; improved (faster, more reliable, less
person-intensive) biomonitoring of water quality (only a tiny
fraction of algal biodiversity has been surveyed so far, partly
because culture collections are small and cannot maintain
more than a few hundreds of easily cultivatable strains –
laboratory weeds)
Building science to enhance productivity and reproducibility
on the commercial interests
Potential of algae for sustainable biofuel production. Next
generation sequencing, metabolomics, comparative –omics
and systems biology to quickly elucidate the physiology of non
model organisms. algal aquaculture already well developed in
Asia/ South America. Exchange programs / international
collaborations would be highly beneficial to establish a UK
research base
Full sequences of the most important algal genomes will
probably become available within the next 5 years
Building science to enhance productivity and reproducibility
on the commercial interests
Creating a green source of energy
More focussed research in conjunction with regulatory
agencies; an pportunity for funding bodies to work closely
with regulators
The current interest in biofuels from algae mean that funding
opportunities are good
Biofuels, other products
Development of better genetic tools for exemplar species
Multidisciplinary research
The application of methodologies developed in other research
areas is already being applied to algae. The continuation of
this will rapidly advance out understanding of algal biology.
Marine metagenomic studies
Funding for Applied Research, medical and industrial
applications using algal species
Production of valuable chemical products from algal biomass
Comparative genomics
78
Challenges – 5 year timescale
Opportunities – 5 year timescale
Funding, unravelling climate change issues
Communication of issues, spreading importance of coastal
biodiversity and function
Ocean acidification/biofouling/coastal stability
Impacts of harvesting for biofuels
Structural: Lack of funding, particularly for work on freshwater
algae; Decline of freshwater science in the UK. Science:
Development of micro and macro tools for understanding
impacts of environmental change on algal populations; need
for better understanding of the occurrence, fate and impact
of algal toxins on human health in the UK; Relationship
between algae and human pathogens in the UK and other
climates
Engineering aspect of large scale algal cultivation
Good data sets to support effective modelling
Cost effective algal biomass production and downstream
processing;
Cost of biomass production by PBR, PBR maintenance,
isolation of species for large scale biomass production
Engineering challenges of downstream processing of algal
biomass
Financing of basic macroalgal research for commercial takeup / Increasing interest in macroalgae as a resource
Cataloguing desmid species
Taxonomy
Automated analyses (e.g. flow cytometry, etc.) to support
microscopical observation of microalgae
Continued funding for applied and pure research during
budget cuts
Creating a critical mass of algal biologists in the UK. Playing
catch-up with the USA in terms of algal research investment,
innovation and IP ownership.
Eutrophication and impacts on phytoplankton productivity,
macrophyte loss
Obtaining full genome sequences
No opinion
Making sense of high throughput genomics data
Realistic strain selection and methods for (GM?) strain
improvement
Genome sequencing
Understanding
the
relationships
between
primary
productivity and environment
Elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms allowing the
dominance of pico-sized phytoplankton in the oceans (key
CO2 fixers)
Identifying high value chemicals from algae and establishing
green chemistry routes to extraction etc. Quantifying
environmental risks of algal biorefineries, farms etc. Farming
kelp – research on pilot scales
Extraction and exploitation of raw materials
Efficient algal production
Climate change research
Establishing links with other fields of botany and ecology
Assessment of impact
Structural: UK remains at forefront of many fields (especially
marine) despite decline in some areas (freshwater);
opportunity to reinvigorate phycological research in UK;
create stronger international links. Science: Transferability of
ocean optics instrumentation to study of freshwater algae;
Development of remote sensing techniques for monitoring of
algal populations in coastal and inland waters;
Integrated experimental/computational research
Modelling of alternative scenarios
Sustained expansion of food, feeds and fine chemicals
production from algae
CO2 mitigation, biodiesel, pharmaceutical
Biofuels, carbon dioxide capture
Genetic advances
e.g. Flowcam approach, which can quantify many facets of cell
morphology (measurements) & activity (fluorescence, etc.) in
multi-species field samples.
Refinement of classification tools for the Water Framework
Directive; application to climate change science
There is a real interest in PhD studies in algal biotechnology,
both amongst UK/EU students and overseas. UK industry and
investors are keen to exploit algal-based opportunities, but
needs help and guidance wrt to basic biology, engineering,
downstream processing, etc.
Discovering and understanding key metabolic pathways, cell
walls, genome evolution
No opinion
Understanding algal biology and evolution
Development of multi-disciplinary research networks
Better equipment and methods
Utilising new molecular technologies coupled to focused
physiology and biochemistry of target organisms and further
linked to ecological process measurements
UK has substantial expertise in related marine and
atmospheric science and in “green chemistry”
Lots of unexploited opportunities
1. Efficient tank for algal growing. 2.Genetically modified algal
species with high lipids yield. 3.Sustainable seaweed farming
For understanding climate change
Establishing links with other fields of botany and ecology
79
Challenges – 5 year timescale
Opportunities – 5 year timescale
Genomes, bioinformatics, genetics. Macrocystis mass
cultivation on Falkland Islands (see what is happening in Chile)
Algal biofuels
Growth platforms, community dynamics
Developing novel strains
Algofuel boom
Understanding diversity of types of algae useful for different
purposes
Development of novel technology platforms for high
throughput analyses
Microbial Fuel Cells, algal fuel, photobioreactors
Table C.4.2: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 10 Years
Each row corresponds to the entry of one questionnaire participant.
Challenges – 10 year timescale
Cover much/most of algal biodiversity with DNA barcodes
Growing and harvesting
Realizing cheap photobioreactors
Clarifying economic potentials. Engineering suitable
organisms. Collection and provision of CO2 for raceway
systems. Treatment of waste material and recycling of
nitrogen and particularly phosphorus by anaerobic
digestion. PLUS Producing coupled Physical/Biological
models of mass algal production. Optimising and designing
economic scenarios
Screening existing strains and engineering mutants that
effectively form biofilms and can transfer electrons to an
electrode without the addition of a redox mediator.
Diminishing number of Faculty (permanent) positions in UK
universities focussing on algal research, in contrast to
mainland Europe
Establishing widespread growth and culture of macroalgae
in the lab; use as model organisms and for functional
genomics. Understanding macroalgal development and
physiology at the molecular and cellular level, similarly to
the studies that have revolutionised land plant biology in
the last 20 years.
Inspiration from natural systems
Bioprospecting
Interest the next generation of students that it is worth
working on algae
To integrate the palaeontological record with ancient
geochemical and modern biochemical data; to resolve the
systematic relationships and early evolutionary patterns of
cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae; to determine the
coevolutionary interplay between life and the planet.
Studies of integrated renewable energy schemes – algae
plus solar capture plus wind energy etc.
Provide larger pool of trained algal scientists
Optimised organisms with improved growth.
Crop protection, avoidance of algal blooms
Model System development
Funding availability
Algae Biofuel: Biochemical Engineering
Manage dynamics of communities affected by overfishing
and acidification
Biodiversity
Control
Opportunities – 10 year timescale
Major source of biomass for energy and chemicals
Commercial growth for fuel and energy
Much higher efficiency
Ultimately (10-15 years) this could lead to ‘rational’, novel
antifouling coating designs that target specific fouling processes,
with potential benefits to the marine coatings industry
Applying methodologies and technical expertise from the land
plant community to asking similar questions in algae to those
already being posed by land plant biologists. Understanding how
“non-model” organisms adapt to their habitats at a
genomic/transcriptomoc level
Novel products ‘ thinking out of he box’
Extreme environments
Next gen sequencing
Keen interest from geochemists and molecular biologists
promises to shed important new multidisciplinary light on the
early evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and biosphere
Develop algae as a renewable energy source
“Plant breeding” for improved strains or GM
Algae as platform for biorefining
Metagenomics
Biofuels, climate change, sustainability
Collaborative work with Ben-Gurion University
To apply ecological knowledge to fishery management
80
Challenges – 10 year timescale
Opportunities – 10 year timescale
Efficient industrial harvesting
Sustainable algae production in cold weather regions
Measure and compare the LCA and energy balance of all
existing algae to biofuels technologies
Carbon Capture
Cell engineering
Biomass/lipid production strains of number including new algae
strains optimized. Optimise current and new production
systems. Develop innovative algae systems
Displace fossil fuels to inherit the huge fossil fuel transport
market and develop a carbon neutral transport system
Optimization of microalgae cultivation (strain selection and
mass cultivation systems), bulk harvesting, de-watering and
drying techniques
Scaling up
Large scale systems to meet national needs
Biofuels from crops are not working, not sustainable and
damaging. We need a cost effective and non-habitat
destroying alternative
Appropriate selection/modification of strains for biofuel
production, C capture technology and bioactive product
production. Hazard characterisation of emerging toxins of
microalgae and cyanobacteria and risk management
Develop easy genetic tools for modification/engineering
Mass production of algae economically, increasing
photosynthetic efficiency, integrating production processescell breakage, harvesting and downstream processing,
developing closed systems for recycling nutrients
A) Reverse Genetics (novel tools) and Systems Biology
(integrative tools, modelling) B) Epigenetics (e.g. short noncoding RNAs, histone methylation, DNA methylation)
Bioenergy
Culture of micro-algae for biofuels. Culture of macro-algae
for anaerobic digestion
Continuation of challenges (3) and (4) from above.
Response of algae to ocean acidification
Significant decrease of blue skies funding
Ocean acidification
Assessing climate effects
Increasing presence of alga in natural water systems and
reservoirs
Strain optimisation for economic production of biofuels and
high value products
Cost
Loss of taxonomical expertise
Pilot plants; Biological process and bioengineering
Industrial and applied research to achieve this
Bioenergy and food production
Process maximisation with multiple product formation. Health
and safety assurance (water quality and safety, and in algal
biotech. process work practices and products
Algal oils for biodiesel
A) E.g. homologous recombination, RNAi, high-throughput
transformation, tilling, classical forward genetics, highthroughput phenotyping, metabolomics, etc. Identification of
novel algal-specific biology. Most of the molecular work on algae
so far has been done on functionally assigned genes and
proteins, which, however, only represent about 50% of the
gene/protein repertoire of algae. We need to identify the
‘unknown-ome’ to discover algal-specific biology on a large
scale. B) Epigenetics – a phenomenon that changes the final
outcome of a gene or chromosome without changing the
underlying DNA sequence has tremendous significance for the
biology of almost all eukaryotic and many prokaryotic life forms
on earth. However, the significance of epigenetic processes for
the biology of algae is unknown because is has been almost
completely overlooked although most algae have proteins (e.g.
DICER, methylases) for many different epigenetic processes.
Climate change studies
Detailed understanding of composition of intertidal epilithic
assemblages of micro-algae using in situ field spectrometry
Continuation and expanding the opportunities listed above.
Predict future climate
Better direct understanding of responses to climate change
Understanding calcification / photosynthetic responses
Quantify the current role algae have in elemental cycles and in
ecosystems
Approaches to, and methods for, controlling algal populations
Speciality chemicals
Understanding of “meaningful” diversity and changes (at genetic
/ species / functional group / etc. level) for ecosystem
functioning
As above but to at least 50%; plus use of Clean
Development Mechanism to obtain carbon credits to
reduce O&M costs of wastewater treatment
81
Challenges – 10 year timescale
Opportunities – 10 year timescale
Linking algae with ecosystem functioning roles
Freshwater (incl. algal) responses to climate & global
change
Creating medium size ponds
Making algae biotech applications, particularly biofuel,
commercially viable. Funding issues – underfunded
compared to other biosciences
Marine bioreactor systems (like fish farms)
From models to commercial species
Integrating at different scales to understand and predict
environmental consequences of climate change
Characterising optimal growth and harvesting conditions
Maintaining genetic stability and thus product yield within
key strains
Lack of people with really good taxonomic algal knowledge
and who are able to progress the subject scientifically (as
opposed to being able to identify species in the field for
example) below the age of 60-65 with positions in algal
taxonomy (this probably applies for 5 years as well).
Improved understanding of ecological function of algae
Algal biofuels (small scale commercial development)
Understand how that diversity evolved and how genome
and metabolism of different algae varies
Scale up of technologies. A decadal time scale for
commercialisation should be achievable but will need
financial underpinning. Also, public education will need to
be focused to show that algae products offer a less
environmentally damaging product.
Sea pollution and temperature increase
As above plus loss of taxonomic expertise. Few expert
taxonomists remain and numbers are gradually decreasing
Establishing a profile/ interest with the public
Biofuels
Being able to transform macroalgae
Feedbacks on the carbon cycle and climate system,
Use of coupled climate-algal models and sedimentary
(geological) data to test hypotheses concerning global and
regional climate and biogeochemical processes
Use of natural gradients e.g. in CO2 saturation state and
nutrients
Algal strain genetic improvement for increased
photosynthetic efficiency, and enhanced secondary and
primary metabolite production.
Realising algal potential as feedstock for biofuels
Bioprocessing
Impossible to say – probably all of the above
Algal-based synthetic biology, photosynthetic biohydrogen
production
Making sure algal is appropriately supported to main
continuity of research
New technology spreading out beyond the algae community
Algal pharmaceutical research
Large scale production
Increased Industrial Participation
Large scale infrastructures focussed on marine biology.
Screening for bioactive products
New genetic interactions, controls and feedbacks
Should be a great time to see the products of algal genome
research. Hopefully algal products (beyond the ones we know
and take for granted such as nori) will really be beginning to
make a difference for life on earth in the broadest sense (food,
other products, health but also for improving the quality of the
planet).
Provide potentially new metabolic organisms and pathways for
biotechnology
Real opportunity for a private finance initiative approach here to
deliver production and processing systems at scale.
Genetic modification
Expanding the use of algal biomass as human food source
Training courses/networking/sharing of expertise to pass on key
skills and knowledge of algal taxonomy
Role in global biogeochem cycling
We are currently applying the lowest energy, high rate PBR (S.
Skill Proprietary) to carbon capture for the commercial
production
of
platform
chemicals,
nutraceuticals,
cosmeceuticals and pharmaceuticals. UK’s largest carbon
capture PBR being now being commissioned. The technology is
applicable globally. Simple biofilm based algae wastewater
treatment system has been developed and collaborators are
sought for demonstration projects
Could address fuel shortage needs in medium to long-term
Moving lab-based discoveries into practical exploitation (NB. this
is a challenge too)
82
Challenges – 10 year timescale
Opportunities – 10 year timescale
Maintaining and encouraging expertise in fundamental
biology of algae and finding new culture methods,
developing ‘barcodes’ as above; identifying and minimizing
environmental consequences of new algal uses and
processes , e.g. through introductions of alien genes and
organisms; understanding the role of algae in controlling
climate and climate change
Applying fundamental knowledge and tools developed to
achieve commercially realistic scale-up
Poor knowledge of algal physiology at molecular level,
hampering breeding of new varieties. no knowledge of the
environmental impact of large scale commercial cultivation
of algae in Europe
Cover much/most of algal biodiversity with DNA barcodes
Applying fundamental knowledge and tools developed to
achieve commercially realistic scale-up
Algae as biofuels
As on left, plus development of new algal strains and ‘cultivars’
for higher yields of algae with biotech potential, from genetic
manipulations through transformation, etc, but also ‘classical’
breeding programs
To have a number of companies (large and small) using
algae to produce biofuels, neutraceuticals in tandem with
wastewater treatment and carbon capture.
Assembly of bioinspired circuitry for energy and electron
transfer
Regulation
Full pathway manipulation in the same (relatively easy) way
as can be done for bacteria such as E.coli
Energy efficiency of photobioreactors
Developing model species that could be engineered to
achieve the productivity levels required to be major crop
species.
Synthetic biology
Fundamental research i.e. taxonomy etc
Comprehensive understanding of regulatory networks
Managing climate change
Lack of funding; Decline of freshwater science in the UK
Discovering and realising full potential of (mainly naturally
occuring) algae (multiple roles) in industry for sustainable
society
Good data sets to support effective modelling
Development of sustainable integrated biorefineries
Optimization of biomass production in different
environmental condition, and processing
Cost effective developments in processing of algal biomass
Encouraging commercial finance into the industry /
Developing international links
Understanding desmid ecology and looking at their
potential use as indicator species for certain habitats
Life history strategies (very few known in sufficient detail,
although there are hundreds of thousands of species of
microalgae). Needs a combination of lab & interdisciplinary
field studies from a range of habitats.
To have commercially viable intermediate scale production
systems
Potential of algae for sustainable biofuel production, feed for
aquaculture (link to food safety). economical incentive towards
the domestication of algae
To have commercially viable intermediate scale production
systems
Research is already happening. How practical is it really, and
would the scale required be detrimental to the environment?
Large companies are willing to support large scale pilot studies
to prove these concepts
Biofuels, other products
Ambitious metabolic engineering (synthetic biology) in the algae
Multidisciplinary research
Techniques available to develop highly efficient biofuel
producing algal cells
Private funding opportunities, algae based companies,
Large-scale energy from algal biofuels
Transcriptomics
Realism of responses, matching policy and capability
Science: Prospect of new satellite platforms for real-time
monitoring of algal populations in inland waters; integration
with other sensor networks
Modelling of alternative scenarios
Transition from pilot to commercial scale algal biofuel and
bioenergy production, integrated with “high value” algal
products
CO2 mitigation, food and feed, biodiesel,
Renewable energy source, feed stocks
Ecological research of marine and freshwater microalgae has
been declining (at least in UK) but it will become increasingly
important to reap the full potential of the information coming
from genetic studies.
83
Challenges – 10 year timescale
Opportunities – 10 year timescale
Long term survival of museums and centres of excellence
for taxonomic expertise
Development and public acceptance of GM approaches to
strain improvement.
Important indicators in long term water quality monitoring
programmes; biodiversity studies
Capitalising on the UK expertise in molecular biology, synthetic
biology and systems biology and bringing this to bear on
improving algal strains.
Functional molecular biology and biotechnology applications
Connecting high throughput and systems biology
approaches with biology, gene technology in algae
Implementing large-scale demonstrations, managing public
concerns
Biofuels
Determining controls on marine photosynthesis
Farming kelp – large scales
Algal based biorefinery
Addressing environmental issues
Genetics (improved cultivars), bioremediation (green tides).
Macrocystis mass cultivation on Falkland Islands (see what
is happening in Chile)
Climate change and biodiversity chanages
Knowledge integration
Carbon capture (big scale) , Meeting energy demand
Improved bioreactors and strains
Integrating process measurements and molecular insights into a
ecosystems biology of the dominant photoautotrophs
UK can exploit its own natural resources
Technology of utilisation of algal polysaccharides, proteins and
nutrients for production of high value products.
E.g. for understanding eutrophication
Freen tide affected coasts as sites for experimental remediation.
industrial offshore activities (e.g. wind parks) – potential sites
for macroalgal mass cultures
Excess CO2 in atmosphere that needs reducing: Profits?; Energy
or fuels from algal biomass could reduce/replace fossil fuels
Table C.4.3: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 25 Years
Each row corresponds to the entry of one questionnaire participant.
Challenges – 25 year timescale
Opportunities – 25 year timescale
Growing and harvesting
Embedding algae systems into architecture
Construction of pilot plants and tackling the social-economic
and engineering problems of scaling up
How to integrate algal devices into the environment – will
electronic devices need to be re-engineered to be
compatible?
Via interdisciplinary and international collaborations
Using an understanding of basic macroalgal biology to exploit
these algae for societal gain (food, fuel, pharmaceuticals)
Oceanic carbon capture
Integrating climate change scenarios into emerging
technologies
To integrate the palaeontological record with ancient
geochemical and modern biochemical data; to resolve the
systematic relationships and early evolutionary patterns of
cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae; to determine the
coevolutionary interplay between life and the planet.
Develop algae as a renewable energy source
Optimised organisms with improved growth.
Development of very large scale facilities for biomass/biofuel
production
Major source of biomass for energy and chemicals
Green cities and shading systems
Biodiversity
Funding availability
Algal Biofuel: Genetic Manipulations
Engineering
Efficient industrial harvesting
and
Low cost power sources
EC
New collaborations between “basic” biological scientists and
engineers, mariculture experts, etc
Energy
Keen interest from geochemists and molecular biologists
promises to shed important new multidisciplinary light on
the early evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and
biosphere
Integration of algal culture and understanding of aquatic
ecosystems. integration of algal culture and understanding of
aquatic ecosystem
Biodiversity
Biofuels, climate change, sustainability
Molecular
Carbon Capture
84
Challenges – 25 year timescale
Opportunities – 25 year timescale
Better management of freshwater resources, including wastewater recovery and reuse
Develop models for biofuels and biomass use for various end
products. Develop models for assessing the impact of
sustainability criteria
Demand-led pressures
Genetically modified microalgae able to synthesize biofuels, in
particular hydrogen
Long-term stability of full-scale plants
Improvements in scale and productivity
Convince general public that GM / synthetic algae are not
dangerous..!!!!
Synthetic Biology
Bioenergy
Response of marine food webs to environmental change
Bioenergy
Algae as a resource
Increasing presence of alga in natural water systems and
reservoirs
As above (refers to 10 year timescale entry of same questionnaire
participant) but to at least 90%; plus increased food production
Quantifying algae functioning (carbon storage, nutrient
processing etc)
Aquatic system adaption to/alteration under global
environmental change (e.g. algal communities, productivity,
food webs, nutrient cycling)
Creating very large ponds without significant environment
destruction
Accelerated growth rate of high density, open ocean systems
Engineering pathways
Understanding adaptation mechanisms of key algal species.
Long term forecasting of state of the marine biota
Sustainable resource of bioenergy, i.e. need to overcome
threats to yields by biotic (eg. viruses) and abiotic (e.g.
feedstocks, light, temp etc.) parameters.
Possibly rediscovering algal taxonomy and that species (or at
least individuals which function in a particular way or strains
that are not poisonous etc) really do matter when it comes to
everything. But hopefully this will have been remedied before
that. Perhaps the obvious challenges will be the impact that
climate change, ocean acidification etc will have had on algal
resources.
Deploy reliable technologies to convert algae biomass into
advanced biofuels. Develop algae based biorefinery. Develop
biomass and biofuel quality and monitoring system.
Production of: - Models of biofuel market for algae - Models
of feedstocks (i.e. differents algae strains) for various enduse scenarios - Models of sustainability criteria
Integration of the microalgae production industry into the
hydrogen based economy planned by 2050
Biological process and bioengineering
Industrial and commercial investigations
Biohydrogen farms
1) Over-expression / knockdown of entire metabolic
pathways in algae. Benefits: e.g. more efficient production of
desired chemicals/proteins. 2) Most eukaryotic algal taxa
have evolved based on secondary endosymbiosis, which
provides a unique opportunity to identify the molecular
toolkit for making autotrophic from heterotrophic organisms.
Benefits: e.g. novel synthetic organisms that combine the
advantages of being heterotrophic with an additional energy
source etc.
Climate change studies
Synthetic systems for solar energy conversion
Predict structure and functioning of marine food webs.
Sustainable use of natural resources.
Fuel
Importance of algae in societal changes
Approaches to, and methods for, controlling algal
populations
Using algal communities to enhance carbon storage, clean
water, cycle nutrients.
Algal biofuels (full scale commercial reality)
Potential for a wide variety of approaches (new
developments should continue) to avoid devestation from
leaks from a massive monoculture facility
Interactions between synthetic biology and algae
Replacement of conventional fossil oil production
Synthetic and Systems Biology
Global collaborations and networks
New mechanisms of interactions
It is hard to predict what new discoveries will be made between
now and 25 years time, but no doubt they will be made. So it is
really important to think strategically about the algae in the
longer term, ways in which they can be conserved for the future
(cf. seed banks), conservation of their environment now for the
future etc. It’s important to keep an open mind about the
potential and to plan laterally from research in other fields. It is
possible that we will have bases on other planets by then and
this could be where algae present opportunities.
85
Challenges – 25 year timescale
Opportunities – 25 year timescale
I fear that in 25 years time the exploitation of synthetic
biology will be commonplace. I predict that biosecurity and
protection of biodiversity will be an enormous
ethical/ecological issue.
I cannot see this far ahead but probably still the above
Effects of climate change on community functioning, eg
movement of invasive species/algal phase shifts on reefs
Develop biosecurity strategies well ahead of time. It is my
personal view that we should be planning for this now while
we still have time.
Biofuels
Rigorous prediction of holistic Earth System processes,
including algae related biogeochemistry and biodiversity, to
inform decision makers on future planning and mitigation
Cost parity of algae and petroleum based fuels.
Fuel shortages
Scale up to the oceanic scale. PBRs, open ponds etc will not be
enough
Understanding the role of algae in controlling climate and
climate change
Process control & management. Integrating nutrient supply
waste management and oil/biomass production at a large
scale capable of supplying a significant proportion of transport
fuels
Centres of production and scientific excellence in the far East
(mostly China, Japan)
Process control & management. Integrating nutrient supply
waste management and oil/biomass production at a large
scale capable of supplying a significant proportion of transport
fuels
Algae as human foodstuff
To have a fully integrated algal based industrial sector, that
makes a significant contribution to the UK economy
Development of long-term monitoring programmes to
identify
changes
in
algal
communities
and
distribution/expansion of invasive species
UK synthetic biology capability
Work on algae will increase
Use of existing infrastructure: oil rigs etc
Too far ahead: depends on outcomes from current wave of
(probably overenthusiastic) investment in algal biotech.
prospects for algal biofuels in particular seem overhyped: the
environmental implications of large-scale biofuel production
are enormous
Commercial scale production of a suite of algal derived
products (including fuels). In addition, integration of carbon
sequestration/ recycling at a significant scale
Commercial scale production of a suite of algal derived
products (including fuels). In addition, integration of carbon
sequestration/ recycling at a significant scale
There are likely to be increased traditional food shortages
due to more extreme weather events. Can algal cultivation
help to fill this gap?
Continued worries about global warming, energy security
and dwindling sources of fresh water will all drive forward
algal industries.
Self-repairing bioinspired machines
Large-scale culture of engineered algae in open
environmental systems (lakes, ocean)
Integration in industrial waste management
Producing algal crop species that can help us address some of
the major environmental and social issues around fuel
production, land and water utilization.
Scale up on algal biofuel to industrial scale
Evolution of regulatory networks; genetic modification for
industrial purposes
On-going sustainable coastal development
Impacts of climate change
Algae as biologically customizable functional units
Commercial uptake of G.M. (micro)algal technologies
Industrial algal biomass production of biofuels in conjunctions
with production of co-product extraction as a marketable
industry
Biofuels, other products
How to control engineered organisms in the open
environment
Industrial engagement, commercial development
A green revolution in algal productivity could establish algae
as a major world crop contributing significantly to fuel
production and food security (by freeing up arable land).
Work in collaboration with engineers from day one.
As above but ever more accurate, easier and cheaper to
apply
Stakeholder engagement
Assessment of impact
Expansion of large scale algal industries beyond low latitude
regions
CO2 mitigation, food and feed
Fine chemical production
86
Challenges – 25 year timescale
Opportunities – 25 year timescale
Good data sets to support effective modelling - this is a basic
and recurrent problem in algal research, one upon which I’ve
written and talked frequently over the 25+ yrs that I’ve
worked in the subject area .. the acid test of our knowledge is
whether we can model it properly and thence explore the
multitude of possible scenarios which we can not seriously
explore empirically. This is needed for all aspects from
ecological biogeochemical work, to commercial exploitation.
And that modelling effort is crippled repeatedly by poor
and/or inadequate data collection conducted all too often in
unsuitably designed experiments. Unless there is a real drive
by people who understand this problem, and the
opportunities that exist in solving it, then we will advance no
where fast and continue to waste resources and time. I’ve
repeated the challenges and opportunities because this is a
cyclic problem, as it has been for the last 25+yrs!
Broadening the base of macroalgal commercial opportunities
/ Application of molecular approaches to development of
macroalgae as a commercial resource
Implementing desmids as a key management tool for
monitoring threatened habitats
Routine genetic identification of individual cells from mixed
field samples.
Modelling of alternative scenarios
Making algal biofuel economical before the oil starts to run
out!
Loss of expertise in taxonomy, physiology and cell biology of
algae
Enhancing photosynthesis
Using algal bioenergy – technical challenges
Large scale industry based on algal
Understanding algal ecology. Development of bio-fuels
Domestication achieved, mass cultivation
To understand what actually happens to cells in the sea (or
lake), not just their physiology in a lab or a bottle. It is vital in
a time of changing lake & ocean processes.
A combined research effort with major industrial players
such as the oil companies, airlines, engine manufacturers, car
industries…
We need investment in education and development of post
graduates and post-docs in interdisciplinary approaches
Synthetic biology approaches
Large scale scCO2 extractors , sonicators, pyrolysis
technologies
For improving our understanding of algal ecology and for the
development of sustainable bio-fuels
Industrial offshore activities (e.g. wind parks) – potential
sites for macroalgal mass cultures
To follow distribution of desmid species in the UK
Meeting energy demand
87
APPENDIX D – DETAILED ALGAE RESEARCH VALUE CHAINS IN THE UK
To capitalise on the algal expertise in the UK and increase its impact and progression into application, it is important to
connect the entire value chain for a particular algal product or service. Building on the overview given in Chapter 6, the
sections below will sketch out aspects of R&D chains and their gaps for base and value added commodities, high value
products, bioremediation services and integrative approaches. This is put in the context of current activity in the UK, and
recommendations are made of how gaps can be addressed.
D.1 Base commodities (high volume, low value – e.g. energy, feed)
Both energy products and bulk animal feed fall into this category. So far there are no viable energy businesses based on
algal biomass in the UK; applications based on biophotovoltaics are even further away from market. In terms of animal
feed, seaweed is being harvested from the wild and sold e.g. as animal feed high in minerals (UK players include The
Hebridean Seaweed company and Böd Ayre; c.f. Section 1.3.2.2 and Table 3.1), but volumes are low and so far limited by
the fact that the seaweeds are harvested from the wild. Microalgal animal feeds are commercially successful as high-value
speciality products (UK players include SeaSalter 166, Merlin BioDevelopments and Scottish Bioenergy; c.f. Section 1.3.1.2
and Table 3.1), and are being investigated as a general replacement for fish meal, but are currently not a bulk commodity
yet. The RD&D value chains for micro- and macroalgae are outlined below:
D.1.1 Microalgae
The primary goal is to optimise overall production pipeline to arrive at an economically viable and sustainable
process.
Growth:
The aim is to maximise biomass yield in an economic and sustainable system.
Engineering RD&D addresses:
• optimisation of growth system so fewest photons are lost (mostly PBR design and maintenance, including
avoiding / combating fouling)
• challenges of scale-up
• integration with other industrial processes (e.g. producers of CO2, low grade waste heat, nutrient-rich waste
waters)
• Life Cycle Analysis / Sustainability Assessment / Economic Assessment (together with other disciplines)
Biological RD&D aims at identifying suitable strains for each application, and increasing:
• efficiency of photon capture in the overall culture (e.g. by reducing the antenna size of each cell)
• solar conversion efficiency in each cell (e.g. by blocking wasteful energy sinks)
• the percentage of desired fuel/feed molecule/component, either through choice of growth regime (e.g. N
starvation) or through metabolic engineering
• culture stability during all seasons and throughout scale-up (disease and grazing control, algal communities, algalbacterial symbioses)
• economic viability through design of low-cost media (e.g. modified version of AD liquid digestate)
Harvesting:
The aim is to lower energy costs while not interfering with the desired downstream application. Different strains and
applications will require different solutions. Examples include addition of chemical or biological flocculants and/or pH
changes to increase particle size, flotation, advanced filtration, and electro-coagulation.
Processing:
Challenges vary depending on strain and final application. Unless the desired product is secreted, cells need to be
permeabilised to extract the products; even if whole cells are used e.g. in feed applications, cracking them open is often
required to increase bioavailability of nutrients. Permeabilisation can be achieved physically, chemically or enzymatically.
Again it is vital to find low energy and low cost solutions which do not harm the desired molecules, and are compatible
166
They are currently still active, but are phasing their algal operations out.
88
with downstream separation techniques. Finally, efficient and economic ways to fractionate the cell components into
desired products need to be developed.
Legal context:
Solutions found on all levels need to satisfy regulatory and permitting requirements.
The Carbon Trust’s Algae Biofuels Challenge (c.f. Section 1.2.3.8) was set up to address the entire value chain, and to feed
into a scale-up facility at phase 2. The overall challenge of making algal low-value products commercially viable can only
be addressed in a holistic way that spans the entire pipeline, since improvements in one area (e.g. addition of a flocculant)
may introduce difficulties in another area (e.g. interference of flocculant with separation of components). Cranfield’s SURF
Project and Oasis Network, the Algal Bioenergy Consortium, BioMara, and the INTERREG EnAlgae Initiative (c.f. Section
1.2.3) address several aspects of the pipeline each, and major oil companies have confidential algal research projects in
which UK universities participate. The NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group aims at providing a larger umbrella
for all that R&D expertise, to link up initiatives and accelerate progress through fostering synergies.
Current gaps:
Major work is still necessary to make the economic case for algal energy and feed. It is highly unlikely that economic
viability for low value bulk products will be achieved without developing an integrated biorefining approach, where inputs
wherever possible are derived from byproducts of other industrial processes. Feasibility studies and the first stages of
scale-up are necessary to test and develop these integrated approaches. To make sure that all scale-up plans are on a
sound environmental footing, a larger body of data needs to be collected to inform LCAs and Sustainability Assessments,
and the user-friendliness of tools needs to be improved. Furthermore, dialogue with the regulatory and permitting
authorities needs to be developed to ensure that any requirements imposed on the fledgling industry are based on the
most up-to-date facts and guided by common sense.
D.1.2 Macroalgae
The primary goal is increase capacity in an economically viable and sustainable manner.
Growth:
Current yields are limited since seaweed in the UK is to date mostly harvested from wild stocks. For seaweed to become a
feedstock for bulk commodities, capacity needs to be increased through establishing seaweed farming on a larger scale.
Challenges include:
• integration of engineering and biology in developing viable off-shore farms
• development of a new sustainable industry
• assessment and minimisation of environmental impact
• control of grazers
• integration with aquaculture
• selective breeding
• Life Cycle Analysis / Economic Assessment
Harvesting:
Most seaweeds are currently hand-picked from the wild; for scale-up of seaweed farming ecologically sound equipment
for mechanical harvesting needs to be developed.
Processing:
For energy products, the biomass can either be fed into Anaerobic Digestion, fermented to bioalcohols, or subjected to
thermochemical conversion. R&D is required to increase the efficiency especially of fermentation. For feed applications,
energy efficient ways to dry or otherwise preserve the biomass need to be developed.
Legal context:
Solutions found on all levels need to satisfy regulatory and permitting requirements.
Most of the aspects above are addressed by the INTERREG projects BioMara and (to a lesser extent) EnAlgae (c.f. Section
1.2.3). Companies involved (chiefly The Hebredean Seaweed Company and Böd Ayre) are interested in contact with
academia to address the challenges, and the Crown Estate plays a major role.
89
Current gaps:
Before macroalgae can be considered as a feedstock for low value bulk commodities, evidence needs to be brought
forward to show
• what scale of off-shore seaweed farming is justifiable considering the environmental impact
• whether that scale could satisfy demand significantly beyond the increasing projected demand for higher value
applications such as fertilisers, speciality feeds, and feedstock for ‘ceuticals’.
• improvements in crop yields through selective breeding and the expansion of culture banks to include macroalage
More test scale-up facilities are needed, to identify, assess and address the engineering, biological and ecological
challenges.
D.2 Added value commodities (high volume, added value compared to base commodities – e.g. platform
chemicals)
The use of algae as feedstock for platform chemicals is as yet unproven. To the author’s knowledge, one company in the
UK, Spicer Biotech, is currently actively pursuing this potential for microalgae, and several UK research groups have this as
a primary research interest (based on results of questionnaire: Aston, T Bridgwater; Cranfield, L De Nagornoff; Dundee, G
Codd; Glasgow, J Clark, see Table C.2; also UCL, S. Purton (pers. comm.)).
The challenges for the engineering aspects of the pipeline for macro- and microalgae are similar to those above; in terms
of biological R&D, necessary steps include:
• identification of molecules already made by algae that are of interest (i.e. either already are platform chemicals,
or are similar enough in functionality that they could replace current fossil-derived platform chemicals)
• survey of other platform chemicals currently derived from fossil resources: identification of which are most
difficult to derive from bacterial / yeast based biotechnology
• clarification if pathways for those can be cloned into algal platforms, and if algal expression has benefits over
bacterial / yeast systems
• if answer is yes, pursuit of cloning in joint industry-academia R&D projects, combined with life cycle and economic
analyses
Current gaps:
The biological know-how exists in principle of how to transform pathways for desired molecules into algal model
organisms such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. It needs to be established, though, if using algae has an economic,
functional or environmental advantage compared to alternative biotechnological approaches. Dialogue between industry
and biologists is needed to identify best target molecules, ideally source them from already established algal strains, or
otherwise employ metabolic engineering / synthetic biology or bioprospecting. If economic and sustainability analyses are
promising, scale-up of production can be pursued.
D.3 High value products (low volume, high value – speciality feeds / foods, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals,
pharmaceuticals)
Growing algae for high value products such as health foods, PUFAs and pigments is the only currently mature algal
industry. In the UK, New Horizons Global Ltd produce DHA in a fermentation system near Liverpool; Supreme
Biotechnologies Ltd, who have their headquarters in London, produce astaxanthin in New Zealand; All Seasons Health sell
whole cell Spirulina and Chlorella grown in India and Taiwan as health foods, Seasalter Shellfish sell algae as speciality feed
for aquaculture. Merlin BioDevelopments Ltd produce algae for nutraceuticals, and Scottish Bioenergy Ltd are pursuing
algal growth for high value food and feed applications.
Current gaps:
Although the existence of viable businesses would indicate that the major gaps have been closed, there is potential for
further development, including
• lowering costs of production, through integration with other processes
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growing new markets, especially through reducing price of products (it has been suggested that 5 grams per day
of an alga such as Spirulina would aid substantially in combating malnutrition in children (Simpore et al. 2006) 167)
integrative approaches for growth, and use of by-products
developing new products in addition to the established PUFAs, pigments and whole cell products, e.g. through
bioprospecting, or (where appropriate) synthetic biology
D.4 Bioremediation services
For microalgae, advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems (AIWPS) for nutrient and heavy metal removal have been
developed in the US since the 1960s (Green, Bernstone, Lundquist and Oswald 1996), and more recently, the Algal Turf
Scrubber 168 has been shown to treat soils contaminated e.g. with heavy metals and toxic hydrocarbons. However, in the
UK these solutions appear not to have been taken up. For macroalgae, integration with aquaculture can offer considerable
bioremediation benefits; however this is still also not in widespread use yet. There are hence clear gaps to be addressed in
the UK context:
Current gaps, and recommended actions:
• The reasons for lack of take-up of existing systems need to be identified.
• If the reason is lack of awareness in the relevant industries (e.g. sewage works, life stock farms), information
needs to be offered.
• A set of small-scale test / show-case facilities should be built to increase confidence of end users
• Partner(s) to showcase technologies need to be identified.
• Effectiveness, stability and user-friendliness of existing systems need to be improved.
• Sound data to underpin reliable Life Cycle Analysis needs to be collected.
• The algal community needs to work with regulators to provide clear guidelines and incentives, and enable optimal
use of biomass created.
The INTERREG EnAlgae Programme (c.f. Section 1.2.3) aims at addressing some of the aspects above, and the water
industry is beginning to show an interest through funding small-scale feasibility studies.
D.5 Benefits of Integration
Integration of algal growth with other industrial processes to make use of byproducts is essential to improve the
economics and sustainability of algal production. This can happen on several levels:
For microalgae:
Sourcing CO2 from flue gasses:
Bottled CO2 is one of the major cost factors of algal cultivation, so clear economic benefits can be obtained after the cost
of the needed infrastructure (pre-scrubbing of toxic components of the gas, and connection with adequate pressure and
temperature regulation) has been recovered. Unless coccolithophores like Emiliania huxleyii are grown, which form
calcified shells and therefore trap CO2 in a long-lasting form, the CO2 is cycled rather than captured, and a producer would
be unable to claim any allowances under the CER or the EU ETS using algae. The environmental benefits are clear: not only
algal scrubbing of flue gasses save the energy otherwise expended for CO2 bottling and transport, but algae also remove
NOx.
Sourcing nutrients from waste water:
For benefits of waste water treatment, see Section D.4; a key benefit in this area is provided by using liquid digestate from
AD as a feedstock for algal growth media. Storage of liquid digestate for those periods of the year when spreading it as
fertiliser is not permitted constitutes a serious bottle-neck for the scale-up of AD. Integration with algal growth provides a
solution to this problem, while at the same time lowering the cost of producing algal biomass. In the simplest form the
algal biomass could be used as feedstock for AD; in energy terms, this is one of the most efficient applications for algae,
since no parasitic energy for dewatering is consumed. However, much greater financial returns can be gained by using the
167
Already in 1974 the United Nations World Food Conference lauded Spirulina as possibly the best food for the future; c.f.
www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/statement08/iimsam.pdf
168
www.algalturfscrubber.com
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algal biomass for e.g. feed applications, regulatory frameworks permitting. Similar integration could be sought with live
stock farms producing nutrient-rich run-off, as well as in-land fish farms; algal biomass grown on farm could be used as
feed, if HACCP procedures are followed.
Using low-grade waste heat to keep algal cultures warm:
Productivity in the UK in winter is not only limited by available light levels, but also by temperature. Higher productivity
can be achieved by keeping algal cultures at their preferred temperature; this would be expensive unless low grade heat
can be used that is not otherwise used. Further financial benefits for such use of heat might be obtained through the
Renewable Heat Incentive.
For macroalgae:
Integrated approach:
Nutrients for enhancing macroalgal growth can be obtained from the waste produced by fish; benefits include cleaner
water and higher yields of algae. There is also pollution abatement, coastal protection, fertiliser production and
production of other raw materials or food.
Removing atmospheric CO2:
Like any plant, macroalgae require CO2 to grow, at current levels of cultivation macroalgae removes approximately 0.7
million tons per year of carbon from the sea. There would have to be a dramatic increase in cultivation of macroalgae for
it to have an impact on total carbon emissions. A 1000km-2 area could sequester up to 1 million tons CO2 per year.
No pressure on freshwater supplies:
The utilisation of the marine environment as opposed to the terrestrial for biomass production circumvents the problem
of switching agricultural land from food to fuel production. The potential quantity of biomass produced in the marine
environment is also not limited by the available freshwater supplies coupled to the potential benefits to the fishing
industry by the additional habitat that cultivated seaweed could provide.
Current gaps:
This field is budding, and both industry and academia are working on addressing some remaining major gaps, including
• economics: working out the true savings achievable by various integrated systems
• regulation: to ensure that use of (safe / non-toxic) byproducts does not impede use of algal biomass for high value
applications
• legislation: under the CER or the EU ETS using algae producer currently would be unable to claim any allowances
for capturing / cycling CO2 via algal growth; this is an unreasonable obstacle which needs to be overcome by
lobbying for changing CER and EU ETS.
• setting up test / show-case facilities as a first step to scale-up
• close collaboration and increased mutual understanding between engineers and biologists to address the
challenges of scale-up
• limited information on the positive or negative environmental effects of large-scale cultivation
The INTERREG projects EnAlgae and BioMara (c.f. Section 1.2.3) endeavour to address aspects of the above; and several
companies work in this space, including: Loch Duart, who are using integrated aquaculture combining sea urchin, seaweed
and salmon farming, Merlin BioDevelopment Ltd, Scottish Bioenergy Ltd and Boots PLC working with PMLA, who are all
actively developing integrated microalgal systems, and BioGroup Ltd, who are in the process of setting up algal growth in
conjunction with their AD facility (c.f. Section 1.3.1.2).
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