JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA
Vol.66,Vol.66,
September
2005,
pp.285-292
August
2005,
pp.
Evolution of the Western Coastline of India and the Probable
Location of Dwārakā of Kr.s.n.a: Geological Perspectives
R.N. IYENGAR1 and B.P. RADHAKRISHNA2
1
Deparment of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore - 560 012
2
Geological Society of India, Bangalore - 560 019
Email: rni@civil.iisc.ernet.in
Abstract: A description of Dwārakā and its environs, its growth and final destruction as narrated in the ancient classics
of Mahābhāratha, Hari-vamśa, Skānda Purāna and Visnu Purāna is presented and it is shown that the Dwārakā built
by Kr.s.n.a could not be the Dwārakā located at the western tip of Saurashtra. Geological evidence shows (1) that the
coastline of India is a rifted margin with present day Saurashtra, Kachchh, Pacham, Wāgir, Bela and other isolated
masses occurring as islands off the rifted western margin; (2) the greater part of Saurashtra formed an island of explosive
volcanic activity not directly connected with the Deccan trap of the mainland; (3) the existence of the Cambay basin, a
long linear sedimentary basin, more than 500 km long with an average width of 50 km and maximum depth of 7 km
linked the basin with the Gulfs of Cambay and Kachchh maintaining marine connection from early Cretaceous to late
Pleistocene and early Holocene (5000 years ago); (4) filling up of the basin with enormous amount of alluvium brought
by the rivers Saraswati, Luni, Sabarmati and others – are presented as evidences lending support to the view that the
present day Dwārakā, isolated and far removed from Mathura could not be the original Dwārakā (Ur-Dwārakā) of
Kr.s.n.a. Ur-Dwārakā was nearer to Mathura and could be reached via Pushkara (near Ajmer) and Mt. Abu and in all
probability was located on the eastern margin of the Cambay basin. The city either was drowned or washed away by
the sea around 1400 BC. West coast of Gujarat lies at the junction of the African, Asian and Indian plates and is riddled
with many active faults and has been an active seismic zone. Authors make a strong plea for a multidisciplinary study by
a group consisting of oceanographers, geologists, geophysicists, sedimentologists, engineers and meteorologists to make
an intensive study of the region and elucidate the history of development of this terrain and incidentally solve the
problem of the location of Ur-Dwārakā.
Keywords: Western coastline of India, Indian pre-history, Cambay basin, Impact model, Dwārakā.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent past, there has been renewed interest in the
archaeology of the west coast of Gujarat. This has
been mainly driven by the desire to know more about
the ancient town of Dwārakā, the capital city of Kr.s.n.a.
Here we denote this as original Dwārakā (Ur-D for short)
to differentiate it from the present day city of the same
name Dwaraka (69°E, 22.25°N) in Saurashtra. Marine
archaeologists, investigating this region seem to have
accepted Ur-D to be same as or at least very close to
Dwārakā (Gaur et al. 2004). This belief initially based on
the opinion expressed by Sankalia (1966) has been later
supported by S.R. Rao (1995). While archaeological
investigations have exposed a township offshore Dwaraka,
dated to second millennium BC, its connection with Ur-D
remains unproven. Kr.s.n.a and associated historical and
geographical traditions have come down to us through the
texts of Mahābhārata (MB), Harivamśa (HV), Skānda
Purān.a (SP) and a few other Purān.as. Hence, it is important
to investigate these texts critically to verify whether Ur-D
could be identified with Dwārakā or not. Even if one may
not be able to pinpoint where Ur-D was, it may be possible
to conclude where it was not. Notwithstanding the fact, that
Kr.s.n.a and his legends have been among the factors moulding
the cultural foundations of the country, neither the history
nor the geography of his period have been clearly
understood.
Recently Iyengar (2003a, b; 2005 in press) investigated
the issue of the historicity of Kr.s.n.a based on celestial
observations mentioned in MB, HV, SP, Vis.n.u Purān.a (VP)
and Bhāgavata Purā n. a (BP). It was found that the
observations are broadly consistent with a date around
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R. N. IYENGAR AND B. P. RADHAKRISHNA
1500-1400 BC. While this figure may be further debated,
one could proceed with this as a working hypothesis for
deciphering geographical descriptions in the ancient texts.
The issue of where Ur-D was located remains an important
topic. A standard reference on ancient place names by
B.C. Law (1954) indicates that at one time Ur-D was thought
to be near Girnar region, before being identified with
Dwārakā. Kosambi (1965) based on internal evidence
available in MB has argued that Ur-D could not have been
at Dwārakā. Munshi (1943) after taking into consideration
available evidences concluded that there are objections
to the present day Dwārakā being identified with Ur-D.
Among the famous place names that appear in the
texts, Kuruks. etra and Mathurā are perhaps the least
controversial. Starting from Vedic times through Itihāsa,
Purān.a and the historical period, location of Kuruks.etra
and Mathurā has remained unquestioned. The same cannot
be said about Prabhāsa and Ur-D, two other towns of
importance in Kr.s.n.a-lore. It is interesting to note that the
natural relief, rivers and lakes mentioned in the texts
match reasonably well with the geography of Kuruks.etra
and Mathurā (Growse, 1872). Thus, for Ur-D and Prabhāsa
also, the preserved textual descriptions of geographical
features and an evaluation of the new geological information
in the development of coastline of Gujarat should prove to
be consistent with observations. With these points in
mind an attempt is made in the present paper to investigate
further the above Sanskrit texts with a view to identify
Ur-D. In all the cases, the more relevant Sanskrit texts
are presented with brief translations. The collected material
is discussed from a geological perspective to draw
meaningful inferences.
Mahābhārata (MB)
MB refers to Ur-D in many places, but not necessarily
in a consistent manner. This may perhaps be attributed to
the layered formation of the text at different periods. In the
very first book called ādi-parva reference is made to the
last days of Yādavas near the salt sea and the visit of Arjuna
to help the people to vacate the town of Ur-D (Ch.22.2,26).
In sabhā-parva, Kr. s. n. a during his conversation with
Yudhisthira says:
vayam caiva mahārajā jarāsandha-bhayāt tadā
mathurām samparityajya gatā dvāravati¯m prati ||
[Mahārajā! Due to fear of Jarāsandha, we discarded
Mathurā and emigrated to Dvāravatī |
(Ch.13.65)
The alternate name of Ur-D being called Dwārakā is
seen in Chapter 42 of this parva. A link among Ur-D,
Prabhāsa and River Sarasvati appears in the third book
vana-parva. Pān.d.avas, in their exile are advised to visit holy
places. The description of the places presents a geographical
background of the region in which Ur-D was located. This
starts in Chapter 80 with a description of Lake Pus.kara
(26.5°N, 74.6°E), Narmadā, Carman.vati, Mt. Arbuda,
Prabhāsa, confluence of Sarasvati joining the sea and
Dvāravatī roughly in that order.
tato gaccheta dharmajño himavatsutam arbudam |
pr.thivyām yatra vaicchidram pūrvamāsi¯t yudhis..thira ||
tato gaccheta dharmajño prabhāsam loka-viśrutam |
yatra sannihito nityam svayam eva hutāśanah. ||
tato gatvā sarasvatyāh. sāgarasya ca sańgame
tato dvāravatīm gacchet niyato niyatās´anah. |
pin.d.ārake narah. snātvā labhet bahu-suvarn.akam ||
[Then, one should go to Mt. Arbuda, where in the ground
a fissure existed. Then one should go to the famous
Prabhāsa, where fire is ever self-existent. Then having
visited the confluence of river Sarasvati and the ocean,
one should go to Dvāravatī and next to Pin.d.āraka]
(Ch. 80. 74, 77, 79, 82)
The above places are mentioned in a sequential order.
The confluence of a river with the sea is mentioned once
again without any specific place (v 85). After another 30
verses Vināśana, where Sarasvati flows underneath the desert
is mentioned. Chapter 86 provides another description with
many differences but with same place names. This time,
Agastya’s hermitage is mentioned which is not traditionally
associated with Mt. Abu. The text in this chapter describes
holy places in Saurashtra (86.15-22) like Prabhāsa,
Pin.d.āraka and Mt. Ujjayanta. This hill is not Mt. Abu, but
probably a hill of the same name in present day Saurashtra.
The Dvāravatī mentioned in this chapter is not only different
from Ur-D of Chapter 80, but also negates its identification
with present day Dwaraka, which is far away from Mt.
Ujjayanta.
In śānti-parvan (Ch. 326.81-84) Visnu proclaims his
(future) incarnation on earth as Kr.s.n.a at Mathurā and his
founding of Dwārakā at Kuśa-sthalī . Such a description
does not help in fixing Ur-D, but it hints at Kuśa-sthalī
being the name of a broad region.
In āśvamedhika-parvan, Arjuna is said to follow the
sacrifical horse all over India, including the southern
parts. During his travel along the western countries, Arjuna
arrives at Prabhāsa from south, before reaching Dvāravatī
(Ch.84.10-53). This would indicate that Ur-D was roughly
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.66, SEPT. 2005
EVOLUTION OF THE WESTERN COASTLINE OF INDIA AND THE PROBABLE LOCATION OF DWĀRAKĀ OF KR.S.N.A 287
north of Prabhāsa. In mausala-parvan (Ch.8.40-47) flooding
of Ur-D by sea, and Arjuna's efforts to escort the people
out of the place is described. The route taken by Arjuna
was through forests, mountains and streams to reach
Pañc.anada, only to be attacked by the Ābhī ras. There is
no mention of crossing the sea or of islands on the way.
Thus, it may not be wrong to conclude that Ur-D was
connected with other parts of the country through land
route. In the 17th book, Pandavas are said to visit the
western parts of the country to see Ur-D being submerged
(pari-plutam) in the sea (Ch.10.42-43).
Hari-vamśa (HV)
HV is an appendix to MB and is traditionally taken to
be between Itihāsa (history) and Purān.a (legend) and a
primary source for the early life of Kr.s.n.a, later described
in other Purān.as with additional legends. Reference to
Ur-D occurs in all the three books of HV, sometimes
without any specific relation with the main theme of the
books.
Hari-vamśa speaks of migrations of people from east
to west giving the impression that it was a common
tradition.
In chapter 55 of the second book, Garud.a the mythical
eagle and vehicle of Vis.n.u is introduced, to be searching
for a site to locate the new city. He says, “I shall go to Kuśasthali¯ in Raivata. I shall survey the hill of Raivata and the
region bounded by the hill and the sea (śailodadhitat.āśrayām). After selecting a site and clearing the bushes,
I shall report to you.” Garud.a is said to go west of Mathurā,
for his search (II 55.1-11). Upon his return, he describes the
site and the town as,
sāgarānūpa-vipulām prag udak-plava sitalām |
sarvatodadhi-madhyasthām abhedyām tridaśaih. api ||
raivatam ca giri-śres..tham kuru deva surālayam |
nāmnā dvāravati¯ jñeyā tris.u lokes.u viśrutā |
yadi syāt samvr.tām bhūmim pradāsyati mahodadhih. |
Lord! Make Raivata the great hill as your abode. That
place has many backwaters of the sea. It is cool due to the
wind blown over water, from the front. It is in the center of
water bodies, unbreakable even by gods. The town will be
famous as Dwāravati¯, if the ocean gives the land around.
(Ch.II 55. 103, 110-113)
Yadavas, travel west (56.19) in their exodus out of
Mathurā. They reach the delta of a river near the seashore.
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.66, SEPT. 2005
anūpam sindhu-rājasya prapetuh yadu-pungavāh. |
dadarśa vipulam deśam sāgaren.opaśobhitam |
vāhanānām hitam caiva sikatā tāmra mr.ttikām ||
sāgarānila samvi¯tam sāgarāmbu nis.evitam |
vis.ayam sindhurājasya śobhitam puralaks.an.aih ||
tatra raivatako nama parvato nātiduratah. |
mandarodāra śikharah. sarvato’bhi virājate ||
tatraikalavya samvāso dron.enādhyus.itasciram |
Yādavas reached the delta of the king of rivers. They saw
the vast region beautiful with the ocean nearby and with
red soil mixed with copper coloured sand ideal for
movement of vehicles. They saw the place endowed with
the symbols of a city, blown with sea breeze. There, not
far away in the Raivataka hill, the peak Mandarodara
shines from all around. There lives Ekalavya. Once Dron.a
had also stayed in that place.
(Ch.II 56.22, 24-28)
In chapters 88, 89, the boat trip of Kr.s.n.a when Pāndavās
visited him is described. The trip included a visit to
Pin.dāraka. The descriptions indicate the sea was not very
deep. In chapter 98, an aerial view of Ur-D is described as
seen by Kr.s.n.a. In the east was Mt. Raivataka. In the south
was Mt. Latāves..tana. To the west and north were Sukaks.a
and Ven.umān hills. River Mandākinī was flowing around
Dvāravatī divided into fifty parts. The town was at a
height with a trench all around. The nearby branch town
was twice the size of Ur-D.
The broad picture one gets from HV is that Ur-D was
roughly west of Mathura, but east of the sea shore in
a land where salt was available in plenty. The city was a
fort with four doors, encircled with water channels or
rivulets. River Sarasvati does not find mention in HV, but
Mandāk i ni¯ was said to be flowing around Ur-D in
fifty channels. This could be an allusion to the delta of a
large river approaching the sea. The commonalities
between MB and HV in locating Ur-D are clearly its western
location from Mathura, near the seashore. Both the books
hint at the nearness of Ur-D to Lake Pus.kara and Mt. Abu.
Skānda Purān.a (SP)
Next to MB and HV, tradition assigns greater importance
to Visnu Purān.a and Bhagavata as far as the story of Kr.s.n.a
is concerned. However, it is found that SP contains more
number of geographical references connected with Kr.s.n.a’s
time, than any other Purānic text. SP is the largest among
the eighteen Purān.as. The seventh and last part of SP called
Prabhāsa-khan.d.a contains four books namely, Prabhāsaks.etra-māhātmya (PKM), Vastrāpatha-ksetra-māhātmya,
Arbuda-khan.d.a and Dvārakā-māhātmya. These books
288
R. N. IYENGAR AND B. P. RADHAKRISHNA
refer to Ur-D and Prabhāsa as holy places, but provide
some more insight into ancient happenings. The PKM has
been reviewed in detail (Iyengar, 2004) to understand
the natural disasters described therein. It was found that
the older tradition available in PKM does not identify
Prabhāsa, with the present Somanath. In Chapter 9 of
PKM, a query is raised as to why Kr.s.n.a chose Prabhāsa
for his last days. In Chapter 10, the place, Bhallukā
tīrtha, where he passed away is described as being a
small region of the size of a cow-hide, which cannot be
identified without knowledge of the scriptures. In Chapter
352, this place is called Bhalla tirtha, where Kr.s.n.a was
cremated on the twelfth day of the Bhādrapada month.
Quite interestingly, it locates the place as:
inlets of salty water. Greater part of the Rann is a massive
gulf which has recently emerged out of the sea (Merh, 2004).
Other small land masses which make their appearance are
all islands like Pachham, Khawada and Khadir. Further
south, Bombay group of islands are to be considered as
only submerged islands not exposed above sea level.
The second part whose significance has not been fully
appreciated is the delineation of the Cambay Basin. It does
not end at the latitude of Baroda but extends as a rift-basin
into the heartland of Gujarat for a distance of over 500 km
having an average width of 50 km and a maximum depth of
7 km. Figure 1 gives a picture of the basin in Central Gujarat.
vis.uvam vahate tatra nr.n.ām adyāpi pārvati |
māghyām māghyām sames.anti sarasvatyabdhisangame
Pārvati! The solstice passes through that place even now.
In the month of Māgha every year, all the holy places
come together at the confluence of Sarasvati with the sea.
(Ch.10.22, 28)
This statement would indicate that the latitude of
Prabhāsa to be about 23.5°N, matching closely with present
day Patan. Further Pin.dāraka, which appears in association
with Ur-D in several of the texts matches with Pindwara
(24.8°N: 73.07°E) of Sirohi district in Rajasthan, not far
from Mt. Abu.
Dvārakā-Māhātmya is supposedly about Ur-D, but there
is little geographical information in this book. Ur-D is said
to be in Kuśa-sthali¯ on the west coast located in Ānarta
country (Ch.2.3-4). The text informs that many places were
washed away by the sea (papluvire ārn.ave | Ch.14.1) and
they are now washed by sea and covered by dust and water
(plāvitāni samudren.a pāmsunāpyudakena ca || Ch.16-44).
GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
We may now briefly examine what geology has to say
about the physiographic conditions prevailing during the
period recorded by Mahāb hāratha and other ancient
texts. The postulated position of Ur-D as reviewed in the
Sanskrit texts appears to conform with the broad geological
history of the region.
The most striking part of the NW coast of India is the
occurrence of Saurashtra as a craton not connected with the
mainland but by an arm of the sea filled up of deltaic
sediments. Kachchh also appears as an island together
with the Great and Little Rann, which represent vast
Fig.1. Geological sketch map of NW India showing effect of
Cambay basin separating the peninsular islands of
Saurashtra from the Gujarat mainland (after Choudhary,
2004).
Figure 2 emphasizes the islandic character of Saurashtra
and Kachchh. Speaking of the Rann of Kachchh, Wadia
has stated "A very little depression of this tract would be
enough to convert Kathiawar (Saurashtra) and Kachchh
into islands."
This famous Cambay petroliferous basin which was
initiated in the lower Cretaceous was filled up with marine
sediments of Eocene, Miocene and Pleistocene ages. What
is important to note is that it remained as a channel way,
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.66, SEPT. 2005
EVOLUTION OF THE WESTERN COASTLINE OF INDIA AND THE PROBABLE LOCATION OF DWĀRAKĀ OF KR.S.N.A 289
66°
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72°
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28°
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Cambay
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Jaipur
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Coastline of India (2000 BC)
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Great delta of
Sindhu-Sutlej
Saraswati-Luni
delta filling the
shallow sea
24°
«
Abu
Northerly extension of the western
coastline of India and also the Eastern
margin of the Cambay basin
Probable location of
Ur-D, north of Prabhās a
Patan (Prabhās a)
Kachchh
Kuśa-sthalī
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Dwarka
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SEA
20°W
Saurashtra
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Present day
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Fig.2. Sketch map showing extension of Cambay basin separating mainland Gujarat from Saurashtra and Kachchh which appear as
islands completely detached. The west coast line of India does not get terminated at the Narmada rift but continues northwards
forming probably the eastern arm of the Cambay basin, while the northern extension of the Cambay basin was filled up by sand
(Maru-sthali¯ ) the southern extension continued as a shallow sea grown with weed and grass (Kuśa-sthali¯ ).
grown with marsh and Kuśa grass deserving the appellation
Kuśa-sthali¯ (marshy land overgrown with weeds) in
contrast with the ground northward appropriately termed
Maru-sthali (sandy desert). Growing aridity around
3000 BC desiccated most of the rivers like Saraswati, Luni,
Mahi, Sabarmati which emptied into the basin. Even as late
as 2000 BC however, there was water and rivers were
navigable.
The northern extension of the Cambay basin falls in the
greater part of the delta of Vedic Saraswati. We may presume
a large part of the filling and creation of the delta is the
contribution of Vedic Saraswati and its tributaries. The
characteristic feature of the filling of the basin is its
longitudinal character with sediments derived from the
Himalaya where Saraswati had its source. Sedimentary
facies shows gradation along the basin axis, in sequences
ranging in age from Eocene to Pliocene, from a sandstoneshale-coal sequence in the north to siltstone-shale
sequence in the southern Cambay basin to shale facies
and finally carbonate facies in the Mumbai offshore basin
(Choudhary, 2004, p.3).
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.66, SEPT. 2005
The extension of Cambay into the heartland of Gujarat
brought the sea to Mt. Abu and Patan in the second
millennium BC (see Fig.2). It was here Kr.s.n.a's Dwaraka
was located in all probability on the eastern bank of the
Cambay basin very near to Patan (23°52'N:72°1'E).
Kr.s.n.a seems to have predicted the destruction of Ur-D
soon after his death.
Dwārakām ca mayā tyaktām samudrah. plāvayis.hyate
(Visnu Purana II ch.37.36)
Attention has to be drawn to the use of the word
plāvayishyate which can mean that the city got washed away
by high sea as in a tsunami. Incidentally it forms the first
record of tsunami affecting India.
This postulated location of Ur-D as reviewed in the
Sanskrit texts appears to conform with the broad geological
history of the region as we know it today.
Saurashtra itself appears as an almost circular island
with its radial drainage as a distinct land form (Fig.3). It
does not show any similarity with the Deccan trap of
the mainland and is surrounded by deep main faults on
R. N. IYENGAR AND B. P. RADHAKRISHNA
Lu
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290
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Fig.3. Drainage configuration of Gujarat and Saurashtra. Observe the radial drainage pattern marking it stand as a separate island
unconnected with the mainland (Chamyal et al. 2003).
all sides. It is interesting to recall the observation made a
long time ago by Wadia (1951) 'About twenty miles from
the coast of Mekran the area deepens suddenly to a great
hollow'. It is not clear whether any one has pursued
this observation and followed it up to ascertain the cause.
In all probability it might represent traces of a submerged
caldera. No wonder it has been an epicentre of strong
earthquakes.
Wadia (1957, p.45) makes reference to an earthquake
of magnitude 6.7 with epicentre near the Mekran coast 160
miles northwest of Karachi that resulted in a violent tidal
wave causing great damage all along the coast. Even Bombay
seems to have been affected with 6½ ft tidal wave and
washed away a number of people. Large eruptions from a
submarine mud volcano lead to the appearance of an
island few miles off the coast. Eyewitness account
reports ‘a huge sheet of flame and coloumns of smoke’
as having been observed immediately after the earthquake
(Pendse, 1948).
The same authority (p.47) has referred to the subsidence
of (1819) the western border of the Rann of Cutch under
the sea, accompanied by the elevation of a large tract of
land (the Allah Bund) a most striking event recorded in
India and was witnessed by the whole population.
It is interesting to recall that Siveright (1907), an officer
of the public works department working in NW India, in
the early part of 20th century had published his observations
in the Geographical Journal. He has presented evidence for
the Great Rann and the Little Rann being once navigable.
His surmise is that during Alexander's time (325 BC), the
coastline was almost lying parallel to 25°N latitude and
Kachchh and several other landmasses of smaller size
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.66, SEPT. 2005
EVOLUTION OF THE WESTERN COASTLINE OF INDIA AND THE PROBABLE LOCATION OF DWĀRAKĀ OF KR.S.N.A 291
appeared as islands. There are evidences to show that
(Rao et al. 1996) during 2nd millennium BC the sea level
would have been higher by about 4-6 m from the present
level. This was the reason for Dholavira, Lothal and
Kuntasi, now land locked, to have been ports in ancient
times (Mathur, 2002).
4.
5.
6.
CONCLUSIONS
7.
Arising out of the exercise of enquiring into the
historicity of Kr. s. n. a and the probable location of the
capital city Dwārakā which he built, the study throws
up several interesting geological aspects requiring further
study:
1. Saurashtra, Kachchh and several other masses appear
as islands off the west coast of India. It is the delta of
Saraswati, Mahi and other rivers which has filled up
the intervening land and created a connection with the
mainland.
2. The study of the Cambay basin is important in
understanding of the evolution of the west coast of
India.
3. The west coast of Gujarat is a highly tectonically
disturbed region with several E-W trending active
faults demarcating blocks moving up and down
8.
(Biswas, 1987; Chamyal and Maurya, 2002).
The region is seismically very active with several
strong earthquakes affecting it, the latest being that
of Bhuj.
The islands show evidence of differential uplift and
subsidence.
The region is one of high heat-flow showing the
existence of magma reservoir at shallow depths.
Prospects of occurrence of hydrocarbons in the rifts
and adjoining regions is high. The region appears
unexplored for its deep potential.
Volcanic breccia and plugs characterise the region. The
existence of a long ultramafic body is inferred based
on seismic tomography (Biswas, 2005).
The region therefore seems to offer the best ground for
putting to test the impact model for the generation of rifts at
the break-up of Gondwanaland.
A multi-disciplinary project would probably unravel the
evolutionary history of this important region.
Acknowldegement: Work of the first author has been
supported by the Indian Academy of Engineering, New
Delhi, through the Indian Engineering Heritage (Civil) study
group activity.
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