Subject Analysis Training for Cataloging Paraprofessionals: A Model for Ongoing
Learning and Support
Abstract. Oregon State University has trained paraprofessionals to assign subject
headings to theses and dissertations. This article describes the training program for
the paraprofessionals and the ongoing support provided by weekly meetings to
discuss works that are difficult to analyze. The transition from copy cataloging to
subject analysis is a major one for many paraprofessionals. The article identifies
common errors made by new subject analyzers and how they can be overcome.
These meetings provide a venue for further training on subject analysis, practice in
subject heading assignment and building cooperation amongst staff. They also allow
the cataloging supervisor to manage his/her own time better.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 1 of 19
Subject Analysis Training for Cataloging Paraprofessionals: A Model for Ongoing
Learning and Support
By
Richard Sapon-White
Abstract. Oregon State University has trained paraprofessionals to assign subject
headings to theses and dissertations. This article describes the training program for
the paraprofessionals and the ongoing support provided by weekly meetings to
discuss works that are difficult to analyze. The transition from copy cataloging to
subject analysis is a major one for many paraprofessionals. The article identifies
common errors made by new subject analyzers and how they can be overcome.
These meetings provide a venue for further training on subject analysis, practice in
subject heading assignment and building cooperation amongst staff. They also allow
the cataloging supervisor to manage his/her own time better.
Keywords: subject analysis, paraprofessionals, training, continuing education, Library
of Congress Subject Headings
Richard Sapon-White, MLS, is head of monographs cataloging at Oregon State
University. He can be reached at Richard.sapon-white@oregonstate.edu. Grateful
acknowledgement is made to the OSU Libraries Research and Writing Group for
thoughtful input for this paper.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 2 of 19
As libraries’ budgets shrink, so does the number of professional librarians at many
academic and research libraries. Within cataloging departments, this trend has led to
shifting tasks from professional catalogers to paraprofessional staff. Original and
complex copy cataloging, including the assignment of subject headings and call
numbers, was once the sole domain of the professional cataloger. Increasingly, these
activities are allotted to paraprofessionals.
Such a shift in responsibilities requires training and supervision in order to ensure
quality cataloging. Many cataloging paraprofessionals lack the professional
education and orientation of MLS-degreed catalogers. For paraprofessionals,
productivity is paramount in efficiently completing routine tasks, such as copy
cataloging with minimal inspection of the bibliographic record. Subject analysis, on
the other hand, can reduce productivity since the analysis of subject matter and the
application of subject heading construction rules and classification schedules are very
time-consuming. These tasks are intellectual, creative processes which take time and
reduce output. Changing from one work paradigm to another necessitates retraining
in both perspective and specific knowledge.
Our experience at Oregon State University (OSU) shows that such a transition can
be made successfully.
OSU is a land, sea, sun, and space grant institution with approximately 19,000
students and 1,800 faculty. The OSU Libraries’ holdings include over 1.4 million
volumes, 14,000 serials, and more than 500,000 maps and government documents. A
main library and veterinary medicine library on the main campus are complemented
by two branch libraries serving remote facilities of the university.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 3 of 19
The Technical Services Department includes serials and monographs cataloging
units and a digital production unit in addition to acquisitions units. The three units
involved in cataloging include 2.5 FTE catalog librarians and 8.5 FTE
paraprofessionals. The paraprofessionals include Library Technician 2s (LT2s) and
Library Technician 3s (LT3s) in the OSU classified staff system. The latter handle
more complex cataloging tasks than the LT2s, but until recently have done little
original cataloging or subject analysis.
The cataloging units participate in NACO,
SACO, and CONSER.
OSU provides full-level cataloging for its theses and dissertations, including the
assignment of LC subject headings. Such subject access is considered important
because of research demonstrating increased circulation of dissertations when their
records have been assigned subject headings.1 They are classified in an artificial call
number for OSU publications, where they are organized by degree, year, and author
rather than by subject. In the past, the assignment of subject headings to theses and
dissertations was performed by three monograph catalogers. In 2002, one monograph
cataloger retired and a second resigned. Subsequently, the decision was made not to
replace these positions. When the backlog of theses and dissertations was deemed
unacceptable, the decision was made to train two LT3s in subject analysis. This
enabled the lone remaining monograph cataloger to concentrate on the original
cataloging of new purchases, audiovisual materials, and electronic resources as well
as taking on supervisory duties.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 4 of 19
In 2003, a new Digital Production Unit was created to digitize and provide metadata
for selected scholarly materials. The decision was made to assign LC subject
headings to these resources as well. A MLS student was hired to oversee this unit
and to do the description and subject analysis for these resources. She also required
training in subject analysis.
This paper briefly describes the training these three paraprofessionals have received
and details the support structures that have been put into place to ensure the
continuing education and support of these cataloging paraprofessionals as they
transitioned to new roles in subject analysis.
Literature Review
The role of library paraprofessionals in cataloging departments has changed
dramatically in the past thirty years. Although continuing to be responsible for
routine tasks, such as copy cataloging, they have increasingly taken on
responsibilities that previously were the sole domain of professional catalogers.2,3
This trend is evident when looking at the many studies of the division of cataloging
tasks between professionals and paraprofessionals.4 ,5 ,6 ,7 The facility with which
catalog records can be shared has gradually led to a decrease in the scrutiny of
cataloging copy, freeing the time of paraprofessionals to take on tasks such as
description, classification and assignment of subject headings.8 Oberg, et al., found
that in 36 percent of ARL institutions, paraprofessionals assigned subject headings
and call numbers, a figure that was similar to several other studies.9 However,
paraprofessionals need a way to upgrade their skills to handle complex cataloging
problems.10
Subject Analysis Training
Page 5 of 19
Professionals, too, have undergone significant changes in their work. While taking
on supervisory roles in many departments, they continue to perform the bulk of
subject heading assignment and classification. They also are involved in problem
resolution, handling the more complex cataloging problems that are referred to them
by paraprofessional staff. Professional catalogers are heavily involved in developing
and applying cataloging rules to new formats as well as establishing best practices for
their departments. Once such practices are established, the responsibility for
cataloging new formats may be passed along to paraprofessionals.11
The training of paraprofessionals is a critical step in their transition to these new
tasks. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of literature on training paraprofessionals
through this transition. Paraprofessionals typically learn on the job.12 At many
institutions, both professional and paraprofessional catalogers are introduced first to
simpler materials, then progressively work on more difficult ones. Training is often
done on a one-on-one basis. Some researchers have found that paraprofessionals
require additional time or guidance as compared to professionals. This may be due to
the absence of previous education about the nature of the work or the lack of
recognition of the importance of the work being done. Reports of training techniques
or ways of supporting paraprofessionals as they take on additional roles in cataloging
departments are few.
Searle, in discussing the training provided to metadata providers, emphasizes the
importance of experiential learning following an overview of theory. Practice leads
to improvement through learning by example as well as by repetition. Feedback is
also an important component of metadata training.13
Subject Analysis Training
Page 6 of 19
Robare reported on a training program for paraprofessionals at the University of
Oregon.14 The program included formal classes on both subject heading assignment
and classification with each of these topics covered in six ninety-minute sessions. For
the class on subject headings, sessions covered principles, structure of subject
headings, subdivisions, and specific categories of subject headings (e.g., for works on
literature, biographies). A seventh session was added to cover geographic headings.
Outlines of presentations were distributed during classes which included references to
the Subject Cataloging Manual: Subject Headings (SCM:SH). The course
instructors emphasized use of the SCM:SH to encourage consultation of this principle
resource. Following the completion of the training course, Robare noted the
importance of providing timely feedback to paraprofessionals who are learning to
assign subject headings, including taking time to focus on the process of creating
headings so as to provide some context for corrections. She also mentions that
training continued on an informal basis between catalog librarians and
paraprofessionals.
OSU’s Training Program
Of the three paraprofessionals who were trained in subject analysis, two had worked
for many years in the OSU Cataloging Department performing various complex
cataloging tasks. This included problem resolution, catalog maintenance, authority
record proposals, and some simple original cataloging (e.g., deriving new records
from records of earlier editions, microfilm reproduction records from records of paper
editions). The third individual was a library school student with classroom practice of
cataloging but no library experience.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 7 of 19
The three paraprofessionals were trained sequentially by one-on-one sessions with
the monographs cataloging supervisor. These sessions covered the basics of subject
heading assignment. Later, as a way of reinforcing these sessions, the
paraprofessionals attended a Program for Cooperative Cataloging workshop on
Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH).
During the one-on-one sessions, the head of the monographs cataloging unit met
with each paraprofessional and presented information on specific aspects of the
subject analysis process. These topics included

determining the subject of a work,

orientation to LCSH,

orientation to SCM:SH,

subdivision practice,

pattern headings, and

geographic subdivision.
Also included was training in the use of Classification Web for access to LCSH as
well as Cataloger’s Desktop on the Web for access to SCM:SH. Specific instruction
sheets in SCM:SH were reviewed during the sessions, while others were assigned to
be read later. Training was conducted weekly for a month.
Following this initial training, the trainees were asked to work on theses and
dissertations, with the goal of assigning subject headings for five titles each week. At
weekly meetings, the monographs cataloging supervisor reviewed the completed
work with the trainee and answered any questions. These meetings frequently
Subject Analysis Training
Page 8 of 19
included the presentation of relevant SCM:SH memos not covered in the initial
training.
During the first few months, all subject headings were reviewed for accuracy,
syntax, and completeness. The monographs cataloging supervisor wrote comments
on printouts, including corrections, suggestions for better headings, and citation of
SCM:SH memos to read for study. Typical errors encountered included misapplying
free floating subdivisions, placing geographic subdivisions in the wrong location in
subject heading strings, using broad terms when narrow ones were more appropriate,
or using frankly incorrect headings. During this period of review, the
paraprofessionals learned the mechanics of LCSH relatively quickly. As the quality
of the subject headings assigned improved, the weekly meetings with the monographs
cataloging supervisor were dropped in favor of written comments and corrections.
Once the rate of error dropped to a fairly low level, paraprofessionals were asked to
submit only records for review in which their confidence in the assigned subject
headings was low. This reduced the workload of the monographs cataloging
supervisor and signaled to the paraprofessional a certain degree of independence.
Although at this point paraprofessionals were able to assign subject headings
largely independent of any oversight, they felt a need to further their understanding of
subject analysis. Subject analysis of theses and dissertations can be quite difficult
because these works discuss innovative concepts, theories, inventions, and materials
for which subject headings may not yet have been established in LCSH. These works
also tend to be so narrowly focused or couched in such highly technical language that
the actual subject area may be difficult to determine for someone outside the field.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 9 of 19
This is especially true for theses and dissertations in the sciences and engineering.
Subject analysis of these materials requires research in subject dictionaries and
encyclopedias to gain an understanding of the topic’s background in addition to a
careful reading of abstracts, introductions, and tables of contents. The
paraprofessionals sought a regular forum for seeking help not provided by the
occasional review of the monographs cataloging supervisor.
In the summer of 2005, the monographs cataloging supervisor initiated weekly
sessions with the paraprofessionals in order to grapple with some of the more difficult
subject analysis challenges of theses and dissertations. These sessions were also an
opportunity to ask questions about subject heading construction and application. In
2006, a third paraprofessional was trained in subject analysis of digitized resources
and invited to join in these weekly meetings. Although these digitized resources were
not in MARC format, the project still required all subject strings to be constructed per
LCSH.
These weekly meetings have now continued for two years. Typically, the
paraprofessionals bring photocopies of abstracts from the works that are stumping
them to distribute to all attendees. Proposed subject headings are also distributed.
Attendees then critique and supplement the proposed subject headings. Discussion
ensues until a suitable set of subject headings has been assigned. During this process,
LCSH is consulted as are other subject heading tools and dictionaries. Recently, a
laptop with wireless Internet access has been used at meetings to provide immediate
access to Classification Web, Cataloger’s Desktop, Wikipedia, and other online
resources. Since all new OSU theses and dissertations are now electronic, the laptop
Subject Analysis Training
Page 10 of 19
also can provide access to the full text of these materials should meeting participants
wish to consult other parts of these works beyond the abstracts.
Often, the paraprofessionals suggested many more subject headings than are used
on the final record. The process for the group then becomes one of winnowing
through the suggestions, rejecting ones that are too broad or tangential to the work.
Subject headings that require further subdivisions are suggested. Below are four
examples and a description of the kind of revisions that occur during the meetings.
Example 1
Title: Toxic politics at 64N, 171W : addressing military contaminants on St.
Lawrence Island, Alaska
The paraprofessional had assigned the following subject headings.

Hazardous waste site remediation -- Alaska – St. Lawrence Island

Defense industries – Environmental aspects -- Alaska – St. Lawrence Island

Eskimos -- Alaska – St. Lawrence Island

Military base closures -- Environmental aspects -- Alaska – St. Lawrence
Island
Reviewing the subject headings provides the opportunity to give feedback on a
number of different aspects of the subject analysis process. First, the structure and
format of the headings can be reviewed. In the example above, “St.” should be
spelled out in each heading. Second, the headings need to be reviewed for
appropriateness. Do they accurately reflect the subject matter of the work? This
work is not specifically about Eskimos on St. Lawrence Island, but it does report on
their opinions on pollutants flowing from closed military bases on the island. The
Subject Analysis Training
Page 11 of 19
subdivision “Attitudes” was therefore added to the third heading. The heading
“Defense industries” was removed because the work focused on military bases, not
the factories involved in defense products. Are there additional concepts that are
missing? Thus far, the political aspect of the work was missing from the headings, so
adding “Political aspects” as a subdivision under “Military base closures” provided
this facet of the topic.
Both the head of monographs cataloging and the paraprofessionals participated in
this revision process. The unit head brought years of experience in subject cataloging
that made it possible to quickly see errors in subject heading construction. He also
analyzed the headings for accuracy and completeness. The paraprofessionals were
well-acquainted with the topics covered in theses and dissertations because over time
similar topics are addressed. When a facet is identified as missing, they can search
LCSH for something better, suggest additional subdivisions, or look up unusual
words in a science dictionary to provide a better understanding.
The final set of subject headings assigned follows.

Hazardous waste site remediation -- Alaska -- Saint Lawrence Island

Military base closures -- Political aspects -- Alaska -- Saint Lawrence Island

Eskimos -- Alaska -- Saint Lawrence Island -- Attitudes

Military base closures -- Environmental aspects -- Alaska -- Saint Lawrence
Island
Example 2
Title: Aging and oxidative damage to mitochondrial membrane proteins
The subject headings initially assigned follows.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 12 of 19

Mitochondrial pathology – Diseases

Proteins – Denaturation

Active oxygen in the body

Tandem mass spectrometry

Liquid chromatography
The subdivision “Diseases” is authorized only under organs and regions of the
body, so its use under “Mitochondrial pathology” is incorrect. The last two headings
are scientific techniques used in the research and not primary foci of the work, so they
should be eliminated. It is not unusual for beginning subject analyzers to focus on the
methodology described in theses and dissertations rather than on the topic of research.
On the other hand, some theses and dissertations do focus on research techniques.
Experience can help the cataloger sort out when to bring out this aspect in the subject
headings.
The final constellation of headings assigned follows.

Mitochondrial pathology

Proteins – Denaturation

Active oxygen in the body
Example 3
Title: Electron molecule interactions of amino acids and peptides
The subject headings initially assigned were as follows.

Amino acids

Peptides
Subject Analysis Training
Page 13 of 19
The aspect of interaction between electrons and molecules has been missed. There
is a tendency of new subject analysts to focus on prominent nouns in the title. While
this is important, it is equally important to understand the concepts being described in
the work; these may not appear as single nouns. In this case, searching LCSH
provided two additional headings that reflect the idea of the interaction of electrons
with molecules.
Following is the final set of subject headings.

Amino acids

Peptides

Electrons -- Capture

Electron-molecule collisions
Example 4
Title: An intrinsic codimension two cellular decomposition of the Hilbert cube
The subject heading initially assigned follows.

Hilbert space
One of the difficulties in assigning subject headings to theses and dissertations is
that their topics may be very narrow in scope and couched in terminology that a
layperson would have difficulty understanding. For this title, the paraprofessional did
not know if one of the subject headings beginning with “Hilbert” was a synonym for
“Hilbert cube” or might be subsumed under that heading. Her guess that a Hilbert
cube was a kind of Hilbert space was confirmed in the group meeting by looking at
the entry for Hilbert cube in Wikipedia.
Discussion
Subject Analysis Training
Page 14 of 19
The process of subject analysis is an iterative one requiring that the subject analyst
shift between scrutinizing the resource, consulting reference sources to understand its
content, and examining the thesaurus supplying the subject descriptors.15 Theses and
dissertations can be especially difficult to understand, particularly for those outside
the discipline, because of technical language and narrow focus on innovative topics.
Theses and dissertations often use very technical language and are written for
specialists, not generalists. Once the subject is understood, finding appropriate
headings in LCSH can be challenging. The process is time-consuming and requires
considerable intellectual effort. We have found that the skills necessary to perform
quality subject analysis of theses and dissertations can be readily taught to
paraprofessionals, but ongoing support is necessary to ensure continuing development
of their skills.
Many cataloging paraprofessionals are accustomed to working in a production linelike mode, processing library materials at a high rate and with relatively little
independent decision-making. The transition to a process that is primarily concerned
with intellectual accuracy requires a reorientation to new principles, goals, and
objectives. Assigning subject headings is a skill that develops over time and is best
done in relationship with a more experienced subject analyst. This mentor-mentee
relationship enables the mentor to share expertise while allowing the mentee the
supportive environment in which questions can be asked freely.
The weekly subject analysis meetings at OSU provide the paraprofessionals with
feedback on their work. This feedback goes beyond simple correction of errors in
subject analysis or construction of subject headings. It also includes constructive
Subject Analysis Training
Page 15 of 19
criticism of analytic technique. This can be best done by demonstrating subject
analysis methodology, including techniques for understanding the text being analyzed
and how to search LCSH creatively to discover headings that might otherwise be
missed. The development of good cataloger’s judgment involves learning a complex
assortment of intellectual skills that are more easily demonstrated than taught by rote.
The most significant benefit for the paraprofessionals is that the weekly subject
analysis meetings provide a venue where they can learn from one another.
Paraprofessionals can ask questions and see that their peers have similar questions.
Because theses and dissertations from the same academic department tend to focus on
similar topics, paraprofessionals can build their expertise in specific subject areas and
share that knowledge with their co-workers at the meetings. This sharing builds a
sense of teamwork and improves working relationships that can continue outside of
the weekly meetings. Paraprofessionals often report discussing difficult theses and
dissertations with one another prior to bringing lingering questions to the meetings.
Removing the isolation that is so often a part of performing cataloging work is an
important function of the meetings.
Two problems frequently encountered in the meetings include the tendency to want
to index a thesis by including many subject headings. Occasional reminders to focus
on subject headings that summarize the work rather than indexing every topic or
keyword appears to be necessary from time to time. The other problem is that
dissertations often mention a specific problem that the research is addressing, but the
work really presents research on a very small aspect of the broader topic.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 16 of 19
Consequently, it is not always appropriate to assign a subject heading on what the
research may be applied to.
The monographs cataloging supervisor has also benefited from the weekly meetings
with paraprofessionals. With a set time for discussing subject analysis questions with
the paraprofessionals, interruptions to his other work during the week are reduced.
By concentrating this type of consultation into a weekly hour-long session, he can
assist multiple paraprofessionals at one time. The meetings also help to create
teachable moments – opportunities for discussing subject analysis principles raised by
individuals but shared with the group. This ongoing professional development allows
the supervisor to share expertise on a regular basis with subordinates in an open,
informal atmosphere. After two years of meetings, the paraprofessionals are usually
able to assign appropriate subject headings, but the meetings provide the opportunity
for the supervisor to reassure them of the quality of their work.
Conclusion
With the weekly sessions firmly established as a routine practice, the
paraprofessionals have expanded the scope of the sessions to include other cataloging
questions beyond subject headings. Issues relating to description and classification
are occasionally brought to the group for discussion. As of this summer (2007), OSU
paraprofessionals are being trained in LC Classification in order to reduce a backlog
of monograph gifts. Already, they have suggested a second weekly session
specifically addressing classification questions. This request is a reflection of their
positive attitude toward the LCSH sessions that have now been conducted for the past
two years.
Subject Analysis Training
Page 17 of 19
OSU’s experience shows that paraprofessionals can be trained to take on more
advanced cataloging responsibilities, but ongoing support is an important aspect of
their transition to these new tasks. With access to training, mentoring, and mutual
support, paraprofessionals can expand their roles in the cataloging department,
building their self-confidence while learning new skills and taking on new tasks.
Received: November 26, 2007
Accepted: January 9, 2008
Richard Sapon-White and Mary Hansbrough, “The Impact of Subject Heading
Assignment on Circulation of Dissertations at Virginia Tech,” Library Resources and
Technical Services, 42, no. 4 (1998):282-291.
1
Claire-Lise Benaud, “The Academic Paraprofessional Cataloger: Underappreciated?,”
Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, 15, no. 3 (1992):81-92.
2
Jina Choi Wakimoto and Gina R. Hsiung, “Blurring the Boundaries Between
Professional and Para-Professional Catalogers at California State University,
Northridge,” Library Collections Acquisitions & Technical Services, 24, no. 2 (Summer
2000):171-188.
3
Patricia A. Eskoz, “The Catalog Librarian—Change or Status Quo?: Results of a Survey
of Academic Libraries,” Library Resources & Technical Services, 34, no. 3 (July
1990):380-392
4
Sally Braden, John D. Hall, and Helen H. Britton, “Utilization of Personnel and
Bibliographic Resources for Cataloging by OCLC Participating Libraries,” Library
Resources & Technical Services, 24, no. 2 (Spring 1980):135-154.
5
Deborah A. Mohr and Anita Schuneman, “Changing Roles: Cataloging by
Paraprofessionals in ARL Libraries,” Library Resources and Technical Services, 41, no.
3 (1997):205-18.
6
Jennifer A. Younger, “Support Staff and Librarians in Cataloging,” Cataloging and
Classification Quarterly, 23, no. 1 (1996):27-47.
7
Mary M. Rider, “Developing New Roles for Paraprofessionals in Cataloging,” Journal
of Academic Librarianship, 22, no. 1 (Jan. 1996):26-32.
8
Subject Analysis Training
Page 18 of 19
Larry R. Oberg et al., “The Role, Status, and Working Conditions of Paraprofessionals:
A National Survey of Academic Libraries,” College & Research Libraries, 53, no. 3
(May 1992):215-38; Eskoz, “Catalog Librarian,” p. 388; Sandra Da Conturbia, “Who
Catalogs Foreign-Language Materials?: A Survey of ARL Libraries,” Technical Services
Quarterly, 10, no. 1 (1992):15-30.
9
Lynne C. Howarth, “The Role of the Paraprofessional in Technical Services in
Libraries,” Library Trends, 46, no. 3 (Winter 1998):526-39.
10
Jeanne M.K. Boydston and Joan M. Leysen, “Internet Resources Cataloging in ARL
Libraries: Staffing and Access Issues,” Serials Librarian, 41, no. 3-4 (2002):127-145.
11
Sever Michael Bordeianu and Virginia Seiser, “Paraprofessional Cataloguers in ARL
Libraries,” College and Research Libraries, 60, no. 6 (1999):532-540.
12
13
Samantha Searle, Gaining Expertise in Creating Metadata: An Exploratory Study,
MLIS Research Project, (Wellington, N.Z.: Victoria University of Wellington, 2002), p.
69-74.
Lori Proudfit Robare, “Training Paraprofessionals in Classification and Subject
Analysis,” Technical Services Quarterly, 14, no. 2 (1996):49-63.
14
Alenka Šauperl, Subject Determination During the Cataloging Process, (Lanham, MD:
Scarecrow, 2002), p. 143.
15
Subject Analysis Training
Page 19 of 19