AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF
Doctor of
Sommai Tachasirinugune for the degree of
Philosophy
April 24, 1986
Title:
Poultry Science
in
presented on
.
Performance of Broilers and Layers Fed Crab Meal
and Other Substances for Improving Utilization of
Diets Containing Whey or Cellulose
Abstract approved:
Redacted for privacy
Dr. George H. Arscott
Several experiments involving broilers and laying hens
were conducted to study the effects of feeding crab meal,
dried whey and cellulose. The positive responses of crab
meal as a substance for improving the utilization of dried
whey and cellulose were examined. Cellulose treated with
concentrated H3PO4 in broiler diets and diets supplemented
with zinc bacitracin for both broiler and laying hens were
studied. The TME-values of broiler diets were evaluated.
Performance effects of broilers which were inoculated with
bifidobacteria and fed diets containing crab meal,
cellulose and dried whey were also investigated.
In broiler experiments, satisfactory performance was
obtained when crab meal was used in broiler starter diets
at 2, 4 and 8% levels. No adverse effects on growth were
observed when chicks were fed a 20% whey diet, however wet
droppings were observed. Supplementation with crab meal
had no beneficial effect on the utilization of whey.
In studies with cellulose, significant depression
(P<.05) in growth and feed conversion was associated with
the inclusion of 10 and 15% cellulose. However, feed
consumption was not affected. The addition of 4% crab meal
appears to result in improvement on growth and feed
efficiency with the 10% level but not at the 15% level of
cellulose. Treatment of cellulose with concentrated H3PO4
did not provide a beneficial effect on fiber utilization
by chicks. A supplement of zinc bacitracin at 27.5 and 55
ppm levels on 4% crab meal, 10% of cellulose, and 4% crab
meal plus 10% cellulose-containing diets had positive
effects on broiler performance.
The TME-value of the control diet was comparable to
those of the 4% crab meal diet. The TME-value of the 10%
cellulose (SF) was significantly lower (P<.01) than the
control. The addition of 4% crab meal failed to increase
the TME-value of the 10% cellulose (SF) diet.
The performance of broiler chicks inoculated with
Bifidobacteria pseudolongum was comparable to those of the
uninoculated chicks as compared in the same dietary
treatments except the 4% crab meal diet, the inoculated
chicks were slightly heavier in weight, but had
significantly (P<.05) higher feed consumption and poorer
feed efficiency than those of the control chicks.
In a laying hen experiment, birds fed the 4% crab meal
diet showed satisfactory reproductive performance. Egg
production and efficiency of feed utilization were
numerically better than those of the control birds.
Feeding a 10% shavings diet did not have any adverse
effect on hen egg production, external and internal egg
quality or body weight. However, a significant increase
(P<.05) on feed consumption and feed per dozen eggs were
noted that could be accounted for on the basis of diet
dilution. Egg yolk cholesterol was not affected as birds
fed either 5 or 10% shavings. The addition of crab meal
had no beneficial effects on utilization of fiber by
laying hens. Diets supplemented with zinc bacitracin did
not appear to have a positive effect on reproductive
performance of layers.
Performance of Broilers and Layers Fed Crab Meal and
Other Substances for Improving Utilization of
Diets Containing Whey or Cellulose
by
Sommai Tachasirinugune
A THESIS
Submitted to
Oregon State University
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the
degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Completed April 24, 1986
Commencement June 8, 1986
APPROVED:
Redacted for privacy
Professor of Poultry Science, in charge of major
Redacted for privacy
Head of Department of Poultry Science
Redacted for privacy
Dean of Graduat
School
Date thesis is presented
Typed by Sherri Harkins for
April 24, 1986
Sommai Tachasirinugune
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude and
appreciation to my major professor, Dr. George H. Arscott
for his excellent advice, constant understanding,
encouragement, support and guidance throughout all aspects
of this study.
Grateful acknowledgements are due to my graduate
committee members, Drs. David C. England, Harry S. Nakaue,
Roger G. Petersen and Russell C. Youmans, for their
valuable advice and critical review of this thesis.
A special thanks to Dr. Suk Y. Oh for his generous
advice and allowing the cholesterol determinations to be
conducted in his laboratory; Dr. John L. Fryer and Mr.
Donald L. Overholser from the Department of Microbiology
for theit advice and technical assistance in the
microbiological analysis; Dr. Don H. Helfer for his advice
and review of the thesis and Mrs. Mary P. Goeger for her
assistance in the laboratory, with the use of the computer
and statistical analysis.
Without the financial support of the graduate research
assistantship I held in the Poultry Science Department
through the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station,
completion of this research would not have been possible.
I would also like to thank the Hubbard Farms Charitable
Foundation Scholarship and the Pacific egg and Poultry
Association for honoring me with two valued scholarships.
Special appreciation and thanks to the faculty, staff
and students of the Department of Poultry Science and
especially to Miss Sherri Harkins for typing the
manuscripts.
Sincere admiration and thanks to Mr. Abdul-Rahman H.
Nassar and Mr. Vinai Rakphongphairoj for their friendship
and constant help; my fellow graduate students, Mr. Amir
Nilipour, mr. Salim Bootwalla, Mr. Ali Youssef Hakimi, Mr.
Abdul Malek Modhish, Mr. Tim Taylor and Miss Yea-Ching Wu
for their warm friendship.
Finally, I would like to express my appreciation to my
parents, brothers and sisters for their support and
patience and to my wife and son for their love and
understanding.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
II.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3
CRAB MEAL IN POULTRY RATIONS
Nutritional Properties
A.
B.
Studies with Chicks
Studies with Broilers
C.
Studies with Laying Hens
D.
E.
Studies with Turkeys
3
3
4
CHITIN IN POULTRY
A.
Introduction
Studies with Broilers
B.
Studies with Other Animals
C.
Effects on Food Processing
D.
Wastes
9
III.
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
WHEY IN POULTRY FEEDS
A.
Introduction
Composition of Whey and Whey
B.
Products
Feeding Dried Whey to Poultry
C.
13
13
FIBER IN POULTRY FEEDS
A.
Introduction
Effects on Broilers
B.
Effects on Laying Hens
C.
D.
Effects on Egg Yolk
Cholesterol
E.
Effects on Fermentation and
Characteristic of the Gut
18
18
19
24
14
16
27
29
ANTIBIOTICS IN IMPROVING UTILIZATION OF
POULTRY FEEDS
31
PERFORMANCE OF BROILERS FED CRAB MEAL AS AN
AGENT FOR IMPROVING THE UTILIZATION OF
CELLULOSE AND WHEY DIETS
36
ABSTRACT
37
INTRODUCTION
39
MATERIALS AND METHODS
44
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
47
REFERENCES
63
TABLE OF CONTENTS, cont.
IV.
V.
EFFECTS OF FEEDING CRAB MEAL, CELLULOSE AND
DRIED WHEY DIETS TO CHICKS INOCULATED WITH
BIFIDOBACTERIA
68
ABSTRACT
69
INTRODUCTION
70
MATERIALS AND METHODS
72
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
75
REFERENCES
81
EFFECTS OF DIETARY CRAB MEAL AND FIBER ON
THE PERFORMANCE OF LAYING HENS
82
ABSTRACT
83
INTRODUCTION
84
MATERIALS AND METHODS
88
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
90
REFERENCES
98
VI.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
101
VII.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
105
VIII.
APPENDICES
122
123
125
131
II
III
LIST OF TABLES
II.1
Chemical analysis of crab meal (%)
34
11.2
The nutrient content of various wheys (%)
35
III.1
Composition of the diets (%) for all
experiments
54
Composition of additional diets (%) for
Experiment 2
55
Composition of additional diets (%) for
Experiment 3
56
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks
of age (Exp. 1)
57
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks
of age (Exp. 2)
58
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks
of age for dried whey diets (Exp. 2)
59
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks
of age (Exp. 3)
60
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks
of age when zinc bacitracin was supplemented
in the diets (Exp. 4 & 5)
61
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks
of age (Exp. 6)
62
IV.1
Composition of diets (%)
77
IV.2
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks
of age
78
Macro- and microscopic examination of
organisms isolated from chick intestinal
material
79
Sugar fermentation reactions of organisms
appearing to be Bifidobacterium pseudolongum
80
V.1
Composition of diets (%)
94
V.2
Differences by periods for ave. body weight
(kg) among treatments
95
111.2
111.3
111.4
III.5a
III.5b
111.6
111.7
111.8
IV.3
IV.4
LIST OF TABLES, cont.
V.3
V.4
A2.1
A3.1
A3.2
A3.3
A3.4
A3.5
A3.6
A3.7
Differences by periods for feed consumption
(g) among treatments
96
Mean values for feed/dozen eggs, egg
production, egg weight, specific gravity,
Haugh unit and yolk cholesterol for eight
28-day periods
97
THE values of broiler starter diets obtained
from each adult SCWL rooster
129
Effects on the means of feed/dozen eggs (g)
for each period from layer hens fed dietary
treatments for eight 28-day periods
133
Effects on the mean of egg production (%) for
each period from layer hens fed dietary
treatments for eight 28-day periods
134
Effects on the means of egg weight (g) from
layer hens fed dietary treatments
135
Effects on specific gravity and Haugh units
from layer hens fed dietary treatments
136
Effects on egg yolk cholesterol (mg/g) from
layer hens fed dietary treatments
137
Effects on the means of feed consumption (g)
for layer hens fed dietary treatments for
each period when the amount of wood shavings
in the diets were subtracted off
138
Effects on the means of feed/dozen eggs (g)
from layer hens fed dietary treatments for
each period when the amount of wood shavings
in the diets were subtracted off
139
Performance of Broilers and Layers Fed Crab Meal and
Other Substances for Improving Utilization of
Diets Containing Whey or Cellulose
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Millions of kilograms of crab meal and whey are
produced annually in the United states as by-products of
the crab and cheese manufacturing industries. Most of
these by-products are disposed of as waste, a practice
that creates serious environmental pollution problems and
a loss of valuable nutrients.
Crab meal has been reported to be used satisfactorily
as an ingredient in poultry feed despite its chitin and
high calcium carbonate content. It is thought that the
chicken does not have the ability to utilize high levels
of whey in the diet because it lacks the enzyme to digest
lactose which is present in whey. Recent studies (Austin
et al., 1981 and Zikakis et al, 1982) suggest that the
growth of bifidobacteria in the chicken gut may be
increased by the presence of chitin in their diets.
Bifidobacteria block the growth of other types of
microorganisms and generate the lactase required for
digestion of lactose (Zilliken et al., 1954). Austin et
al. (1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982) showed that chitin
and its products would permit the utilization of higher
(20%) than normal levels (<10%) of whey by growing chicks.
2
Cellulolytic containing materials exceed approximately
50% of the dry weight of all vegetation and little
progress has been made on utilization of cellulose (Scott
et al., 1982). This is due to the lack of cellulase in
monogastric animals. They also noted that microorganisms
play an important role in this regard. This certainly
suggests that the role of the intestinal microflora might
be vitally important in feed ingredient utilization
especially in the possible utilization of lactose and
cellulose containing feedstuffs.
In consideration of the above mentioned reports and
the fact that chitin is produced from crab waste and it is
more expensive than crab meal, the objectives of these
experiments were as follows:
1.
To determine the effect of crab meal, dried whey
and various fibrous materials as dietary supplements in
broiler starter diets.
2.
To determine the effect of crab meal as a
substance to improve the utilization of dried whey and
cellulose through improved performance of broiler chicks.
3.
To determine the effect on broiler chicks which
were inoculated with bifidobacteria and fed diets
containing crab meal, dried whey or cellulose.
4.
To examine the reproductive performance of laying
hens receiving diets supplemented with crab meal or ground
wood shavings either singly or in combination.
3
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
CRAB MEAL IN POULTRY RATIONS
Crab meal, as defined by the Association of American
Feed Control officials (1941), is that product prepared
from the undecomposed dried waste of the crab industry and
consists of shell, viscera and part or all of the flesh.
It contains not less than 25 percent protein and not more
than 3 percent salt. Most of the crab meal is derived from
the waste of the blue and king crab by passing fresh waste
through a steam tube dryer.
A.
Nutritional Properties
Many investigators have analyzed crab meal and their
nutritional values are summarized in Table II.1 Lubitz et
al. (1943) reported that 15 percent of the nitrogen in the
crab meal samples was attributed to chitin and had no
supplementary protein value for chicks. Meyers and
Rutledge (1971) reported that a major problem in
utilization of crab meal as protein supplements in animal
rations was the large proportion of exoskeleton (chitin
protein associated with chitin and calcium carbonate)
resulting in a final protein level frequently less than
25%. Rutledge (1971) has developed a decalcification
method for crab meal which could reduce calcium levels by
as much as 68% resulting in an improved calcium:phosphorus
4
ratio.
Lubitz et al. (1943) found that crab meal contained
2.9 gammas of riboflavin per gram, less than 1 I.U. of
Vit. A per gram and no measurable amount of thiamine or
Vit. D. Culton and Bird (1941) found 5.4 micrograms of
riboflavin in their sample of crab. Lillie et al. (1949a,
1949b) reported that crab meal contained 0.33 gamma of
vitamin B12 per gram whereas Arscott and Combs (1950)
found 0.22 gamma of vitamin B12 per gram in their study.
The biological value of the available protein of crab
meal, with casein considered as 100, was 76 with rats. A
gross or supplementary value for its crude protein of 59
was obtained with chickens (Lubitz et al., 1943).
B.
Studies with Chicks
Schaperclaus (1933) reported studies with chicks in
which crab meal was one of the ingredients in the rations
fed. He concluded that crab meal was so high in ash
content, especially calcium carbonate, that it was not
desirable for use in poultry rations.
Mangold and Damkohler (1938) compared crab meal with
fish meal as protein supplements for poultry rations.
Three groups of 12 six-week-old pullets were fed rations
containing 10 percent of fish meal, 25 percent of crab
meal and 12.5 percent of crab meal plus 2.5 percent of
whale meal. The three rations were calculated as having
the same levels of protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract.
5
They found that the chicks on the fish meal diet made
better growth at 30 wks of age, but the differences were
not significant. The crab meal diets were not palatable at
first. They concluded that crab meal could be added to the
mash in amounts up to 25 percent.
Parkhurst et al. (1944a) performed an experiment to
determine the replacement value of crab meal for fish meal
and meat scrap when chicks were fed to 8 wks of age. Four
groups of day-old chicks were fed rations containing 2.5%
of fish meal + 6% meat scrap, 2.5% of crab meal + 6% meat
scrap, 5.5% crab meal + 3% meat scrap and 5% crab meal +
6% meat scrap. No adjustments in crude protein and mineral
content were made. They found that the growth of chicks
was significantly better for ration containing fish meal
than on the rations containing crab meal and that higher
levels of crab meal tended to give more pigmentation.
C.
Studies with Broilers
Parkhurst et al. (1944a) studied the utilization of
crab meal by broilers. Four groups of 20 day-old broiler
chicks were fed ration containing 5.5% crab meal + 2.5%
dried skim milk, 5.5% fish meal + 2.5% dried skim milk,
2.5% fish meal + 7.5% dried skim milk and 5.5% crab meal +
7.5% dried skim milk up to 14 weeks of age. All rations
were adjusted for crude protein and mineral content. They
found that there were no significant differences in growth
rate, feed efficiency, feathering or pigmentation. Crab
6
meal could satisfactorily replace fish meal when the
content and ratio of calcium and phosphorus in the ration
were adjusted.
Romoser (1957) performed an experiment to test the
unidentified growth factor activity of both fish meal and
crab meal in high energy rations. The levels of each
product, 2.5% and 5.0%, were used as dietary supplements.
Improved growth and feed coversion were noted in broilers
fed either crab meal or fish meal supplements. Moreover,
the higher level seemed to give at least numerically
better results than the lower levels for either product
studied. Cox (1971) performed an experiment to evaluate
the potential use of Queen crab (Snow crab) meal as an
ingredient in broiler diets. The crab meal was added to
the diets at levels of 0%, 10% and 20%. The diets were
maintained isonitrogenous, isophosphoric and isocaloric.
He found that the 10% level of crab meal resulted in the
greatest body weight gains and the 20% level of crab meal
resulted in weight gains intermediate between those
observed on the 0% and 10% crab meal diets. Crab meal
could be used in broiler diets at a level of approximately
15% without any detrimental effect on growth rate, feed
efficiency or carcass flavor.
D.
Studies with Laying Hens
Manning (1929) compared crab meal and meat meal as
ingredients in laying feeds. The total number of eggs
7
produced for three months was 1,110 for the group on crab
meal and 855 for the hens receiving meat meal. The birds
on the crab meal diet had slightly better plumage, more
vitality and better appetites. As the meat meal ration
contained almost twice as much crude protein as the ration
containing crab meal and while the opposite was true as
far as ash content was concerned, he concluded that the
mineral constituents of crab meal were readily available
and the protein in crab meal might be in a form more
readily assimilated than that in meat meal.
Byerly et al. (1933) fed diets containing various
proteins from animal and vegetable origin to determine the
effects on egg production and hatchability. Proteins made
up from 11.2 to 23.6 percent of the rations. The protein
supplements were meat meal, crab meal (from blue crab),
fish meal, dried buttermilk, dried yeast, soybean meal,
cottonseed meal and a combination of meat meal, fish meal
and buttermilk. The fish meal ration had a crude protein
content of 22.75 percent while that of the crab meal
ration was only 15.64 percent. They found that the crab
meal ration was consumed readily and provided for good egg
production and hatchability.
Parkhurst et al. (1944b) demonstrated that crab meal
and fish meal fed on an equal protein basis and with
minerals adjusted resulted in no appreciable differences
in egg production, feed conversion, fertility,
8
hatchability, egg weight and internal or external egg
quality between comparable groups.
In 1938, Mangold and Damkohler reported differing
results in that fish meal was slightly superior to crab
meal in regard to egg production. Fangauf et al. (1935)
fed supplements of crab meal, shrimp meal, crawfish meal
and fish meal in four different rations to laying hens,
when using a corn scratch feeding system. They found that
the crab meal group consumed less feed, were poorer in egg
production and had higher feed per dozen eggs than other
groups. However, the differences were not significant and
hatchability was good in the eggs from the crab meal
rations.
E.
Studies with Turkeys
Potter and Shelton (1970) found that adding 3 or 6%
crab meal to the diets of young turkeys containing 5, 10
or 15% alfalfa meal resulted in improved body weight and
feed consumption as compared to those receiving no crab
meal. Crab meal as a dietary ingredient for young turkeys
was again studied by Potter and Shelton (1973). Adding 3
or 6% crab meal to diets of turkeys between 1 day and 4
weeks of age resulted in their average body weight being
increased by 5.2 or 6.8% and feed consumption by 4.2 or
5.8%, respectively. Efficiency of food utilization was not
significantly changed. They also found that the addition
of 5% crab meal to the diets of turkeys between 4 and 8
9
weeks of age resulted in average body weight gain and feed
consumption being increased by 1.4 and 1.3%, respectively.
CHITIN IN POULTRY
A.
Introduction
Chitin, poly-f3(1-4)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, a
cellulose-like biopolymer, is the second most abundant
organic compound on earth (Ruiz-Herrera, 1978; Tracey,
1957). Chitin is frequently present as a cell wall
material in plants, replacing cellulose or sometimes
occurring together with cellulose (Rudall, 1969). In
animal structures, chitin is usually organized as a
cuticle at one surface of the epithelium. Chitin is found
especially in marine invertebrates, insects, fungi and
yeast, and wholly deacetylated chitin (i.e. chitosan) is
recognized in various fungi (Austin et al., 1981; Rudall,
1969). Ashford et al. (1977) demonstrated that chitin
represented 14-27% and 13-15% of the dry weight of shrimp
and crab processing waste, respectively.
Both chitin and chitosan are processed industrially
from crustacian shell waste. The processing of chitin is
given by Blumberg et al. (1951), Broussignac (1968),
Foster and Hackman (1957), Hackman (1954), Horowitz et al.
(1957), Muzzarelli (1977), and Muzzarelli and Pariser
(1978).
10
Microcystalline chitin (MCC), a viable, easily
dispersible, low molecular weight chitin has been prepared
by hydrolyzing chitin in a mixture of 2-propanol and
phosphoric acid (Austin et al., 1981; Dunn and Farr, 1974).
B.
Studies with Broilers
Recent research reported from the University of
Delaware points to the nutritional significance of chitin.
It was suggested that the growth of bifidobacteria in the
gut of chickens was increased by chitin addition to their
diet (Austin et al., 1981). These predominant bacteria
have been found to be prevalent in the intestinal flora of
breast-fed infants in contrast to the mixed flora of
infants fed on cow's milk (Stacey and Barker, 1962).
Bifidobacteria block the growth of other types of
microorganism and generate the lactase required for
digestion of milk lactose (Ziliken, et al., 1954).
Austin et al. (1981) studied the effect of using
microcrystalline chitin (MCC) and high lactose dried whey
in broiler rations. They found that chicks receiving both
2% of MCC and 20% of high-lactose whey were significantly
heavier (P<.05) than the controls. Those receiving either
MCC or whey had poorer growth. Zikakis et al. (1982) and
Austin et al. (1982) reported similar results that a
combination of chitinous products and whey in
isonitrogenous, isocaloric diets enable broiler chickens
to utilize whey more efficiently. Zikakis et al. (1982)
11
showed that the abdominal fat pads of chickens fed the
chitin-whey diet weighed significantly less (P<.01) than
those of chickens fed the control ration. However,
unpublished data from this station by Alyan and Arscott
(1981) found that in two experiments with broilers fed the
chitinous sources at 2% levels with 20% dried whey (both
high and low lactose), no beneficial effects involving an
interaction of chitin in the utilization of whey by chicks.
C.
Studies with Other Animals
Watkins and Knorr (1983) demonstrated in feeding
trials with gerbils that addition of up to 8.5% chitin in
the diet resulted in normal growth and vigor of the
animals. Growth rates and organ weights were comparable to
cellulose-fed controls indicating that chitin may be an
effective dietary fiber.
Gordon and Williford (1983) showed that at a 5% level,
neither chitin nor chitosan affected growth or feed
consumption rates over a three-week period compared to a
5% cellulose control. Increasing both chitosan and chitin
to 10 and 20% levels in the diet depressed iron absorption
except in animals receiving 10% chitosan.
Landes and Bough (1976) reported that in rats
receiving up to 5% of free dietary chitosan, no
differences were found in growth rates, inner organs and
blood serum composition when compared to control animals.
Bough and Landes (1978) indicated that chitosan-protein
12
complexes containing up to 5% of chitosan and fed to rats
for six weeks resulted in insignificant differences in
growth rate, blood or liver composition from the control
group.
Bough and Landes (1976) showed that protein efficiency
ratio (PER) values of rats fed casein, whey solids and
whey solids coaglulated with chitosan (2.15% chitosan)
were not significantly different between the three groups,
indicating that the small amounts of chitosan had no
adverse effects on the nutritional value of protein
recovered from food processing wastes. Green and Framer
(1979) pointed out that natural coaglulating aids, such as
chitosan, are conceivably non-toxic to livestock.
D.
Effects on Food Processing Wastes
Chitosan, the polycationic carbohydrate polymer has
been found to be particularly effective in aiding in the
coagulation of protein from food process wastes (Bough,
1976). Chitosan reduced the suspended solids of various
food process wastes by 70 to 98%. When chitosan was used
in conjunction with a cationic polymer or a multivalent
inorganic salt, such as aluminum sulfate or ferric
sulfate, it was more effective than the synthetic polymers
tested in egg breaking operation wastes (Knorr, 1984).
Bough (1975), Bough et al. (1975) and Kargi and Shuler
(1980) reported that chitosan was more effective than most
of the synthetic polymers used in poultry processing.
13
Bough and Landes (1978) stated that "without a doubt
chitosan is an effective coagulating agent--so effective
as the top 10% of the dozens of polymers we have evaluated
for treatment of food processing wastes, but that is also
saying that synthetic polymers can be formed that will
perform as well as chitosan. What would make chitosan
uniquely different in qualification would be for it to
obtain FDA approval as a feed ingredient, allowing
coagulated by-products recovered from fecal processing
wastes to be used for feed."
WHEY IN POULTRY FEEDS
A.
Introduction
Whey is the liquid separated from the curd during
cheese making. Cheese production has increased to nearly
1.9 billion kg per year, approximately 17 billion kg of
whey are generated annually in the United States. The
largest production of whey occurs in the United States
where it was nearly 19 billion kg in 1977 (Delaney, 1978).
Approximately 40% of that amount is being utilized
(Schingoethe, 1976a). The remaining 10.8 billion kg of
unused whey are normally released into the environment.
The dumping of whey constitutes the most potent pollutant
of all dairy wastes and one of the strongest wastes of any
kind for biochemical oxygen demand (Jelen, 1979). It was
14
estimated that 100 kg of liquid whey had the polluting
strength equivalent to sewage produced by 45 people in one
day (Jelen, 1979; Webb and Whittier, 1970).
The pollution problems associated with the disposal of
whey worsens each year as the demand for cheese production
continues to grow (Delaney, 1978). Paradoxically, this
so-called waste is a valuable nutrient for it retains
about 55% of the nutrients in whole milk. Among other
things, dried whey contains about 8% protein of high
biological value, most of the water-soluble vitamins in
milk, 8% minerals (primarily Ca & P), 1% fat and about 70%
lactose. This very high quantity of lactose in dried whey
is the reason for its underutilization as a food source
since the prevalence of lactose malabsorption and
intolerance ranges from 70-90% in some studied population
in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the U.S. (Cook, 1967
and Paige et al., 1972). A similar incidence of
intolerance exists in most animal species. The symptoms of
lactose intolerance are severe and include diarrhea, gas
production, cramps, bloating, dehydration and death.
B.
Composition of Whey and Whey Products
The compositions of whey and several whey products are
listed in Table 11.2. The protein content of dried whole
whey is comparable to levels found in barley, oats and
wheat (Schingoethe, 1976a). Whey protein is one of the
highest quality naturally-occurring proteins, having a PER
15
of 3.0-3.2 compared to casein at 2.5 (Demott, 1972 and
Forsum, 1974). Whey is a good source of energy primarily
because of its high lactose content. Whey is also a
relatively good source of calcium, phosphorus, sulfur and
water soluble vitamins. About 40% of the calcium and 43%
of the phosphorus of the original milk are normally found
in the whey from cheddar cheese (Price et al.,
1944).
Dried whey product, often called partially delactosed
whey, is the product remaining after part of the lactose
is removed from the whey. Delactosed whey products contain
proportionately more protein and minerals in compensation
for the lactose which was partially removed (Schingoethe,
1976a). Most dried whey products available to the feed
industry are similar in composition to type A (Table
11.2). The type B product is produced when phosphates are
added to the whey prior to removing lactose by
crystallization.
New technological developments make large scale
production of whey protein concentrates (WPC) using
ultrafiltration (Delaney et al., 1974; Fenton-May and
Hill, 1971; Forsum et al., 1974; McDonough et al., 1974),
gel filtration (Forsum et al., 1974; and Morr et al.,
1968), complexing with carboxymethylcellulose (Hansen et
al., 1971), or precipitating with ethanol (Morr and Lin,
1970). The products usually contain 50-75% protein, 20-30%
lactose and 5% or less ash. WPC are primarily used as
16
human food products because of the high quality of whey
proteins (Demott, 1972; Forsum, 1974; Forsum and
Hambraeus, 1972).
C.
Feeding Dried Whey to Poultry
Several investigators have reported that dried whey or
its products contains an unidentified growth factor when
added at low levels (less than 10% of the ration) to
purified-type diets of chickens (Berry et al., 1943; Menge
et al., 1952; Petersen et al., 1955; Rasmussen et al.,
1957; Al-Ubaidi and Bird, 1964) or when added to
practical-type diets for chickens (Combs et al., 1954ab;
Camp et al., 1955; Summers et al., 1959; Damron et al.,
1971) and when added to practical-type diets for turkeys
(Couch et al., 1952 and Atkinson et al., 1955). Further,
some studies reported slight improvements in weight gains
when dried whey products were added to diets of broilers
(Damron et al., 1971). They demonstrated there was a
numerical increase in weight gain at 4 wks of age when
three percent of dried whey was incorporated in the basal
diet. Touchburn et al. (1972) reported similar findings in
turkey poults. Including dried whey (less than 10%) in the
ration increased weight gains and feed efficiency when fed
to poultry (Ali-Ani et al., 1972; Al-Ubaidi and Bird,
1964; Balloun and Rhajarern, 1974; Potter and Shelton,
1976; Potter et al., 1981).
Optimum response to whey in poultry rations were
17
obtained when rations contain 3-4% dried whey (Al-Ubaidi
and Bird, 1964; Balloun and Khajarern, 1974; Damron et
al., 1971). Weight gains of chickens were reduced when
diets contain 20% or more of lactose (Riggs and Beaty,
1947). Ashcraft (1933) reported that chickens fed on a
ration containing 28 percent dried whey showed a
persistent diarrhea and loss of weight. Beach (1925) and
Beach and Davis (1925) noted that the droppings from
chickens fed a ration containing 20 percent lactose were
of a watery consistency. Cough et al. (1949) and Scott
(1952) found that mature hens were less tolerant than
younger birds.
Recent studies conducted by Austin et al. (1982) and
Zikakis et al. (1982) have shown that a combination of
dried whey and chitinous products in isonitrogenous
isocaloric diets enable broiler chickens to utilize whey
more efficiently. They found that birds fed a diet
containing 20% of high lactose whey plus 2% of
double-sheared chitin for 31 days were significantly
(P<.05) heavier than the control group. Birds fed a diet
with 20% of dried whey were significantly (P<.01) lower in
weight and had poorer (P<.01) feed efficiency than those
fed the basal diet.
Zikakis et al. (1982) also reported that the abdominal
fat pad of chickens fed 20% dried whey plus 2% chitin
weighed significantly less (P<.01) than those of birds fed
18
control diet.
Contrary to these findings, Alyan and Arscott (1981),
noted that no adverse effects on body weight were noted
when broiler chicks were fed 20% of a whey (both high and
low lactose) diet. Further, no beneficial effects
involving an interaction of chitin in the utilization of
whey by chicks was noted; however, the whey diets did
produce watery droppings.
FIBER IN POULTRY FEEDS
A.
Introduction
Fiber, which consists largely of cellulose and
lignins, is almost completely indigestible by poultry.
Cellulose, the skeletal portion of plants, which
represents much of the fiber in feeds, can not be digested
because the chicken does not posses the enzyme, cellulase,
in its digestive tract. On the other hand, certain
microorganisms present in the paunch of ruminants and in
the ceca of horses and rabbits are capable of synthesizing
cellulase which can digest and break down cellulose into
the disaccharide, cellobiose. Cellobiose contains two
glucose molecules linked together at the 1, 4' positions
in the chemical configuration. This is a a-glucoside which
is hydrolyzed to glucose by an enzyme known as
a-glucosidase.
19
Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound in the
world, representing approximately 50% of the dry weight of
all vegetation. An efficient economical process for
conversion of cellulose into glucose in a form that can be
used by simple-stomached animals would represent a
tremendous increase in food energy for such animals as
chicken, swine and also for man (Scott, et al., 1982).
Influence of dietary fiber on the performance and
fermentation characteristics of digestive tracts of
chickens has been studied by several investigators. The
following literature review is intended to focus on some
of the reports already completed in broiler and laying
hens by various researchers.
B.
Effects on Broiler Performance
It is generally recognized that fibrous materials are
not utilized to any great extent by the growing chick, due
to their low digestibility. Consequently, practical
broiler rations are normally formulated to contain a
minimum level of crude fiber, which generally does not
exceed four percent of the diet. However, there are some
experimental data which indicate that fiber in broiler
diets might promote chick growth to a greater extent.
Morris et al. (1932) reported that there was no
growth-depressing influence from the use of crude fiber,
with percentages as high as 8% to 9% of the ration. Davis
and Briggs (1947) found that the addition of 5% to 15% of
20
cellulose to a purified diet significantly increased
(P<.05) chick growth. In 1948, Davis and Briggs showed
that sawdust as high as 20%
could be included in broiler
rations without harmful effect.
Saito et al (1959) concluded that the addition of
cellulose (solka floc) to a practical diet at levels of
3.5% to 26.5% resulted in beneficial effects on chick
growth at least in the case where the basal diet had some
deficiency in nutrients. Tasaki and Kibe (1959) showed
that the growth stimulating effect of the cellulose was
not due to the cellulose utilization itself, since the
total amount of cellulose ingested was entirely excreted
with the feces.
Hill and Dansky (1954) and Scott and Forbes (1958)
demonstrated that the addition of fiber to the broiler
ration caused an elevated dry matter intake as the chick
attempted to maintain a constant level of energy intake.
Larrea-Pantojar and Garcia-Pestana (1963) reported that
feed from a high fiber ration (10% of sawdust) to broiler
chicks from hatching up to three or five weeks of age and
a low fiber diet thereafter, failed to increase eight-week
body weight.
Bayer et al. (1978) conducted an experiment to observe
the performance of broilers fed with a 6% cellulose diet
from day 1 to 7 wks of age. They found that the fiber
supplemented birds showed significantly lower average
21
weights (P<.01) and smaller weight gains (P<.01). Feed
efficiency was poorer for the fiber supplemented group
(P<.05) until the last week on experiment where the fiber
supplemented and control groups were no longer
significantly different.
The effect of dietary cellulose level at various
ambient temperatures on voluntary feed intake of
four-week-old chicks were studied by Dvorak and Bray in
1978. Cellulose as solka-floc was added to a basal diet at
levels of 10, 20 and 30% in one trial and 15, 30 and 45%
in a second trial. They found that the addition of graded
increments of cellulose elicited a linear increase (P<.05)
in feed intake, a linear depression in growth rate and
poorer feed efficiency (P<.05). They stated that the
nondigestible material reduced the utilization of the
basal portion of the diet.
Peterson et al. (1953), Hill and Dansky (1954) and
Scott and Forbes (1958) reported that the addition of
increments of cellulose to a basal diet up to a level of
24% elicited a linear increase in dry matter consumption
after which the weight of feed consumed per chick was
depressed.
Abdelsamie et al. (1983) studied the influence of
fiber content (5 to 10% of acid-detergent fiber) and
physical texture as pellets or mash of the diet on the
performance of broiler in the tropics. They reported that
22
dietary fiber and physical form did not significantly
affect food consumption. Growth and feed utilization
improved with pelleting and decreased with increasing fiber
content in the diet.
Various fiber sources and particle sizes have been
studied by Ricke et al. (1982). They found that fiber
particle size (<300pm, 300 to 600pm, and 600 to 1,200pm)
did not influence (P>.05) performance of chicks fed a
semipurified diet. However, those fed the intermediate
size particle (300 to 600pm) tended to have the highest
rate of gain and feed efficiencies. They suggested that
particle size might be an important property of a fibrous
ingredient, regardless of whether the fiber was
potentially fermentable or not. In these studies, feed
intake from birds both fed with 8% solka floc and 8%
polyethylene (300 to 600pm and 600 to 1,200pm) were higher
than for birds fed the control diet. These results were
supported by Scott and Forbes (1958) who noted that
dietary fiber improved performance of chicks by simply
narrowing the protein to calorie ratio, thus causing the
chick to eat more of the most limiting amino acid to meet
its energy needs.
Chicks fed pectin, at the 8% level, performed poorly
as evidenced by low growth rate and poorer feed
efficiencies. Pectin-fed chicks ingested significantly
(P<.05) more feed than those fed other fiber sources
23
(solka floc, lignin, xylose and gum arabic) and excreted
feces with a sticky consistency (Ricke et al., 1982).
Wagner and Thomas (1977) reported that the growth
depression seen with pectin was due to the growth in the
intestine of detrimental microorganisms. In a subsequent
paper, Wagner and Thomas (1978) suggested that a
penicillin sensitive, spore-forming organism, which
produced large amounts of gas and butyric acid
fermentatively, depressed growth of chicks fed pectin.
Wagh and Waibel (1966), and Baker (1977) reported that
the feeding of D-xylose and L-arabinose, two primary
components of hemicellulose, resulted in depressed growth
rates of chicks. These might be attributed to direct
competition with glucose at the site of absorption (Ross
et al., 1972) or poor metabolizability of these sugars
(Wagh and Waibel, 1967). Wagh and Waibel (1966) found no
significant differences between treatments when chick
weights involving the feeding of 10% xylose were compared
with the control. However, Baker (1977) found significant
depressions at higher levels of xylose feeding.
Feeding both 4 and 8% of purified kraft wood lignin to
chicks resulted in higher (P<.05) growth rates compared to
control-fed chicks (Ricke et al., 1982). Zemek et al.
(1979) reported that certain phenolic constituents of
lignin have antibiotic-like properties. Also, Miller et
al. (1979) found that various fractions isolated from wood
24
hemicellulose extract, a chemically complex material, high
in phenolics, resulted in improvement in performance of
chicks when incorporated into practical corn-soybean meal
diets.
C.
Effects on Laying Hens
Laying hens have been shown to be capable of
satisfactory performance when fed high levels of dietary
fiber (MacIntyre and Aitken, 1957 and Kondra et al.,
1974). Moran and Evans (1977) studied the performance and
nutrient utilization by laying hens fed practical rations
having extremes in fiber content. The diets were
comparable in essential amino acid profiles and their
relationship of crude protein, minerals and vitamins to
metabolizable energy content. The results noted no
differences (P>.05) in egg production rate or egg weight
throughout the experiment. However, an increased feed
intake (P<.05) and reduced weight gain (P <.05) were
observed with birds fed the high fiber ration.
Deaton et al. (1977) performed an experiment to
determine the effect of dietary fiber on the performance
of laying hens. Caged layers were fed diets containing 15,
30 or 60g of pine shavings/kg diet. They found that as
dietary fiber content increased, gizzard weight increased
but there was no effect on body weight, hen-day
production, egg weight, efficiency of food conversion,
mortality, percentage of liver ether extract or egg shell
25
breaking strength.
Longe (1984) studied the performance of laying hens
fed on the diets containing various fiber sources at the
20% level. The diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous
and essentially equal in calcium and phosphorus levels.
The results indicated that the differences in energy
content were not reflected by differences in intake by the
hens. Food utilization for diets containing cowpea shell,
sawdust and dried brewers' grains was poorer (P<.05) than
that of the basal diet. Egg production was poorest for
birds receiving the diets containing sawdust and brewers'
grains. Gizzard weight was significantly increased (P<.05)
by inclusion of cowpea shell, maize cob, sawdust, brewers'
grains and palm kernel in the diets.
El-Abbady et al. (1970) observed that male chicks up
to 20 weeks of age performed well on diets containing up
to 105g of sawdust/kg, while addition of 200g/kg (168.4g
of crude fiber/kg) proved unsatisfactory. Kienholz et al.
(1963) reported that a diet containing 400g of brewers'
grains/kg supported excellent layer performance. Hedge et
al. (1978) observed that different effects on growth rate
in chicks were produced by feeding fine or coarse wheat
bran, wheat straw or bagasse. They suggested that the
proportion of fiber which could be included in the diet
without adverse effects on performance depends on the
fiber source.
26
Prior to adjusting caloric intake, Single Comb White
Leghorn pullets changed to diets with 10% of cellulose
showed a decrease in feed consumption, while those changed
to diets supplemented with 10% of hydrolyed fat showed an
increase in feed consumption (Cherry, 1982). The feeding
of diets supplemented with both 10% of fat and 10% of
cellulose suggested that the feed consumption responses
observed were not due either to metabolizable energy
concentrations or feed density. It was concluded that
palatability was an important factor contributing to the
voluntary feed intake of chickens on relatively short term
basis.
Vargas and Naber (1984) conducted experiments to
determine the effect of dietary fiber (oat hulls) in
rations of varying nutrient density (low, medium or high)
on hen performance. The energy-to-protein ratio was 171.8
kcal/% protein for all diets. They found that significant
differences (P<.01) were observed between diets for feed
intake, feed efficiency and fecal output of the hens and
no significant differences were found in egg production,
egg weight, body weight change and energy balance. These
results are consistent with the earlier findings of
Touchburn and Naber (1962) who tested diets of similar
composition over a 3-year period and reported no
significant effect on the overall reproduction performance
of laying hens.
27
D.
Effects on Egg Yolk Cholesterol
Dietary fiber has been implicated as causing a
reduction in serum, body and yolk cholesterol. Fiber has
been referred to as a natural hypocholesteremic agent.
Balmer and Zilversmit (1974) found that nondigestible
components of an animal's diet had major influences on
both plasma cholesterol concentrations and turnover, as
well as fecal excretion.
Increasing dietary fiber was shown to significantly
(P<.05)
decrease serum cholesterol and/or arterial
deposition of plaques in humans (Trowell, 1972), rabbits
(Kritchevsky et al., 1954), rats (Tsai et al., 1967),
chicks (Fahrenbach et al., 1966 and Fisher and Griminger,
1967), turkeys (Simpson and Harms, 1969), and laying hens
(Menge et al., 1974 and Husseini et al., 1976).
Numerous researchers have attempted to lower egg yolk
cholesterol by feeding dietary fibers. Turk and Barnett
(1972) found that alfalfa, when added to a corn-soy laying
hen diet, was the most effective of the fiber sources
tested for decreasing egg cholesterol with the least loss
of egg size, feed efficiency and egg production, while a
supplement of cellulose slightly reduced egg cholesterol.
Menge et al. (1974) found that increasing the dietary
fiber level from 4.1 to 17.7% with cellulose caused a
reduction in serum cholesterol and an increase in egg yolk
cholesterol.
28
Husseini et al. (1976) found that the mean blood serum
and egg yolk cholesterol levels of commercial egg type
pullets were not affected by a diet containing 15% of
ground oats and 3% of vegetable oil. Wood et al. (1961)
reported that vegetable oil increased body cholesterol.
McNaughton (1978) reported a significant decrease in
egg yolk cholesterol with no changes in egg production
from feeding various sources of dietary fiber from alfalfa
meal, ground whole oats, sunflower meal, rice mill feed or
wood shavings to laying hens when compared to a basal
diet. Oats and wood shavings caused the greatest reduction
in egg yolk cholesterol. Weiss and Scott (1979) observed
decreases which were not significant in egg-yolk
cholesterol associated with diets containing 500/kg of
wheat bran, oat hulls or alfalfa. Studies by Longe (1984)
showed yolk cholesterol did not reveal consistent trends,
either with dietary fiber or egg production. However,
there was a general trend towards lower cholesterol
content in eggs from birds receiving fiber sources.
Nakaue et al. (1980) reported no significant effect on
egg production and egg yolk cholesterol when 10% of
dehydrated alfalfa meal was added to a corn-soybean meal
basal diet for layers. Similarly, several other
researchers have failed to show any lowering effect of
dietary fiber on yolk cholesterol of eggs from quail
(Coturnix coturnix japonica) (Sutton et al., 1981) and
29
chickens (Millar and Katsoulis, 1974).
Vargas and Naber (1984) found that dietary differences
in yolk cholesterol were not significant and unrelated to
dietary fiber level. A significant negative correlation
(P<.01) was found between yolk cholesterol and egg
production (r=-0.45) or egg energy output (r=-.38). In
addition, yolk cholesterol was positively correlated
(P<.01) with body weight change (r=0.23).
E.
Effects on Fermentation and Characteristic of the Gut
Although fiber present in feedstuffs is resistant to
degradation by digestive enzymes secreted by certain
organs of the chick, it can be degraded to
oligosaccharides and monosaccharides by enzymes produced
by microorganisms which inhibit the gastrointestinal
tract. Bolton (1965) and Pritchard (1972) presented
evidence that bacterial and enzymatic digestion of
starches to sugars, alcohol and organic acids occur in the
crop. According to this investigator, bacteriological
fermentation occurred when crop contents were incubated
anaerobically and lactic acid and acetic acids were found.
The predominant microorganism in the crop was
lactobacillus (Bolton, 1965). Bayer et al. (1978)
demonstrated that fiber fermentation occurred in the crop.
They found that no significant difference was observed in
production rates of acetate and lactate between the high
fiber (6% cellulose) and control birds.
30
Thornburn and Willcox (1965) reported that fiber
fermentation apparently occurs in the ceca. Annison et al.
(1968) found that fermentation occurs in the lower
gastrointestinal tract. Different cell wall constituents
affected gut microbial metabolism to produce volatile
fatty acids both in the ceca and large intestine in
differing fermentation pattern (Ricke et al., 1982; Savory
and Gentle, 1976).
Dietary fiber also affects the
digestive tract of
birds. High dietary fiber resulted in increases (P<.05) in
the relative length and weight of intestine and length of
ceca (Savory and Gentle, 1976 and Abdelsamie et al., 1983).
Deaton et al. (1973) showed that the weight of the
gizzard of broilers reared in cages was significantly less
(P<.05) compared with that of broilers reared on litter
floor pens despite the same nutritional regime being
applied to both. They suggested that birds on litter
consume a certain amount of that litter and that this was
responsible for the difference in gizzard weight. Kubena
et al. (1974) found that the addition of 30/kg of pine
shaving in the diet increased the gizzard weight of
broilers raised in cages. Similar results were again noted
by Deaton et al. (1977). Longe (1984) reported that
additional dietary fiber caused a slight increased in
gizzard weight but that this was not simply related to
dietary fiber content per se.
31
ANTIBIOTICS IN IMPROVING UTILIZATION OF POULTRY FEED
Antibiotics have been recognized in early 1950's to
improve growth and feed efficiency of livestock and
poultry. Since then, several investigators have reported
the effects of using antibiotics in animal feeds. The
results of most of the studies revealed that supplements
of antibiotics showed positive responses on growth and
feed efficiency. This literature review is intended to
give an overview of some of the studies which have been
reported on sparing effects of antibiotics.
Machlin et al. (1952) demonstrated that the protein
requirement for early growth of chicks appeared to be
decreased by addition of aureomycin (20 ppm) to the diet.
They also found that aureomycin increased efficiency of
feed utilization when added to a corn-soybean diet
containing vitamin B12. Weakley et al. (1953) reported
that supplementation of a basal ration with penicillin,
aureomycin and bacitracin at both 21 and 18% protein
levels increased the feed efficiency and had a sparing
effect on the protein requirement.
Waibel et al. (1952) studied the effect of addition of
penicillin to the hen's ration on biotin and folic acid
content of eggs. The results indicated that the addition
of 5 and 200 mg of penicillin per kg of diet increased
biotin deposition 29.6 and 38.5%, respectively, for the
32
period between 26 and 47 days after treatment was begun.
Folic acid deposition increased 31.0 and 26.7%,
respectively, for a 30-47 day period.
Ross and Yacowitz (1954) found that penicillin
enhanced bone calcification. Using radioactive calcium,
Migicovsky et al. (1951) reported that penicillin
increased calcium deposition in the tibia. Similar results
were reported by Gabuten and Shaffner (1952) and Lindblad
et al. (1952).
Jukes (1977) cited several investigators on the
sparing effects of some antibiotics on the requirement for
a number of vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,
pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, folic acid, B12, biotin and
Vitamins A and D), calcium and protein. Patel and McGinnis
(1980) reported that penicillin gave a consistent and
significant improvement in body weight only when the corn
diet was deficient in total sulfur amino acids, indicating
that penicillin reduces the methionine requirement for
growth. Menge (1973) observed an increase in response to
antibiotics with increased soybean meal in the diet.
Antibiotics have also been shown to overcome the
deleterious effects of rye diets (MacAuliffe and McGinnis,
1971. This depressing effect of rye on chick growth and
the marked improvement obtained with antibiotics was
confirmed by Fernandez and McGinnis (1974), Graber et al.
(1974), Wagner and Thomas (1976), Patel and McGinnis
33
(1976) and Marusich et al. (1978). Pryor and Arscott
(1967) demonstrated that antibiotic (Prostrep)
supplemented to the diet containing high level of linseed
oil meal resulted in significant improvement in its
feeding value.
Table 11.1.
Chemical analysis of crab meal (%)
Moisture
Conn (1929)
Manning (1929)
Byerly et al. (1933)
Morrison (1938)
Ellis et al. (1939)
Titus (1939)
Lubitz et al. (1943)
Kifer and Bauersfeld (1969)
Rutledge (1971)
U.S.-Canadian Tables of Feed
Comp. (1982)
10.00
6.00
7.84
8.00
8.40
8.10
6.30
4.38
4.50
-
Crude
protein
27.82
28.10
35.06
36.50
37.90
34.70
32.70
29.37
24.00
34.80
Crude
fat
0.92
0.93
2.50
2.90
3.10
2.10
0.80
2.02
2.00
1.90
Crude
fiber
Ash
-
12.01
-
-
28.84
39.50
37.10
40.10
41.60
48.00
56.00
44.60
5.70
-
8.50
12.90
-
-
11.60
Ca
20.72
26.96
-
13.06
1.67
1.72
-
0.51
-
-
13.25
16.40
0.50
1.64
-
17.00
15.77
-
1.70
1.72
Table 11.2.
The nutrient content of various wheys (s)
Type
of whey
Dry
matter
Crude
protein
TDN
Lactose
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
6.9
0.9
6.0
5.0
0.7
0.05
0.04
Condensed whey
63.6
8.7
52.3
47.7
6.4
0.38
0.58
Dried whole whey
93.0
12.2
78.0
71.5
8.4
0.91
0.76
Delactose D. W. A
91.0
15.7
68.2
59.5
14.3
1.55
0.99
Delactose D. W. B
88.2
26.2
57.3
37.0
22.0
1.30
2.00
Liquid
Schingoethe (1976b)
36
CHAPTER III
PERFORMANCE OF BROILERS FED CRAB MEAL AS A SUBSTANCE
FOR IMPROVING THE UTILIZATION OF CELLULOSE
AND WHEY DIETS
S. Tachasirinugune and G. H. Arscott
Department of Poultry Science
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
37
ABSTRACT
A series of four week experiments were conducted to
evaluate the effects of feeding crab meal, dried whey and
cellulose in broiler starter diets. The growth response of
broiler chicks fed crab meal, a possible substance for
improving the utilization of dried whey and cellulose, was
studied. Diets supplemented with zinc bacitracin and
cellulose treated with concentrated H3PO4, were also
investigated.
Satisfactory performance was obtained when crab meal
was used in broiler starter diets at 2, 4 and 8% levels.
No adverse effects on growth were observed when chicks
were fed a 20% whey diet. Supplementation with crab meal
had no beneficial effect on the utilization of whey.
A significant depression in growth and feed conversion
was associated with the inclusion of 10 and 15% cellulose,
however, feed consumption was not affected. The addition
of 4% crab meal appeared to result in improvement on
growth and feed conversion with the 10% level but not at
the 15% level of cellulose.
Treatment of cellulose with concentrated H3PO4 did not
provide any beneficial effects on fiber utilization by
chicks. Supplements of zinc bacitracin at 27.5 and 55 ppm
levels to either 4% of crab meal or 10% of cellulose or 4%
of crab meal plus 10% of cellulose-containing diets had
38
positive effects on broiler performance.
These results show that crab meal can be used as an
ingredient in broiler starter diets and has a beneficial
effect on fiber utilization but not on dried whey.
39
INTRODUCTION
Crab meal has been reported to be a satisfactory
substitute for fish meal in the diets of growing chickens
(Parkhurst et al., 1944a) and laying hens (Byerly et al.,
1933; Parkhurst et al., 1944b). Manning (1929)
demonstrated that birds when crab meal was included in the
diet, had better egg production, plumage, appetite and
more vitality than those fed a meat meal diet. Potter and
Shelton (1973) found that adding 3 or 6% crab meal to
diets of turkeys between 1 day and 4 weeks of age resulted
in their average body weight being increased by 6.8% and
feed consumption by 5.8%. Mangold and Damkohler (1938) and
Fangauf et al. (1935) reported that fish meal was slightly
superior to crab meal for egg production. Schaperclaus
(1933) found that crab meal was high in ash content,
especially calcium carbonate and was, therefore, not
desirable for use in poultry rations.
Chitin, poly-f3-(1-4)-N-acetly-D-glucosamine, is a
cellulose-like biopolymer found in seafood such as crabs.
Ashford et al. (1977) demonstrated that chitin represented
13-15% of dry weight of crab processing waste. Chitin is a
source of glucosamine. It was found that
N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG) glycosides promoted the
growth of bifidobacteria (Poupard et al., 1973). Recent
studies by Austin et al. (1981) suggested that the growth
40
of bifidobacteria in the gut of chickens was increased by
the addition of chitin to the diet. These predominant
bacteria have been found to be prevalent in the intestinal
flora of breast-fed infants in contrast to the mixed flora
of infants fed on cow's milk (Stacey and Barker, 1962).
Bifidobacteria block the growth of other types of
microorganisms and generate the lactase enzyme required
for digestion of milk lactose (Ziliken et al., 1954).
Austin et al. (1981) conducted an experiment using 20%
microcystalline chitin (MCC) and 20% high lactose dried
whey fed to broiler chicks from 1 day to 46 days of age. A
significant increase in growth was observed with chicks
receiving the diet containing both MCC and dried whey over
those fed the control, MCC or dried whey diets. Zikakis et
al. (1982) reported similar results showing a combination
of chitinous products and whey in isonitrogenous,
isocaloric diets enabled broiler chickens to utilize whey
more efficiently. The abdominal fat pads of chickens fed
the chitin-whey diet weighed significantly less (P<.05)
than those fed the basal diet (Zikakis et al., 1982).
Contrary to those findings, Alyan and Arscott (1981),
noted that no beneficial effects involving an interaction
of chitin on the utilization of whey.
Whey is a by-product of the cheese manufacturing
industry and is produced at the rate of approximately 17
billion kg annually in the United States. Approximately
41
40% of that amount is being utilized (Schingoethe, 1976).
The remaining 10.8 billion kg of unused whey is released
into the environment. The dumping of whey constitutes the
most potent pollutant of all dairy wastes and one of the
strongest wastes of any kind (Jelen, 1979). It is
estimated that 100 kg of liquid whey has the polluting
strength equivalent to sewage produced by 45 people in one
day (Jelen, 1979; Webb and Whittier, 1970). The pollution
problem associated with the disposal of whey worsens each
year as the demand for cheese production continue to
increase (Delaney, 1978). Paradoxically this so-called
waste is a valuable feed ingredient for it contains about
55% of the nutrients in whole milk. The nutritive
composition of whey and dried whey has been reported by
Schingoethe et al. (1973).
Several researchers have reported that dried whey or
its by-products contains an unidentified growth factor
when added at low levels of less than 10% of the ration to
purified-type diets of chickens (Berry et al., 1952; Menge
et al., 1952; Petersen et al, 1955; Rasmussen et al.,
1957; Al-Ubaidi and Bird, 1964), when added to
practical-type diets (Combs et al., 1954ab; Camp et al.,
1955; Summers et al., 1959; Damron et al., 1971; Reed et
al., 1951) and when added to practical-type diets for
turkeys (Couch et al., 1952; Atkinson et al., 1955; Potter
and Shelton, 1976). Further, Touchburn et al. (1972),
42
Ali-Ani et al. (1972); Balloun and Khajarern (1974) and
Potter et al. (1981) reported slight improvements in
weight gain when dried whey was added at low levels (3 or
4%) to poultry diets. Weight gains of chickens were
reduced when diets contained 20% or more of lactose (Riggs
and Beaty, 1947). Ashcraft (1933) reported that chickens
fed a ration containing 28% dried whey showed a persistent
diarrhea and weight loss. Similar results were reported by
Austin et al. (1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982) by feeding
the diets containing 20% whey.
Scott et al. (1982) noted that cellulolytic containing
materials exceed approximately 50% of the dry weight of
all vegetation and that little progress has been made on
utilization of cellulose (fiber, hemicelulose and lignins)
due to the lack of cellulose-splitting enzymes in
monogastric animals.
Supplements the cellulase enzyme from Trichoderma
viride at .008% added to a 20% wheat bran diet resulted in
significantly reduced feed consumption (P<.01) and had an
apparent effect in improving feed efficiency (Nahm and
Carlson, 1985). Qureshi et al. (1980) showed that chicks
fed barley with cellulase (.008%) also grew more rapidly.
It has been postulated that chitin and
microcrystalline chitin (MCC) favor the growth of
bifidobacteria that produce lactase which permits
utilization of the relatively large amount of lactose
43
present in whey (Austin et al., 1981; Zikakis et al.,
1982). This certainly suggests that the role of the
intestinal microflora could be vital in feed ingredient
utilization and possible activity of lactase on the
disaccaride, cellobiose (Davenport, 1966), a breakdown
product of cellulose that requires cellulase for its
formation (Scott et al., 1982).
The objectives of these studies were 1) to determine
the effects of crab meal, dried whey and various fiber
sources as dietary supplements in broiler starter diets,
2) to examine the effects of crab meal as a source of
chitin on dried whey and fiber utilization by chicks, 3)
to study the effect of fiber treated with concentrated
H3PO4 and, 4) to examine the effects of zinc bacitracin on
these
diets.
44
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Commercial, feather sexed, day-old broiler chicks were
used in all experiments. The chicks were housed in
electrically heated chick batteries with sub-floor
heaters. In all trials, each treatment consisted of three
replicates of ten chicks each with equal numbers of males
and females. The chicks received feed and water ad
libitum, were provided with continuous incandescent light
and were reared under a forced draft in a positive
pressure ventilated room that was manually adjusted to
maintain comfort of the chicks.
The ration composition, nutrient levels and the levels
of crab meal, cellulose (fiber sources) and dried whey
supplemented to the basal diet are shown in the Table
111.1-3. All diets were approximately isonitrogenous and
contained similar levels of calcium and phosphorus.
Body weight, feed intake and cumulative mortality were
determined at 4 weeks of age.
Experiment 1. The objectives of this trial were to
determine the performance of chicks using 2 and 4% of crab
meal, 5 and 10% of cellulose as solka-floc (SF) and 20% of
dried whey in broiler starter diets and to determine if
crab meal had any beneficial effect on utilization of
cellulose and dried whey (Table III.1).
Experiment 2. In this experiment the same diets were used
45
plus rations formulated with 8% of crab meal and 15% of SF
both singly and in combination. However, when 20% whey was
used the crab meal level was reduced to 6% to avoid the
presence of excessive levels of calcium and phosphorus
(Tables III.1 and 111.2).
Experiment 3. This experiment was designed to study the
effect of using H3PO4 mixed with SF. Concentrated
phosphoric acid was used as a source of phosphorus in the
SF diets. SF and phosphoric acid were mixed together in a
Hobart mixer before mixing with other feed ingredients. In
this trial, crab meal was fed at 4 and 8% levels and SF at
the 10 and 15% levels (Tables III.1 and 111.3).
Experiments 4 and 5. These trials were conducted to study
the effect of a supplement of zinc bacitracin at levels of
0, 27.5 and 55ppm to the control, 4% crab meal, 10 and 15%
SF and all combinations of crab meal-SF diets (Tables
111.1-2).
Experiment 6. This trial was conducted to study the effect
of feeding different sources of fiber involving the use of
ground oat hulls and wood shavings added to the control
diet at 10% level and to investigate the growth response
of chicks fed two different kinds of whey (high and low
lactose) with or without adjusting crude protein in the
rations. High lactose (65%) whey was used in Experiments
and 2 while low lactose (45%) or delactose whey was used
in Experiment 6. The diets were adjusted for crude
1
46
protein. The delactose whey was used at the same levels as
with the high lactose whey in diets which are shown in
Table 111.1. The unadjusted diet involved using 80% of the
control diet mixed with 20% of whey to duplicate
conditions in the report of Austin et al. (1981).
All data were subjected to analysis of variance (Steel
and Torrie, 1980).
47
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mortality data, average body weights, feed consumption
and feed efficiencies of broiler chicks fed various
dietary treatments from one day to four weeks of age
obtained in six experiments are presented in Tables 111.4
to 8.
Performance of broiler chicks fed crab meal diets was
not significantly different (P>.05) from those fed the
control diet in all experiments (Table 111.4 to 8). These
results are in agreement with Parkhurst et al. (1944a) who
reported that crab meal satisfactorily replaced fish meal
when the content and ratio of calcium and phosphorus in
the ration were adjusted but disagrees with Schaperclaus
(1933) who reported that crab meal was so high in calcium
carbonate that it could not be used in poultry rations.
The effects of feeding 20% of high lactose (65%) whey
in Experiments 1, 2 and 6
are shown in Table 111.4,
III.5b and 111.8. Chicks fed the 20% whey diet had
numerically lower weight and consumed slightly more feed
than the controls but the differences were not significant
(P>.05). Chicks fed 20% high lactose whey had poorer
(P<.05) feed efficiency than the controls. These results
are in agreement with unpublished data from this station
by Alyan and Arscott (1981) who noted no adverse effects
on body weight when chicks were fed 20% of either high or
48
low lactose whey. Contrary to the present studies, Austin
et al. (1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982) reported that
chicks fed the 20% (high lactose) whey diet had poorer
(P<.05) growth than the controls. Austin et al. (1981)
used dried whey which had a lactose content of 70% and
Zikakis et al. (1982) used 68% and 73% lactose whey for
their experiments.
In Experiment 6, performance of broiler chicks fed the
20% low lactose (45%) whey diet with or without an
adjusted CP level was not significantly different (P>.05)
from those fed control the diet except for poor growth
(P<.05) by chicks fed 20% low lactose whey diet without
adjusted CP (Table 111.8). No differences for any other
parameters were observed among birds fed the high or low
lactose whey diet with or without adjusted CP except for
poor growth (P<.05) on chicks fed 20% low lactose whey
diet without adjusted CP as compared to those fed 20% high
lactose whey with adjusted CP. These results suggest that
chicks can tolerate lactose and perform well on the 20%
whey diet regardless of the level of lactose content of
whey. However, these results fail to support Austin et al.
(1981) who noted that chicks fed the 20% high lactose whey
diet without adjustment in CP had poorer growth (P<.05)
than the controls.
In all treatments involving whey an adverse effect on
litter condition was encountered and feathers appeared
49
drier. These findings were also reported by Ashcraft
(1933), Beach (1925), Beach and Davis (1925), and Austin
et al. (1981).
No significant improvement on performance of birds was
observed when crab meal was incorporated in either of
these high or low lactose whey diets. This is
understandable since no depression in growth from whey was
seen. Austin et al. (1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982), on
the other hand, suggested that chitin and its products,
derived from crab waste, did improve depressed growth from
whey and could be effective in stimulating the growth of
bifidobacteria which produce lactase and thereby might
increase the utilization of whey for chickens. On the
other hand, Alyan and Arscott (1981) who conducted two
experiments with broilers fed chitinous sources,
specifically, at 2% levels with 20% of whey either with
high or low lactose likewise produced no beneficial
effects involving an interaction of chitin in the
utilization of whey again due in all probability, to lack
of a growth depression to be noted for whey.
In studies with cellulose, feed consumption from
chicks fed both 10 and 15% SF diets were comparable to the
controls. However, growth and feed conversion were
significantly (P<.05) depressed with birds fed diets
containing 10 and 15% of SF as compared to those fed the
control diet, in all experiments except growth of chicks
50
fed 10% SF in Experiment 2 (Table 111.4-8). These results
are in agreement with findings from several investigators
(Bayer et al. 1978; Dvorak and Bray, 1978; Larrea-Pantoja
and Garcia-Pestana, 1963; Abdelsamine et al., 1983) but
disagree with Morris et al., 1932), Davis and Briggs (1947
and 1948) and Saito et al., 1959).
The addition of crab meal at the 4% level resulted in
significant (P<.05) improvement in three experiments and
numerical improvement in the other three experiments on
growth and feed conversion on the 10% SF diets but not the
15% SF diets (Tables 111.4-8). Supplements of 2 or 8% crab
meal did not appear to have beneficial effects on
cellulose utilization as compared to 4% level (Tables
111.4-8). When compared to chicks fed the control diet, no
significant differences on body weights were observed with
the 4% crab meal plus 10% cellulose diets chicks in 4 of
the 6 experiments. Feed conversion was poorer (P<.05) in 4
of the 6 experiments (Tables 111.1-5). The TME values of
these diets, evaluated by using adult roosters, are shown
in Appendix II. Interestingly, the TME value of the 4% CM
plus 10% SF diet was comparable to the 10% SF diet. This
indicates that the improvement on growth and feed
conversion from birds fed the 4% CM plus 10% SF diet can
not be related to changes in the energy content of the
diet. Accordingly, no explanation is apparent for the
response noted with the 4% level of crab meal versus the 2
51
and 8% levels.
Using concentrated phosphoric acid on SF failed to
improve the utilization of cellulose by chickens. Chicks
from the control diet were heavier (P<.05), showed better
feed conversion and consumed less feed than those fed with
4 or 8% crab meal level with either 10 or 15% of treated
SF (Table 111.6).
Dietary supplements of zinc bacitracin at 27.5 and
55ppm levels, resulted in improvement on growth and feed
conversion with all dietary treatments except for the
control and 15% SF diets (Table 111.7). A significant
effect on growth was noted when zinc bacitracin at 55ppm
level was added to 4% crab meal diet in Experiment 4.
Growth and feed conversion were increased (P<.05) when
zinc bacitracin (55ppm) was added to the 10% SF diet in
both experiments. In the 4% crab meal plus 10% SF diet,
supplementation of zinc bacitracin at either level
resulted in increased growth in Experiment 5 and feed
conversion on Experiment 4.
MacAuliffe and McGinnis (1971) reported that the
addition of antibiotics to diets containing high levels of
rye, contains some deleterious factors, resulting in
significant improvement in its feeding value. Pryor and
Arscott (1967) demonstrated that the antibiotic, Prostrep,
supplemented to a diet containing high levels of linseed
oil meal resulted in significant improvement in feeding
52
value. Warden and Schaible (1961) found a significant
improvement on growth when antibiotics were added to a
broiler diet containing fresh hen feces.
Including either 10% of ground oat hulls or 10% wood
shavings in diets also did not adversely affect growth but
feed efficiency was adversely affected (P<.05). No
significant differences for any other parameters were
observed among chicks fed SF, oat hulls and wood shavings.
These results disagree with Hegde et al. (1978) and Longe
(1984) who noted that different effects on the performance
of birds were produced by feeding different sources of
fiber. The addition of 4% crab meal to the 10% oat hulls
and 10% wood shavings diets showed numerical improvement
on growth and significantly better feed efficiency (P<.05)
with chicks fed the 10% oat hulls diet as compared to
those receiving no crab meal. Performance of chicks fed 4%
crab meal plus 10% oat hulls or 10% wood shavings diets
were comparable to those of the controls.
Results of these studies indicate that crab meal at 2,
4 and 8% levels can be used in current broiler starter
diets; 20% whey did not exhibit an adverse affect on body
weight; no beneficial effects were observed from adding
crab meal to the whey diet; the addition of SF at the 10
and 15% levels in the diet caused inferior performance;
the addition of 4% crab meal to either 10% SF or 10% oat
hulls or 10% wood shavings diets resulted in improvement
53
on growth and feed conversion; phosphoric acid did not
improve the utilization of cellulose by chicks, and the
supplementation of zinc bacitracin at 27.5 and 55.0ppm
appeared to improve growth and feed conversion in all 10%
SF diets.
Table III.1.
Composition of the diets (%)1 for all experiments
Ingredients
Corn, yellow
Soybean ml, 47.58CP
Alfalfa ml, dehy., 178CP
Crab ml, 34.8%CP
Whey, dr., 128CP
Cellulose, solka-floc
MHA, 80%
Limestone flodr
Defluo. phos. (32%Ca:18%P)
Salt (iodized)
Vitamin premix 1-752
Trace mineral mix-653
Calculated Analysis
Crude protein, %
ME, kcal/kg
Crude fiber, 1
Calcium, %
Avail. phos.
2% CM
10% SF
4% CM
10% SF
4% CM
20% OW
'Control
4% CM
10% SF
20% DW
64.85
29.00
2.00
65.12
26.33
2.00
4.00
52.13
31.72
2.00
-
48.90
25.85
2.00
-
-
20.00
-
-
50.30
22.00
2.00
4.00
20.00
-
-
0.15
1.20
1.35
0.30
0.20
0.05
10.00
0.15
0.80
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
10.00
0.15
0.15
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
1.00
0.30
0.20
0.05
19.38
2701
2.25
1.20
0.50
19.98
2589
12.64
1.35
0.48
20.13
2600
12.84
1.35
0.51
19.07
2736
2.63
1.25
0.50
-
0.15
1.60
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.15
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
10.00
0.15
1.60
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
19.89
2944
2.62
1.33
0.50
20.05
2968
3.02
1.35
0.52
20.05
2573
12.45
1.34
0.45
-
-
-
52.65
30.00
2.00
2.00
52.60
28.85
2.00
4.00
-
-
1The 2% crab meal diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from control diet and 4% crab meal.
The 5% cellulose (SF) diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from control diet and 10% SF diet.
The 2% crab meal plus 5% SF diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from 2% crab meal diet and 2%
crab meal plus 101 SF diet.
The 48 crab meal plus 5% SF diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from 4% crab meal diet and 4%
crab meal plus 10% SF diet.
The 2% crab meal plus 20% whey diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from 20% whey diet and 411
crab meal plus 20% whey diet.
2Supplied per kilogram of ration: Vit A, 3300 /U; Vit D3, 1100 ICU; riboflavin, 3.3 mg;
d-pantothenic acid, 5.5 mg; niacin, 22.0 mg; choline, 190 mg; Vit B12, 5.50 meg; Vit E, 1.1
ID; Vit K, 0.55 mg; folacin, .22 mg; ethoxquin, 0.06g.
3Supplied per kilogram of rations calcium, 97.5 mg; manganese, 60 mg; iron, 20 mg; copper,
2 mg; iodine, 1.2 mg; zinc, 27.5 mg.
to
Table 111.2.
Composition of additional diets (%)1 for Experiment 2
Ingredients
8% CM
15% SF
Corn, yellow
Soybean ml, 47.5%CP
Alfalfa ml, dehy., 17%CP
Crab ml, 34.8%CP
Whey, dr., 12%CP
Cellulose solka-floc
MHA 80%
Na phos. monobasic
Limestone flour
Defluo. phos (32%Ca:18%CP)
Salt (iodized)
Vit. premix 1-752
Trace mineral mix-653
46.30
24.00
2.00
8.00
46.10
32.75
2.00
-
15.00
0.15
Calculated Analysis
Crude protein, %
ME, kcal/kg
Crude fiber, %
Calcium, %
Avail. phos., %
0.15
1.00
-
-
8% CM
10% SF
8% CM
15% SF
6% CM
20% DW
52.55
25.75
2.00
8.00
46.00
27.00
2.00
8.00
50.00
20.80
2.00
6.00
20.00
10.00
0.15
1.00
15.00
0.15
1.30
-
-
-
-
0.15
0.50
0.30
0.20
0.05
1.45
2.00
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.30
0.20
0.05
20.26
2963
3.40
1.38
0.47
20.01
2391
17.36
1.33
0.47
20.04
2602
13.21
1.38
0.46
20.05
2408
18.12
1.38
0.52
20.17
2731
2.78
1.36
0.50
-
-
1The 2% crab meal plus 15% SF diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from 4% crab
meal plus 15% SF diet and 15% SF diet.
The 4% crab meal plus 15% SF diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from 15% SF
diet and 8% crab meal plus 15% SF diet.
The 8% crab meal plus 5% SF diet was obtained by mixing at 1:1 from 8% crab
meal diet and 8% crab meal plus 10% SF diet.
2,3Supplemented as in Table III.1.
u-1
56
Table 111.3.
Composition of additional diets (%)1 for Experiment 3
Ingredients
Corn, yellow
Soybean ml, sol., 47.5% CP
Alfalfa ml, dehy., 17% CP
Crab ml, 34.8% CP
Cellulose solka-floc
Conc. phosphoric acid (ml)
MHA 80%
Limestone flour
Salt (iodized)
Vitamin premix 1-752
Trace mineral mix-653
Calculated Analysis
Crude protein, %
ME, kcal/kg
Crude fiber, %
Calcium, %
Available phos., %
10% SF
52.13
31.72
2.00
-
Diets - Phosphoric acid
+10% SF
+10% SF
15% SF
46.10
32.75
2.00
-
3.20
0.30
0.20
0.05
15.00
591.00
0.15
3.15
0.30
0.20
0.05
20.06
2573
12.45
1.34
0.45
20.01
2391
17.36
1.33
0.47
10.00
546.41
0.15.
52.55
25.75
2.00
8.00
10.00
356.00
0.15
-
46.00
27.00
2.00
8.00
15.00
462.70
0.15
-
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.30
0.20
0.05
20.04
2602
13.21
1.39
0.46
20.05
2408
18.12
1.39
0.52
1The 4% crab meal plus 10% SE with (H3PO4) diet was obtained by
mixing 1:1 from 10% SE treated with H3PO4 diet and 8% crab meal
plus 10% SE treated with H3PO4 diet.
The 4% crab meal plus 15% SE treat with H3PO4 diet was obtained by
mixing at 1:1 from 15% SE treated with H3PO4 diet and 8% crab meal
plus 15% SE treated with H3PO4 diet.
2,3Supplemented as in Table III.1.
57
Table 111.4.
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks of age (Exp. 1)
Feed
Body wt.
Feed cons.
(kg)
(kg)
30(0)
0.819
1.375
1.68
2% crab ml (CM)
30(1)
0.827
1.353
1.64
3
4% CM
30(0)
0.863
1.430
1.66
4
5% Solka Floc (SF)
30(1)
0.820
1.430
1.66
5
10% SF
30(0)
0.707
1.379
1.96
6
20% whey
30(2)
0.804
1.493
1.86
7
2% CM + 5% SF
30(1)
0.786
1.322
1.69
8
2% CM + 10% SF
30(2)
0.816
1.469
1.79
9
2% CM + 20% whey
30(2)
0.761
1.421
1.87
10
4% CM + 5% SF
30(1)
0.835
1.438
1.73
11
4% CM + 10% SF
30(0)
0.800
1.418
1.77
12
4% CM + 20% whey
30(2)
0.831
1.547
1.89
.066
.09
.126
.172
No.
Dietary treatment
Chicks
(no.)1
1
Control (corn-SBM)
2
TMT
LSD
LSD
.05
.01
'Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
cony.
.176
.239
58
Table I/1.5a.
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks of age (Exp. 2)
Feed
Body wt.
Feed cons.
(kg)
(kg)
30(0)
0.833
1.438
1.73
2% crab ml (CM)
30(3)
0.867
1.555
1.79
3
4% CM
30(1)
0.885
1.514
1.71
4
8% CM
30(1)
0.849
1.430
1.68
5
5% Solka Floc (SF)
30(0)
0.815
1.468
1.80
6
10% SF
30(3)
0.772
1.527
1.96
7
15% SF
30(0)
0.703
1.388
1.97
8
2% CM + 5% SF
30(1)
0.838
1.572
1.88
9
2% CM + 10% SF
30(0)
0.795
1.491
1.87
10
2% CM + 15% SF
30(1)
0.719
1.412
1.96
11
4% CM + 5% SF
30(0)
0.804
1.453
1.81
12
4% CM + 10% SF
30(0)
0.822
1.528
1.86
13
4% CM + 15% SF
30(2)
0.765
1.453
1.90
14
8% CM + 5% SF
30(2)
0.808
1.427
1.76
15
8% CM + 10% SF
30(0)
0.760
1.462
1.92
16
8% CM + 15% SF
30(2)
0.698
1.469
2.11
.073
.099
.121
.112
No.
Dietary treatment
Chicks
(no.)1
1
Control (corn-SBM)
2
TMT
LSD
LSD
.05
.01
1Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
cony.
.122
.164
59
Table III.5b.
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks of age for dried
whey diets (Exp. 2)
Body wt.
Feed cons.
Feed
(kg)
(kg)
cony.
Dietary treatment
Chicks
(no.)1
1
Control (corn-SBM)
30(0)
0.833
1.438
1.73
2
2% crab ml (CM)
30(3)
0.867
1.555
1.79
3
4% CM
30(1)
0.885
1.514
1.71
4
8% CM
30(1)
0.849
1.430
1.68
5
20% whey
30(0)
0.812
1.525
1.88
6
2% CM + 20% whey
30(1)
0.8-03
1.500
1.85
7
4% CM + 20% whey
30(0)
0.803
1.537
1.92
8
6% CM + 20% whey
30(0)
0.780
1.473
1.89
.078
.109
.118
.163
TMT
No.
LSD
LSD
.05
.01
'Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
.137
.190
60
Table 111.6.
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks of age (Exp. 3)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Dietary treatment
Control (corn-SBM)
4% crab ml (CM)
8% CM
10% Solka Floc (SF)
15% SF
10% SF w/H3PO4
15% SF w/H3PO4
4% CM + 10% SF
4% CM + 15% SF
4% CM + 10% SF
w/H3PO4
4% CM + 15% SF
w/H3PO4
8% CM + 101 SF
8% CM + 15% SF
8% CM + 10% SF
w/H3PO4
8% CM + 15% SF
w/H3PO4
LSD
LSD
Body wt.
Feed cons.
(kg)
(kg)
30(1)
30(0)
30(0)
30(0)
30(0)
30(0)
30(1)
30(0)
30(0)
30(0)
0.869
0.886
0.833
0.760
0.698
0.713
0.639
0.771
0.727
0.762
1.412
1.452
1.393
1.428
1.374
30(0)
Chicks
(no.)1
TMT
.05
.01
Peed
cony.
1.363
1.423
1.437
1.494
1.62
1.64
1.67
1.88
1.97
1.83
2.14
1.85
1.98
1.96
0.702
1.425
2.03
30(0)
30(0)
30(1)
0.768
0.738
0.794
1.454
1.494
1.466
1.89
2.02
1.85
30(0)
0.711
1.421
2.00
.06
.081
.127
.171
1.309
1Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
.109
.147
61
Table 111.7.
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks of age when zinc
bacitracin (ZB) was supplemented in the diets (Exp. 4 & 5)
TMT
Chicks
(no.)1
Body wt.
Feed Cons.
Feed
(kg)
(kg)
cony.
Control (corn-SBM)
30(0)2
30(2)3
0.774
0.921
Control + 27.5ppm ZB
30(0)
0.898
No.
Dietary Treatment
1
2
3
Control + 55ppm ZB
4
4% Crab meal (CM)
5
4% CM + 27.5ppm ZB
6
4% CM + 55ppm ZB
7
10% Solka Floc (SF)
8
10% SF + 27.5ppm ZB
9
10% SF + 55ppm ZB
-
-
1.298
1.600
-
1.485
-
30(0)
30(1)
30(1)
30(1)
30(0)
30(1)
30(2)
30(1)
30(1)
30(1)
30(1)
30(1)
30(0)
30(0)
0.926
0.782
0.932
0.822
0.968
0.852
0.966
0.671
0.759
0.739
0.799
0.759
0.813
0.677
1.586
1.345
1.608
1.231
1.560
1.258
1.567
1.340
1.527
1.276
1.180
10
15% SF
11
15% SF + 27.5ppm ZB
30(0)
-
0.609
12
15% SF + 55ppm ZB
30(0)
-
0.685
30(1)
30(0)
30(2)
30(0)
30(0)
30(1)
30(1)
-
0.744
0.763
0.773
0.830
0.750
0.820
0.673
30(0)
30(0)
0.698
1.545
1.280
1.563
1.315.
-
13
4% CM * 10% SF
14
4% CM +
27.5ppm
4% CM +
27.5ppm
4% CM +
15
16
17
18
10% SF +
ZB
10% SF +
ZB
15% SF
4% CM + 15% SF +
27.5%ppm ZB
4% CM + 15% SF +
27.5%ppm ZB
-
LSD .05 (Exp.4)
(Exp.5)
LSD .01 (Exp.4)
(Exp.5)
-
-
-
0.689
-
0.056
0.052
0.076
0.070
1Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
2Results from Experiment 4.
3Results from Experiment 5.
1.68
1.75
-
1.65
1.67
1.64
1.68
1.60
1.64
1.57
1.67
1.87
2.06
1.70
1.97
1.77
1.88
1.88
-
1.94
-
1.278
1.86
-
1.385
1.459
1.361
1.539
1.332
1.539
1.283
-
1.274
-
1.347
-
0.099
0.125
0.133
0.170
1.87
1.92
1.76
1.85
1.78
1.87
1.91
1.83
1.95
-
0.084
0.124
0.113
0.168
62
Table 111.8.
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks of age (Exp. 6)
Body wt.
Feed cons.
Feed
(kg)
(kg)
cony.
30(1)
0.844
1.577
1.87
4% crab ml (CM)
30(0)
0.873
1.525
1.75
3
10% Solka Floc (SF)
30(2)
0.753
1.522
2.03
4
10% Oat hulls (OH)
30(1)
0.800
1.611
2.02
5
10% Wood shavings
30(0)
0.782
1.578
2.02
TMT
No.
Dietary treatment
Chicks
(no.)1
1
Control (corn -SBM)
2
(WS)
6
20% Whey w/adj. % CP
30(1)
0.834
1.666
2.00
7
20% Delactose Whey
(DLW) w/adj. % CP
30(0)
0.822
1.545
1.88
8
20% Whey w/o adj.
% CP
30(0)
0.818
1.590
1.94
9
20% DLW w/o adj.
% CP
30(0)
0.763
1.505
1.97
10
4% CM + 10% SF
30(0)
0.825
1.568
1.90
11
4% CM + 10% OH
30(1)
0.821
1.554
1.89
12
4% CM + 10% WS
30(0)
0.843
1.622
1.92
13
4% CM + 20% Whey
w/adj. % CP
30(1)
0.831
1.661
2.01
14
4% CM + 20% DLW
w/adj. % CP
30(1)
0.817
1.594
1.95
15
4% CM + 20% Whey w/o
adj. % CP
30(0)
0.795
1.575
1.98
16
4% CM + 20% DLW
w/o adj. % CP
30(0)
0.775
1.508
1.94
.071
.095
.144
.194
LSD
LSD
.05
.01
1Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
.126
.170
63
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68
CHAPTER IV
EFFECTS OF FEEDING CRAB MEAL, CELLULOSE AND
DRIED WHEY DIETS TO CHICKS INOCULATED
WITH BIFIDOBACTERIA
S. Tachasirinugune and G. H. Arscott
Department of Poultry Science
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
69
ABSTRACT
A four week experiment was conducted to compare the
performance of chicks which were inoculated with
Bifidobacteria pseudolongum with that of the chicks
receiving no B. pseudolongum and to determine whether this
organism had colonized in the ileum, cecum and colon from
both groups.
Chicks were fed the same dietary treatments: namely
control; 4% crab meal; 10% cellulose, as solka floc (SF);
20% whey; 4% crab meal plus 10% SF and 4% crab meal plus
20% whey diets. At the termination of the experiment, one
chick from each dietary treatment was killed and contents
from the ileum, ceca and colon were collected and
subjected to identify B. psuedolongum.
The data showed that the performance of chicks
inoculated with B. pseudolonqum was comparable to that of
the control chicks for similar dietary treatments except
the 4% crab meal diet in which the inoculated chicks
showed significantly (P<.05) higher feed consumption and
poorer feed efficiency than did the control chicks.
The microbiological analysis, including colony
morphology, cellular morphology, gram staining reactions
and the partial biochemical profile, failed to detect B.
pseudolongum in the subject chicks.
70
INTRODUCTION
Bifidobacteria have been isolated from the intestinal
and fecal material of chickens (Mitsuoka, 1969; Mitsuoka
and Kaneuchi, 1977). Morishita et al. (1982) found small
numbers of bifidobacteria in the jejunum and caecum of
birds receiving lactose and failed to isolate these
microorganism from those fed the control diet. Cole and
Fuller (1984) reported that bifidobacteria had colonized
these organisms in the lower gut and did not cause any
adverse effects to the birds.
Recently, bifidobacteria have been suggested as being
beneficial to the utilization of whey by Austin et al.
(1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982). They reported that
chitin and chitosan, derived from crab waste, could be
effective in stimulating the growth of bifidobacteria
which produce lactase and thereby might increase the
utilization of whey. Chicks fed the chitin-whey diet were
significantly (P<.05) heavier than those fed the control
diet.
On the other hand, Alyan and Arscott (1981) found no
beneficial effects involving an interaction of chitin or
utilization of whey. Further, the performance of chicks
fed the 20% whey diet was not inferior but was comparable
to the controls.
The utilization of crab meal, whey and cellulose in
71
broiler diets has been reviewed and reported on by
Tachasirinugune and Arscott (1986). They found that crab
meal could be used in broiler starter diets and had
beneficial effects on cellulose utilization but not on
whey.
Since it has been suggested that bifidobacteria are
beneficial in the utilization of whey by chicks, an
experiment was conducted by using crab meal as a source of
chitin to potentially promote the growth of bifidobacteria
to increase the utilization of whey as well as cellulose.
The objectives of these studies were 1) to compare the
performance of chicks which were inoculated with B.
psuedolongum to chicks which were not inoculated when both
groups were fed broiler starter diets supplemented with
crab meal, cellulose in the form of solka floc (SF) and
whey; 2) to determine whether B. psuedolongum had
colonized in ileum, ceca and colon from both groups.
72
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Two groups of commercial feather sexed day-old broiler
chicks were used in this experiment. One group was
inoculated with Bifidobacteria psuedolongum and the other
was the uninoculated control. Both groups were housed in
the same room but in different electrically heated chick
batteries to avoid cross contamination. Each group was
given the same dietary treatments. Each treatment
consisted of three replicates of ten chicks each with
equal numbers of males and females. All chicks received
water and feed ad libitum, beginning with their first and
second day of hatching, respectively. Chicks were reared
in a forced draft, positive pressure ventilation room that
could be manually adjusted to maintain comfort the chicks.
The crab meal and dried whey used in this experiment
were produced locally. The ration composition and nutrient
levels of each dietary treatment are shown in Table IV.1.
All diets were formulated to be essentially isonitrogenous
and equal in calcium and phosphorus levels.
The treatment was terminated at 4 weeks of age. Body
weight, feed intake and cumulative mortality were
determined. The data were subjected to analysis of
variance (Steel and Torrie, 1980). Due to limited funds
available, only one chick of each dietary treatment was
sacrificed and its intestinal tract (ileum, ceca and
73
colon) collected in plastic bags and sent to the
Microbiology laboratory for B. pseudolongum identification.
Bacteria and inoculation of chicks
Bifidobacteria pseudolongum (ATCC 25526) was purchased
from the American Type Culture Collection. The specimen
received was inoculated by streaking onto Eugon agar
(DIFCO) and incubated anaerobically at 37°C using a
Gas-Pak 150tm Anaerobic System (BBL 60629). After four
days of incubation, colony morphology was noted and was
found to be consistent with that described in Bergey's
Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (1984) for B.
pseudolongum. The organisms were observed to be gram
positive. The organisms were subcultured into 100 ml of
Eugon broth contained in 250 ml Erlenmeyer Flasks and
incubated as previously described for 4 days. After 4 days
of incubation, the broth culture was sampled to determine
if colony forming units (CFU) were present in order to be
used for inoculation of newly hatched chicks.
Approximately 1 ml of the broth culture was given to each
chick by a syringe with small rubber tube introduced into
their throat.
Microbiological Analysis
Intestinal samples were collected in plastic bags
which were suitable for disruption procedures using a
Stomacher machine (Lab-Blender 80). Ten ml of sterile
saline were introduced directly into the plastic bags and
74
disruption of the intestinal contents was allowed to
proceed for approximately one minute, or until the
contents of the bags appeared to be completely emulsified.
The contents of each bag were then streaked directly onto
Eugon agar plate. In addition, three dilutions of the
intestinal emulsion were made at 10-1, 10-2, and 10-3.
Inoculated Eugon agar plates were incubated anaerobically
and observed daily for sufficient growth to determine
colony characteristics. After three days, all colony types
which appeared to be B. pseudolongum were subcultured and
incubated as before. Gram stains and cellular morphology
were made of each colony which had been subcultured. If
both colony and cellular morphology were consistent with
that described for B. pseudolongum, a partial biochemical
profile was established.
After purification, each culture
was inoculated into
Brom-Cresol purple sugar fermentator tubes containing the
presence of the sugar shown in Table IV.4 and incubated
for 24 hours. In addition, all purified cultures were
checked for hydrolysis of starch using the standard
technique of growth on starch agar (DIFCO) and the
flooding of the plates with iodine to reveal the presence
or absence of starch.
75
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of dilution, plating and subsequent colony
counts performed on the original broth culture of B.
pseudolongum from inoculation of chicks indicated that the
culture contained 6.7 x 106 CFU/ml of culture. Therefore,
each inoculated chick received approximately 6.7 x 106 CFU.
The data obtained for average body weight, feed
consumption, feed efficiency and mortality are summarized
in Table IV.2. The performance between the uninoculated
and inoculated groups for similar dietary treatments was
comparable except for those fed the 4% crab meal diet.
Here the inoculated chicks were slightly heavier in weight
and consumed significantly (P<.05) more feed. The reason
for this is not known.
The microbiological analysis to determine if B.
pseudolongum had colonized the intestine (ileum, ceca and
colon) of chicks are shown in Tables IV.3 and IV.4. The
partial biochemical profile shown in Table IV.4 suggests
that the microorganisms did not colonize in the ileum,
cecum and colon of the subject chicks. No differences in
performance between the control chicks and the inoculated
chicks were observed which would also support these
results. On the other hand, using one chick per treatment
may not have been sufficient for this microbiological
evaluation.
Cole and Fuller (1984) reported that B.
76
pseudolongum was found in the lower gut and absent from
the crop and small intestine. Morishita et al. (1982)
reported that a small number of bifidobacteria colonized
in the intestinal tract of birds (at 5 and 14 days of age)
fed the diet containing lactose and failed to detect the
microorganism from those fed control diet.
Austin et al. (1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982) have
suggested that chitin and its products, derived from crab
meal, were effective in stimulating the growth of
bifidobacteria which produce lactase and thereby could
increase the utilization of whey for chicken. The present
study fails to support their findings as did the findings
of Tachasirinugune and Arscott (1986) and Alyan and
Arscott (1981).
Results of the present experiment indicate that no
beneficial effects were evident for chicks which were
inoculated with B. pseudolongum and that this organism
could not be detected in the ileum, cecum and colon from
either group of chicks.
Table IV.1.
Composition of diets (%)
Ingredients
Corn, yellow
Soybean ml (47.5% CP)
Dehyd. alfalfa ml (17% CP)
Crab ml (34.8% CP)
Cellulose solka-floc
Whey dr (12% CP)
MHA 80%
Limestone flour
Defluo. phos. (32%Ca:18%P)
Salt (iodized)
Vitamin premix 1-751
Trace mineral mix-652
Calculated Analysis
Crude protein, %
ME, kcal/kg
Crude fiber, %
Calcium, %
Avail. phos., %
Control
4% CM
10% SE
64.85
29.00
2.00
65.12
26.33
2.00
4.00
52.13
31.72
2.00
20% whey
48.90
25.85
2.00
10.00
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.15
1.60
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
20.00
0.15
1.20
1.35
0.30
0.20
0.05
20.05
2969
3.02
1.35
0.52
20.05
2574
12.45
1.34
0.45
19.38
2701
2.25
1.20
0.50
0.15
1.60
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.15
19.89
2944
2.62
1.33
0.50
4% CM +
10% SE
52.60
28.85
2.00
4.00
10.00
4% CM +
20% whey
50.30
22.00
2.00
4.00
0.15
20.00
0.15
1.85
0.30
0.20
0.05
1.00
0.30
0.20
0.05
20.13
2560
12.84
1.35
0.51
19.07
2736
2.63
1.25
0.50
'Trace mineral mix provides per kg ration: Mn, 50 mg; Fe, 2 mg; Cu, 0.2 mg; Zn, 27.5 mg;
Co, 0.2 mg.
2Vitamin premix provides per kg ration: Vit A, 3300 IU; Vit D-3, 1100 ICU; riboflavin, 3.3
mg; d-pantothenic acid, 5.5 mg; niacin, 22.0 mg; choline, 190.0 mg; Vit B-12, 5.5 mcg; Vit
E, 1.1 IU; Vit K, 0.55 mg; folic acid, 0.22 mg; ethoxyquin, 0.06 g.
Table IV.2.
Performance of broiler chicks at 4 weeks of age
Chicks
(No.)
Dietary treatment
Body wt.
(No.)
(kg)
Feed cons.
Feed cony.
(KS)
1
Control - Uninoculated Chick (UC)
30(0)1
0.835
1.395
1.67
2
4% Crab Meal (CM) - UC
30(0)
0.858
1.361
1.55
3
10% Solka Floc (SF) - UC
30(0)
0.766
1.376
1.80
4
20% Whey - UC
30(0)
0.811
1.521
1.88
5
4% CM + 10% SF - UC
30(0)
0.806
1.443
1.78
6
4% CM + 20% Whey - UC
30(0)
0.824
1.510
1.83
7
Control - Inoculated Chick (IC)
30(0)
0.835
1.388
1.66
8
4% CM - IC
30(1)
0.895
1.486
1.65
9
10% SF - IC
30(0)
0.737
1.345
1.83
30(1)
0.781
1.506
1.93
10
20% Whey
11
4% CM + 10% SF - IC
30(2)
0.777
1.388
1.79
12
4% CM + 20% Whey - IC
30(2)
0.833
1.532
1.85
0.067
0.082
0.097
0.132
0.063
0.086
IC
LSD .05 =
LSD .01 =
1Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
79
Table /V.3.
Macro- and microscopic examination of organisms
isolated from chick intestinal material
Colony
Morphology
Gram
Stain
1
+2
2
+
+
+
+
TMT
(No.)1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Cellular
Morphology
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
1Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
2n+w indicated organism exhibiting morphology or Gram
reaction consistent with B. pseudolongum which were
isolated from this intestinal material.
80
Table IV.4.
Origin of
Organism
(TMT No.)1
Sugar fermentation reactions of organisms
appearing to be Bifidobactera pseudolongum
Mannitol
+
-
-
-
+
-
+
2
-
4
+
+
+
6
7
8
9
11
*
Sugar
Trehalose
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1
5
Xylose
+
-
+
+
-
Arabinose
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
*Correct reaction of B. pseudolongum.
1Number in the parentheses are number dead per treatment.
81
REFERENCES
Alyan, M, and G. H. Arscott, 1981. Department of Poultry
Science, Oregon State University (unpublished).
Austin, P. R., C. J. Brine, J. E. Castle, and J. P.
Zikakis, 1981. Chitin: New facets of research. Science
212:749.
Cole, C. B., and R. Fuller, 1984. Bile acid deconjugation
and attachment of chicken gut bacteria: Their possible
role in growth depression. Br. Poultry sci. 25:227-231.
Krieg, N. R., and J. G. Holt, 1984. Bergey's Manual of
Determative Bacteriology. Williams & Wilkins,
Baltimore, MD.
Mitsuoka, T., 1969. Vergleichende Untersuchungen uber die
Bifidobakterien aus dem Verdauungstrakt von Menschen
and Tieren. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenk. I. Abt.
Orig. 210:52.
Mitsuoka, T., and C. Kaneuchi, 1977. Ecology of
bifidobacteria. American J. of Clinical Nutr.
30:1799-1810.
Morishita, Y., R. Fuller, and M. E. Coates, 1982.
Influence of dietary lactose on gut flora of chicks.
Br. Poultry Sci. 23:349-359.
Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Torrie, 1980. Principles and
Procedures of Statistics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, NY.
Tachasirinugune, S., and G. H.Arscott, 1986. Performance
of broilers fed crab meal as an agent for improving
the utilization of cellulose and whey diet. Poultry
Sci. (to be submitted for publication).
Zikakis, J. P., W. W. Saylor, and P. R. Austin, 1982.
Untilization of chitinous products and whey in animal
nutrition. In "Chitin and Chitosan," Ed. S. Hirano and
S. Tokura. Japanese Soc. Chitin and Chitosan, Sapporo,
Japan.
82
CHAPTER V
EFFECTS OF DIETARY CRAB MEAL, ZINC BACITRACIN AND
CELLULOSE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF LAYING HENS
S. Tachasirinugune, and G. H. Arscott
Department of Poultry Science
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
83
ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance
of Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens fed crab meal and
ground wood shavings diets. The effects of zinc bacitracin
supplemented to the diets were also studied.
Satisfactory performance was obtained when crab meal was
used in laying hens diet at the 4% level.
No significant differences (P>.05) in egg production, egg
weight, internal and external egg quality and egg yolk
cholesterol were observed when laying hens were fed a 10%
wood shavings diet. However, feed consumption and feed per
dozen eggs were adversely affected (P<.05). Supplementation
with crab meal had no beneficial effect on the utilization of
fiber.
Supplementation with zinc bacitracin at 55ppm level did
not have a positive effect on layer performance.
The results obtained in this trial indicated that crab
meal can be used in laying hens diet but has no beneficial
effect on fiber utilization by layers. The hens were capable
of adjusting to the high fiber diet without affecting their
reproductive performance and egg yolk cholesterol was not
affected by high dietary fiber.
84
INTRODUCTION
Crab meal, a by-product from crab industry, has been
reported to be satisfactorily used in laying hens. Manning
(1929) reported that birds fed a crab meal diet laid slightly
more eggs, had better plumage and appetites than those fed a
meat meal diet, even though the meat meal ration contained
almost twice as much crude protein as the ration containing
crab meal, while the opposite was true as far as ash content
was concerned. Byerly et al. (1933) found that a crab meal
ration was consumed readily and gave good egg production and
hatchability as compared to a fish meal ration which had a
crude protein content of 22.75% while the crab meal ration
contained only 15.64%.
Parkhurst et al. (1944) demonstrated that in crab meal
and fish meal diets fed on an equal protein basis and with
minerals adjusted, there were no appreciable differences in
egg production, feed conversion, fertility, hatchability, egg
weight and internal egg quality. On the other hand, Mangold
and Damkohler (1938) noted that fish meal was slightly
superior to crab meal in regard to egg production. Fangauf et
al. (1935) found that birds fed a crab meal diet consumed
less feed, had poorer egg production and higher feed per
dozen eggs than those fed shrimp meal, crawfish and fish meal
diets. However, the differences were not significant and
hatchability was good in the eggs from the crab meal rations.
85
Laying hens have been shown to be capable of satisfactory
performance when fed high levels of dietary fiber (MacIntyre
and Aitkin, 1957; Kondra et al., 1974; and Moran and Evans,
1977). Deaton et al. (1977) found that as dietary fiber
content increased (15, 30 or 60g of pine shavings/kg diet)
gizzard weight increased. However, no significant differences
on body weight, hen-day production, egg weight, efficiency of
food conversion, mortality, percentage of liver ether extract
or egg shell breaking strength were observed.
Longe (1984) found that food utilization for diets
containing 20% of cowpea shell, sawdust and dried brewer
grains was poorer (P<.05) than those fed the control diet;
egg production was poorest for birds receiving the diets
containing sawdust and brewers grains.
Vargas and Naber (1984) conducted experiments to
determine the effect of dietary fiber (oat hulls) in rations
of varying nutrient (low, medium or high) content on hen
performance. They found significant differences (P<.01)
between diets for feed intake, feed efficiency and no
significant differences were found in egg production, egg
weight, body weight change and energy balance. These results
were consistent with the findings of Touchburn and Naber
(1982) whose test diets of similar composition over a 3-year
period showed no significant effect on the overall
reproductive performance of laying hens.
Numerous researchers have attempted to lower egg yolk
86
cholesterol by feeding dietary fiber. Turk and Barnett (1972)
found that alfalfa, when added to a corn-soy laying hen diet,
was the most effective of the fiber sources tested for
decreasing egg yolk cholesterol with the least loss of egg
size, feed efficiency and egg production, while a cellulose
supplement slightly reduced egg cholesterol. Menge et al.
(1974) found a reduction in serum cholesterol and an increase
in egg yolk cholesterol when the dietary fiber level was
increased from 4.1 to 17.7%.
McNaughton (1978) reported significantly decreased egg
yolk cholesterol with no changes in egg production from
feeding various sources of dietary fiber to laying hens when
compared to a basal diet. Oat and wood shavings produced the
greatest reduction in egg yolk cholesterol. Longe (1984)
reported that yolk cholesterol did not show consistent
trends, either with dietary fiber or egg production. However,
there was a general trend toward lower cholesterol content in
eggs from birds receiving fiber sources.
On the other hand, Nakaue et al. (1980) reported no
significant effect on egg production and egg yolk cholesterol
when 10% dehydrated alfalfa meal was added to a corn-soybean
basal diet for layers. Several other researchers have failed
to show any lowering effect on yolk cholesterol of eggs from
quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) and layers using dietary
fiber (Sutton et al., 1981; Millar and Katsoulis, 1974;
Husseini et al., 1976 and Vargas and Naber, 1984).
87
In studies involving antibiotics, Leclercq et al. (1975)
found a significant increase (P<.05) on egg weight when
bacitracin was added to the diet at 20 mg/kg. Akkilic and
Erding (1982) demonstrated that zinc bacitracin had a
beneficial effect on egg production and egg weight when the
diet contained 50 ppm of zinc bacitracin. Antibiotics have
also been shown to overcome the deleterious effect of rye
diets (MacAuliffe and McGinnis, 1971 and Marusich et al.,
1978). Pryor and Arscott (1967) reported that antibiotic
(Prostrep) supplemented to the diet containing high level of
linseed oil meal resulted in significant improvement in its
feeding value.
The purposes of this trial were: 1) to study the
reproductive performance of laying hens and egg yolk
cholesterol from birds fed diets containing crab meal and/or
wood shavings; 2) to study the effect of dietary
supplementation with zinc bacitracin.
88
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A total of 960 SCWL (Shaver 288) layers were fed for
eight 28-day periods. The pullets were housed in a positive
pressure ventilated windowless building. The experiment
commenced when the birds reached approximately 25% egg
production. Prior to the start of the experiment, the hens
were assigned to individual laying cages and fed a
corn-soybean ration similar to the control ration (Table V.1)
after which they received the isonitrogenous experimental
diets shown in the same table which contained 4% of crab meal
and 5 and 10% of ground wood shavings singly and in
combination. Zinc bacitracin was added at levels of 0 and
55ppm to the control, 4% crab meal, 10% ground shavings and
4% crab meal plus 10% ground shavings diets.
There were 96 layers in each of the ten treatments,
distributed in four replicates of 24 birds each. The birds
were kept on a 14 hour light cycle during the laying period.
Water was provided for eight 15-minute watering periods at
approximately two hour intervals beginning 15 minutes after
the onset of, and 30 minutes before the end of the light
period. Feed was provided ad libitum.
Body weight, egg production, feed consumption, feed per
dozen eggs and mortality were measured at 28-day periods. Egg
weights were collected over three days at the start, 2nd, 4th
and 8th periods. All eggs collected at the 4th and 8th period
89
were measured for specific gravity to provide an indication
of shell quality. Internal egg quality (Haugh units) was
measured from two eggs per replicate during those periods.
Sixteen eggs from each treatment collected at the 4th and
8th periods were used to determine the concentration of
cholesterol in the egg yolk. Cholesterol was extracted by the
method
of Washburn and Nix (1974). Cholesterol content was
determined for triplicate samples by using the method of
Pearson (1953).
The experimental data were analyzed by split-plot design
analysis (Snedecor and Cochran, 1968) where treatment (TMT)
and the period (PER) were the main effects. Since significant
TMT x PER interactions were observed on body weight and feed
consumption, those data were presented by each period. Other
parameters which had no TMT x PER interaction are presented
from the overall means. Significant differences in the means
were separated by the Bonferroni procedure (Neter and
Wasserman, 1974).
90
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Significant TMT x PER interactions for average body
weight and feed consumption were observed (Tables V.2 and
V.3). The average body weight from birds fed in all dietary
treatments tended to increase as the experiment proceeded
(Table V.2). Feed consumption was also increased but not
consistently which might be due to environmental factors
rather than dietary treatments per se (Table V.3).
Since feed per dozen eggs, egg production, egg weight,
specific gravity, Haugh unit and egg yolk cholesterol showed
no significant TMT x PER interactions, the overall means are
presented in Table V.4.
Birds fed the crab meal diets had significantly lower
(P<.05) body weights than those fed the control diet at the
end of periods 1 through 5. However, their body weights were
comparable from period 6 through 8. Birds fed crab meal diets
also showed lower feed per dozen eggs and produced more eggs
than those fed the control diet (Table V.4); however the
differences were not significant. No significant differences
were found between birds fed crab meal diet and those fed the
control diet on feed consumption, egg weight, egg quality
(both external and internal) and egg yolk cholesterol. These
results are in agreement with Manning (1929) and Byerly et
al. (1933). Parkhurst et al. (1944) found that no differences
on reproductive performance of birds fed a crab meal diet as
91
compared to those fed a fish meal diet when those diets were
adjusted equally for protein and mineral content.
Reproductive performance from birds fed the 5% shavings
diet was comparable to those fed the control diet throughout
the eight 28-day periods (Tables V.2 to V.4). Birds fed the
10% shavings diet had comparable body weight to those fed the
control diet except they were significantly lower (P<.05) at
periods 5, 7 and 8 (Table V.2). Feed consumption and feed per
dozen eggs from birds fed the 10% shavings diet were
significantly higher (P<.05) than the control except for feed
consumption at periods 1 and 2. These results are in
agreement with Longe (1984) and Vargas and Naber (1984).
Moran and Evans (1977) found that birds fed a high fiber diet
(5.75% CF) consumed significantly (P<.05) more feed than
those fed the low fiber diet (2.44% CF). These data can be
explained on the basis of energy needs. After feed
consumption was recalculated to remove the 10% inert material
(shavings) from the diet there was no difference (P>.05) on
feed consumption and feed per dozen egg compared to birds fed
the control diet except period 2 birds fed the 10% shavings
diet consumed less (P<.05) feed than the controls (Tables
A3.6 and A3.7).
No significant differences for egg production, egg weight
and egg quality were observed between birds fed the 10%
shavings diet and those fed the control diet (Table V.4).
These results are in agreement with several researchers
92
(Deaton et al., 1977; Moran and Evans, 1977; Kondra et al.,
1974; and Vargas and Naber, 1984) but are at variance with
Weiss and Scott (1979). These results suggest that the
ability of bird receiving the high fiber ration to maintain
reproductive performance is largely attributable to their
greater daily feed intake. Kondra et al. (1974) demonstrated
that the hen is capable of a high degree of anatomical change
in response to the amount of dietary fiber in the diet.
Egg yolk cholesterol concentration was not significantly
different (P<.05) from birds fed either 5 or 10% shaving diet
compared to those fed the control diet (Table V.4). Similar
results were reported by Sutton et al. (1981) and Vargas and
Naber (1984). Nakaue et al. (1980) also reported no
significant effect on egg production and egg yolk cholesterol
when 10% dehydrated alfalfa meal was added to the control
diet.
No significant differences (P<.05) on reproductive
performance of birds were observed when crab meal was
incorporated in either the 5 or 10% shavings diet (Tables V.2
to V.4). These results did not show any synergetic effects as
noted by Tachasirinugune and Arscott (1986) who reported that
the addition of 4% crab meal to a 10% cellulose diet for
broilers resulted in improved growth and feed efficiency.
Dietary supplements of zinc bacitracin at 55ppm level,
did not appear to result in any improvement on reproductive
performance of layers (Tables V.2 to V.4). The absence of
93
response to antibiotics has been noted by many researchers.
Nassar and Arscott (1985) found that the addition of zinc
bacitracin did not improve performance of broilers when added
to canola meal containing diets. Menge (1973) stated that
depression in bird response could be related to continuously
using the same antibiotics in a given environment for a long
period of time. Waibel et al. (1954) showed that cleaning
practices could cause a lowered response to antibiotics. The
findings in this experiment seem to concur with the above
reports.
The results from this study indicated that the 4% crab
meal can be used satisfactorily in laying hens diet; laying
hens were capable of utilizing diets containing either 5 or
10% shavings without adverse effects on their reproductive
performance; no beneficial effects were observed when crab
meal was added to the high fiberous diets; egg yolk
cholesterol did not appear to decrease when birds were fed
dietary fiber and the addition of zinc bacitracin did not
have a positive effect on reproductive performance of layers.
Table V.I.
Composition of diets' (t)
Ingredients
Barley-Pac.Ct. (9%CP)
Corn, yellow
Soybean ml (47.5% CP)
Alfalfa ml, dehyld (17% CP)
Crab ml (34.8% CP)
Wood shavings, grd
Defluo. Phos. (32Ca:18P)
Limestone flour
Oystershell flour
Salt (iodized)
Trace mineral mix-652
Vitamin premix 1-753
DL methionine, 98%
Calcuated Analysis:
Protein, %
Energy, kcal/kg ME
Crude fiber, %
Methionine + cystine, %
Lysine, %
Control
4% CM
10%
shavings
4% CM + 10%
shavings
5.00
65.31
17.99
2.50
-
5.00
65.57
15.48
2.50
4.00
5.00
52.77
20.53
2.50
-
-
5.00
53.75
17.35
2.50
4.00
10.00
1.85
2.00
3.00
0.25
0.05
0.20
0.05
15.29
2500.23
12.95
0.56
0.73
-
2.00
3.65
3.00
0.25
0.05
0.20
0.05
1.75
2.15
3.00
0.25
0.05
0.20
0.05
10.00
2.15
3.50
3.00
0.25
0.05
0.20
0.05
15.23
2833.01
2.74
0.58
0.72
15.46
2860.77
3.13
0.57
0.70
15.32
2463.86
12.56
0.57
0.77
1The 5% wood shavings diet was obtained by mixing 1:1 ratio from control diet
and 10% wood shavings diet. The 4% CM plus 5% wood shavings diet was obtained
by mixing 1:1 ratio from 4% CM diet and 4% CM plus 10% wood shavings diet.
2Trace mineral mix provides per kg ration: Mn, 50 mg; Fe, 2 mg; Cu, 0.2 mg; Zn,
27.5 mg; Co, 0.2 mg.
3Vitamin premix provides per kg ration: Vit A, 3300 IU; Vit D3, 1100 ICU;
riboflavin, 3.3 mg; d-pantothenic acid, 5.5 mg; niacin, 22.0 mg; choline, 190.0
mg; Vit B12, 5.5 mcg; Vit E, 1.1 IU; Vit K, 0.55 mg; folic acid, 0.22 mg;
ethoxyquin, 0.06 g.
Table V.2. Differences by periods' for ave. body weight (kg) among treatments
Period
Dietary TMT
1
Period
2
Period
3
Period
4
Period
5
Period
6
Period
7
Period
8
1.
Control
1.784b
1.807b
1.864b
1.920b
1.997b
1.997b
2.
4% Crab Meal (CM)
1.204a
1.682a
1.727a
1.795a
1.818a
1.875ab
::::::bcd
2.011bcd
3.
5% Wood Shavings (WS)
1.682ab
1.739ab
1.807abcd
1.852ab
1.864a
1.943ab
2.011cd
2.023bcd
4.
10% WS
1.716ab
1.784ab
1.818abcd
1.852ab
1.852a
1.920ab
1.920abc
1.890
5.
4% CM + 5% WS
1.693ab
I.-nob
1,773abcd
1.818ab
1.852a
1.898ab
1.943abcb
1.875a
6.
4% CM + 10% WS
1.670a
1.682a
1.750abc
1.807abc
1.807a
1.864a
1.875a
1.920ab
7.
Control + 55 ppm Zn
bacitracin (ZB)
1.682ab
1.750ab
1.795abcd
1.829ab
1.841a
1.920ab
1.943abcd
2.079d
8.
4% CM + 55 ppm ZB
1.739ab
1.795b
1.852cd
1.886ab
1.898ab
1.966ab
2.000bed
2.034cd
9.
10% WS + 55 ppm ZB
1.716ab
1.727ab
1.739ab
1.841ab
.1.886ab
1.909ab
1.890h
1.932abc
1.739ab
1.784ab
1.841bcd
1.864ab
1.864a
1.932ab
1.954abcd
1.966abc
10. 4% CM + 10% WS +
55 ppm ZB
'Mean values in a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P<.05).
2.114d
Table V.3. Difference by periodsl for feed consumption (g) among treatments
Dietary TMT
1.
Control
2.
4% Crab Meal (CM)
Period
1
Peribd
110.1a
121.1bcd
110.6a
2
Period
3
Period
4
Period
5
Period
6
Period
7
Period
8
115.2a
115.1a
115.4a
115.4a
114.1a
112.9a
110.7a
114.7a
118.9a
118.5a
117.5a
115.2a
114.4abc
114.6a
117.9abcd
120.1ab
123.9abcde
124.1ab
122.2ab
122.7abc
120.7abcd
10% WS
115.7a
122.3bcd
125.9bc
128.5bcde
129.5b
129.2b
127.1bc
123.7cd
4% CM + 5% WS
116.0a
119.0abcd
121.4ab
122.4abcd
124.1ab
121.0ab
130.3c
118.3abcd
6.
4% CM + 10% WS
114.5a
124.2d
128.3bc
131.7bc
130.9b
128.6b
127.6c
125.9d
7.
Control + 55 ppm Zn
bacitracin (ZB)
108.9a
113.7ab
113.2a
119.8abc
117.9a
115.1a
115.4a
113.7ab
4% CM + 55 ppm ZS
111.5a
114.3abc
115.0a
117.1a
116.7a
116.5a
117.4ab
113.6ab
126.9bc
132.2e
131.0b
130.4b
126.5bc
123.3bCd
133.9c
129.2cde
131.3b
130.7b
127.1bc
126.1d
3.
4.
5.
8.
5% Wood Shavings (WS)
9.
10% WS + 55 ppm Z13
116.8a
123.7cd
10.
4% CM + 10% Ws +
55 ppm ZB
116.1a
117.5abcd
'Mean values in a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P(.05).
Table V.4.
Mean values for feed/dozen eggs, egg production, egg weight, specific gravity, Haugh unit
and yolk cholesterol for eight 28-day periods
Dietary treatment
.Feed/
dozen egg sl
(kg)
Egg
production2
Egg
weight
(%)
(g)
Specific
gravity
Haugh
unit
Yolk
cholesterol
(mg/g)
1.
Control
1.681ab
82.7
58.9
1.0827
81.2
228.5
2.
4% Crab Meal (CM)
1.609a
85.7
59.3
1.0815
76.3
229.5
3.
5% Wood Shavings (WS)
1.741bcd
83.7
59.1
1.0820
79.9
223.8
4.
10% WS
1.812cde
83.4
58.6
1.0814
79.2
230.3
5.
4% CM + 5% WS
1.693abc
84.7
59.6
1.0813
79.4
231.9
6.
4% CM + 10% WS
1.812cde
84.2
59.6
1.0810
81.4
235.7
7.
Control + 55 ppm
bacitracin
1.653ab
83.8
59.0
1.0824
78.9
231.3
8.
4% CM + 55 ppm bacitracin
1.640ab
84.7
59.2
1.0806
80.0
226.0
9.
10% shavings + 55 ppm
bacitracin
1.831de
83.2
58.6
1.0811
81.1
231.3
1.875e
81.0
59.3
1.0811
79.3
231.4
10. 4% CM + 10% shavings
+ 55 ppm bacitracin
'Mean values in a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P<.05).
2Mean values in each column without superscripts are not significantly different (P>.05).
98
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Akkilic, M., and H. Erding, 1982. The effect of ALBAC
(zinc bacitracin) in egg production, feed intake and
mortality in laying hens. Ankara Universitesi
Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi. 29(1/2):41-49.
Byerly, T.C., H. W.Titus, and N. R. Ellis, 1933.
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Deaton, J. W., L. F. Kubena, F. N. Reece, and B. D. Lott,
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Kondra, P. A., J. L. Sell, and W. Guenther, 1974. Response
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Can. J. Anim. Sci. 54:651-658.
Leclercq, B., A. Bouchardeau, and J. C. Blum, 1975. The
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Longe, 0. G., 1984. Effects of increasing the fibre
content of a layer diet. Br. Poultry Sci. 25:187-193.
MacAuliffe, T., and J. McGinnis, 1971. Effect of
antibiotic supplements to diets containing rye on
chick growth. Poultry Sci. 50:1130-1134.
Maclntyre, T. M., and J. R. Aitken, 1957. The effect of
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Mangold, E., and H. Damkohler, 1938. Wollhandkrabbenschrot
als eiweissfutter fur das geflugel. II. Die eignung
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kukenaufsucht. Archiv fur Geflugelkunde 12:104-111.
99
Manning, J. R., 1929. Crab scrap versus meat meal in
poultry feeding. U. S. Bur. Fish. Memo. S-302. 2 pages.
Marusich, W. L., E. F. Ogrinz, N. Camerlengo, and M.
Mitrovic, 1978. Use of a rye-soybean ration to
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57:1297-1304.
McNaughton, J. L., 1978. Effect of dietary fiber on egg
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the laying hen. J. Nutr. 108:1842-1848.
Menge, M., 1973. Lack of growth response of eight week-old
broilers to certain antibiotics. Poultry Sci.
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Menge, H., L. M. Littlefield, L. T. Frobish, and B. T.
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Moran, E. T., Jr., and E. Evans, 1977. Performance and
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100
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101
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
Several experiments were conducted using broiler chicks
and one using Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens, to study
the effects of crab meal and other supplements on improving
dried whey and cellulose diets. Cellulose treated with
concentrated H3PO4 in broiler diets and diets supplemented
with zinc bacitracin in both broiler and laying hens were
examined. Performance effects on broilers which were
inoculated with bifidobacteria were also investigated.
The following conclusions were obtained from the results
of these experiments.
1. Satisfactory performance resulted when crab meal was
used in broiler starter diets at 2, 4 and 8% levels. No
adverse effect on growth was observed when chicks were fed a
20% whey diet. Diets containing 10 and 15% cellulose caused a
significant (P<.05) depression in growth and feed conversion.
Supplementation with 4% crab meal appeared to have a
beneficial effect on fiber utilization by chicks. Positive
effects on broiler performance were observed when zinc
bacitracin was added to the 4% of crab meal, the 10% of
cellulose and the 4% of crab meal plus 10% of cellulose diets
at 27.5 and 55 ppm levels. The TME-values of these diets
obtained by using adult roosters indicated that the TME-values
102
of control diets were significantly higher (P<.01) than the
10% solka floc diet. The addition of 4% of crab meal did not
appear to change the metabolizable energy content of the 10%
SF diet.
2. No improvement on performance of the inoculated chicks
was noted as compared to those of the uninoculated chicks
when fed on the same dietary treatments. The microbiological
analysis, including colony morphology, cellulose morphology,
gram staining reactions and the partial biochemical profile,
failed to detect Bifidobacteria pseudolongum in either the
inoculated or uninoculated chicks.
3. In laying hen studies, satisfactory performance was
observed when crab meal was used in laying hen diets at the
4% level. Laying hens fed the 10% shavings diet performed
comparable to those fed the control diet in egg production,
egg weight and internal and external egg quality. However,
feed consumption and feed per dozen eggs on the 10% shaving
diet were significantly higher (P<.05) than the controls. No
beneficial effects on fiber utilization by laying hens was
observed when 4% of crab meal was added to the 10% of
shavings diet. The addition of zinc bacitracin did not have
any positive effects on laying hen performance.
Crab meal has been used satisfactorily as a feed
ingredient on both broiler and layer diets at a 4% level.
These findings are in agreement with other investigators
(Parkhurst et al., 1944; Romoser, 1957; Cox, 1971; Manning,
103
1929 and Byerly et al., 1933). It would be useful to
determine whether or not crab meal could be incorporated into
the diet at higher levels despite its chitin and high calcium
carbonate content.
Austin et al. (1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982) suggested
that the growth of bifidobacteria might be increased in the
presence of purified chitin from crab meal in their diets and
thereby increasing the utilization of whey by chicks in which
growth had been depressed. In these studies, no beneficial
effects from using crab meal, as a source of chitin, on
utilization of whey was observed. These findings may be due
to the fact that the microorganisms could not utilize chitin
directly from crab meal. The fact that no adverse effects on
body weights of birds fed the 20% whey diet is also a
contributing factor. Also involved might be differences due
to the source of whey, composition of the diet, environment
factors and the birds themselves. If there are other reasons,
they are not apparent at this time.
In contradiction to the suggestion of Austin et al.
(1981) and Zikakis et al. (1982), no beneficial effects were
observed in birds which were inoculated with bifidobacteria.
This may have been to the fact that the microorganisms were
unable to be colonized in the digestive tract following
inoculation. It is possible that multiple inoculations might
have been more effective.
In studies with cellulose, it appeared that layers were
104
less sensitive and more capable of adjusting to high fiber
diets without affecting their reproductive performance than
broilers. This may be due to the fact that the ability of
layers receiving the high fiber ration to maintain
reproductive performance was attributable to greater daily
feed intake whereas the feed consumption was not increased
for broilers fed the cellulose diets at either the 10 or 15%
levels; the different parameters that were measured, such as
body weight versus egg production, between broilers and
layers could have been a factor and also the nature of
microorganisms present in the digestive tract.
Crab meal at the 4% level appeared beneficial in the
utilization of 10% cellulose by broilers but not by layers.
Other levels of crab meal (2% or 8%) and cellulose (5% and
15%) were found to be ineffective in broilers. The reason for
this is unknown. It may be noted that crab meal has been
reported to contain an unidentified growth factor (Potter and
Shelton, 1970). Since the TME-value of the 4% CM + 10% SF
diet was comparable to the TME-value of the 10% SF diet, one
could suggest that this improvement might be due to the
presence of an unidentified growth factor.
105
CHAPTER VII
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106
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122
CHAPTER VIII
APPENDICES
123
Appendix I
Data
124
A complete record of data collected for the broiler,
adult rooster and laying hen studies has been kept at the
Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station,
Department of Poultry Science. Reference may be made to
projects 15-83-07, 15-84-02, 15-84-07, 15-84-12, 15-85-02,
15-85-05 and 15-85-09 for broilers; 15-84-16 for adult
roosters and 15-84-18 for layers.
125
Appendix II
Evaluation of the THE -value of broiler starter diets
126
MATERIALS AND METHODS
An experiment was conducted to determine the THE -value of
broiler starter diets. The procedure and methods were
described by Sibbald (1983). Forty-eight adult roosters (22
weeks old) were used in this experiment. The birds, of
similar body weight, were kept in individual wire cages,
equipped with water and feed troughs. Alternate cages were
left vacant to prevent any cross-contamination of excreta.
All birds received the test-feed approximately 10 days prior
to the assay. The diets were as follows: control, 4% crab
meal, 10% cellulose (SF) and 4% crab meal plus 10% SF. The
birds were starved for 24 hours to empty their digestive
tracts. The birds were force-fed 25g of test diet.
Force-feeding was accomplished using a transparent polyvinyl
tube and a rod, described in detail in Boldaji et al. (1981).
A plastic funnel was fused in one end of the tube to
facilitate the flow of feed. After force-feeding, the time
was recorded and the birds were returned to their cages. An
aluminum tray was placed under each cage to collect the
excreta. In each diet tested, six birds of similar body
weight were fasted over the same period of time to serve as a
control for endogenous energy (FEm + UEe) losses. Only water
was provided during 24 hour fast and after the force-feeding.
Exactly 48 hours after the force-feeding, the excreta
collection trays were removed, cleaned for feathers and
127
scales and the excreta voided were collected from the trays
quantitatively with the aid of a water sprayer. The excreta
were dried in a forced-air oven at 1020C for 24 hours,
allowed to come to equilibrim with atmospheric moisture,
weighed and ground with a mortar and pestle. Subsamples of
ground feed and excreta were analyzed for gross energy using
a Parr-adiabatic bomb calorimeter, equipped with a digital
thermometer. The gross energy values of feed and excreta were
used to calculate THE values. The data was subjected to
analysis of variance (Steel and Torrie, 1960).
128
RESULTS
One bird from the control group died during the assay.
Table A2.1 summarizes the TME-values of the test diets. The
average TME-value of the control diet was comparable to those
of the 4% crab meal diet. The average TME-value of the
control diet was significantly higher (P<.01) than the
average TME-value of the 10% cellulose (SF) diet. From this
observation, the addition of 4% of crab meal to 10% of
cellulose (SF) diet did not have a beneficial effect on the
TME-value of the diet.
Table A2.1
THE values of broiler starter diets obtained from each adult SCWL rooster
Adult Rooster
Dietary treatment
1
2
4
3
5
6
Averagel
kcal/gm
3.2924a
Control diet
3.1958
3.2554
3.4039
3.3520
3.2549
4% CM
3.3581
3.1423
3.2586
3.4609
3.3402
3.2724
3.3062a
10% SF
2.1849
1.9762
2.0409
2.8275
2.6504
3.0687
2.4581b
4% CM + 10% SF
2.4004
2.3507
2.0614
1.9986
3.0054
2.5854
2.4003b
1Mean values in columns with different superscripts are significantly different (P<.01).
130
REFERENCES
Boldaji, F., W. B. Roush, H. S. Nakaue, and G. H. Arscott,
1981. True metabolizable energy values of corn and
different varieties of wheat and barley using normal and
dwarf SCWL roosters. Poultry Sci. 60:225-227.
Sibbald, I. R., 1983. The THE system of feed evaluation.
Animal Research Center. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 006.
Steel, R. G. D., and J. M. Torrie, 1960. Principles and
Procedures of Statistics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
NY.
131
Appendix III
Analysis of variance tables for broiler and laying
hen experiments are presented in this appendix
132
In the laying hen study, significant TMT x PER
interactions for body weight and feed consumption were noted.
The data are present in chapter V. The overall treatment
means for feed per dozen eggs, egg production, egg weight,
specific gravity, Haugh unit and egg yolk cholesterol are
included in the text of chapter V. The data for each
individual parameter for each period are presented in tables
A3.1 to A3.5.
When the amount of wood shavings are excluded out from
the diets contained wood shavings. The difference of feed
consumption and feed per dozen eggs among treatments within
each period are shown in tables A3.6 and A3.7.
Table A3.1.
Effects on the means of feed/dozen eggs (kg) for each period from layer hens fed dietary
treatments for eight 28 -day, periods
Periodsl
Dietary treatment
Control
4% CM
5% shavings
10% shavings
4% CM + 5% shavings
4% CM + 10% shavings
Control + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 55ppm bacitracin
10% shavings + 55ppm
bacitracin
4% CM + 10% shavings
+ 55ppm bacitracin
1
2
3
1.568abc
1.527a
1.532ab
1.664abc
1.623a
1.468a
1.577a
1.668a
1.623a
1.682a
1.504a
1.509a
1.623a
1.745bc
1.591a
1.895e
1.586ab
1.532ab
1.618abc
1.818c
1.595ab
1.736abc
1.527a
1.654abcd
1.773cde
1.623abcd
1.786de
1.554ab
1.536ab
1.745bcde
4
1.586a
1.559a
1.714abc
1.754abc
1.550a
1.736abc
5
1.654ab
1.623a
1.745abc
1.836abc
1.732abc
1.786abc
6
1.754ab
1.695a
1.827abc
1.882abc
1.768ab
1.850bc
1.754ab
1.627abc
1.604ab
1.814bc
1.668ab
1.659ab
1.854bc
1.704a
1.968bc
1.823c
1.936c
2.014c
'Mean values in a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P<.05).
7
1.873abc
8
1.854abc
1.864abc
1.982bc
1.800ab
1.741a
1.859ab
1.914ab
1.814ab
1.936ab
1.745a
1.791ab
1.832ab
1.777ab
1.995bc
1.982b
2.009c
1.986b
1.727a
1.927abc
Table A3.2. Effects on the means of egg production (%) for each period from layer hens fed
dietary treatments for eight 28-day periods
Periodsl
Dietary treatment
Control
4% CM
5% shavings
10% shavings
4% CM + 5% shavings
4% CM + 10% shavings
Control + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 55ppm bacitracin
10% shavings + 55ppm
bacitracin
4% CM + 10% shavings +
55ppm bacitracin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
83.9
86.5
85.1
78.2
87.1
80.4
85.7
87.4
82.9
89.9
90.9
89.9
88.0
87.9
88.8
90.7
90.9
91.5
89.0
90.0
87.3
85.6
89.7
86.4
87.5
90.0
87.3
87.2
89.2
87.0
87.9
88.3
91.0
88.4
87.6
87.5
83.8
87.5
85.4
84.6
86.0
87.6
85.0
84.5
84.7
79.0
83.4
80.3
82.4
82.1
83.5
78.9
81.9
79.5
73.6
80.1
76.5
82.7
78.4
77.4
79.5
78.7
76.1
75.6
78.7
78.2
77.7
78.0
78.2
75.1
76.8
75.2
79.9
86.1
85.1
85.0
81.4
78.1
75.9
76.2
There were no differences between the treatment means for each period.
135
Table A3.3.
Effects on the means of egg weight (g) from layer hens
fed dietary treatments
Period
Dietary Treatment
Control
4% CM
5% shavings
10% shavings
4% CM + 5% shavings
4% CM + 10% shavings
Control + 55ppm bacitracin
4% Cm + 55ppm bacitracin
10% shavings + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 10% shavings + 55ppm
bacitracin
1
55.6
56.2
56.1
56.1
56.3
56.3
55.7
56.2
55.5
56.2
2
58.2
57.3
57.3
57.3
58.0
58.3
57.2
57.4
56.9
57.6
8
4
59.4
60.5
60.0
60.2
60.4
61.1
60.2
60.5
60.0
61.0
62.4
63.4
63.0
62.3
63.7
62.7
62.9
62.9
61.9
62.6
1There were no differences between the treatment means for each
period.
136
Table A3.4.
Effects on specific gravity and Haugh units from layer
hens fed dietary treatments.
Haugh units
Specific gravity
Periodl
Dietary Treatment
Control
4% CM
5% shavings
10% shavings
4% CM + 5% shavings
4% CM + 10% shavings
Control + 55ppm bacitracin
4% Cm + 55ppm bacitracin
10% shavings + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 10% shavings + 55ppm
bacitracin
1
1.0844
1.0843
1.0840
1.0836
1.0834
1.0834
1.0846
1.0831
1.0839
1.0842
2
1.0810
1.0788
1.0800
1.0793
1.0792
1.0786
1.0802
1.0781
1.0784
1.0781
4
8
86.09
81.14
83.64
83.32
82.71
84.90
82.33
83.33
83.50
83.47
76.30
71.42
76.15
75.04
76.18
77.93
75.48
76.73
78.65
75.17
1There were no differences between the treatment means for each
period.
137
Table A3.5.
Effects on egg yolk cholesterol (mg/g) from
layer hens fed dietary treatments
Periodl
Dietary treatment
Control
4% CM
5% shavings
10% shavings
4% CM + 5% shavings
4% CM + 10% shavings
Control + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 55ppm bacitracin
10% shavings + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 10% shavings + 55ppm
bacitracin
8
227.5
230.2
223.4
229.8
232.4
235.5
230.0
226.2
231.2
231.9
229.5
228.5
224.1
230.8
231.9
236.0
232.6
225.7
231.4
230.9
1There were no differences between the treatment means
for each period.
Table A3.6.
Effects on the means of feed consumption (g) for layer hens fed dietary treatments
for each period when the amount of wood shavings in the diets were subtracted off
Period2
Dietary treatment
Control
4% CM
5% shavings
10% shavings
4% CM + 5% shavings
4% CM + 10% shavings
Control + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 55ppm bacitracin
10% shavings + 55ppm
bacitracin
4% CM + 10% shavings +
55ppm bacitracin
1
21
3
4
5
6
7
8
116.5
117.3
114.1a
115.2ab
116.6ab
114.4a
123.8b
114.9ab
115.4ab
117.4ab
113.9a
112.9
114.4
114.6
111.4
112.4
113.3
113.7
113.6
111.0
117.6
114.4a
113.5
110.1
110.6
108.9
104.1
110.2
103.1
108.9
111.5
105.1
121.1b
110.7a
112.0a
110.0a
113.0a
111.8a
113.7ab
114.3ab
111.4a
115.2
114.7
114.1
113.3
115.3
115.4
113.2
115.0
114.3
115.1
118.9
117.68
115.7
116.3
118.5
119.8
117.1
118.9
115.4
118.5
117.86
116.6
117.9
117.4
117.9
116.7
117.9
115.4
117.5
116.0
116.3
114.9
115.8
104.5
105.8a
120.4
116.3
118.1
115.]
1Mean values in a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P<.05).
2Mean values in each column without superscripts are not significantly different (P>.05).
Table A3.7.
Effects on the means of feed/dozen eggs (kg) from layer hens fed dietary treatments
for each period when the amount of wood shavings in the diets were subtracted off
Periodl
Dietary treatment
Control
4% CM
5% shavings
10% shavings
4% CM + 5% shavings
4% CM + 10% shavings
Control + 55ppm bacitracin
4% CM + 55ppm bacitracin
10% shavings + 55ppm
bacitracin
4% CM + 10% shavings +
55ppm bacitracin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1.586
1.532
1.536
1.636
1.518
1.559
1.527
1.532
1.495
1.623
1.468
1.500
1.500
1.545
1.514
1.504
1.509
1.459
1.568
1.527
1.573
1.595
1.545
1.604
1.554
1.536
1.573
1.586
1.559
1.627
1.577
1.473
1.564
1.627
1.604
1.632
1.654
1.623
1.654
1.654
1.645
1.609
1.668
1.659
1.668
1.754
1.695
1.736
1.695
1.682
1.664
1.754
1.704
1.773
1.873
1.727
1.832
1.668
1.773
1.786
1.745
1.791
1.795
1.800
1.741
1.764
1.723
1.700
1.741
1.832
1.777
1.786
1.573
1.432
1.704
1.641
1.741
1.809
1.809
1.786
'There were no differences between the treatment means for each period.
140
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables
(Values with * are significant at P<.05)
(Values with ** are significant at P<.01)
ANOVA:
Table 111.4
Crab Meal, Cellulose (SF), Whey and Broiler Performance (Exp.
1)
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error A
Sex
Sex X Diet
Error B
11
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error
11
2
22
2
22
1
11
24
Body weight
MS
0.01
0.01
0.003
0.098
2E-03
2E-03
Feed Consumption
MS
F
.0115
.0233
5.6E-03
2.056
2.375
F
3.204*
3.263
48.926**
1.122
Feed Conversion
MS
0.0302
0.0052
0.0108
2.810*
0.485
141
ANOVA:
Table III.5a
Crab Meal, Cellulose (SF), and Broiler Performance (Exp. 2)
Body weight
Source
DF
MS
Diet
Replicate
Error A
Sex
Sex X Diet
Error B
15
0.092
0.003
0.019
0.231
0.009
0.007
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error
15
2
30
2
30
1
15
32
Feed Consumption
MS
F
0.0407
0.1116
0.0255
1.596
4.380*
F
4.836**
0.140
31.418**
1.286
Feed Conversion
MS
0.0387
0.0243
0.0053
7.248**
4.541*
142
ANOVA:
Table III.5b
Crab Meal, Whey, and Broiler Performance (Exp. 2)
Body weight
Source
Diet
Replicate
Error A
Sex
Sex X Diet
Error B
Source
Diet
Replicate
Error
DF
7
2
14
DF
7
2
14
1
7
16
MS
F
0.037
0.018
0.02
0.152
0.004
0.005
1.872
0.945
Feed Consumption
F
MS
0.0271
0.0616
0.022
1.2346
2.799
28.163**
0.83
Feed Conversion
MS
0.0228
0.0067
0.0061
3.753*
1.097
143
ANOVA:
Table /11.6
Crab Meal, Cellulose (SF) Treated with Conc. H3PO4 and
Broiler Performance (Exp. 3)
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error A
14
Sex
2
28
1
Sex X Diet
Error B
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error
14
2
28
14
30
Body weight
MS
0.027
0.003
0.003
0.087
0.001
0.001
Feed Consumption
F
MS
0.0073
0.0012
0.0058
1.263
0.203
10.273**
1.234
80.716**
1.065
Feed Conversion
MS
0.0685
0.0051
0.0042
16.200**
1.199
144
ANOVA:
Table 111.7
Zinc Bacitracin, Crab Meal, Cellulose (SE), and Broiler
Performance (Exp. 4)
Body weight
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error A
Sex
Sex X Diet
Error B
15
2
30
1
15
32
MS
0.113
0.006
0.011
0.292
0.005
0.004
Feed Consumption
Source
DF
MS
Diet
Replicate
Error
15
0.0411
0.0083
0.017
2
30
F
2.415**
0.488
10.144**
0.577
67.844**
1.164
Feed Conversion
MS
0.0443
0.0008
0.0158
17.501**
0.297
145
ANOVA:
Table 111.7
Zinc Bacitracin, Crab Meal, Cellulose (SF), and Broiler
Performance (Exp. 5)
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error A
Sex
Sex X Diet
Error B
11
2
22
1
11
24
Body weight
MS
19.158**
8.415
0.036
0.016
0.002
0.118
0.001
0.002
Feed Consumption
66.434**
0.779
Feed Conversion
Source
DF
MS
F
MS
Diet
Replicate
Error
11
0.0057
0.0050
0.0055
1.044
0.917
0.0611
0.0088
0.0053
2
22
11.478**
1.646
146
ANOVA:
Table 111.8
Crab Meal, Cellulose (SF), Oat Hulls, Shavings, Whey and
Broiler Performance (Exp. 6)
Body weight
Source
DF
MS
F
Diet
Replicate
Error A
Sex
Sex X Diet
Error B
15
0.006
0.004
0.004
0.143
0.003
0.002
1.713
1.029
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error
15
2
30
2
30
1
15
32
Feed Consumption
MS
F
0.0072
0.0246
0.0075
0.959
3.287
79.955**
1.716
Feed Conversion
MS
0.0162
0.0159
0.0057
2.829**
2.788
147
ANOVA:
Table IV.2
Bifidobacteria, Crab Meal, Cellulose (SF), Whey and Broiler
Performance
Body weight
Source
DF
MS
Diet
Replicate
Error A
Sex
Sex X Diet
Error B
11
0.011
0.003
0.003
0.127
0.001
0.002
Source
DF
Diet
Replicate
Error
11
2
22
2
22
1
11
24
Feed Consumption
F
MS
0.0145
0.0117
0.0033
4.376*
3.538*
4.454**
1.054
70.637**
0.690
Feed Conversion
MS
0.0323
0.0019
0.0014
23.295**
1.372
148
Crab Meal, Wood Shavings, Zinc Bacitracin and Laying Hen
Performance
ANOVA:
Table V.2
Source
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error B
ANOVA:
Body weight (lb.)
MS
DF
9
30
7
63
210
0.259
0.220
1.871
0.018
0.008
1.177
232.292**
2.179**
Table V.3
Source
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error B
Feed Consumption (lb.)
MS
DF
9
30
7
63
210
0.0043
0.0021
0.0024
0.00012
0.00007
20.279**
34.373**
1.786**
149
ANOVA Table V.4
Feed/Doz. Eggs
Source
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error B
Source
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error B
DF
MS
9
30
7
63
210
1.3139
0.1191
2.3404
0.0382
0.0339
DF
9
30
3
27
90
F
11.032**
68.956**
1.126
DF
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error B
9
30
Source
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error
1
9
30
1.5864
1.8590
359.3619
0.5285
0.4014
20
0.848
69.987**
0.954
0.853
895.156**
1.317
MS
F
1.417
3.37E-006
2.38E-006
639.772**
0.00044
1.850
1.28E-006
6.90E-007
Egg Yolk Cholesterol. (mg/g)
MS
DF
9
20
1
9
53.7683
63.4033
889.0425
12.1205
12.7029
Ave. Egg Weight (g)
MS
Specific Gravity
Source
Egg Production (%)
MS
66.3916
41.2785
120.3762
58.3760
105.6690
1.608
1.139
0.552
Haugh Unit
MS
17.7877
12.508
1136.2781
4.6499
5.3202
1.422
213.578**
0.874
150
ANOVA: Table A2.1
TME-values of broiler starter diet
Source
DF
Diet
Error
3
19
MS
1.649
7.405E-02
22.27**
ANOVA: Table A3.6
Amount of wood shavings were substracted
Source
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error B
DF
Feed Consumption
MS
9
0.00012.
.641
30
0.00018
0.00209
0.0001
0.00006
32.730**
1.636**
7
63
210
ANOVA: Table A3.7
Source
DF
Diet
Error A
Period
Diet X Period
Error B
9
30
7
63
210
Feed/Doz. Eggs
MS
0.101
0.110
2.109
0.033
0.030
.915
69.931**
1.105