Commanding Clean Air
The Clean Air Act of 1970 as a
Model for U.S. Environmental
Policy
1
17.32 Clean Air Act
Issues to Consider:
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When and how did air pollution get on the
government agenda and how was this
“problem” ultimately framed?
How did the Clean Air Act of 1970 try to
accomplish government environmental
policy goals?
Did the CAA 1970 reduce the problem(s)?
2
When and how did air pollution
get on the government agenda?
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Policy History
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Which government(s) & when?
What was federal government air pollution
policy prior to 1970?
How did the Clean Air Act 1970 come to be?
Relative Roles of Science & Politics
3
Clean Air Act 1970
„
Statutory Goal:
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…to protect and enhance the quality of
the Nation’s air resources so as to
promote the public health and welfare
and the productive capacity of its
population…
4
Clean Air Act 1970
„
Provisions
„
EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS)
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SO2
NOx CO VOC Pb PM-10 O3
EPA to set New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS) – stationary sources
States to Devise Implementation Plans to
Limit Emissions
EPA to set Mobile Source Emission
Standards
5
National Air-Quality Standards
„
Maximum permissible ambient air
concentrations for 7 pollutants to be set by EPA
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SO2 NOx CO VOC Pb PM-10 O3
Primary Standards (human health)
Secondary Standards (aesthetics, damage to
buildings, crops, water, etc.)
Health standards only – no consideration of
Compliance Cost
Must be met by 1975
6
Rule-Making in the Bureaucracy
Publication of Rules
Witness
Testimony
Enabling Law
Interest
Groups Outside
Experts
Regulatory
Hearing
Staff Report
on Proposed Rules
Agency
Interests
Public
Comment
Agency
Studies
Court
Other
Agencies Rulings
back
Events
7
National Air-Quality Standards
Max. Conentration
Set by EPA
Particulates
(tsp)
Annual Geometric Mean
24-hour
75 µg/m3
260 µg/m3
SO2
Annual Arithmetic Mean
24-hour
80 µg/m3
365 µg/m3
CO
8-hour
1-hour
10 µg/m3
40 µg/m3
8
National Air-Quality Standards
Set by EPA
Max. Conentration
NO2
Annual Arithmetic Mean
100 µg/m3
O3
Maximum Daily 1-hour Average
235 µg/m3
Pb
Maximum Quarterly Average
1.5 µg/m3
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New Source Performance
Standards (emissions)
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EPA standards set on industry-basis
Costs of implementation considered
Control-technique (technology) guidelines
for existing sources
State enforcement
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State Implementation Plans
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247 Air Quality Control Regions
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States have 1 year to designate attainment vs. nonattainment areas
Non-attainment areas
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must meet CO & O3 standards by 1975
Existing factories must retrofit with “reasonably available
control technology”
Plant expansion requires best available control technology
on existing similar plants
New plants must purchase offsets from existing plants for no
net pollution emission increase
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Mobile Emission Standards
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Cars & Trucks
Only explicit air pollution limits written into
the CAA
90% reduction in CO & VOC by 1975
90% reduction in NOx by 1976
Why national standards rather than state
standard setting?
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Clean Air Act Mechanisms
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Command & Control
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Regulation by Standard Setting & Enforcement
Specificity
Strict Deadlines
Hammer Clauses
Technology Forcing Provisions
Citizen Engagement
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Legal standing
Public hearings
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CAA Amendments
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Amendments – 1971, 1973, 1974, 1976
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To extend auto emissions standards
1977 Amendments
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Extends auto emission deadline to 1980
Extends deadline for non-attainment areas to meet
NAAQS to 1982
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All new coal power plants must use scrubbers
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For cities with high CO/O3 = 1987
Eastern coal producers win concession
Makes Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air
Quality a Goal of CAA
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1977 CAA Amendment: PSD
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Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) regions
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Class I:
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Class II:
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Modest decline in air quality allowed
Class III:
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National Parks, Wilderness areas, wildlife refuges, etc.
No decline in air quality allowed no matter how far below the
NAAQS
Up to NAAQS
New Plants in PSD regions
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Must use best available technology (BAT)
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Did the CAA 1970 Work?
Impact on “…the quality of the
Nation’s air resources…”
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17.32 Clean Air Act
Thousands of Tons
U.S. SO2 Emissions
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
00
9
1
10
9
1
20
9
1
30
9
1
40
9
1
50
9
1
60
9
1
70
9
1
80
9
1
90
9
1
00
0
2
Year
17
Thousands of Tons
U.S. NO2 Emissions
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
00
9
1
10
9
1
20
9
1
30
9
1
40
9
1
50
9
1
60
9
1
70
9
1
80
9
1
90
9
1
00
0
2
Year
18
Thousands of Tons
U.S. VOC Emissions
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
00
9
1
10
9
1
20
9
1
30
9
1
40
9
1
50
9
1
60
9
1
70
9
1
80
9
1
90
9
1
00
0
2
Year
19
Thousands of Tons
U.S. PM-10 Emissions
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
40
9
1
50
9
1
60
9
1
70
9
1
80
9
1
90
9
1
00
0
2
Year
20
Thousands of Tons
U.S. CO Emissions
140,000
130,000
120,000
110,000
100,000
90,000
80,000
40
9
1
50
9
1
60
9
1
70
9
1
80
9
1
90
9
1
00
0
2
Year
21
Trends in U.S. Ambient Air Quality
„http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd01/
140%
120%
CO
O3 - 1hr
O3 -8hr
SO2
PM-10
NOx
Pb
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
19
99
19
97
19
95
19
93
19
91
19
89
19
87
19
85
19
83
0%
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What About Health Effects?
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Asthma
Respiratory Illness
Missed Work Days (unhealthy air)
Air pollution Î 60,000 heart-related
deaths per year
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Blood vessel constriction
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Summary CAA 1970 & 1977
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Defined the Environmental Problem
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Mandated EPA to determine Specific Levels of Air Pollution Threat
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Specific pollutants
Establish NAAQS
Establish safe levels for Toxics
Mandated Action
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Establish National Air Quality Control Regions / PSD
EPA to Establish Standards for Control Technology to limit Emissions
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Stationary sources
Mobile sources
States + EPA to monitor and enforce standards under EPA guidance
Enhance Government Response
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Fixed deadlines
Hammer Clauses
Public Engagement in enforcement
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hearings and legal standing
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