Domestic Violence Moderates the Association between Childhood
Maltreatment and Anxiety and Avoidance in Adult Romantic Relationships
Sarah M. Ahlfs-Dunn, B.A., Erin Gallagher, M.S., Alex Busuito, and Alissa C. Huth-Bocks, Ph.D.
Eastern Michigan University
INTRODUCTION
Research and clinical work based on attachment theory suggests that childhood experiences with caregivers
influence one’s expectations, beliefs, and feelings of “felt’’ security about close relationships (Bowlby,1969/1982),
which can then be influential in relationships experienced across the lifespan, especially romantic relationships
(Berlin, Cassidy, & Appleyard, 2008). However, significant experiences in adult romantic relationships can also
influence one’s expectations, beliefs, and feelings of “felt’’ security about close relationships (Feeney, 1994).
Childhood maltreatment and domestic violence are two types of interpersonal violence that can significantly impact
one’s response in close relationships, and experiencing childhood maltreatment puts females at increased risk for
experiencing domestic violence (Hotaling & Sugarman, 1986; Renner & Slack, 2006). What is unclear, however, is
how these two types of interpersonal violence, at different times in the life span, may interact to influence one’s “felt”
security or feelings related to adult romantic relationships.
AIM: To investigate whether childhood experiences with caregivers (i.e., childhood maltreatment) interact with adult
experiences of domestic violence to influence one’s feelings about adult romantic relationships.
RESULTS
The association between childhood maltreatment and
anxiety in adult romantic relationships was moderated by
chronicity of domestic violence (β = .20, p < .05). There
was also a main effect for childhood maltreatment (β = .
36, p < .001).
Post-hoc analyses revealed that there was a significant
positive slope for those with high chronicity of domestic
violence (β = .57, p < .001), but not for those with low
chronicity of domestic violence (β = .15, p > .05).
The association between childhood maltreatment and
anxiety in adult romantic relationships was stronger for
those with a more chronic domestic violence history than
those with a less chronic domestic violence history.
METHOD
PARTICIPANTS:
A community sample of primarily low-income women (N = 120) participated in an interview during the third trimester
of pregnancy as part of an ongoing study on women’s transition to motherhood. The interview lasted approximately
2 ½ - 3 hours, and as part of a larger assessment battery, participants completed questionnaires regarding their
experiences of interpersonal trauma and adult romantic relationships. Participants were compensated with a $25
gift card.
• Age: Mean = 26 (Range = 18 – 42, SD = 5.7)
• Race/ Ethnicity: 47% = African American, 36%= Caucasian, 13% = Biracial, 4% = Other Ethnic Groups
• Education: 20% = High School Diploma/ GED or less, 44% = Some College or Trade School, and
36% = College Degree
•  Monthly Income: Median = $1,500
•  Relationship Status: 64% = Single, 28% = Married, 4% = Separated, 4% = Divorced
MEASURES:
1 – Childhood Maltreatment. The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; Bernstein & Fink, 1998) is a 28-item
self-report inventory designed to assess experiences of five types of childhood maltreatment: emotional, physical,
and sexual abuse, and emotional and physical neglect. Five items make up each of these five scales of
maltreatment. Items are scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale based on frequency. Higher scores indicate greater
severity of childhood maltreatment.
2 – Domestic Violence. The Conflict Tactics Scale-2 (CTS-2; Straus, Hamby & Warren, 2003) is a 33-item
questionnaire designed to assess partner psychological, physical, and sexual violence, and injury resulting from
partner violence. Domestic violence (DV) was assessed for three time periods: pregnancy, year before pregnancy,
and anytime before the year before pregnancy. The weighting system suggested by the authors was used to score
the measure in which values are recoded (1 = 1, 2 = 2, 3 = 4, 4 = 8, 5 = 15 & 6 = 25). Higher scores indicate
greater experience of partner violence.
3 – Adult Romantic Attachment. The Experiences in Close Relationships Questionnaire-Revised (ECR-R; Fraley,
Waller, & Brennan, 2000) is a 36-item self-report designed to measure the attachment dimensions of anxiety and
avoidance in adult romantic relationships. The anxiety and avoidance subscales are made up of 18 items each.
Each item is scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 7 (agree strongly), and
participants are instructed to indicate how they generally experience romantic relationships. Higher scores indicate
higher endorsement of anxiety and/or avoidance in close relationships.
The association between childhood maltreatment and
avoidance in adult romantic relationships was moderated
specifically by domestic violence during pregnancy (β =
-.37, p < .05). There were also main effects for childhood
maltreatment (β = .21, p < .05) and domestic violence
during pregnancy (β = .40, p < .05).
Post-hoc analyses revealed that there was a significant
positive slope for those with less domestic violence
during pregnancy (β = .45, p < .01), but not for those with
higher domestic violence during pregnancy
(β = -.04, p > .05).
The association between childhood maltreatment and
avoidance in romantic relationships was stronger for
those with lower amounts of domestic violence during
pregnancy than those with higher amounts of domestic
violence during pregnancy.
DISCUSSION
These findings suggest that experiences of childhood maltreatment and domestic violence during adulthood
uniquely interact to impact feelings of anxiety and avoidance in adult romantic relationships. These unique
interactions between childhood and adulthood interpersonal trauma may be helpful in further understanding the
intergenerational transmission of trauma and in further developing intervention services.
REFERENCES
Berlin, L. J., Cassidy, J., & Appleyard, K. (2008). The influence of early attachments on other relationships. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd edition, pp. 333-347). New York:
Guilford Press.
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