Annex I
Glossary
Editor: A.P.M. Baede (Netherlands)
Notes: This glossary defines some specific terms as the lead authors intend them to be interpreted in the context of this report.
Red, italicised words indicate that the term is defined in the Glossary.
8.2ka event Following the last post-glacial warming, a rapid
climate oscillation with a cooling lasting about 400 years occurred
about 8.2 ka. This event is also referred to as the 8.2kyr event.
Abrupt climate change The nonlinearity of the climate system
may lead to abrupt climate change, sometimes called rapid climate
change, abrupt events or even surprises. The term abrupt often refers
to time scales faster than the typical time scale of the responsible
forcing. However, not all abrupt climate changes need be externally
forced. Some possible abrupt events that have been proposed
include a dramatic reorganisation of the thermohaline circulation,
rapid deglaciation and massive melting of permafrost or increases in
soil respiration leading to fast changes in the carbon cycle. Others
may be truly unexpected, resulting from a strong, rapidly changing
forcing of a nonlinear system.
Active layer The layer of ground that is subject to annual thawing
and freezing in areas underlain by permafrost (Van Everdingen,
1998).
Adiabatic process An adiabatic process is a process in which no
external heat is gained or lost by the system. The opposite is called
a diabatic process.
Adjustment time See Lifetime; see also Response time.
Advection Transport of water or air along with its properties (e.g.,
temperature, chemical tracers) by the motion of the fluid. Regarding
the general distinction between advection and convection, the former
describes the predominantly horizontal, large-scale motions of the
atmosphere or ocean, while convection describes the predominantly
vertical, locally induced motions.
Aerosols A collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a
typical size between 0.01 and 10 μm that reside in the atmosphere
for at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural or
anthropogenic origin. Aerosols may influence climate in several
ways: directly through scattering and absorbing radiation, and
indirectly by acting as cloud condensation nuclei or modifying
the optical properties and lifetime of clouds (see Indirect aerosol
effect).
Afforestation Planting of new forests on lands that historically
have not contained forests. For a discussion of the term forest and
related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation,
see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change
and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also the report on Definitions
and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct
Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other
Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).
Air mass A widespread body of air, the approximately homogeneous
properties of which (1) have been established while that air was
situated over a particular region of the Earth’s surface, and (2)
undergo specific modifications while in transit away from the source
region (AMS, 2000).
Albedo The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or
object, often expressed as a percentage. Snow-covered surfaces have
a high albedo, the surface albedo of soils ranges from high to low,
and vegetation-covered surfaces and oceans have a low albedo. The
Earth’s planetary albedo varies mainly through varying cloudiness,
snow, ice, leaf area and land cover changes.
Albedo feedback A climate feedback involving changes in the
Earth’s albedo. It usually refers to changes in the cryosphere, which
has an albedo much larger (~0.8) than the average planetary albedo
(~0.3). In a warming climate, it is anticipated that the cryosphere
would shrink, the Earth’s overall albedo would decrease and more
solar radiation would be absorbed to warm the Earth still further.
Alkalinity A measure of the capacity of a solution to neutralize
acids.
Altimetry A technique for measuring the height of the sea, lake
or river, land or ice surface with respect to the centre of the Earth
within a defined terrestrial reference frame. More conventionally, the
height is with respect to a standard reference ellipsoid approximating
the Earth’s oblateness, and can be measured from space by using
radar or laser with centimetric precision at present. Altimetry has
the advantages of being a geocentric measurement, rather than a
measurement relative to the Earth’s crust as for a tide gauge, and of
affording quasi-global coverage.
Annular modes Preferred patterns of change in atmospheric
circulation corresponding to changes in the zonally averaged midlatitude westerlies. The Northern Annular Mode has a bias to the
North Atlantic and has a large correlation with the North Atlantic
Oscillation. The Southern Annular Mode occurs in the Southern
Hemisphere. The variability of the mid-latitude westerlies has also
been known as zonal flow (or wind) vacillation, and defined through a
zonal index. For the corresponding circulation indices, see Box 3.4.
Anthropogenic Resulting from or produced by human beings.
Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) A multi-decadal (65 to
75 year) fluctuation in the North Atlantic, in which sea surface
temperatures showed warm phases during roughly 1860 to 1880 and
1930 to 1960 and cool phases during 1905 to 1925 and 1970 to 1990
with a range of order 0.4°C.
Atmosphere The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The
dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume
mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together
with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing
ratio), helium and radiatively active greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio) and ozone. In
addition, the atmosphere contains the greenhouse gas water vapour,
whose amounts are highly variable but typically around 1% volume
mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols.
Atmospheric boundary layer The atmospheric layer adjacent to
the Earth’s surface that is affected by friction against that boundary
941
Annex I
surface, and possibly by transport of heat and other variables
across that surface (AMS, 2000). The lowest 10 metres or so of
the boundary layer, where mechanical generation of turbulence is
dominant, is called the surface boundary layer or surface layer.
Atmospheric lifetime See Lifetime.
Attribution See Detection and attribution.
Autotrophic respiration Respiration by photosynthetic organisms
(plants).
Bayesian method A Bayesian method is a method by which a
statistical analysis of an unknown or uncertain quantity is carried
out in two steps. First, a prior probability distribution is formulated
on the basis of existing knowledge (either by eliciting expert opinion
or by using existing data and studies). At this first stage, an element
of subjectivity may influence the choice, but in many cases, the prior
probability distribution is chosen as neutrally as possible, in order
not to influence the final outcome of the analysis. In the second step,
newly acquired data are introduced, using a theorem formulated by
and named after the British mathematician Bayes (1702–1761), to
update the prior distribution into a posterior distribution.
Biomass The total mass of living organisms in a given area or
volume; dead plant material can be included as dead biomass.
Biome A biome is a major and distinct regional element of the
biosphere, typically consisting of several ecosystems (e.g. forests,
rivers, ponds, swamps within a region). Biomes are characterised by
typical communities of plants and animals.
Biosphere (terrestrial and marine) The part of the Earth system
comprising all ecosystems and living organisms, in the atmosphere,
on land (terrestrial biosphere) or in the oceans (marine biosphere),
including derived dead organic matter, such as litter, soil organic
matter and oceanic detritus.
Black carbon (BC) Operationally defined aerosol species based
on measurement of light absorption and chemical reactivity and/or
thermal stability; consists of soot, charcoal and/or possible lightabsorbing refractory organic matter (Charlson and Heintzenberg,
1995, p. 401).
Blocking anticyclone An anticyclone that remains nearly stationary
for a week or more at middle to high latitudes, so that it blocks the
normal eastward progression of high- and low-pressure systems.
Bowen ratio The ratio of sensible to latent heat fluxes from the
Earth’s surface up into the atmosphere. Values are low (order 0.1)
for wet surfaces like the ocean, and greater than 2 for deserts and
drought regions.
C3 plants Plants that produce a three-carbon compound during
photosynthesis, including most trees and agricultural crops such as
rice, wheat, soybeans, potatoes and vegetables.
C4 plants Plants that produce a four-carbon compound during
photosynthesis, mainly of tropical origin, including grasses and
the agriculturally important crops maize, sugar cane, millet and
sorghum.
Carbonaceous aerosol Aerosol consisting predominantly of
organic substances and various forms of black carbon (Charlson and
Heintzenberg, 1995, p. 401).
Carbon cycle The term used to describe the flow of carbon (in
various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide) through the atmosphere,
ocean, terrestrial biosphere and lithosphere.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) A naturally occurring gas, also a by-product
of burning fossil fuels from fossil carbon deposits, such as oil, gas
and coal, of burning biomass and of land use changes and other
industrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse
gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas
against which other greenhouse gases are measured and therefore
has a Global Warming Potential of 1.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization The enhancement of the growth
of plants as a result of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
concentration. Depending on their mechanism of photosynthesis,
certain types of plants are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric
CO2 concentration. In particular, C3 plants generally show a larger
response to CO2 than C4 plants.
CFC See Halocarbons.
Chaos A dynamical system such as the climate system, governed by
nonlinear deterministic equations (see Nonlinearity), may exhibit erratic
or chaotic behaviour in the sense that very small changes in the initial
state of the system in time lead to large and apparently unpredictable
changes in its temporal evolution. Such chaotic behaviour may limit
the predictability of nonlinear dynamical systems.
Charcoal Material resulting from charring of biomass, usually
retaining some of the microscopic texture typical of plant tissues;
chemically it consists mainly of carbon with a disturbed graphitic
structure, with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen (Charlson
and Heintzenberg, 1995, p. 402). See Black carbon; Soot.
Chronology Arrangement of events according to dates or times of
occurrence.
Burden The total mass of a gaseous substance of concern in the
atmosphere.
Clathrate (methane) A partly frozen slushy mix of methane gas
and ice, usually found in sediments.
13C
Climate Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average
weather, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of
the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time
ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical
period for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the
World Meteorological Organization. The relevant quantities are most
often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind.
Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description,
of the climate system. In various chapters in this report different
averaging periods, such as a period of 20 years, are also used.
Stable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of
approximately 13. Measurements of the ratio of 13C/12C in carbon
dioxide molecules are used to infer the importance of different
carbon cycle and climate processes and the size of the terrestrial
carbon reservoir.
14C Unstable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of
approximately 14, and a half-life of about 5,700 years. It is often
used for dating purposes going back some 40 kyr. Its variation
in time is affected by the magnetic fields of the Sun and Earth,
942
which influence its production from cosmic rays (see Cosmogenic
isotopes).
Annex I
Climate change Climate change refers to a change in the state of
the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by
changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that
persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate
change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings,
or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the
atmosphere or in land use. Note that the Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines climate change
as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to
human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere
and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over
comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction
between climate change attributable to human activities altering
the atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable
to natural causes. See also Climate variability; Detection and
Attribution.
Climate change commitment Due to the thermal inertia of the
ocean and slow processes in the biosphere, the cryosphere and
land surfaces, the climate would continue to change even if the
atmospheric composition were held fixed at today’s values. Past
change in atmospheric composition leads to a committed climate
change, which continues for as long as a radiative imbalance persists
and until all components of the climate system have adjusted to a new
state. The further change in temperature after the composition of the
atmosphere is held constant is referred to as the constant composition
temperature commitment or simply committed warming or warming
commitment. Climate change commitment includes other future
changes, for example in the hydrological cycle, in extreme weather
and climate events, and in sea level change.
Climate feedback An interaction mechanism between processes in
the climate system is called a climate feedback when the result of
an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in turn
influences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies the original
process, and a negative feedback reduces it.
Climate Feedback Parameter A way to quantify the radiative
response of the climate system to a global surface temperature
change induced by a radiative forcing (units: W m–2 °C–1). It varies
as the inverse of the effective climate sensitivity. Formally, the
Climate Feedback Parameter (Λ) is defined as: Λ = (ΔQ – ΔF) /
ΔT, where Q is the global mean radiative forcing, T is the global
mean air surface temperature, F is the heat flux into the ocean and Δ
represents a change with respect to an unperturbed climate.
Climate model (spectrum or hierarchy) A numerical representation
of the climate system based on the physical, chemical and biological
properties of its components, their interactions and feedback
processes, and accounting for all or some of its known properties. The
climate system can be represented by models of varying complexity,
that is, for any one component or combination of components
a spectrum or hierarchy of models can be identified, differing in
such aspects as the number of spatial dimensions, the extent to
which physical, chemical or biological processes are explicitly
represented, or the level at which empirical parametrizations are
involved. Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models
(AOGCMs) provide a representation of the climate system that
is near the most comprehensive end of the spectrum currently
available. There is an evolution towards more complex models with
interactive chemistry and biology (see Chapter 8). Climate models
are applied as a research tool to study and simulate the climate,
and for operational purposes, including monthly, seasonal and
interannual climate predictions.
Climate prediction A climate prediction or climate forecast is the
result of an attempt to produce an estimate of the actual evolution
of the climate in the future, for example, at seasonal, interannual
or long-term time scales. Since the future evolution of the climate
system may be highly sensitive to initial conditions, such predictions
are usually probabilistic in nature. See also Climate projection;
Climate scenario; Predictability.
Climate projection A projection of the response of the climate
system to emission or concentration scenarios of greenhouse
gases and aerosols, or radiative forcing scenarios, often based
upon simulations by climate models. Climate projections are
distinguished from climate predictions in order to emphasize that
climate projections depend upon the emission/concentration/
radiative forcing scenario used, which are based on assumptions
concerning, for example, future socioeconomic and technological
developments that may or may not be realised and are therefore
subject to substantial uncertainty.
Climate response
See Climate sensitivity.
Climate scenario A plausible and often simplified representation
of the future climate, based on an internally consistent set of
climatological relationships that has been constructed for explicit
use in investigating the potential consequences of anthropogenic
climate change, often serving as input to impact models. Climate
projections often serve as the raw material for constructing
climate scenarios, but climate scenarios usually require additional
information such as about the observed current climate. A climate
change scenario is the difference between a climate scenario and
the current climate.
Climate sensitivity In IPCC reports, equilibrium climate sensitivity
refers to the equilibrium change in the annual mean global surface
temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric equivalent
carbon dioxide concentration. Due to computational constraints,
the equilibrium climate sensitivity in a climate model is usually
estimated by running an atmospheric general circulation model
coupled to a mixed-layer ocean model, because equilibrium climate
sensitivity is largely determined by atmospheric processes. Efficient
models can be run to equilibrium with a dynamic ocean.
The effective climate sensitivity is a related measure that
circumvents the requirement of equilibrium. It is evaluated from
model output for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a
measure of the strengths of the climate feedbacks at a particular time
and may vary with forcing history and climate state. The climate
sensitivity parameter (units: °C (W m–2)–1) refers to the equilibrium
change in the annual mean global surface temperature following a
unit change in radiative forcing.
The transient climate response is the change in the global surface
temperature, averaged over a 20-year period, centred at the time of
atmospheric carbon dioxide doubling, that is, at year 70 in a 1%
yr–1 compound carbon dioxide increase experiment with a global
coupled climate model. It is a measure of the strength and rapidity of
the surface temperature response to greenhouse gas forcing.
Climate shift or climate regime shift An abrupt shift or jump
in mean values signalling a change in regime. Most widely used
in conjunction with the 1976/1977 climate shift that seems to
correspond to a change in El Niño-Southern Oscillation behavior.
Climate system The climate system is the highly complex
system consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere,
and the interactions between them. The climate system evolves in
time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because
of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and
943
Annex I
anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the
atmosphere and land use change.
Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and
Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).
Climate variability Climate variability refers to variations in
the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations,
the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and
temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability
may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system
(internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic
external forcing (external variability). See also Climate change.
Desertification Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry
sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic
variations and human activities. The United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification defines land degradation as a reduction or
loss in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological
or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland,
irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting
from land uses or from a process or combination of processes,
including processes arising from human activities and habitation
patterns, such as (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii)
deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic
properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation.
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Airborne particles that serve as
an initial site for the condensation of liquid water, which can lead to
the formation of cloud droplets. See also Aerosols.
Cloud feedback A climate feedback involving changes in any of
the properties of clouds as a response to other atmospheric changes.
Understanding cloud feedbacks and determining their magnitude
and sign require an understanding of how a change in climate may
affect the spectrum of cloud types, the cloud fraction and height,
and the radiative properties of clouds, and an estimate of the impact
of these changes on the Earth’s radiation budget. At present, cloud
feedbacks remain the largest source of uncertainty in climate
sensitivity estimates. See also Cloud radiative forcing; Radiative
forcing.
Cloud radiative forcing Cloud radiative forcing is the difference
between the all-sky Earth’s radiation budget and the clear-sky
Earth’s radiation budget (units: W m–2).
CO2-equivalent See Equivalent carbon dioxide.
Confidence The level of confidence in the correctness of a result
is expressed in this report, using a standard terminology defined in
Box 1.1. See also Likelihood; Uncertainty.
Convection Vertical motion driven by buoyancy forces arising from
static instability, usually caused by near-surface cooling or increases
in salinity in the case of the ocean and near-surface warming in the
case of the atmosphere. At the location of convection, the horizontal
scale is approximately the same as the vertical scale, as opposed to
the large contrast between these scales in the general circulation.
The net vertical mass transport is usually much smaller than the
upward and downward exchange.
Cosmogenic isotopes Rare isotopes that are created when a highenergy cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an in situ atom. They
are often used as indications of solar magnetic activity (which can
shield cosmic rays) or as tracers of atmospheric transport, and are
also called cosmogenic nuclides.
Cryosphere The component of the climate system consisting of all
snow, ice and frozen ground (including permafrost) on and beneath
the surface of the Earth and ocean. See also Glacier; Ice sheet.
Dansgaard-Oeschger events Abrupt warming events followed
by gradual cooling. The abrupt warming and gradual cooling is
primarily seen in Greenland ice cores and in palaeoclimate records
from the nearby North Atlantic, while a more general warming
followed by a gradual cooling has been observed in other areas as
well, at intervals of 1.5 to 7 kyr during glacial times.
Deforestation Conversion of forest to non-forest. For a discussion
of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation,
reforestation, and deforestation see the IPCC Special Report on
Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also
the report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory
944
Detection and attribution Climate varies continually on all time
scales. Detection of climate change is the process of demonstrating
that climate has changed in some defined statistical sense, without
providing a reason for that change. Attribution of causes of climate
change is the process of establishing the most likely causes for the
detected change with some defined level of confidence.
Diatoms Silt-sized algae that live in surface waters of lakes, rivers
and oceans and form shells of opal. Their species distribution in
ocean cores is often related to past sea surface temperatures.
Diurnal temperature range The difference between the maximum
and minimum temperature during a 24-hour period.
Dobson unit (DU) A unit to measure the total amount of ozone in a
vertical column above the Earth’s surface (total column ozone). The
number of Dobson units is the thickness in units of 10–5 m that the
ozone column would occupy if compressed into a layer of uniform
density at a pressure of 1,013 hPa and a temperature of 0°C. One
DU corresponds to a column of ozone containing 2.69 × 1,020
molecules per square metre. A typical value for the amount of ozone
in a column of the Earth’s atmosphere, although very variable, is
300 DU.
Downscaling Downscaling is a method that derives local- to
regional-scale (10 to 100 km) information from larger-scale models
or data analyses. Two main methods are distinguished: dynamical
downscaling and empirical/statistical downscaling. The dynamical
method uses the output of regional climate models, global models
with variable spatial resolution or high-resolution global models.
The empirical/statistical methods develop statistical relationships
that link the large-scale atmospheric variables with local/regional
climate variables. In all cases, the quality of the downscaled product
depends on the quality of the driving model.
Drought In general terms, drought is a ‘prolonged absence or marked
deficiency of precipitation’, a ‘deficiency that results in water shortage
for some activity or for some group’, or a ‘period of abnormally dry
weather sufficiently prolonged for the lack of precipitation to cause
a serious hydrological imbalance’ (Heim, 2002). Drought has been
defined in a number of ways. Agricultural drought relates to moisture
deficits in the topmost 1 metre or so of soil (the root zone) that
affect crops, meteorological drought is mainly a prolonged deficit
of precipitation, and hydrologic drought is related to below-normal
streamflow, lake and groundwater levels. A megadrought is a longdrawn out and pervasive drought, lasting much longer than normal,
usually a decade or more. For further information, see Box 3.1.
Dynamical system A process or set of processes whose evolution
in time is governed by a set of deterministic physical laws. The
climate system is a dynamical system. See Abrupt climate change;
Chaos; Nonlinearity; Predictability.
Annex I
Ecosystem A system of living organisms interacting with each
other and their physical environment. The boundaries of what could
be called an ecosystem are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the
focus of interest or study. Thus, the extent of an ecosystem may
range from very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire Earth.
implies that, globally, the amount of incoming solar radiation on
average must be equal to the sum of the outgoing reflected solar
radiation and the outgoing thermal infrared radiation emitted by the
climate system. A perturbation of this global radiation balance, be it
anthropogenic or natural, is called radiative forcing.
Efficacy A measure of how effective a radiative forcing from a
given anthropogenic or natural mechanism is at changing the
equilibrium global surface temperature compared to an equivalent
radiative forcing from carbon dioxide. A carbon dioxide increase by
definition has an efficacy of 1.0.
Ensemble A group of parallel model simulations used for
climate projections. Variation of the results across the ensemble
members gives an estimate of uncertainty. Ensembles made with
the same model but different initial conditions only characterise
the uncertainty associated with internal climate variability,
whereas multi-model ensembles including simulations by several
models also include the impact of model differences. Perturbedparameter ensembles, in which model parameters are varied in a
systematic manner, aim to produce a more objective estimate of
modelling uncertainty than is possible with traditional multi-model
ensembles.
Ekman pumping Frictional stress at the surface between two fluids
(atmosphere and ocean) or between a fluid and the adjacent solid
surface (Earth’s surface) forces a circulation. When the resulting
mass transport is converging, mass conservation requires a vertical
flow away from the surface. This is called Ekman pumping. The
opposite effect, in case of divergence, is called Ekman suction. The
effect is important in both the atmosphere and the ocean.
Ekman transport The total transport resulting from a balance
between the Coriolis force and the frictional stress due to the action
of the wind on the ocean surface. See also Ekman pumping.
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) The term El Niño was initially
used to describe a warm-water current that periodically flows along
the coast of Ecuador and Perú, disrupting the local fishery. It has
since become identified with a basin-wide warming of the tropical
Pacific Ocean east of the dateline. This oceanic event is associated
with a fluctuation of a global-scale tropical and subtropical surface
pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled
atmosphere-ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two
to about seven years, is collectively known as the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO). It is often measured by the surface pressure
anomaly difference between Darwin and Tahiti and the sea surface
temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. During an
ENSO event, the prevailing trade winds weaken, reducing upwelling
and altering ocean currents such that the sea surface temperatures
warm, further weakening the trade winds. This event has a great
impact on the wind, sea surface temperature and precipitation
patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the
Pacific region and in many other parts of the world, through global
teleconnections. The cold phase of ENSO is called La Niña.
Emission scenario A plausible representation of the future
development of emissions of substances that are potentially
radiatively active (e.g., greenhouse gases, aerosols), based on a
coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about driving
forces (such as demographic and socioeconomic development,
technological change) and their key relationships. Concentration
scenarios, derived from emission scenarios, are used as input to a
climate model to compute climate projections. In IPCC (1992) a set
of emission scenarios was presented which were used as a basis for
the climate projections in IPCC (1996). These emission scenarios
are referred to as the IS92 scenarios. In the IPCC Special Report on
Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović and Swart, 2000) new emission
scenarios, the so-called SRES scenarios, were published, some of
which were used, among others, as a basis for the climate projections
presented in Chapters 9 to 11 of IPCC (2001) and Chapters 10 and
11 of this report. For the meaning of some terms related to these
scenarios, see SRES scenarios.
Energy balance The difference between the total incoming and
total outgoing energy. If this balance is positive, warming occurs;
if it is negative, cooling occurs. Averaged over the globe and over
long time periods, this balance must be zero. Because the climate
system derives virtually all its energy from the Sun, zero balance
Equilibrium and transient climate experiment An equilibrium
climate experiment is an experiment in which a climate model
is allowed to fully adjust to a change in radiative forcing. Such
experiments provide information on the difference between the
initial and final states of the model, but not on the time-dependent
response. If the forcing is allowed to evolve gradually according
to a prescribed emission scenario, the time-dependent response of
a climate model may be analysed. Such an experiment is called a
transient climate experiment. See Climate projection.
Equilibrium line The boundary between the region on a glacier
where there is a net annual loss of ice mass (ablation area) and that
where there is a net annual gain (accumulation area). The altitude of
this boundary is referred to as equilibrium line altitude.
Equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration
The concentration of carbon dioxide that would cause the same
amount of radiative forcing as a given mixture of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases.
Equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2) emission The amount of carbon
dioxide emission that would cause the same integrated radiative
forcing, over a given time horizon, as an emitted amount of a well
mixed greenhouse gas or a mixture of well mixed greenhouse gases.
The equivalent carbon dioxide emission is obtained by multiplying
the emission of a well mixed greenhouse gas by its Global Warming
Potential for the given time horizon. For a mix of greenhouse gases
it is obtained by summing the equivalent carbon dioxide emissions
of each gas. Equivalent carbon dioxide emission is a standard and
useful metric for comparing emissions of different greenhouse gases
but does not imply exact equivalence of the corresponding climate
change responses (see Section 2.10).
Evapotranspiration The combined process of evaporation from the
Earth’s surface and transpiration from vegetation.
External forcing External forcing refers to a forcing agent outside
the climate system causing a change in the climate system. Volcanic
eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere and land use change are external
forcings.
Extreme weather event An extreme weather event is an event that
is rare at a particular place and time of year. Definitions of rare
vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as
or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile of the observed probability
density function. By definition, the characteristics of what is called
extreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense.
Single extreme events cannot be simply and directly attributed to
945
Annex I
anthropogenic climate change, as there is always a finite chance the
event in question might have occurred naturally. When a pattern of
extreme weather persists for some time, such as a season, it may be
classed as an extreme climate event, especially if it yields an average
or total that is itself extreme (e.g., drought or heavy rainfall over a
season).
Faculae Bright patches on the Sun. The area covered by faculae is
greater during periods of high solar activity.
Feedback
See Climate feedback.
Fingerprint The climate response pattern in space and/or time to a
specific forcing is commonly referred to as a fingerprint. Fingerprints
are used to detect the presence of this response in observations and
are typically estimated using forced climate model simulations.
Flux adjustment To avoid the problem of coupled AtmosphereOcean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) drifting into some
unrealistic climate state, adjustment terms can be applied to the
atmosphere-ocean fluxes of heat and moisture (and sometimes the
surface stresses resulting from the effect of the wind on the ocean
surface) before these fluxes are imposed on the model ocean and
atmosphere. Because these adjustments are pre-computed and
therefore independent of the coupled model integration, they are
uncorrelated with the anomalies that develop during the integration.
Chapter 8 of this report concludes that most models used in this
report (Fourth Assessment Report AOGCMs) do not use flux
adjustments, and that in general, fewer models use them.
Forest A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions
of the term forest are in use throughout the world, reflecting wide
differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure and
economics. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms
such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation see the IPCC
Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000).
See also the Report on Definitions and Methodological Options to
Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of
Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).
Fossil fuel emissions Emissions of greenhouse gases (in particular
carbon dioxide) resulting from the combustion of fuels from fossil
carbon deposits such as oil, gas and coal.
Framework Convention on Climate Change See United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Free atmosphere
The atmospheric layer that is negligibly affected by friction against
the Earth’s surface, and which is above the atmospheric boundary
layer.
Frozen ground Soil or rock in which part or all of the pore water is
frozen (Van Everdingen, 1998). Frozen ground includes permafrost.
Ground that freezes and thaws annually is called seasonally frozen
ground.
General circulation The large-scale motions of the atmosphere
and the ocean as a consequence of differential heating on a rotating
Earth, which tend to restore the energy balance of the system
through transport of heat and momentum.
General Circulation Model (GCM) See Climate model.
Geoid The equipotential surface (i.e., having the same gravity
potential at each point) that best fits the mean sea level (see relative
sea level) in the absence of astronomical tides; ocean circulations;
946
hydrological, cryospheric and atmospheric effects; Earth rotation
variations and polar motion; nutation and precession; tectonics
and other effects such as post-glacial rebound. The geoid is
global and extends over continents, oceans and ice sheets, and at
present includes the effect of the permanent tides (zero-frequency
gravitational effect from the Sun and the Moon). It is the surface
of reference for astronomical observations, geodetic levelling, and
for ocean, hydrological, glaciological and climate modelling. In
practice, there exist various operational definitions of the geoid,
depending on the way the time-variable effects mentioned above
are modelled.
Geostrophic winds or currents A wind or current that is in balance
with the horizontal pressure gradient and the Coriolis force, and thus
is outside of the influence of friction. Thus, the wind or current is
directly parallel to isobars and its speed is inversely proportional to
the spacing of the isobaric contours.
Glacial isostatic adjustment See Post-glacial rebound.
Glacier A mass of land ice that flows downhill under gravity
(through internal deformation and/or sliding at the base) and is
constrained by internal stress and friction at the base and sides. A
glacier is maintained by accumulation of snow at high altitudes,
balanced by melting at low altitudes or discharge into the sea. See
Equilibrium line; Mass balance.
Global dimming Global dimming refers to perceived widespread
reduction of solar radiation received at the surface of the Earth from
about the year 1961 to around 1990.
Global surface temperature The global surface temperature is
an estimate of the global mean surface air temperature. However,
for changes over time, only anomalies, as departures from a
climatology, are used, most commonly based on the area-weighted
global average of the sea surface temperature anomaly and land
surface air temperature anomaly.
Global Warming Potential (GWP) An index, based upon radiative
properties of well-mixed greenhouse gases, measuring the
radiative forcing of a unit mass of a given well-mixed greenhouse
gas in the present-day atmosphere integrated over a chosen time
horizon, relative to that of carbon dioxide. The GWP represents
the combined effect of the differing times these gases remain in the
atmosphere and their relative effectiveness in absorbing outgoing
thermal infrared radiation. The Kyoto Protocol is based on GWPs
from pulse emissions over a 100-year time frame.
Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases effectively absorb thermal
infrared radiation, emitted by the Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere
itself due to the same gases, and by clouds. Atmospheric radiation
is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth’s surface.
Thus, greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere
system. This is called the greenhouse effect. Thermal infrared
radiation in the troposphere is strongly coupled to the temperature
of the atmosphere at the altitude at which it is emitted. In the
troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with height.
Effectively, infrared radiation emitted to space originates from an
altitude with a temperature of, on average, –19°C, in balance with
the net incoming solar radiation, whereas the Earth’s surface is kept
at a much higher temperature of, on average, +14°C. An increase in
the concentration of greenhouse gases leads to an increased infrared
opacity of the atmosphere, and therefore to an effective radiation
into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This causes
a radiative forcing that leads to an enhancement of the greenhouse
effect, the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect.
Annex I
Greenhouse gas (GHG) Greenhouse gases are those gaseous
constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that
absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum
of thermal infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the
atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the greenhouse
effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O),
methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the
Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely humanmade greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons
and other chlorine- and bromine-containing substances, dealt with
under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO2, N2O and CH4, the Kyoto
Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
Gross Primary Production (GPP) The amount of energy fixed from
the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
Ground ice A general term referring to all types of ice contained
in freezing and seasonally frozen ground and permafrost (Van
Everdingen, 1998).
Ground temperature The temperature of the ground near the surface
(often within the first 10 cm). It is often called soil temperature.
Grounding line/zone The junction between a glacier or ice sheet
and ice shelf; the place where ice starts to float.
Gyre Basin-scale ocean horizontal circulation pattern with
slow flow circulating around the ocean basin, closed by a strong
and narrow (100–200 km wide) boundary current on the western
side. The subtropical gyres in each ocean are associated with high
pressure in the centre of the gyres; the subpolar gyres are associated
with low pressure.
Hadley Circulation A direct, thermally driven overturning cell in the
atmosphere consisting of poleward flow in the upper troposphere,
subsiding air into the subtropical anticyclones, return flow as part of
the trade winds near the surface, and with rising air near the equator
in the so-called Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone.
Halocarbons A collective term for the group of partially
halogenated organic species, including the chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), halons, methyl chloride, methyl bromide, etc. Many of the
halocarbons have large Global Warming Potentials. The chlorineand bromine-containing halocarbons are also involved in the
depletion of the ozone layer.
Halosteric See Sea level change.
HCFC See Halocarbons.
HFC See Halocarbons.
Heterotrophic respiration The conversion of organic matter to
carbon dioxide by organisms other than plants.
Holocene The Holocene geological epoch is the latter of two
Quaternary epochs, extending from about 11.6 ka to and including
the present.
Hydrosphere The component of the climate system comprising
liquid surface and subterranean water, such as oceans, seas, rivers,
fresh water lakes, underground water, etc.
Ice age An ice age or glacial period is characterised by a
long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth’s climate,
resulting in growth of continental ice sheets and mountain glaciers
(glaciation).
Ice cap A dome shaped ice mass, usually covering a highland area,
which is considerably smaller in extent than an ice sheet.
Ice core A cylinder of ice drilled out of a glacier or ice sheet.
Ice sheet A mass of land ice that is sufficiently deep to cover
most of the underlying bedrock topography, so that its shape is
mainly determined by its dynamics (the flow of the ice as it deforms
internally and/or slides at its base). An ice sheet flows outward from
a high central ice plateau with a small average surface slope. The
margins usually slope more steeply, and most ice is discharged
through fast-flowing ice streams or outlet glaciers, in some cases
into the sea or into ice shelves floating on the sea. There are only
three large ice sheets in the modern world, one on Greenland and
two on Antarctica, the East and West Antarctic Ice Sheets, divided
by the Transantarctic Mountains. During glacial periods there were
others.
Ice shelf A floating slab of ice of considerable thickness extending
from the coast (usually of great horizontal extent with a level or
gently sloping surface), often filling embayments in the coastline of
the ice sheets. Nearly all ice shelves are in Antarctica, where most
of the ice discharged seaward flows into ice shelves.
Ice stream A stream of ice flowing faster than the surrounding ice
sheet. It can be thought of as a glacier flowing between walls of
slower-moving ice instead of rock.
Indirect aerosol effect Aerosols may lead to an indirect radiative
forcing of the climate system through acting as cloud condensation
nuclei or modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.
Two indirect effects are distinguished:
Cloud albedo effect A radiative forcing induced by an increase
in anthropogenic aerosols that cause an initial increase in droplet
concentration and a decrease in droplet size for fixed liquid
water content, leading to an increase in cloud albedo. This effect
is also known as the first indirect effect or Twomey effect.
Cloud lifetime effect A forcing induced by an increase in
anthropogenic aerosols that cause a decrease in droplet size,
reducing the precipitation efficiency, thereby modifying the
liquid water content, cloud thickness and cloud life time. This
effect is also known as the second indirect effect or Albrecht
effect.
Apart from these indirect effects, aerosols may have a semidirect effect. This refers to the absorption of solar radiation
by absorbing aerosol, which heats the air and tends to increase
the static stability relative to the surface. It may also cause
evaporation of cloud droplets.
Industrial revolution A period of rapid industrial growth with farreaching social and economic consequences, beginning in Britain
during the second half of the eighteenth century and spreading to
Europe and later to other countries including the United States.
The invention of the steam engine was an important trigger of this
development. The industrial revolution marks the beginning of a
strong increase in the use of fossil fuels and emission of, in particular,
fossil carbon dioxide. In this report the terms pre-industrial and
industrial refer, somewhat arbitrarily, to the periods before and after
1750, respectively.
Infrared radiation See Thermal infrared radiation.
947
Annex I
Insolation The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth by
latitude and by season. Usually insolation refers to the radiation
arriving at the top of the atmosphere. Sometimes it is specified as
referring to the radiation arriving at the Earth’s surface. See also:
Total Solar Irradiance.
Interglacials The warm periods between ice age glaciations. The
previous interglacial, dated approximately from 129 to 116 ka, is
referred to as the Last Interglacial (AMS, 2000)
Internal variability See Climate variability.
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone is an equatorial zonal belt of low pressure near
the equator where the northeast trade winds meet the southeast trade
winds. As these winds converge, moist air is forced upward, resulting
in a band of heavy precipitation. This band moves seasonally.
Isostatic or Isostasy Isostasy refers to the way in which the
lithosphere and mantle respond visco-elastically to changes in
surface loads. When the loading of the lithosphere and/or the mantle
is changed by alterations in land ice mass, ocean mass, sedimentation,
erosion or mountain building, vertical isostatic adjustment results,
in order to balance the new load.
Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted
in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, at the Third Session of the Conference
of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It contains legally binding
commitments, in addition to those included in the UNFCCC.
Countries included in Annex B of the Protocol (most Organisation
for Economic Cooperation and Development countries and countries
with economies in transition) agreed to reduce their anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride) by
at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to
2012. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005.
Land use and Land use change Land use refers to the total of
arrangements, activities and inputs undertaken in a certain land
cover type (a set of human actions). The term land use is also used
in the sense of the social and economic purposes for which land is
managed (e.g., grazing, timber extraction and conservation). Land
use change refers to a change in the use or management of land
by humans, which may lead to a change in land cover. Land cover
and land use change may have an impact on the surface albedo,
evapotranspiration, sources and sinks of greenhouse gases, or other
properties of the climate system and may thus have a radiative
forcing and/or other impacts on climate, locally or globally. See
also the IPCC Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry
(IPCC, 2000).
La Niña See El Niño-Southern Oscillation.
Land surface air temperature The surface air temperature as
measured in well-ventilated screens over land at 1.5 m above the
ground.
Lapse rate The rate of change of an atmospheric variable, usually
temperature, with height. The lapse rate is considered positive when
the variable decreases with height.
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) The Last Glacial Maximum refers to
the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation,
approximately 21 ka. This period has been widely studied because the
radiative forcings and boundary conditions are relatively well known
and because the global cooling during that period is comparable with
the projected warming over the 21st century.
948
Last Interglacial (LIG) See Interglacial.
Latent heat flux The flux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the
atmosphere that is associated with evaporation or condensation
of water vapour at the surface; a component of the surface energy
budget.
Level of Scientific Understanding (LOSU) This is an index on
a 5-step scale (high, medium, medium-low, low and very low)
designed to characterise the degree of scientific understanding of the
radiative forcing agents that affect climate change. For each agent,
the index represents a subjective judgement about the evidence for
the physical/chemical mechanisms determining the forcing and the
consensus surrounding the quantitative estimate and its uncertainty.
Lifetime Lifetime is a general term used for various time scales
characterising the rate of processes affecting the concentration of
trace gases. The following lifetimes may be distinguished:
Turnover time (T) (also called global atmospheric lifetime) is the
ratio of the mass M of a reservoir (e.g., a gaseous compound in the
atmosphere) and the total rate of removal S from the reservoir: T = M
/ S. For each removal process, separate turnover times can be defined.
In soil carbon biology, this is referred to as Mean Residence Time.
Adjustment time or response time (Ta ) is the time scale
characterising the decay of an instantaneous pulse input into the
reservoir. The term adjustment time is also used to characterise the
adjustment of the mass of a reservoir following a step change in
the source strength. Half-life or decay constant is used to quantify
a first-order exponential decay process. See response time for a
different definition pertinent to climate variations.
The term lifetime is sometimes used, for simplicity, as a surrogate
for adjustment time.
In simple cases, where the global removal of the compound is
directly proportional to the total mass of the reservoir, the adjustment
time equals the turnover time: T = Ta. An example is CFC-11, which
is removed from the atmosphere only by photochemical processes
in the stratosphere. In more complicated cases, where several
reservoirs are involved or where the removal is not proportional to
the total mass, the equality T = Ta no longer holds. Carbon dioxide
(CO2) is an extreme example. Its turnover time is only about four
years because of the rapid exchange between the atmosphere and
the ocean and terrestrial biota. However, a large part of that CO2 is
returned to the atmosphere within a few years. Thus, the adjustment
time of CO2 in the atmosphere is actually determined by the rate
of removal of carbon from the surface layer of the oceans into its
deeper layers. Although an approximate value of 100 years may be
given for the adjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphere, the actual
adjustment is faster initially and slower later on. In the case of
methane (CH4), the adjustment time is different from the turnover
time because the removal is mainly through a chemical reaction with
the hydroxyl radical OH, the concentration of which itself depends
on the CH4 concentration. Therefore, the CH4 removal rate S is not
proportional to its total mass M.
Likelihood The likelihood of an occurrence, an outcome or a
result, where this can be estimated probabilistically, is expressed
in this report using a standard terminology, defined in Box 1.1. See
also Uncertainty; Confidence.
Lithosphere The upper layer of the solid Earth, both continental
and oceanic, which comprises all crustal rocks and the cold, mainly
elastic part of the uppermost mantle. Volcanic activity, although part
of the lithosphere, is not considered as part of the climate system,
but acts as an external forcing factor. See Isostatic.
Little Ice Age (LIA) An interval between approximately AD 1400
and 1900 when temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere were
generally colder than today’s, especially in Europe.
Annex I
Mass balance (of glaciers, ice caps or ice sheets) The balance
between the mass input to the ice body (accumulation) and the mass
loss (ablation, iceberg calving). Mass balance terms include the
following:
Specific mass balance: net mass loss or gain over a hydrological
cycle at a point on the surface of a glacier.
Total mass balance (of the glacier): The specific mass balance
spatially integrated over the entire glacier area; the total mass a
glacier gains or loses over a hydrological cycle.
Mean specific mass balance: The total mass balance per unit area
of the glacier. If surface is specified (specific surface mass balance,
etc.) then ice flow contributions are not considered; otherwise, mass
balance includes contributions from ice flow and iceberg calving.
The specific surface mass balance is positive in the accumulation
area and negative in the ablation area.
Mean sea level See Relative sea level.
Medieval Warm Period (MWP) An interval between AD 1000 and
1300 in which some Northern Hemisphere regions were warmer
than during the Little Ice Age that followed.
Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) Meridional (northsouth) overturning circulation in the ocean quantified by zonal
(east-west) sums of mass transports in depth or density layers.
In the North Atlantic, away from the subpolar regions, the MOC
(which is in principle an observable quantity) is often identified
with the Thermohaline Circulation (THC), which is a conceptual
interpretation. However, it must be borne in mind that the MOC can
also include shallower, wind-driven overturning cells such as occur
in the upper ocean in the tropics and subtropics, in which warm
(light) waters moving poleward are transformed to slightly denser
waters and subducted equatorward at deeper levels.
Metadata Information about meteorological and climatological
data concerning how and when they were measured, their quality,
known problems and other characteristics.
Metric A consistent measurement of a characteristic of an object or
activity that is otherwise difficult to quantify.
Mitigation A human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance
the sinks of greenhouse gases.
Mixing ratio See Mole fraction.
Model hierarchy See Climate model (spectrum or hierarchy).
Modes of climate variability Natural variability of the climate
system, in particular on seasonal and longer time scales,
predominantly occurs with preferred spatial patterns and time
scales, through the dynamical characteristics of the atmospheric
circulation and through interactions with the land and ocean
surfaces. Such patterns are often called regimes, modes or
teleconnections. Examples are the North Atlantic Oscillation
(NAO), the Pacific-North American pattern (PNA), the El NiñoSouthern Oscillation (ENSO), the Northern Annular Mode (NAM;
previously called Arctic Oscillation, AO) and the Southern Annular
Mode (SAM; previously called the Antarctic Oscillation, AAO).
Many of the prominent modes of climate variability are discussed in
section 3.6. See also Patterns of climate variability.
Mole fraction Mole fraction, or mixing ratio, is the ratio of the
number of moles of a constituent in a given volume to the total
number of moles of all constituents in that volume. It is usually
reported for dry air. Typical values for long-lived greenhouse gases
are in the order of μmol mol–1 (parts per million: ppm), nmol mol–1
(parts per billion: ppb), and fmol mol–1 (parts per trillion: ppt). Mole
fraction differs from volume mixing ratio, often expressed in ppmv
etc., by the corrections for non-ideality of gases. This correction is
significant relative to measurement precision for many greenhouse
gases. (Schwartz and Warneck, 1995).
Monsoon A monsoon is a tropical and subtropical seasonal reversal
in both the surface winds and associated precipitation, caused by
differential heating between a continental-scale land mass and the
adjacent ocean. Monsoon rains occur mainly over land in summer.
Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in Montreal in 1987, and
subsequently adjusted and amended in London (1990), Copenhagen
(1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999). It
controls the consumption and production of chlorine- and brominecontaining chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone, such as
chlorofluorocarbons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and
many others.
Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) A satellite-borne microwave
sounder that estimates the temperature of thick layers of the
atmosphere by measuring the thermal emission of oxygen
molecules from a complex of emission lines near 60 GHz. A series
of nine MSUs began making this kind of measurement in late 1978.
Beginning in mid 1998, a follow-on series of instruments, the
Advanced Microwave Sounding Units (AMSUs), began operation.
MSU See Microwave Sounding Unit.
Nonlinearity A process is called nonlinear when there is no simple
proportional relation between cause and effect. The climate system
contains many such nonlinear processes, resulting in a system with
a potentially very complex behaviour. Such complexity may lead to
abrupt climate change. See also Chaos; Predictability.
North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) The North Atlantic Oscillation
consists of opposing variations of barometric pressure near Iceland
and near the Azores. It therefore corresponds to fluctuations in
the strength of the main westerly winds across the Atlantic into
Europe, and thus to fluctuations in the embedded cyclones with their
associated frontal systems. See NAO Index, Box 3.4.
Northern Annular Mode (NAM) A winter fluctuation in the amplitude
of a pattern characterised by low surface pressure in the Arctic
and strong mid-latitude westerlies. The NAM has links with the
northern polar vortex into the stratosphere. Its pattern has a bias to
the North Atlantic and has a large correlation with the North Atlantic
Oscillation. See NAM Index, Box 3.4.
Ocean acidification A decrease in the pH of sea water due to the
uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide.
Ocean heat uptake efficiency This is a measure (W m–2 °C–1)
of the rate at which heat storage by the global ocean increases as
global surface temperature rises. It is a useful parameter for climate
change experiments in which the radiative forcing is changing
monotonically, when it can be compared with the climate sensitivity
parameter to gauge the relative importance of climate response and
ocean heat uptake in determining the rate of climate change. It can
be estimated from a 1% yr–1 atmospheric carbon dioxide increase
experiment as the ratio of the global average top-of-atmosphere
net downward radiative flux to the transient climate response (see
climate sensitivity).
Organic aerosol Aerosol particles consisting predominantly of
organic compounds, mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and lesser
amounts of other elements. (Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995, p.
405). See Carbonaceous aerosol.
949
Annex I
Ozone Ozone, the triatomic form of oxygen (O3), is a gaseous
atmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, it is created both
naturally and by photochemical reactions involving gases resulting
from human activities (smog). Tropospheric ozone acts as a
greenhouse gas. In the stratosphere, it is created by the interaction
between solar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2).
Stratospheric ozone plays a dominant role in the stratospheric
radiative balance. Its concentration is highest in the ozone layer.
pH = –log10(H+). Thus, a pH decrease of 1 unit corresponds
to a 10-fold increase in the concentration of H+, or acidity.
Photosynthesis The process by which plants take carbon dioxide
from the air (or bicarbonate in water) to build carbohydrates,
releasing oxygen in the process. There are several pathways of
photosynthesis with different responses to atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations. See Carbon dioxide fertilization; C3 plants;
C4 plants.
Ozone hole See Ozone layer.
Ozone layer The stratosphere contains a layer in which the
concentration of ozone is greatest, the so-called ozone layer. The
layer extends from about 12 to 40 km above the Earth’s surface. The
ozone concentration reaches a maximum between about 20 and 25
km. This layer is being depleted by human emissions of chlorine and
bromine compounds. Every year, during the Southern Hemisphere
spring, a very strong depletion of the ozone layer takes place over
the antarctic region, caused by anthropogenic chlorine and bromine
compounds in combination with the specific meteorological
conditions of that region. This phenomenon is called the ozone hole.
See Montreal Protocol.
Pacific decadal variability Coupled decadal-to-inter-decadal
variability of the atmospheric circulation and underlying ocean in
the Pacific Basin. It is most prominent in the North Pacific, where
fluctuations in the strength of the winter Aleutian Low pressure
system co-vary with North Pacific sea surface temperatures, and
are linked to decadal variations in atmospheric circulation, sea
surface temperatures and ocean circulation throughout the whole
Pacific Basin. Such fluctuations have the effect of modulating the El
Niño-Southern Oscillation cycle. Key measures of Pacific decadal
variability are the North Pacific Index (NPI), the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation (PDO) index and the Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation
(IPO) index, all defined in Box 3.4.
Pacific-North American (PNA) pattern An atmospheric large-scale
wave pattern featuring a sequence of tropospheric high- and lowpressure anomalies stretching from the subtropical west Pacific to
the east coast of North America. See PNA pattern index, Box 3.4.
Palaeoclimate Climate during periods prior to the development
of measuring instruments, including historic and geologic time, for
which only proxy climate records are available.
Parametrization In climate models, this term refers to the technique
of representing processes that cannot be explicitly resolved at the
spatial or temporal resolution of the model (sub-grid scale processes)
by relationships between model-resolved larger-scale flow and the
area- or time-averaged effect of such sub-grid scale processes.
Plankton Microorganisms living in the upper layers of aquatic
systems. A distinction is made between phytoplankton, which
depend on photosynthesis for their energy supply, and zooplankton,
which feed on phytoplankton.
Pleistocene The earlier of two Quaternary epochs, extending from
the end of the Pliocene, about 1.8 Ma, until the beginning of the
Holocene about 11.6 ka.
Pollen analysis A technique of both relative dating and
environmental reconstruction, consisting of the identification and
counting of pollen types preserved in peat, lake sediments and other
deposits. See Proxy.
Post-glacial rebound The vertical movement of the land and sea
floor following the reduction of the load of an ice mass, for example,
since the Last Glacial Maximum (21 ka). The rebound is an isostatic
land movement.
Precipitable water The total amount of atmospheric water vapour
in a vertical column of unit cross-sectional area. It is commonly
expressed in terms of the height of the water if completely condensed
and collected in a vessel of the same unit cross section.
Precursors Atmospheric compounds that are not greenhouse gases
or aerosols, but that have an effect on greenhouse gas or aerosol
concentrations by taking part in physical or chemical processes
regulating their production or destruction rates.
Predictability The extent to which future states of a system may
be predicted based on knowledge of current and past states of the
system.
Since knowledge of the climate system’s past and current states
is generally imperfect, as are the models that utilise this knowledge
to produce a climate prediction, and since the climate system is
inherently nonlinear and chaotic, predictability of the climate
system is inherently limited. Even with arbitrarily accurate models
and observations, there may still be limits to the predictability of
such a nonlinear system (AMS, 2000)
Pre-industrial See Industrial revolution.
Patterns of climate variability See Modes of climate variability.
Percentile A percentile is a value on a scale of one hundred that
indicates the percentage of the data set values that is equal to or
below it. The percentile is often used to estimate the extremes of a
distribution. For example, the 90th (10th) percentile may be used to
refer to the threshold for the upper (lower) extremes.
Permafrost Ground (soil or rock and included ice and organic
material) that remains at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive
years (Van Everdingen, 1998).
pH pH is a dimensionless measure of the acidity of water
(or any solution) given by its concentration of hydrogen
ions (H+). pH is measured on a logarithmic scale where
950
Probability Density Function (PDF) A probability density function
is a function that indicates the relative chances of occurrence of
different outcomes of a variable. The function integrates to unity
over the domain for which it is defined and has the property that
the integral over a sub-domain equals the probability that the
outcome of the variable lies within that sub-domain. For example,
the probability that a temperature anomaly defined in a particular
way is greater than zero is obtained from its PDF by integrating
the PDF over all possible temperature anomalies greater than zero.
Probability density functions that describe two or more variables
simultaneously are similarly defined.
Projection A projection is a potential future evolution of a quantity
or set of quantities, often computed with the aid of a model.
Annex I
Projections are distinguished from predictions in order to emphasize
that projections involve assumptions concerning, for example, future
socioeconomic and technological developments that may or may
not be realised, and are therefore subject to substantial uncertainty.
See also Climate projection; Climate prediction.
Proxy A proxy climate indicator is a local record that is
interpreted, using physical and biophysical principles, to represent
some combination of climate-related variations back in time.
Climate-related data derived in this way are referred to as proxy
data. Examples of proxies include pollen analysis, tree ring records,
characteristics of corals and various data derived from ice cores.
Quaternary The period of geological time following the Tertiary
(65 Ma to 1.8 Ma). Following the current definition (which is
under revision at present) the Quaternary extends from 1.8 Ma until
the present. It is formed of two epochs, the Pleistocene and the
Holocene.
Radiative forcing Radiative forcing is the change in the net,
downward minus upward, irradiance (expressed in W m–2) at the
tropopause due to a change in an external driver of climate change,
such as, for example, a change in the concentration of carbon
dioxide or the output of the Sun. Radiative forcing is computed with
all tropospheric properties held fixed at their unperturbed values,
and after allowing for stratospheric temperatures, if perturbed, to
readjust to radiative-dynamical equilibrium. Radiative forcing is
called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric temperature is
accounted for. For the purposes of this report, radiative forcing is
further defined as the change relative to the year 1750 and, unless
otherwise noted, refers to a global and annual average value.
Radiative forcing is not to be confused with cloud radiative forcing,
a similar terminology for describing an unrelated measure of the
impact of clouds on the irradiance at the top of the atmosphere.
Radiative forcing scenario A plausible representation of the
future development of radiative forcing associated, for example,
with changes in atmospheric composition or land use change, or
with external factors such as variations in solar activity. Radiative
forcing scenarios can be used as input into simplified climate models
to compute climate projections.
Rapid climate change See Abrupt climate change.
Reanalysis Reanalyses are atmospheric and oceanic analyses
of temperature, wind, current, and other meteorological and
oceanographic quantities, created by processing past meteorological
and oceanographic data using fixed state-of-the-art weather
forecasting models and data assimilation techniques. Using fixed
data assimilation avoids effects from the changing analysis system
that occurs in operational analyses. Although continuity is improved,
global reanalyses still suffer from changing coverage and biases in
the observing systems.
Reconstruction The use of climate indicators to help determine
(generally past) climates.
Reforestation Planting of forests on lands that have previously
contained forests but that have been converted to some other
use. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as
afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the IPCC Report
on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also
the Report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory
Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and
Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003)
Regime A regime is preferred states of the climate system, often
representing one phase of dominant patterns or modes of climate
variability.
Region A region is a territory characterised by specific
geographical and climatological features. The climate of a region is
affected by regional and local scale forcings like topography, land
use characteristics, lakes, etc., as well as remote influences from
other regions. See Teleconnection.
Relative sea level Sea level measured by a tide gauge with respect
to the land upon which it is situated. Mean sea level is normally
defined as the average relative sea level over a period, such as a
month or a year, long enough to average out transients such as
waves and tides. See Sea level change.
Reservoir A component of the climate system, other than the
atmosphere, which has the capacity to store, accumulate or release
a substance of concern, for example, carbon, a greenhouse gas or
a precursor. Oceans, soils and forests are examples of reservoirs
of carbon. Pool is an equivalent term (note that the definition of
pool often includes the atmosphere). The absolute quantity of the
substance of concern held within a reservoir at a specified time is
called the stock.
Respiration The process whereby living organisms convert
organic matter to carbon dioxide, releasing energy and consuming
molecular oxygen.
Response time The response time or adjustment time is the time
needed for the climate system or its components to re-equilibrate to
a new state, following a forcing resulting from external and internal
processes or feedbacks. It is very different for various components
of the climate system. The response time of the troposphere is
relatively short, from days to weeks, whereas the stratosphere
reaches equilibrium on a time scale of typically a few months. Due
to their large heat capacity, the oceans have a much longer response
time: typically decades, but up to centuries or millennia. The
response time of the strongly coupled surface-troposphere system
is, therefore, slow compared to that of the stratosphere, and mainly
determined by the oceans. The biosphere may respond quickly (e.g.,
to droughts), but also very slowly to imposed changes. See lifetime
for a different definition of response time pertinent to the rate of
processes affecting the concentration of trace gases.
Return period The average time between occurrences of a defined
event (AMS, 2000).
Return value The highest (or, alternatively, lowest) value of a
given variable, on average occurring once in a given period of time
(e.g., in 10 years).
Scenario A plausible and often simplified description of how the
future may develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent
set of assumptions about driving forces and key relationships.
Scenarios may be derived from projections, but are often based on
additional information from other sources, sometimes combined
with a narrative storyline. See also SRES scenarios; Climate
scenario; Emission scenario.
Sea ice Any form of ice found at sea that has originated from the
freezing of seawater. Sea ice may be discontinuous pieces (ice floes)
moved on the ocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a
motionless sheet attached to the coast (land-fast ice). Sea ice less
than one year old is called first-year ice. Multi-year ice is sea ice that
has survived at least one summer melt season.
951
Annex I
Sea level change Sea level can change, both globally and locally,
due to (i) changes in the shape of the ocean basins, (ii) changes
in the total mass of water and (iii) changes in water density. Sea
level changes induced by changes in water density are called steric.
Density changes induced by temperature changes only are called
thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are
called halosteric. See also Relative Sea Level; Thermal expansion.
Sea level equivalent (SLE) The change in global average sea level
that would occur if a given amount of water or ice were added to or
removed from the oceans.
Seasonally frozen ground See Frozen ground.
Sea surface temperature (SST) The sea surface temperature is
the temperature of the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few
metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. From
ships, measurements of water samples in buckets were mostly
switched in the 1940s to samples from engine intake water. Satellite
measurements of skin temperature (uppermost layer; a fraction of
a millimetre thick) in the infrared or the top centimetre or so in the
microwave are also used, but must be adjusted to be compatible with
the bulk temperature.
Sensible heat flux The flux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the
atmosphere that is not associated with phase changes of water; a
component of the surface energy budget.
Sequestration See Uptake.
Source Any process, activity or mechanism that releases a
greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or
aerosol into the atmosphere.
Southern Annular Mode (SAM) The fluctuation of a pattern like the
Northern Annular Mode, but in the Southern Hemisphere. See SAM
Index, Box 3.4.
Southern Oscillation See El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Spatial and temporal scales Climate may vary on a large range
of spatial and temporal scales. Spatial scales may range from local
(less than 100,000 km2), through regional (100,000 to 10 million
km2) to continental (10 to 100 million km2). Temporal scales may
range from seasonal to geological (up to hundreds of millions of
years).
SRES scenarios SRES scenarios are emission scenarios developed
by Nakićenović and Swart (2000) and used, among others, as a basis
for some of the climate projections shown in Chapter 10 of this
report. The following terms are relevant for a better understanding
of the structure and use of the set of SRES scenarios:
Significant wave height The average height of the highest onethird of the wave heights (sea and swell) occurring in a particular
time period.
Scenario family Scenarios that have a similar demographic,
societal, economic and technical change storyline. Four scenario
families comprise the SRES scenario set: A1, A2, B1 and B2.
Sink Any process, activity or mechanism that removes a
greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or
aerosol from the atmosphere.
Illustrative Scenario A scenario that is illustrative for each of the
six scenario groups reflected in the Summary for Policymakers
of Nakićenović and Swart (2000). They include four revised
scenario markers for the scenario groups A1B, A2, B1, B2,
and two additional scenarios for the A1FI and A1T groups. All
scenario groups are equally sound.
Slab-ocean model A simplified presentation in a climate model
of the ocean as a motionless layer of water with a depth of 50 to
100 m. Climate models with a slab ocean can only be used for
estimating the equilibrium response of climate to a given forcing,
not the transient evolution of climate. See Equilibrium and transient
climate experiment.
Snow line The lower limit of permanent snow cover, below which
snow does not accumulate.
Soil moisture Water stored in or at the land surface and available
for evaporation.
Soil temperature See Ground temperature.
Solar activity The Sun exhibits periods of high activity observed in
numbers of sunspots, as well as radiative output, magnetic activity
and emission of high-energy particles. These variations take place
on a range of time scales from millions of years to minutes. See
Solar cycle.
952
Soot Particles formed during the quenching of gases at the outer
edge of flames of organic vapours, consisting predominantly of
carbon, with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen present as
carboxyl and phenolic groups and exhibiting an imperfect graphitic
structure. See Black carbon; Charcoal (Charlson and Heintzenberg,
1995, p. 406).
Marker Scenario A scenario that was originally posted in
draft form on the SRES website to represent a given scenario
family. The choice of markers was based on which of the initial
quantifications best reflected the storyline, and the features of
specific models. Markers are no more likely than other scenarios,
but are considered by the SRES writing team as illustrative
of a particular storyline. They are included in revised form in
Nakićenović and Swart (2000). These scenarios received the
closest scrutiny of the entire writing team and via the SRES open
process. Scenarios were also selected to illustrate the other two
scenario groups.
Storyline A narrative description of a scenario (or family
of scenarios), highlighting the main scenario characteristics,
relationships between key driving forces and the dynamics of
their evolution.
Steric
See Sea level change.
Solar (‘11 year’) cycle A quasi-regular modulation of solar activity
with varying amplitude and a period of between 9 and 13 years.
Stock
See Reservoir.
Solar radiation Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun.
It is also referred to as shortwave radiation. Solar radiation has a
distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) determined by the
temperature of the Sun, peaking in visible wavelengths. See also:
Thermal infrared radiation, Insolation.
Storm surge The temporary increase, at a particular locality,
in the height of the sea due to extreme meteorological conditions
(low atmospheric pressure and/or strong winds). The storm surge is
defined as being the excess above the level expected from the tidal
variation alone at that time and place.
Annex I
Storm tracks Originally, a term referring to the tracks of individual
cyclonic weather systems, but now often generalised to refer to the
regions where the main tracks of extratropical disturbances occur
as sequences of low (cyclonic) and high (anticyclonic) pressure
systems.
Stratosphere The highly stratified region of the atmosphere above
the troposphere extending from about 10 km (ranging from 9 km at
high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) to about 50 km
altitude.
Subduction Ocean process in which surface waters enter the ocean
interior from the surface mixed layer through Ekman pumping
and lateral advection. The latter occurs when surface waters are
advected to a region where the local surface layer is less dense and
therefore must slide below the surface layer, usually with no change
in density.
Sunspots Small dark areas on the Sun. The number of sunspots is
higher during periods of high solar activity, and varies in particular
with the solar cycle.
Surface layer See Atmospheric boundary layer.
Surface temperature See Global surface temperature; Ground
temperature; Land surface air temperature; Sea surface
temperature.
Teleconnection A connection between climate variations
over widely separated parts of the world. In physical terms,
teleconnections are often a consequence of large-scale wave
motions, whereby energy is transferred from source regions along
preferred paths in the atmosphere.
the name THC has been used synonymously with Meridional
Overturning Circulation.
Thermokarst The process by which characteristic landforms result
from the thawing of ice-rich permafrost or the melting of massive
ground ice (Van Everdingen, 1998).
Thermosteric See Sea level change.
Tide gauge A device at a coastal location (and some deep-sea
locations) that continuously measures the level of the sea with respect
to the adjacent land. Time averaging of the sea level so recorded
gives the observed secular changes of the relative sea level.
Total solar irradiance (TSI) The amount of solar radiation received
outside the Earth’s atmosphere on a surface normal to the incident
radiation, and at the Earth’s mean distance from the Sun.
Reliable measurements of solar radiation can only be made
from space and the precise record extends back only to 1978. The
generally accepted value is 1,368 W m−2 with an accuracy of about
0.2%. Variations of a few tenths of a percent are common, usually
associated with the passage of sunspots across the solar disk. The
solar cycle variation of TSI is of the order of 0.1% (AMS, 2000).
See also Insolation.
Transient climate response See Climate sensitivity.
Tree rings Concentric rings of secondary wood evident in a crosssection of the stem of a woody plant. The difference between the
dense, small-celled late wood of one season and the wide-celled
early wood of the following spring enables the age of a tree to be
estimated, and the ring widths or density can be related to climate
parameters such as temperature and precipitation. See Proxy.
Thermal expansion In connection with sea level, this refers to
the increase in volume (and decrease in density) that results from
warming water. A warming of the ocean leads to an expansion of
the ocean volume and hence an increase in sea level. See Sea level
change.
Trend In this report, the word trend designates a change, generally
monotonic in time, in the value of a variable.
Thermal infrared radiation Radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface,
the atmosphere and the clouds. It is also known as terrestrial or
longwave radiation, and is to be distinguished from the near-infrared
radiation that is part of the solar spectrum. Infrared radiation, in
general, has a distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) longer
than the wavelength of the red colour in the visible part of the
spectrum. The spectrum of thermal infrared radiation is practically
distinct from that of shortwave or solar radiation because of the
difference in temperature between the Sun and the Earth-atmosphere
system.
Troposphere The lowest part of the atmosphere, from the surface
to about 10 km in altitude at mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km at
high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average), where clouds
and weather phenomena occur. In the troposphere, temperatures
generally decrease with height.
Thermocline The layer of maximum vertical temperature gradient
in the ocean, lying between the surface ocean and the abyssal ocean.
In subtropical regions, its source waters are typically surface waters
at higher latitudes that have subducted and moved equatorward. At
high latitudes, it is sometimes absent, replaced by a halocline, which
is a layer of maximum vertical salinity gradient.
Thermohaline circulation (THC) Large-scale circulation in the
ocean that transforms low-density upper ocean waters to higherdensity intermediate and deep waters and returns those waters back
to the upper ocean. The circulation is asymmetric, with conversion
to dense waters in restricted regions at high latitudes and the return
to the surface involving slow upwelling and diffusive processes
over much larger geographic regions. The THC is driven by high
densities at or near the surface, caused by cold temperatures and/or
high salinities, but despite its suggestive though common name, is
also driven by mechanical forces such as wind and tides. Frequently,
Tropopause The boundary between the troposphere and the
stratosphere.
Turnover time See Lifetime.
Uncertainty An expression of the degree to which a value (e.g.,
the future state of the climate system) is unknown. Uncertainty can
result from lack of information or from disagreement about what
is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources,
from quantifiable errors in the data to ambiguously defined concepts
or terminology, or uncertain projections of human behaviour.
Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative measures,
for example, a range of values calculated by various models, or by
qualitative statements, for example, reflecting the judgement of a
team of experts (see Moss and Schneider, 2000; Manning et al.,
2004). See also Likelihood; Confidence.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992 in New York and
signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro by more than 150
countries and the European Community. Its ultimate objective is the
‘stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system’. It contains commitments for all Parties.
Under the Convention, Parties included in Annex I (all OECD
953
Annex I
countries and countries with economies in transition) aim to return
greenhouse gas emissions not controlled by the Montreal Protocol
to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The convention entered in force in
March 1994. See Kyoto Protocol.
Uptake The addition of a substance of concern to a reservoir.
The uptake of carbon containing substances, in particular carbon
dioxide, is often called (carbon) sequestration.
Urban heat island (UHI) The relative warmth of a city compared
with surrounding rural areas, associated with changes in runoff, the
concrete jungle effects on heat retention, changes in surface albedo,
changes in pollution and aerosols, and so on.
Ventilation The exchange of ocean properties with the atmospheric
surface layer such that property concentrations are brought closer to
equilibrium values with the atmosphere (AMS, 2000).
Volume mixing ratio See Mole fraction.
Walker Circulation Direct thermally driven zonal overturning
circulation in the atmosphere over the tropical Pacific Ocean, with
rising air in the western and sinking air in the eastern Pacific.
Water mass A volume of ocean water with identifiable properties
(temperature, salinity, density, chemical tracers) resulting from its
unique formation process. Water masses are often identified through
a vertical or horizontal extremum of a property such as salinity.
Younger Dryas A period 12.9 to 11.6 kya, during the deglaciation,
characterised by a temporary return to colder conditions in many
locations, especially around the North Atlantic.
954
REFERENCES
AMS, 2000: AMS Glossary of Meteorology, 2nd Ed. American
Meteorological Society, Boston, MA,http://amsglossary.
allenpress.com/glossary/browse.
Charlson, R.J., and J. Heintzenberg (eds.), 1995: Aerosol Forcing
of Climate. John Wiley and Sons Limited, pp. 91–108.
Copyright 1995 ©John Wiley and Sons Limited. Reproduced
with permission.
Heim, R.R., 2002: A Review of Twentieth-Century Drought Indices
Used in the United States. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83,
1149–1165
IPCC, 1992: Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report
to the IPCC Scientific Assessment [Houghton, J.T., B.A.
Callander, and S.K. Varney (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
USA, 116 pp.
IPCC, 1996: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Houghton., J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 572
pp.
IPCC, 2000: Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. Special
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Watson, R.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 377
pp.
IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 881
pp.
IPCC, 2003: Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory
Emissions from Direct Human-Induced Degradation of Forests
and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types [Penman, J., et
al. (eds.)]. The Institute for Global Environmental Strategies
(IGES), Japan , 32 pp.
Manning, M., et al., 2004: IPCC Workshop on Describing Scientific
Uncertainties in Climate Change to Support Analysis of Risk
of Options. Workshop Report. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, Geneva.
Moss, R., and S. Schneider, 2000: Uncertainties in the IPCC TAR:
Recommendations to Lead Authors for More Consistent
Assessment and Reporting. In: IPCC Supporting Material:
Guidance Papers on Cross Cutting Issues in the Third
Assessment Report of the IPCC. [Pachauri, R., T. Taniguchi,
and K. Tanaka (eds.)]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Geneva, pp. 33–51.
Nakićenović, N., and R. Swart (eds.), 2000: Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios. A Special Report of Working Group
III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA, 599 pp.
Schwartz, S.E., and P. Warneck, 1995: Units for use in atmospheric
chemistry. Pure Appl. Chem., 67, 1377–1406.
Van Everdingen, R. (ed.): 1998. Multi-Language Glossary of
Permafrost and Related Ground-Ice Terms, revised May
2005. National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center
for Glaciology, Boulder, CO, http://nsidc.org/fgdc/glossary/.
Annex II
Contributors to the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report
ACHUTARAO, Krishna
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
USA
ARBLASTER, Julie
National Center for Atmospheric Research
and Bureau of Meteotology Research Center
USA, Australia
BAUER, Eva
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
ADLER, Robert
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
USA
ARCHER, David
University of Chicago
USA
BENESTAD, Rasmus
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Norway
ALEXANDER, Lisa
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK, Australia, Ireland
ARORA, Vivek
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada
Canada
BENISTON, Martin
University of Geneva
Switzerland
ALEXANDERSSON, Hans
Swedish Meteorological and
Hydrological Institute
Sweden
ARRITT, Raymond
Iowa State University
USA
ALLAN, Richard
Environmental Systems Science
Centre, University of Reading
UK
ALLEN, Myles
Climate Dynamics Group, Atmospheric,
Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Department
of Physics, University of Oxford
UK
ALLEY, Richard B.
Department of Geosciences,
Pennsylvania State University
USA
ALLISON, Ian
Australian Antarctic Division and
Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems
Cooperative Research Centre
Australia
AMBENJE, Peter
Kenya Meteorological Department
Kenya
ARTALE, Vincenzo
Italian National Agency for
New Technologies, Energy and
the Environment (ENEA)
Italy
BERNTSEN, Terje
Centre for International Climate and
Environmantal Research (CICERO)
Norway
ARTAXO, Paulo
Instituto de Fisica, Universidade
de Sao Paulo
Brazil
BERRY, Joseph A.
Carnegie Institute of Washington,
Department of Global Ecology
USA
AUER, Ingeborg
Central Institute for Meteorology
and Geodynamics
Austria
BETTS, Richard A.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
AUSTIN, John
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
USA
BIERCAMP, Joachim
Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum GmbH
Germany
BAEDE, Alphonsus
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI) and Ministry of Housing,
Spatial Planning and the Environment
Netherlands
AMMANN, Caspar
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
BAKER, David
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
ANDRONOVA, Natalia
University of Michigan
USA
BALDWIN, Mark P.
Northwest Research Associates
USA
ANNAN, James
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
Japan, UK
BARNOLA, Jean-Marc
Laboratoire de Glaciologie et
Géophysique de l’Environnement
France
ANTONOV, John
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA, Russian Federation
BERGER, André
Université catholique de Louvain,
Institut d’Astronomie et de
Géophysique G. Lemaitre
Belgium
BARRY, Roger
National Snow and Ice Data
Center, University of Colorado
USA
BATES, Nicholas Robert
Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences
Bermuda
BINDOFF, Nathaniel L.
Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems
Cooperative Research Centre and CSIRO
Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
BITZ, Cecilia
University of Washington
USA
BLATTER, Heinz
Institute for Atmospheric and
Climate Science, ETH Zurich
Switzerland
BODEKER, Greg
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
New Zealand
BOJARIU, Roxana
National Institute of Meteorology
and Hydrology (NIMH)
Romania
BONAN, Gordon
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
Coordinating lead authors, lead authors, and contributing authors are listed alphabetically by surname.
955
Annex II
BONFILS, Cèline
School of Natural Sciences,
Univerity of California, Merced
USA, France
BROMWICH, David
Byrd Polar Research Center,
The Ohio State University
USA
CHANG, Edmund K.M.
Stony Brook University, State
University of New York
USA
BONY, Sandrine
Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique,
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace
France
BROVKIN, Victor
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany, Russian Federation
CHAO, Ben
NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies
USA
BOONE, Aaron
CNRS CNRM at Meteo France
France, USA
BROWN, Ross
Environment Canada
Canada
BOONPRAGOB, Kansri
Department of Biology, Faculty of
Science, Ramkhamhaeng University
Thailand
BUJA, Lawrence
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
BOUCHER, Olivier
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK, France
BOUSQUET, Philippe
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
BOX, Jason
Ohio State University
USA
BOYER, Tim
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
BRACONNOT, Pascale
Pascale Braconnot Institu Pierre Simon
Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences
du Climat et de l’Environnement
France
BRADY, Esther
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
956
BUSUIOC, Aristita
National Meteorological Administration
Romania
CADULE, Patricia
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace
France
CAI, Wenju
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
CAMILLONI, Inés
Universidad de Buenos Aires, Cwentro de
Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera
Argentina
CANADELL, Josep
Global Carbon Project, CSIRO
Australia
CARRASCO, Jorge
Direccion Meteorologica de Chile
and Centro de Estudios Cientificos
Chile
CASSOU, Christophe
Centre National de Recherche Scientifique,
Centre Europeen de Recherche et de
Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientifique
France
BRASSEUR, Guy
Earth and Sun Systems Laboratory,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA, Germany
CAYA, Daniel
Consortium Ouranos
Canada
BRETHERTON, Christopher
Department of Atmospheric Sciences,
University of Washington
USA
CAYAN, Daniel R.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
USA
BRIFFA, Keith R.
Climatic Research Unit, School
of Environmental Sciences,
University of East Anglia
UK
CAZENAVE, Anny
Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et
Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), CNES
France
BROCCOLI, Anthony J.
Rutgers University
USA
CHAMBERS, Don
Center for Space Research, The
University of Texas at Austin
USA
BROCKMANN, Patrick
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
CHANDLER, Mark
Columbia University and NASA
Goddard Institute for Space Studies
USA
CHEN, Anthony
Department of Physics, University
of the West Indies
Jamaica
CHEN, Zhenlin
Dept of International Cooperation,
China Meteorological Administration
China
CHIDTHAISONG, Amnat
The Joint Graduate School of Energy
and Environment, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi
Thailand
CHRISTENSEN, Jens Hesselbjerg
Danish Meteorological Institute
Denmark
CHRISTIAN, James
Fisheries and Oceans, canada, Candian
Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis
Canada
CHRISTY, John
University of Alabama in Huntsville
USA
CHURCH, John
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric
Research and Ecosystems
Cooperative Research Centre
Australia
CIAIS, Philippe
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
CLARK, Deborah A.
University of Missouri, St. Louis
USA
CLARKE, Garry
Earth and Ocean Sciences,
University of British Columbia
Canada
CLAUSSEN, Martin
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
CLEMENT, Amy
University of Miami, Rosenstiel School
of Marine and Atmospheric Science
USA
COGLEY, J. Graham
Department of Geography, Trent University
Canada
COLE, Julia
University of Arizona
USA
Annex II
COLLIER, Mark
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
COLLINS, Matthew
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
COLLINS, William D.
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
COLMAN, Robert
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
Australia
COMISO, Josefino
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Space Flight Center
USA
CONWAY, Thomas J.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
USA
COOK, Edward
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
USA
CORTIJO, Elsa
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement, CNRS-CEA-UVSQ
France
COVEY, Curt
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
USA
COX, Peter M.
School of Engineering, Computer Science
and Mathematics, University of Exeter
UK
CROOKS, Simon
University of Oxford
UK
CUBASCH, Ulrich
Institut für Meteorologie,
Freie Universität Berlin
Germany
CURRY, Ruth
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
USA
DAI, Aiguo
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
DAMERIS, Martin
German Aerospace Center
Germany
DE ELÍA, Ramón
Ouranos Consortium
Canada, Argentina
DELWORTH, Thomas L.
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
DRANGE, Helge
Nansen Environmental and
Remote Sensing Center, Bjerknes
Centre for Climate Research
Norway
DENMAN, Kenneth L.
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada and
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
Canada
DRIESSCHAERT, Emmanuelle
Université catholique de Louvain,
Institut d’Astronomie et de
Géophysique G. Lemaitre
Belgium
DENTENER, Frank
European Commission Joint Research
Centre; Institute of Environment and
Sustainability Climate Change Unit
EU
DUFRESNE, Jean-Louis
Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique,
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace
France
DESER, Clara
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
DETHLOFF, Klaus
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and
Marine Research, Research Unit Potsdam
Germany
DIANSKY, Nikolay A.
Institute of Numerical Mathematics,
Russian Academy of Sciences
Russian Federation
DICKINSON, Robert E.
School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences,
Georgia Institute of Technology
USA
DING, Yihui
National Climate Centre, China
Meteorological Administration
China
DIRMEYER, Paul
Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies
USA
DUPLESSY, Jean-Claude
Centre National dela Recerche
Scientifique, Laboratoire des Sciences
du Climat et de l’Environnement
France
DYURGEROV, Mark
Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research,
University of Colorado at Boulder
& Department of Geograpy and
Quaternary Geology at Stockholm
Sweden, USA
EASTERLING, David
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
USA
EBY, Michael
University of Victoria
Canada
EDWARDS, Neil R.
The Open University
UK
DIX, Martin
CSIRO
Australia
ELKINS, James W.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
USA
DIXON, Keith
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
EMERSON, Steven
School of Oceanography,
University of Washington
USA
DLUGOKENCKY, Ed
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
USA
EMORI, Seita
National Institute for Environmental
Studies and Frontier Research Center
for Global Change, Japan Agency for
Marine-Earth Science and Technology
Japan
DOKKEN, Trond
Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
Norway
DOTZEK, Nikolai
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Germany
DOUTRIAUX, Charles
Program for Climate Model
Diagnosis and Intercomparison
USA, France
ETHERIDGE, David
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
EYRING, Veronika
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Germany
FAHEY, David W.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
USA
957
Annex II
FASULLO, John
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
FEDDEMA, Johannes
University of Kansas
USA
FEELY, Richard
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory
USA
FEICHTER, Johann
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
Germany
FICHEFET, Thierry
Université catholique de Louvain,
Institut d’Astronomie et de
Géophysique G. Lemaitre
Belgium
FITZHARRIS, Blair
Department of Geography,
University of Otago
New Zealand
FLATO, Gregory
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada
Canada
FLEITMANN, Dominik
Institute of Geological Sciences,
Uniersity of Bern
Switzerland, Germany
FLEMING, James Rodger
Colby College
USA
FOGT, Ryan
Polar Meteorology Group, Byrd Polar
Research Center and Atmospheric
Sciences Program, Department of
geography, The Ohio State University
USA
GAYE, Amadou Thierno
Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics,
ESP/CAD, Dakar University
Senegal
FREI, Allan
Hunter College, City
University of New York
USA
GELLER, Marvin
Stony Brook University
USA
FREI, Christoph
Federal Office of Meteorology
and Climatology MeteoSwiss
Switzerland
FRICKER, Helen
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
USA
FRIEDLINGSTEIN, Pierre
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France, Belgium
FU, Congbin
Start Regional Center for Temperate
East Asia, Institute of Atmospheric
Physics, Chinese Academy of Science
China
FUJII, Yoshiyuki
Arctic Environment Research Center,
National Institute of Polar Research
Japan
FUNG, Inez
University of California, Berkeley
USA
FURRER, Reinhard
Colorado School of Mines
USA, Switzerland
FUZZI, Sandro
National Research Council, Institute of
Atmospheric Sciences and Climate
Italy
FOLLAND, Christopher
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
FYFE, John
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada
Canada
FOREST, Chris
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
USA
GANOPOLSKI, Andrey
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
FORSTER, Piers
School of Earth and Environment,
University of Leeds
UK
FOUKAL, Peter
Heliophysics, Inc.
USA
FRASER, Paul
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
FRAUENFELD, Oliver
National Snow and Ice Data Center,
University of Colorado at Boulder
USA, Austria
958
FREE, Melissa
Air Resources Laboratory, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
USA
GAO, Xuejie
Laboratory for Climate Change,
National Climate Centre, China
Meteorological Administration
China
GARCIA, Hernan
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Oceanographic Data Center
USA
GARCÍA-HERRERA, Ricardo
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Spain
GENT, Peter
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
GERDES, Rüdiger
Alfred-Wegener-Institute für
Polar und Meeresforschung
Germany
GILLETT, Nathan P.
Climatic Research Unit, School
of Environmental Sciences,
University of East Anglia
UK
GIORGI, Filippo
Abdus Salam International Centre
for Theoretical Physics
Italy
GLEASON, Byron
National Climatic Data Center, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
USA
GLECKLER, Peter
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
USA
GONG, Sunling
Air Quality Researcch Division, Science &
Technology Branch, Environment Canada
Canada
GONZÁLEZ-DAVÍLA, Melchor
University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Spain
GONZÁLEZ-ROUCO, Jesus Fidel
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Spain
GOOSSE, Hugues
Université catholique de Louvain
Belgium
GRAHAM, Richard
Hadley Centre, Met Office
UK
GREGORY, Jonathan M.
Department of Meteorology, University of
Reading and Hadley Centre for Climate
Prediction and Research, Met Office
UK
GRIESER, Jürgen
Deutscher Wetterdienst, Global
Precipitatioin Climatology Centre
Germany
GRIGGS, David
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
Annex II
GROISMAN, Pavel
University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research at the National Climatic
Data Center, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA, Russian Federation
GRUBER, Nicolas
Institute of Geophysics and Planetary
Physics, University of California,
Los Angeles and Department of
Environmental Sciences, ETH Zurich
USA, Switzerland
GUDGEL, Richard
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
GUDMUNDSSON, G. Hilmar
British Antarctic Survey
UK, Iceland
GUENTHER, Alex
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
GULEV, Sergey
P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanography
Russian Federation
GURNEY, Kevin
Department of Earth and Atmospheric
Science, Purdue University
USA
GUTOWSKI, William
Iowa State University
USA
HANSEN, James
Goddard Institute for Space Studies
USA
HOCK, Regine
Stockholm University
Sweden
HANSSEN-BAUER, Inger
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Norway
HODGES, Kevin
Environmental Systems Science Centre
UK
HARRIS, Charles
School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary
Science, Cardiff University
UK
HOELZLE, Martin
University of Zürich,
Department of Geography
Switzerland
HARRIS, Glen
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK, New Zealand
HOLLAND, Elisabeth
Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National
Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)
USA
HARVEY, Danny
University of Toronto
Canada
HOLLAND, Marika
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
HASUMI, Hiroyasu
Center for Climate System
Research, University of Tokyo
Japan
HOLTSLAG, Albert A. M.
Wageningen University
Netherlands
HAUGLUSTAINE, Didier
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ
France
HAYWOOD, James
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
HOSKINS, Brian J.
Department of Meteorology,
University of Reading
UK
HOUSE, Joanna
Quantifying and Understanding the Earth
System Programme, University of Bristol
UK
HU, Aixue
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA, China
HAAS, Christian
Alfred Wegener Institute
Germany
HEGERL, Gabriele C.
Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences,
Nicholas School for the Environment
and Earth Sciences, Duke University
USA, Germany
HABIBI NOKHANDAN, Majid
National Center for Climatology
Iran
HEIMANN, Martin
Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie
Germany, Switzerland
HURRELL, James
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
HAGEN, Jon Ove
University of Oslo
Norway
HEINZE, Christoph
University of Bergen, Geophysical Institute
and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
Norway, Germany
HUYBRECHTS, Philippe
Departement Geografie, Vrije
Universiteir Brussel
Belgium
HELD, Isaac
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
USA
INGRAM, William
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
HAIGH, Joanna
Imperial College London
UK
HALL, Alex
Department of Atmospheric and
Oceanic Sciences, University
of California, Los Angeles
USA
HALLEGATTE, Stéphane
Centre International de Recherche sur
l’Environnement et le Developpement,
Ecole Nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées
and Centre National de Recherches
Meteorologique, Meteo-France
USA, France
HANAWA, Kimio
Physical Oceanography Laboratry,
Department of Geophysics, Graduate
School of Science, Tohoku University
Japan
HENDERSON-SELLERS, Ann
World Meteorological Organization
Switzerland
HENDON, Henry
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
Australia
HUNKE, Elizabeth
Los Alamos National Laboratory
USA
ISAKSEN, Ketil
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Norway
ISHII, Masayoshi
Fronteir Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
Japan
HEWITSON, Bruce
Department of Environmental
and Geographical Sciences,
University of Cape Town
South Africa
JACOB, Daniel
Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, Harvard University
USA, France
HINZMAN, Larry
University of Alaska, Fairbanks
USA
JALLOW, Bubu
Department of Water Resources
The Gambia
959
Annex II
JANSEN, Eystein
University of Bergen, Department
of Earth Sciences and Bjerknes
Centre for Climate Research
Norway
JANSSON, Peter
Department of Physical Geography and
Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University
Sweden
JENKINS, Adrian
British Antarctic Survey, Natural
Environment Research Council
UK
JONES, Andy
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
JONES, Christopher
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
JONES, Colin
Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Canadian
Regional Climate Modelling Network
Canada
JONES, Gareth S.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
JONES, Julie
GKSS Research Centre
Germany, UK
JONES, Philip D.
Climatic Research Unit, School
of Environmental Sciences,
University of East Anglia
UK
JONES, Richard
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
JOOS, Fortunat
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
Switzerland
JOSEY, Simon
National Oceanography Centre,
University of Southampton
UK
JOUGHIN, Ian
Applied Physics Laboratory,
University of Washington
USA
JOUZEL, Jean
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ
France
JOYCE, Terrence
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
USA
960
JUNGCLAUS, Johann H.
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
Germany
KAGEYAMA, Masa
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
KHODRI, Myriam
Institut de Recherche Pour
le Developpement
France
KILADIS, George
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
KÅLLBERG, Per
European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasts
ECMWF
KIM, Kuh
Seoul National University
Republic of Korea
KÄRCHER, Bernd
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Germany
KIMOTO, Masahide
Center for Climate System
Research, University of Tokyo
Japan
KARL, Thomas R.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Climatic Data Center
USA
KING, Brian
National Oceanography
Centre, Southampton
UK
KAROLY, David J.
University of Oklahoma
USA, Australia
KASER, Georg
Institut für Geographie,
University of Innsbruck
Austria, Italy
KATTSOV, Vladimir
Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory
Russian Federation
KATZ, Robert
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
KAWAMIYA, Michio
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
Japan
KEELING, C. David
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
USA
KEELING, Ralph
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
USA
KENNEDY, John
Hadley Centre, Met Office
UK
KINNE, Stefan
Max-Planck Institute for Meteorology
Germany
KIRTMAN, Ben
Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere
Studies, George Mason University
USA
KITOH, Akio
First Research Laboratory, Climate Research
Department, Meteorological Research
Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency
Japan
KLEIN, Stephen A.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
USA
KLEIN TANK, Albert
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
Netherlands
KNUTSON, Thomas
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
KNUTTI, Reto
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
Switzerland
KENYON, Jesse
Duke University
USA
KOERTZINGER, Arne
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften
an der Universitat Kiel and Institut
fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde
Germany
KETTLEBOROUGH, Jamie
British Atmospheric Data Centre,
Space Science and Technology
Department, Council for the Central
Laboratory of the Research Councils
UK
KOIKE, Toshio
Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Tokyo
Japan
KHARIN, Viatcheslar
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada
Canada
KOLLI, Rupa Kumar
Climatology and Hydrometeorology
Division, Indian Institute of
Tropical Meteorology
India
Annex II
KOSTER, Randal
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
USA
LATIF, Mojib
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften,
IFM-GEOMAR
Germany
KOTTMEIER, Christoph
Institut für Meteorologie, und
Klimaforschung, Universitat Karlsruhe/
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe
Germany
LAU, Ngar-Cheung
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
KRIPALANI, Ramesh
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
India
LAVAL, Katia
Laboratoire de Météorologie
Dynamique du CNRS
France
KRYNYTZKY, Marta
University of Washington
USA
KUNKEL, Kenneth
Illinois State Water Survey
USA
KUSHNER, Paul J.
Department of Physics,
University of Toronto
Canada
KWOK, Ron
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology
USA
KWON, Won-Tae
Climate Research Laboratory,
Meteorological Research Institute (METRI),
Korean Meteorological Administration
Republic of Korea
LABEYRIE, Laurent
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
LAINE, Alexandre
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
LAM, Chiu-Ying
Hong Kong Observatory
China
LAMBECK, Kurt
Australia National University
Australia
LAMBERT, F. Hugo
Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary
Physics, University of Oxford
UK
LAVINE, Michael
Duke University
USA
LAWRENCE, David
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
LAWRIMORE, Jay
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Climatic Data Center
USA
LEULIETTE, Eric
University of Colorado, Boulder
USA
LEUNG, Ruby
Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
LEVERMANN, Anders
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
LEVINSON, David
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Climatic Data Center
USA
LEVITUS, Sydney
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
LIE, Øyvind
Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
Norway
LAXON, Seymour
Centre for Polar Observation and
Modelling, University College London
UK
LIEPERT, Beate
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory,
Columbia University
USA
LE BROCQ, Anne
Centre for Polar Observation and
Modelling, University of Bristol
UK
LIU, Shiyin
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental
and Engineering Research Institute,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
China
LE QUÉRÉ, Corrine
University of East Anglia and
British Antarctic Survey
UK, France, Canada
LE TREUT, Hervé
Laboratoire de Météorologie
Dynamique du CNRS
France
LEAN, Judith
Naval Research Laboratory
USA
LECK, Caroline
Department of Metorology,
Stockholm University
Sweden
LEE, Terry C.K.
University of Victoria
Canada
LANZANTE, John
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
LEE-TAYLOR, Julia
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA, UK
LAPRISE, René
Deprtement des Sciences de la Terra
et de l’Atmosphere, University
of Quebec at Montreal
Canada
LEFEVRE, Nathalie
Institut de Recherche Pour le
Developpement, Laboratoire
d’Oceanographie et de Climatologie
France
LASSEY, Keith
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
New Zealand
LEMKE, Peter
Alfred Wegener Institute for
Polar and Marine Research
Germany
LOHMANN, Ulrike
ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric
and Climate Science
Switzerland
LOUTRE, Marie-France
Université catholique de Louvain,
Institut d’Astronomie et de
Géophysique G. Lemaitre
Belgium
LOWE, David C.
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
New Zealand
LOWE, Jason
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
LUO, Yong
Laboratory for Climate Change,
National Climate Centre, China
Meteorological Administration
China
LUTERBACHER, Jürg
Institute of Geography, Climatology
and Meteorology, and National
Centre of Competence in Research
on Climate, University of Bern
Switzerland
961
Annex II
LYNCH, Amanda H.
School of Geography and Environmental
Science, Monash University
Australia
MACAYEAL, Douglas
University of Chicago
USA
MACCRACKEN, Michael
Climate Institute
USA
MAGAÑA RUEDA, Victor
Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera,
Ciudad Universitaria, Universidad
Nacional Autonomia de Mexico
Mexico
MATTHEWS, H. Damon
University of Calgary and
Concordia University
Canada
MATULLA, Christoph
Environment Canada
Canada, Austria
MAURITZEN, Cecilie
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Norway
MALHI, Yadvinder
University of Oxford
UK
MCAVANEY, Bryant
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
Australia
MALANOTTE-RIZZOLI, Paola
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
USA, Italy
MCFIGGANS, Gordon
University of Manchester
UK
MANNING, Andrew C.
University of East Anglia
UK, New Zealand
MCINNES, Kathleen
CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric
Chemistry Research
Australia
MANNING, Martin
IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration,
Earth System Research Laboratory
USA, New Zealand
MANZINI, Elisa
National Institute for Geophysics
and Volcanology
Italy
MARENGO ORSINI, Jose Antonio
CPTEC/INPE
Brazil, Peru
MARSH, Robert
National Oceanography Centre,
University of Southampton
UK
MARSHALL, Gareth
British Antarctic Survey
UK
MARTELO, Maria
Ministerio del Ambiente y los Rcursos
Naturales, Dir. de Hidrologia y Meteorologia
Venezuela
MASARIE , Ken
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System Research
Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division
USA
MASSON-DELMOTTE, Valérie
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
MATSUMOTO, Katsumi
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities
USA
962
MATSUNO, Taroh
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
Japan
MCPHADEN, Michael
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
MEARNS, Linda
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
MEARS, Carl
Remote Sensing Systems
USA
MEEHL, Gerald A.
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
MEINSHAUSEN, Malte
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
MELLING, Humphrey
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Canada
MENÉNDEZ, Claudio Guillermo
Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y
de la Atmósfera, (CONICET-UBA)
Argentina
MENON, Surabi
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
USA
MESCHERSKAYA, Anna V.
Russian Federation
MILLER, John B.
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
MILLOT, Claude
Centre National dela Recherche Scientifique
France
MILLY, Chris
United States Geological Survey
USA
MITCHELL, John
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
MOKSSIT, Abdalah
Direction de la météorologie Nationale
Morocco
MOLINA, Mario
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
University of California, San Diego
USA, Mexico
MOLINARI, Robert
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic
and Meteorological Laboratory
USA
MONAHAN, Adam H.
School of Earth and Ocean
Sciences, University of Victoria
Canada
MONNIN, Eric
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
Switzerland
MONTZKA, Steve
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
MOSLEY-THOMPSON, Ellen
Ohio State University
USA
MOTE, Philip
Climate Impacts Group, Joint Institute for
the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans
(JIASO), University of Washington
USA
MUHS, Daniel
United States Geological Survey
USA
MULLAN, A. Brett
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
New Zealand
MÜLLER, Simon A.
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
Switzerland
MURPHY, James M.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
Annex II
MUSCHELER, Raimund
Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology
Center, University of Maryland &
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center,
Climate & Radiation Branch
USA
MYHRE, Gunnar
Department of Geosciences,
University of Oslo
Norway
NAKAJIMA, Teruyuki
Center for Climate System
Research, University of Tokyo
Japan
NAKAMURA, Hisashi
Department of Earth, Planetary
Science, University of Tokyo
Japan
NAWRATH, Susanne
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
NEREM, R. Steven
University of Colorado at Boulder
USA
NEW, Mark
Centre for the Environment,
University of Oxford
UK
NGANGA, John
University of Nairobi
Kenya
NICHOLLS, Neville
Monash University
Australia
NODA, Akira
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
Japan
NOJIRI, Yukihiro
Secretariat of Council for Science and
Technology Policy, Cabinet Office
Japan
NOKHANDAN, Majid Habibi
Iranian Meteorological Organization
Iran
NORRIS, Joel
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
USA
OHMURA, Atsumu
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Switzerland
OKI, Taikan
Institute of Industrial Science,
The University of Tokyo
Japan
OLAGO, Daniel
Department of Geology,
University of Nairobi
Kenya
ONO, Tsuneo
Hokkaido National Fisheries Research
Institute, Fisheries Research Agency
Japan
OPPENHEIMER, Michael
Princeton University
USA
ORAM, David
University of East Anglia
UK
ORR, James C.
Marine Environment Laboratories,
International Atomic Energy Agency
Monaco, USA
OSBORN, Tim
University of East Anglia
UK
O’SHAUGHNESSY, Kath
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
New Zealand
OTTO-BLIESNER, Bette
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
OVERPECK, Jonathan
Institute for the Study of Planet
Earth, University of Arizona
USA
PAASCHE, Øyvind
Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
Norway
PAHLOW, Markus
Dalhousie University, Bedford
Institute of Oceanography
Canada
NOZAWA, Toru
National Institute for Environmental Studies
Japan
PAL, Jeremy S.
Loyola Marymount University,
The Abdus Salam International
Centre for Theoretical Physics
USA, Italy
OERLEMANS, Johannes
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric
Research, Utrecht University
Netherlands
PALMER, Timothy
European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasting
ECMWF, UK
OGALLO, Laban
IGAD Climate Prediction and
Application Centre
Kenya
PANT, Govind Ballabh
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
India
PARKER, David
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
PARRENIN, Frédéric
Laboratoire de Glaciologie et
Géophysique de l’Environnement
France
PAVLOVA, Tatyana
Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory
Russian Federation
PAYNE, Antony
University of Bristol
UK
PELTIER, W. Richard
Department of Physics,
University of Toronto
Canada
PENG, Tsung-Hung
Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
PENNER, Joyce E.
Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and
Space Sciences, University of Michigan
USA
PETERSON, Thomas
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Climatic Data Center
USA
PETOUKHOV, Vladimir
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
PEYLIN, Philippe
Laboratoire des Modélisation du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
PFISTER, Christian
University of Bern
Switzerland
PHILLIPS, Thomas
Program for Climate Model Diagnosis
and Intercomparison, Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory
USA
PIERCE, David
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
USA
PIPER, Stephen
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
USA
PITMAN, Andrew
Department of Physical Geography,
Macquarie University
Australia
PLANTON, Serge
Météo-France
France
963
Annex II
PLATTNER, Gian-Kasper
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
Switzerland
RÄISÄNEN, Jouni
Department of Physical Sciences,
University of Helsinki
Finland
PLUMMER, David
Environment Canada
Canada
RAMACHANDRAN, Srikanthan
Space & Atmospheric Sciences Division,
Physical Research Laboratory
India
POLLACK, Henry
University of Michigan
USA
PONATER, Michael
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Germany
POWER, Scott
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
Australia
PRATHER, Michael
Earth System Science Department,
University of California at Irvine
USA
RAMANKUTTY, Navin
University of Wisconsin, Madison
USA, India
RAMASWAMY, Venkatachalam
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
USA
RAMESH, Rengaswamy
Physical Research Laboratory
India
PRINN, Ronald
Department of Earth, Atmospheric
and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
USA, New Zealand
RANDALL, David A.
Department of Atmospheric Science,
Colorado State University
USA
PROSHUTINSKY, Andrey
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
USA
RAPER, Sarah C.B.
Manchester Metropolitan University
UK
PROWSE, Terry
Environment Canada, University of Victoria
Canada
RAUP, Bruce H.
National Snow and Ice Data
Center, University of Colorado
USA
QIN, Dahe
Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, China
Meteorological Administration
China
QIU, Bo
University of Hawaii
USA
QUAAS, Johannes
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
Germany
QUADFASEL, Detlef
Institut für Meereskunde, Centre for Marine
and Atmospheric Sciences Hamburg
Germany
RAGA, Graciela
Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera,
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico
Mexico, Argentina
RAHIMZADEH, Fatemeh
Atmospheric Science & Meteorological
Research Center (ASMERC), I.R. of Iran
Meteorological Organization (IRIMO)
Iran
RAHMSTORF, Stefan
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Germany
964
RAMANATHAN, Veerabhadran
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
USA
RAUPACH, Michael
CSIRO
Australia
RAYMOND, Charles
University of Washington, Department
of Earth and Space Sciences
USA
RAYNAUD, Dominique
Laboratoire de Glaciologie et
Géophysique de l’Environnement
France
RAYNER, Peter
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France
REHDER, Gregor
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften
an der Universitat Kiel and Institut
fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde
Germany
REID, George
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
REN, Jiawen
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental
and Engineering Research Institute,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
China
RENSSEN, Hans
Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences,
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
Netherlands
RENWICK, James A.
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
New Zealand
RIEBESELL, Ulf
Leibniz Institute for Marine
Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR
Germany
RIGNOT, Eric
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
USA
RIGOR, Ignatius
Polar Science Center, Applied Physics
Laboratory, University of Washington
USA
RIND, David
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
USA
RINKE, Annette
Alfred Wegener Institute for
Polar and Marine Research
Germany
RINTOUL, Stephen
CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric
Research and Antarctic Climate and
Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre
Australia
RIXEN, Michel
University of Liege and NATO
Undersea Research Center
NATO, Belgium
RIZZOLI, Paola
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
USA, Italy
ROBERTS, Malcolm
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
ROBERTSON, Franklin R.
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
USA
ROBINSON, David
Rutgers University
USA
RÖDENBECK, Christian
Max Planck Institute for
Biogeochemistry Jena
Germany
Annex II
ROECKNER, Erich
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
Germany
ROSATI, Anthony
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
ROSENLOF, Karen
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
ROTHROCK, David
University of Washington
USA
ROTSTAYN, Leon
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
ROULET, Nigel
McGill University
Canada
RUMMUKAINEN, Markku
Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological
and Hydrological Institute
Sweden, Finland
RUSSELL, Gary L.
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
USA
RUSTICUCCI, Matilde
Departamento de Ciencias de la
Atmósfera y los Océanos, FCEN,
Universidad de Buenos Aires
Argentina
SCHERRER, Simon Christian
Federal Office of Meteorology
and Climatology MeteoSwiss
Switzerland
SHEPHERD, J. Marshall
University of Georgia,
Department of Geography
USA
SCHMIDT, Gavin
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
USA, UK
SHEPHERD, Theodore G.
University of Toronto
Canada
SCHMITTNER, Andreas
College of Oceanic and Atmospheric
Sciences, Oregon State University
USA, Germany
SCHNEIDER, Birgit
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften
Germany
SCHOTT, Friedrich
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften,
IFM-GEOMAR
Germany
SCHULTZ , Martin G.
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
Germany
SCHULZ, Michael
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ
France, Germany
SCHWARTZ, Stephen E.
Brookhaven National Laboratory
USA
SCHWARZKOPF, Dan
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
SABINE, Christopher
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory
USA
SCINOCCA, John
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada
Canada
SAHAGIAN, Dork
Lehigh University
USA
SEIDOV, Dan
Pennsylvania State University
USA
SALAS Y MÉLIA, David
Météo-France, Centre National de
Recherches Météorologiques
France
SEMAZZI, Fred H.
North Carolina State University
USA
SANTER, Ben D.
Program for Climate Model Diagnosis
and Intercomparison, Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory
USA
SARR, Abdoulaye
Service Météorologique, DMN Sénégal
Senegal
SAUSEN, Robert
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Germany
SCHÄR, Christoph
ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric
and Climate Science
Switzerland
SENIOR, Catherine
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
SEXTON, David
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
SHEA, Dennis
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
SHEPHERD, Andrew
School of Geosciences, The
University of Ediburgh
UK
SHERWOOD, Steven
Yale University
USA
SHUKLA, Jagadish
Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere
Studies, George Mason University
USA
SHUM, C.K.
Geodetic Science, School of Earth
Sciences, The Ohio State University
USA
SIEGMUND, Peter
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
Netherlands
SILVA DIAS, Pedro Leite da
Universidade de Sao Paulo
Brazil
SIMMONDS, Ian
University of Melbourne
Australia
SIMMONS, Adrian
European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasts
ECMWF, UK
SIROCKO, Frank
University of Mainz
Germany
SLATER, Andrew G.
Cooperative Institute for Research
in Environmental Sciences,
University of Colorado, Boulder
USA, Australia
SLINGO, Julia
National Centre for Atmospheric
Science, University of Reading
UK
SMITH, Doug
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
SMITH, Sharon
Geological Survey of Canada,
Natural Resources Canada
Canada
SODEN, Brian
University of Miami, Rosentiel School
for Marine and Atmospheric Science
USA
SOKOLOV, Andrei
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
USA, Russian Federation
965
Annex II
SOLANKI, Sami K.
Max Planck Institute for
Solar System Research
Germany, Switzerland
STOCKER, Thomas F.
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
Switzerland
SOLOMINA, Olga
Institute of Geography RAS
Russian Federation
STONE, Daíthí A.
University of Oxford
UK, Canada
SOLOMON, Susan
Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration,
Earth System Research Laboratory
USA
STOTT, Lowell D.
Department of Earth Sciences,
University of Southern California
USA
SOMERVILLE, Richard
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
USA
SOMOT, Samuel
Météo-France, Centre National de
Recherches Météorologiques
France
SONG, Yuhe
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
USA
SPAHNI, Renato
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
Switzerland
SRINIVASAN, Jayaraman
Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic
Sciences, Indian Institute of Science
India
STAINFORTH, David
Atmospheric, Oceanic and
Planetary Physics, Department of
Physics, University of Oxford
UK
STAMMER, Detlef
Institut fuer Meereskunde Zentrum
fuer Meeres und Klimaforschung
Universitaet Hamburg
Germany
STOUFFER, Ronald J.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
USA
STUBER, Nicola
Department of Meteorology,
University of Reading
UK, Germany
SUDO, Kengo
Nagoya University
Japan
SUGA, Toshio
Tohoku University
Japan
SUMI, Akimasa
Center for Climate System
Research, University of Tokyo
Japan
SUPPIAH, Ramasamy
CSIRO
Australia
SWEENEY, Colm
Princeton University
USA
TENG, Haiyan
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA, China
TENNANT, Warren
South African Weather Service
South Africa
TERRAY, Laurent
Eoropean Centre for Research and Advanced
Training in Scientific Computation
France
TETT, Simon
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
TEXTOR, Christiane
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
France, Germany
THOMAS, Robert H.
EG&G Technical Services, Inc. and
Centro de Estudios Cientificos (CECS)
USA, Chile
THOMPSON, Lonnie
Ohio State University
USA
THORNCROFT, Chris
Department of Earth and Atmospheric
Science, University at Albany, SUNY
USA, UK
THORNE, Peter
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
TIAN, Yuhong
Georgia Institute of Technology
USA, China
TRENBERTH, Kevin E.
Climate Analysis Section, National
Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
STANIFORTH, Andrew
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
TADROSS, Mark
Climate Systems Analysis Group,
University of Cape Town
South Africa
STARK, Sheila
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
TAKEMURA, Toshihiko
Research Institute for Applied
Mechanics, Kyushu University
Japan
TSELIOUDIS, George
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard Institute for
Space Studies, Columbia University
USA, Greece
STEFFEN, Will
Australian National University
Australia
TALLEY, Lynne D.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
USA
TSIMPLIS, Michael
National Oceanography Centre,
University of Southampton
UK, Greece
TAMISIEA, Mark
Harvard-Smithsonian Center
for Astrophysics
USA
UNNIKRISHNAN, Alakkat S.
National Institute of Oceanography
India
STENCHIKOV, Georgiy
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
USA
STERN, William
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
STEVENSON, David
University of Edinburgh
UK
966
STOTT, Peter A.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
TEBALDI, Claudia
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
TAYLOR, Karl E.
Program for Climate Model Diagnosis
and Intercomparison, Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory
USA
UPPALA, Sakari
European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasts
ECMWF
Annex II
VAN DE WAL, Roderik Sylvester Willo
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric
Research, Utrecht University
Netherlands
VAN DORLAND, Robert
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
Netherlands
VAN NOIJE, Twan
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
Netherlands
VAUGHAN, David
British Antarctic Survey
UK
VILLALBA, Ricardo
Departmento de Dendrocronología e
Historia Ambiental, Instituto Argentino
de Novologia, Glaciologia y Ciencias
Ambientales (IANIGLA - CRICYT)
Argentina
VOLODIN, Evgeny M.
Institute of Numerical Mathematics
of Russian Academy of Sciences
Russian Federation
VOSE, Russell
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Climatic Data Center
USA
WAELBROECK, Claire
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat
et de l’Environnement, CNRS
France
WALSH, John
University of Alaska
USA
WANG, Bin
National Key Laboratory of Numerical
Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences
and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics,
institute of Atmospheric Physics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
China
WANG, Bin
University of Hawaii
USA
WANG, Minghuai
Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and
Space Sciences, University of Michigan
USA
WANG, Ray
Georgia Institute of Technology
USA
WANNINKHOF, Rik
Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
WARREN, Stephen
University of Washington
USA
WILES, Gregory
The College of Wooster
USA
WASHINGTON, Richard
UK, South Africa
WILLEBRAND, Jürgen
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften
an der Universität Kiel
Germany
WATTERSON, Ian G.
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
WEAVER, Andrew J.
School of Earth and Ocean
Sciences, University of Victoria
Canada
WEBB, Mark
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
WEISHEIMER, Antje
European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasting and
Free University, Berlin
ECMWF, Germany
WEISS, Ray
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
USA
WHEELER, Matthew
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
Australia
WHETTON, Penny
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Australia
WHORF, Tim
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
USA
WIDMANN, Martin
GKSS Research Centre, Geesthacht
and School of Geography, Earth
and Envrionmental Sciences,
University of Birmingham
Germany, UK
WIELICKI, Bruce
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Langley Research Center
USA
WIGLEY, Tom M.L.
National Center for Atmospheric Research
USA
WILBY, Rob
Environment Agency of England and Wales
UK
WILD, Martin
ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric
and Climate Sciencce
Switzerland
WILD, Oliver
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
Japan, UK
WILLIS, Josh
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
USA
WOFSY, Steven C.
Division of Engineering and Applied
Science, Harvard University
USA
WONG, A.P.S.
School of Oceanography,
University of Washington
USA, Australia
WONG, Takmeng
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Langley Research Center
USA
WOOD, Richard A.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
UK
WOODWORTH, Philip
Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory
UK
WORBY, Anthony
Australian Antarctic Division and
Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems
Cooperative Research Centre
Australia
WRATT, David
National Climate Centre, National Institute
of Water and Atmospheric Research
New Zealand
WUERTZ, David
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Climatic Data Center
USA
WYMAN, Bruce L.
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USA
XU, Li
Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and
Space Sciences, University of Michigan
USA, China
YAMADA, Tomomi
Japanese Society of Snow and Ice
Japan
YASHAYAEV, Igor
Maritimes Region of the Department
of Fisheries and Oceans
Canada
YASUDA, Ichiro
University of Tokyo
Japan
967
Annex II
YOSHIMURA, Jun
Meteorological Research Institute
Japan
YU, Rucong
China Meteorological Administration
China
YUKIMOTO, Seiji
Meteorological Research Institute
Japan
ZACHOS, James
University of California, Santa Cruz
USA
ZHAI, Panmao
National Climate Center, China
Meteorological Administration
China
ZHANG, De’er
National Climate Center, China
Meteorological Administration
China
ZHANG, Tingjun
National Snow and Ice Data Center, CIRES,
University of Colorado at Boulder
USA, China
ZHANG, Xiaoye
Chinese Academy of Meteorological
Sciences, Centre for Atmophere
Watch & Services
China
ZHANG, Xuebin
Climate Research Division,
Environment Canada
Canada
ZHAO, Lin
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental
and Engineering Research Institute,
Chinese Academy of Science
China
ZHAO, Zong-Ci
National Climate Center, China
Meteorological Administration
China
ZHENGTENG, Guo
Institute of Geology and Geophysics,
Chinese Academy of Science
China
ZHOU, Liming
Georgia Institute of Technology
USA, China
ZORITA, Eduardo
Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht
Germany, Spain
ZWIERS, Francis
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada
Canada
968
Annex III
Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report
Algeria
AMAR, Matari
IHFR, Oran
MATARI, Amar
IHFR, Oran
MOISE, Aurel
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
Belgium
NICHOLLS, Neville
Monash University
BERGER, André
Université catholique de Louvain,
Institut d’Astronomie et de
Géophysique G. Lemaitre
PITMAN, Andrew
Department of Physical Geography,
Macquarie University
DE BACKER, Hugo
Royal Meteorological Institute
Australia
CAI, Wenju
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
CHURCH, John
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric
Research and Ecosystems
Cooperative Research Centre
COLMAN, Robert
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
ENTING, Ian
University of Melbourne
GIFFORD, Roger
CSIRO Plant Industry
HIRST, Anthony
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
HOBBINS, Michael
Australian National University
HOWARD, William
Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems
Cooperative Research Centre
HUNTER, John
Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems
Cooperative Research Centre
RAUPACH, Michael
CSIRO
GOOSSE, Hugues
Université catholique de Louvain
RINTOUL, Stephen
CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric
Research and Antarctic Climate and
Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre
JANSSENS, Ivan A.
University of Antwerp
RODERICK, Michael
Australian National University
LOUTRE, Marie-France
Université catholique de Louvain,
Institut d’Astronomie et de
Géophysique G. Lemaitre
ROTSTAYN, Leon
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
VAN LIPZIG, Nicole
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
SIEMS, Steven
Monash University
Benin
SIMMONDS, Ian
University of Melbourne
BOKO, Michel
Universite de Bourgogne
TREWIN, Blair
National Climate Centre,
Bureau of Meteorology
GUENDEHOU, G. H. Sabin
Benin Centre for Scientific
and Technical Review
VAN OMMEN, Tas
Australian Antarctic Division
VISSIN, Expédit Wilfrid
LECREDE/DGAT/FLASH/
Université d’Abomey-Calavi
WALSH, Kevin
School of Earth Sciences,
University of Melbourne
YABI, Ibouraïma
Laboratoire de Climatologie/DGAT/UAC
WATKINS, Andrew
National Cliamte Centre,
Bureau of Meteorology
Brazil
KININMONTH, William
WHEELER, Matthew
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
LYNCH, Amanda H.
School of Geography and Environmental
Science, Monash University
WHITE, Neil
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
CARDIA SIMÕES, Jefferson
Departamento de Geografia, Instituto
de Geociências, Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
MANTON, Michael
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
Austria
MCAVANEY, Bryant
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
BÖHM, Reinhard
Central Institute for Meteorology
and Geodynamics
MARENGO ORSINI, Jose Antonio
CPTEC/INPE
KIRCHENGAST, Gottfried
University of Graz
Canada
JONES, Roger
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
MCDOUGALL, Trevor
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
MCGREGOR, John
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
MCNEIL, Ben
University of New South Wales
O’NEILL, Brian
IIASA and Brown University
RADUNSKY, Klaus
Umweltbundesamt
GOMES, Marcos S.P.
Department of Mechanical
Research, Pontifical Catholic
University of Rio de Janeiro
BELTRAMI, Hugo
St. Francis Xavier University
BROWN, Ross
Environment Canada
Expert reviewers are listed by country. Experts from international organizations are listed at the end.
969
Annex III
CAYA, Daniel
Consortium Ouranos
CHYLEK, Petr
Dalhousie University, Departments
of Physics and Oceanography
CLARKE, Garry
Earth and Ocean Sciences,
University of British Columbia
WANG, Shusen
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing,
Natural Resources Canada
WANG, Xiaolan L.
Climate Research Branch,
Meteorological Service of Canada
ZWIERS, Francis
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling
and Analysis, Environment Canada
CLARKE, R. Allyn
Bedford Institute of Oceanography
YU, Rucong
China Meteorological Administration
ZHAO, Zong-Ci
National Climate Center, China
Meteorological Administration
ZHOU, Tianjun
Institute of Atmospheric Physics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Denmark
Chile
CULLEN, John
Dalhousie University
DERKSEN, Chris
Climate Research Branch,
Meteorological Service of Canada
ACEITUNO, Patricio
Department Geophysics,
Universidad de Chile
GLEISNER, Hans
Atmosphere Space Research
Division, Danish Met. Institute
STENDEL, Martin
Danish Meteorological Institute
China
FERNANDES, Richard
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing,
Natural Resources Canada
FORBES, Donald L.
Natural Resources Canada,
Geological Survey of Canada
CHAN, Johnny
City University of Hong Kong
FREELAND, Howard
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
DONG, Zhaoqian
Polar Research Institute of China
GARRETT, Chris
University of Victoria
GONG, Dao-Yi
College of Resources Science and
Technology, Beijing Normal University
HARVEY, Danny
University of Toronto
ISAAC, George
Environment Canada
JAMES, Thomas
Geological Survey of Canada,
Natural Resources Canada
LEWIS, C.F. Michael
Geological Survey of Canada,
Natural Resources Canada
MACDONALD, Robie
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
MATTHEWS, H. Damon
University of Calgary and
Concordia University
MCINTYRE, Stephen
University of Toronto
MCKITRICK, Ross
University of Guelph
PELTIER, Wm. Richard
Department of Physics,
University of Toronto
SAVARD, Martine M.
Geological Survey of Canada,
Natural Resources Canada
SMITH, Sharon
Geological Survey of Canada,
Natural Resources Canada
TRISHCHENKO, Alexander P.
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing,
Natural Resources Canada
970
CAI, Zucong
Institute of Soil Science, Chinese
Academy of Sciences
Egypt
EL-SHAHAWY, Mohamed
Cairo University, Egyptian
Environmemntal Affairs Agency
Estonia
JAAGUS, Jaak
University of Tartu
Fiji
GUO, Xueliang
Institute of Atmospheric Physics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
LAL, Murari
University of the South Pacific
LAM, Chiu-Ying
Hong Kong Observatory
Finland
REN, Guoyu
National Climate Center, China
Meteorological Administration
SHI, Guang-yu
Institute of Atmospheric Physics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
SU, Jilan
Lab of Ocean Dynamic Processes and
Satellite Oceanography,Second Institute of
Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration
SUN, Junying
Centre for Atmosphere Watch and
Services, Chinese Academy of
Meteorological Sciences, CMA
WANG, Dongxiao
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
WANG, Mingxing
Institute of Atmospheric Physics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
XIE, Zhenghui
Institute of Atmospheric Physics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
XU, Xiaobin
Chinese Academy of
Meteorological Sciences
CARTER, Timothy
Finnish Environment Institute
KORTELAINEN , Pirkko
Finnish Environment Institute
KULMALA, Markku
University of Helsinki
LAAKSONEN, Ari
University of Kuopio
MÄKIPÄÄ, Raisa
Finnish Forest Research Institute
RÄISÄNEN, Jouni
Department of Physical Sciences,
University of Helsinki
SAVOLAINEN, Ilkka
Technical Research Centre of Finland
France
BONY, Sandrine
Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique,
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace
BOUSQUET, Philippe
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
Annex III
BRACONNOT, Pascale
Pascale Braconnot Institu Pierre Simon
Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences
du Climat et de l’Environnement
CAZENAVE, Anny
Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et
Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), CNES
CLERBAUX, Cathy
Centre National de Recherche Scientifique
CORTIJO, Elsa
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement, CNRS-CEA-UVSQ
DELECLUSE, Pascale
CEA, CNRS
DÉQUÉ, Michel
Météo-France
DUFRESNE, Jean-Louis
Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique,
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace
FRIEDLINGSTEIN, Pierre
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
GENTHON, Christophe
Centre National de Recherche
Scientifique, Laboratoire de Glaciologie
et Géophysique de l’Environnement
GUILYARDI, Eric
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
GUIOT, Joel
CEREGE, Centre National de
Recherche Scientifique
HAUGLUSTAINE, Didier
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ
JOUSSAUME, Sylvie
Centre National de Recherche Scientifique
KANDEL, Robert
Laboratoire de Météorologie
Dynamique, Ecole Polytechnique
KHODRI, Myriam
Institut de Recherche Pour
le Developpement
LABEYRIE, Laurent
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
MARTIN, Eric
Météo-France
MOISSELIN, Jean-Marc
Météo-France
PAILLARD, Didier
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
PETIT, Michel
CGTI
PLANTON, Serge
Météo-France
RAMSTEIN, Gilles
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
SCHULZ, Michael
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ
HELD, Hermann
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
HOFZUMAHAUS, Andreas
Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institut
für Chemie und Dynamik der
Geosphäre II: Troposphäre
SEGUIN, Bernard
INRA
KOPPMANN, Ralf
Institut für Chemie und Dynamik
der Geosphaere, Institut II:
Troposphaere, Forschungszentrum
Juelich, Juelich, Germany
TEXTOR, Christiane
Laboratoire des Sciences du
Climat et de l’Environnement
LATIF, Mojib
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften,
IFM-GEOMAR
WAELBROECK, Claire
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace,
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat
et de l’Environnement, CNRS
LAWRENCE, Mark
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
Germany
LEVERMANN, Anders
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
BANGE, Hermann W.
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften,
IFM-GEOMAR
BAUER, Eva
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
BECK, Christoph
Global Precipitation Climatology Centre
BROVKIN, Victor
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
CHURKINA, Galina
Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry
LELIEVELD, Jos
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
LINGNER, Stephan
Europäische Akademie Bad
Neuenahr-Ahrweiler GmbH
LUCHT, Wolfgang
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
MAROTZKE, Jochem
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
MATA, Louis Jose
Center for Development Research,
University of Bonn
COTRIM DA CUNHA, Leticia
Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie
MEINSHAUSEN, Malte
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
DOTZEK, Nikolai
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
MICHAELOWA, Axel
Hamburg Institute of
International Economics
FEICHTER, Johann
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
MÜLLER, Rolf
Research Centre Jülich
GANOPOLSKI, Andrey
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
RAHMSTORF, Stefan
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
GIORGETTA, Marco A.
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
RHEIN, Monika
Institute for Environmental
Physics, University Bremen
GRASSL, Hartmut
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
GREWE, Volker
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
GRIESER, Jürgen
Deutscher Wetterdienst, Global
Precipitatioin Climatology Centre
HARE, William
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
SAUSEN, Robert
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt,
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
SCHOENWIESE, Christian-D.
University Frankfurt a.M., Institute
for Atmosphere and Environment
SCHOTT, Friedrich
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften,
IFM-GEOMAR
971
Annex III
SCHULZ, Michael
University of Bremen
Italy
SCHÜTZENMEISTER, Falk
Technische Universität Dresden,
Institut für Soziologie
ARTALE, Vincenzo
Italian National Agency for
New Technologies, Energy and
the Environment (ENEA)
STAMMER, Detlef
Institut fuer Meereskunde Zentrum
fuer Meeres und Klimaforschung
Universitaet Hamburg
BALDI, Marina
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
(CNR), Inst of Biometeorology
TEGEN, Ina
Institute for Tropospheric Research
BERGAMASCHI, Peter
European Commission, Joint
Research Centre, Institute for
Environment and Sustainability
VÖLKER, Christoph
Alfred Wegener Institute for
Polar and Marine Research
WEFER, Gerold
University of Bremen, Research
Center Ocean Margins
WURZLER, Sabine
North Rhine-Westphalia State
Environment Agency
ZENK, Walter
Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften,
IFM-GEOMAR
CAMPOSTRINI, Pierpaolo
CORILA
COLOMBO, Tiziano
Italian Met Service
CORTI, Susanna
Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera
e del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)
VAN DINGENEN, Rita
European Commission, Joint
Research Centre, Institute for
Environment and Sustainability
VIGNUDELLI, Stefano
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
(CNR), Istituto di Biofisica
Japan
ALEXANDROV, Georgii
National Institute for Environmental Studies
ANNAN, James
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
AOKI, Teruo
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
AWAJI, Toshiyuki
Kyoto University
DESIATO, Franco
Agenzia per la protezione dell’ambiente
e per i servizi tecnici (APAT)
EMORI, Seita
National Institute for Environmental
Studies and Frontier Research Center
for Global Change, Japan Agency for
Marine-Earth Science and Technology
Hungary
DI SARRA, Alcide
Italian National Agency for
New Technologies, Energy and
the Environment (ENEA)
HARGREAVES, Julia
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
ZAGONI, Miklos
Budapest University
DRAGONI, Walter
Perugia University
HAYASAKA, Tadahiro
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
India
ETIOPE, Giuseppe
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e
Vulcanologia
IKEDA, Motoyoshi
Hokkaido University
ZOLINA, Olga
Meteorologisches Institut
der Universität Bonn
ZORITA, Eduardo
Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht
SRIKANTHAN, Ramachandran
Physical Research Laboratory
TULKENS, Philippe
The Energy and Research Institute (TERI)
Iran
FACCHINI, Maria Cristina
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)
GIORGI, Filippo
Abdus Salam International Centre
for Theoretical Physics
ITOH, Kiminori
Yokohama National University
KAWAMIYA, Michio
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
LIONELLO, Piero
Univ. of Lecce, Dept.”Scienza dei materiali”
KIMOTO, Masahide
Center for Climate System
Research, University of Tokyo
Ireland
MARIOTTI, Annarita
Italian National Agency for New
Technologies, Energy and the Environment
(ENEA) and Earth System Science
Interdisciplinary Center (ESSIC-USA)
KITOH, Akio
First Research Laboratory, Climate Research
Department, Meteorological Research
Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency
FEALY, Rowan
National University of Ireland, Maynooth
MOSETTI, Renzo
OGS
KOBAYASHI, Shigeki
TRDL
SWEENEY, John
National University of Ireland, Maynooth
NANNI, Teresa
Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera e
del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)
KONDO, Hiroki
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
RUTI, Paolo Michele
Italian National Agency for New
Technologies, Energy and the Environment
MAKI, Takashi
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
RAHIMZADEH, Fatemeh
Atmospheric Science & Meteorological
Research Center (ASMERC), I.R. of Iran
Meteorological Organization (IRIMO)
972
BRUNETTI, Michele
Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera
e del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)
SANTINELLI, Chiara
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)
Annex III
MAKSYUTOV, Shamil
National Institute for Environmental
Studies
YAMAMOTO, Susumu
Graduate School of Environmental
Science, Okayama University
HAZELEGER, Wilco
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
MARUYAMA, Koki
CRIEPI
YAMANOUCHI, Takashi
National Institute of Polar Research
HOLTSLAG, Albert A. M.
Wageningen University
MATSUNO, Taroh
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
YAMASAKI, Masanori
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth
Science and Technology
KROON, Dick
Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
MIKAMI, Masao
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
YAMAZAKI, Koji
Graduate School of Environmental
Science, Hokkaido University
MIKAMI, Takehiko
Tokyo Metropolitan University
YOKOYAMA, Yusuke
Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, University of Tokyo
NAKAJIMA, Teruyuki
Center for Climate System
Research, University of Tokyo
TSUTSUMI, Yukitomo
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
NAKAWO, Masayoshi
Research Institute for Humanity and
Nature
NODA, Akira
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
OHATO, Tetsuo
JAMSTEC
ONO, Tsuneo
Hokkaido National Fisheries Research
Institute, Fisheries Research Agency
SASAKI, Hidetaka
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
SATO, Yasuo
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
SEKIYA, Akira
National Institute of Advanced Industrial
Science and Technology (AIST)
SHINODA, Masato
Tottori University, Arid Land
Research Center
SUGA, Toshio
Tohoku University
SUGI, Masato
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
TOKIOKA, Tatsushi
Frontier Research Center for Global
Change, Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology
TOKUHASHI, Kazuaki
National Institute of Advanced Industrial
Science and Technology (AIST)
SIEGMUND, Peter
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
STERL, Andreas
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
VAN AKEN, Hendrik M.
Royal Netherlands Institute for
Sea Research (NIOZ)
Republic of Korea
VAN DE WAL, Roderik Sylvester Willo
Institute for Marine and Atmospheric
Research, Utrecht University
KIM, Kyung-Ryul
Seoul National University, School of
Earth and Environmental Services
VAN DEN HURK, Bart
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
Mexico
VAN NOIJE, Twan
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
LLUCH-BELDA, Daniel
Centro Interdisciplinario de
Ciencias Marinas del IPN
Mozambique
QUEFACE, Antonio Joaquim
Physics Department, Eduardo
Mondlane University
Netherlands,
Antilles and Aruba
VAN VELTHOVEN, Peter
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
VANDENBERGHE, Jef
Vrije Universiteit, Inst. of Earth Sciences
VEEFKIND, Pepijn
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
VELDERS, Guus J.M.
Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency (MNP)
MARTIS, Albert
Climate Research Center, Meteorological
Service Netherlands, Antilles & Aruba
New Zealand
Netherlands
ALLOWAY, Brent
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
BAEDE, Alphonsus
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI) and Ministry of Housing,
Spatial Planning and the Environment
BURGERS, Gerrit
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
DE BRUIN, Henk
Meteorology and Air Quality
Group, Wageningen University
DE WIT, Florens
TSUSHIMA, Yoko
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth
Science and Technology
DILLINGH, Douwe
National Institute for Coastal and
Marine Management / RIKZ
UCHIYAMA, Akihiro
Meteorological Research Institute,
Japan Meteorological Agency
HAARSMA, Reindert
Royal Netherlands Meteorological
Institute (KNMI)
BARRETT, Peter
Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria
University of Wellington
BODEKER, Greg
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
BOWEN, Melissa
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
CRAMPTON, James
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
GRAY, Vincent
Climate Consultant
LASSEY, Keith
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
973
Annex III
LAW, Cliff
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
MACLAREN, Piers
NZ Forest Research Institute
MULLAN, A. Brett
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
Romania
BOJARIU, Roxana
National Institute of Meteorology
and Hydrology (NIMH)
BORONEANT, Constanta-Emilia
National Meteorological Administration
KJELLSTRÖM, Erik
Swedish Meteorological and
Hydrological Institute
LECK, Caroline
Department of Metorology,
Stockholm University
BUSUIOC, Aristita
National Meteorological Administration
RUMM AINEN, Markku
Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological
and Hydrological Institute
MARES, Constantin
Romanian Academy, Geodynamics Institute
Switzerland
RENWICK, James A.
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
MARES, Ileana
Romanian Academy of Technical Studies
APPENZELLER, Christof
Federal Office of Meteorology
and Climatology MeteoSwiss
SALINGER, M. James
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
Russian Federation
BLUNIER, Thomas
Climate and Environmental
Physics, University of Bern
NODDER, Scott
National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research
SHULMEISTER, James
University of Canterbury
MELESHKO, Valentin
Voeykov Main Geophysical Observatory
BRÖNNIMANN, Stefan
ETH Zürich
Slovakia
WILLIAMS, Paul W.
Auckland University
WRATT, David
National Climate Centre, National Institute
of Water and Atmospheric Research
Norway
BENESTAD, Rasmus
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
FUGLESTVEDT, Jan
Centre for International Climate and
Environmantal Research (CICERO)
GODAL, Odd
Department of Economics,
University of Bergen
LAPIN, Milan
Slovak National Climate Program
AGUILAR, Enric
Climate Change Research Group,
Universitat Rovira i Virgili de Tarragona
BLADÉ, Ileana
Department of Astronomy and
Meteorology. University of Barcelona
BRUNET, Manola
University Rovira i Virgili
CALVO COSTA , Eva
Institut de Ciències del Mar
GARCÍA-HERRERA, Ricardo
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
ISAKSEN, Ketil
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
GONZÁLEZ-ROUCO, Jesus Fidel
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
JOHANNESSEN, Ola M.
Nansen Environmental and
Remote Sensing Center
LAVIN, Alicia M.
Instituto Espanol de Oceanografia
KRISTJÁNSSON , Jón Egill
University of Oslo
MARTIN-VIDE, Javier
Physical Geography of the
University of Barcelona
PAASCHE, Øyvind
Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
Peru
GAMBOA, Nadia
Pontificia Universidad Carolica del Pero
MONTOYA, Marisa
Dpto. Astrofisica y Fisica de la
Atmosfera, Facultad de Ciencias Fisicas,
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
PELEJERO, Carles
Institut de Ciències del Mar, CMIMA-CSIC
RIBERA, Pedro
Universidad Pablo de Olavide
Sweden
HOLMLUND, Per
Stockholm University
974
CHERUBINI, Paolo
Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL
Spain
HANSSEN-BAUER, Inger
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
NESJE, Atle
Department of Earth Science,
University of Bergen
CASTY, Carlo
Climate and Environmental Physics
ESPER, Jan
Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL
FREI, Christoph
Federal Office of Meteorology
and Climatology MeteoSwiss
GHOSH, Sucharita
Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL
HAEBERLI, Wilfried
Geography Department,
University of Zürich
JOOS, Fortunat
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
KNUTTI, Reto
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
LUTERBACHER, Jürg
Institute of Geography, Climatology
and Meteorology, and National
Centre of Competence in Research
on Climate, University of Bern
MARCOLLI, Claudia
ETH Zürich, Institute for
Atmosphere and Climate
PETER, Thomas
ETH Zürich
PHILIPONA, Rolf
Observatory Davos
PLATTNER, Gian-Kasper
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
RAIBLE, C. Christoph
Climate and Environmental
Physics, University of Bern
Annex III
REBETEZ, Martine
Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL
ROSSI, Michel J.
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne, Laboratoire de Pollution
Atmosphérique et Sol
ROZANOV, Eugene
IAC ETHZ and PMOD/WRC
BODAS-SALCEDO, Alejandro
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
BOUCHER, Olivier
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
BROWN, Simon
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
SCHÄR, Christoph
ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric
and Climate Science
BRYDEN, Harry
University of Southampton
SIDDALL, Mark
Climate and Environmental
Physics, University of Bern
CAESAR, John
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
SPAHNI, Renato
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
CARSLAW, Kenneth
University of Leeds
STAEHELIN, Johannes
ETH Zürich
COLLINS, Matthew
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
STOCKER, Thomas F.
Climate and Environmental Physics,
Physics Institute, University of Bern
COLLINS, William
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
WANNER, Heinz
National Centre of Competence in
Research on Climate, University of Bern
CONNOLLEY, William
British Antarctic Survey
WILD, Martin
ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric
and Climate Sciencce
HAIGH, Joanna
Imperial College London
HARANGOZO, Steve
British Antarctic Survey
HAWKINS, Stephen J.
The Marine Biological
Association of the UK
HIGHWOOD, Eleanor
University of Reading
HINDMARSH, Richard
British Antarctic Survey
HOSKINS, Brian J.
Department of Meteorology,
University of Reading
HOUSE, Joanna
Quantifying and Understanding the Earth
System Programme, University of Bristol
INGRAM, William
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
JOHNS, Timothy
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
COURTNEY, Richard S.
European Science and Environment Forum
JONES, Christopher
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
CRUCIFIX, Michel
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
JONES, Gareth S.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
FALLOON, Pete
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
JONES, Philip D.
Climatic Research Unit, School
of Environmental Sciences,
University of East Anglia
Thailand
GARIVAIT, Savitri
The Joint Graduate School of Energy
and Environment, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi
LIMMEECHOKCHAI, Bundit
Sirindhorn International Institute of
Technology, Thammasat Univ.
FOLLAND, Christopher
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
FORSTER, Piers
School of Earth and Environment,
University of Leeds
JOSEY, Simon
National Oceanography Centre,
University of Southampton
KING, John
British Antarctic Survey
Togo
AJAVON, Ayite-Lo N.
Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratory
UK
ALEXANDER, Lisa
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
ALLAN, Richard
Environmental Systems Science
Centre, University of Reading
BANKS, Helene
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
BETTS, Richard A.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
FOWLER, Hayley
Newcastle University
GEDNEY, Nicola
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
GILLETT, Nathan P.
Climatic Research Unit, School
of Environmental Sciences,
University of East Anglia
GRAY, Lesley
Reading University
GREGORY, Jonathan M.
Department of Meteorology, University of
Reading and Hadley Centre for Climate
Prediction and Research, Met Office
GRIGGS, David
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
LE QUÉRÉ, Corrine
University of East Anglia and
British Antarctic Survey
LEE, David
Manchester Metropolitan University
LOWE, Jason
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
MARSH, Robert
National Oceanography Centre,
University of Southampton
MARTIN, Gill
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
MCCARTHY, Mark
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
975
Annex III
MCDONALD, Ruth
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
STARK, Sheila
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
ANDERSON, David M.
National Center for Atmospheric
Research, Paleoclimatology
MITCHELL, John
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
STEPHENSON, David
Department of Meteorology,
University of Reading
STONE, Daíthí A.
University of Oxford
ANDERSON, Theodore
University of Washington
MURPHY, James
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
NICHOLLS, Robert
School of Civil Engineering and the
Environment, University of Southampton
PARKER, David
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
PRENTICE, Iain Colin
Quantifying and Understanding the Earth
System Programme, Department of
Earth Sciences, University of Bristol
THORNE, Peter
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
TSIMPLIS, Michael
National Oceanography Centre,
University of Southampton
TURNER, John
British Antarctic Survey
RAPER, Sarah
Manchester Metropolitan University
VAUGHAN, David
British Antarctic Survey
RAYNER, Nick
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
VELLINGA, Michael
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
REISINGER, Andy
IPCC Synthesis Report TSU
WASDELL, David
Meridian Programme
RIDLEY, Jeff
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
WILLIAMS, Keith
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
ROBERTS, C. Neil
University of Plymouth,
School of Geography
WOLFF, Eric
British Antarctic Survey
RODGER, Alan
British Antarctic Survey
WOOD, Richard A.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
ROSCOE, Howard
British Antarctic Survey
WOODWORTH, Philip
Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory
ROUGIER, Jonathan
Durham University
WU, Peili
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
ROWELL, Dave
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
SEXTON, David
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
USA
SMITH, Leonard A.
London School of Economics
SROKOSZ, Meric
National Oceanography Centre
ARRITT, Raymond
Iowa State University
AVERYT, Kristen
IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration,
Earth System Research Laboratory
BAER, Paul
Stanford University, Center for
Environmental Science and Policy
BAKER, Marcia
University of Washington
BARRY, Roger
National Snow and Ice Data
Center, University of Colorado
BATES, Timothy
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
BAUGHCUM, Steven
Boeing Company
BENTLEY, Charles R.
University of Wisconsin, Madison
BERNSTEIN, Lenny
International Petroleum Industry
Envirionmental Conservation Association
& L.S. Bernstein & Associates, LLC
BOND, Tami
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Uruguay
BIDEGAIN, Mario
Universidad de la Republica
SLINGO, Julia
National Centre for Atmospheric
Science, University of Reading
ANTHES, Richard
University Corporation for
Atmospheric Research
BROCCOLI, Anthony J.
Rutgers University
SENIOR, Catherine
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
SHINE, Keith
University of Reading
976
STOTT, Peter A.
Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction
and Research, Met Office
ANDERSON, Wilmer
University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Physics Department
ALEXANDER, Becky
University of Washington
ALEXANDER, Michael
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Climate Diagnostics
Brach, Pysical Science Division,
Earth System Research Lab
ALLEY, Richard B.
Department of Geosciences,
Pennsylvania State University
BROMWICH, David
Byrd Polar Research Center,
The Ohio State University
BROOKS, Harold
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National Severe
Storms Laboratory
BRYAN, Frank
National Center for Atmospheric Research
CAMERON-SMITH, Philip
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
CHIN, Mian
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Space Flight Center
Annex III
CHRISTY, John
University of Alabama in Huntsville
CLEMENS, Steven
Brown University
COFFEY, Michael
National Center for Atmospheric Research
COLLINS, William D.
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
CROWLEY, Thomas
Duke University
CUNNOLD, Derek
School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences,
Georgia Institute of Technology
DAI, Aiguo
National Center for Atmospheric Research
DANIEL, John S.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
DANILIN, Mikhail
The Boeing Company
D’ARRIGO, Rosanne
Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory
DAVIES, Roger
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology
DEL GENIO, Anthony
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
DIAZ, Henry
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Climate Diagnostics
Brach, Pysical Science Division,
Earth System Research Lab
EASTERLING, David
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
GORNITZ, Vivien
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard Institute for
Space Studies, Columbia University
EMANUEL, Kerry A.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
GROISMAN, Pavel
University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research at the National Climatic
Data Center, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
EVANS, Wayne F.J.
North West Research Associates
FAHEY, David W.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
FEELY, Richard
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory
FEINGOLD, Graham
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
FELDMAN, Howard
American Petroleum Institute
FEYNMAN, Joan
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology
FITZPATRICK, Melanie
University of Washington
FOGT, Ryan
Polar Meteorology Group, Byrd Polar
Research Center and Atmospheric
Sciences Program, Department of
geography, The Ohio State University
FREE, Melissa
Air Resources Laboratory, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
FU, Qiang
Department of Atmospheric Sciences,
University of Washington
DICKINSON, Robert E.
School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences,
Georgia Institute of Technology
GALLO, Kevin
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, NESDIS
DIXON, Keith
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
GARCIA, Hernan
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Oceanographic Data Center
GRUBER, Nicolas
Institute of Geophysics and Planetary
Physics, University of California,
Los Angeles and Department of
Environmental Sciences, ETH Zurich
GURWICK, Noel
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Department of Global Ecology
HAKKARINEN, Chuck
Electric Power Research Institute, retired
HALLEGATTE, Stéphane
Centre International de Recherche sur
l’Environnement et le Developpement,
Ecole Nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées
and Centre National de Recherches
Meteorologique, Meteo-France
HALLETT, John
Desert Research Institute
HAMILL, Patrick
San Jose State University
HARTMANN, Dennis
University of Washington
HAYHOE, Katharine
Texas Tech University
HEGERL, Gabriele
Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences,
Nicholas School for the Environment
and Earth Sciences, Duke University
HELD, Isaac
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
HEMMING, Sidney
Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory,
Columbia University
DONNER, Leo
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
GASSÓ, Santiago
University of Maryland, Baltimore
County and NASA
HOULTON, Benjamin
Stanford Unviersity, Dept. of Biological
Sciences; Carnegie Institution of
Washington, Dept. of Global Ecology
DOUGLAS, Bruce
International Hurricane Research Center
GENT, Peter
National Center for Atmospheric Research
HU, Aixue
National Center for Atmospheric Research
DOUGLASS, Anne
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Space Flight Center
GERHARD, Lee C.
Thomasson Partner Associates
HUGHES, Dan
Hughes and Associates
GHAN, Steven
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
ICHOKU, Charles
Science Systems & Applications,
Inc. (SSAI), NASA-GSFC
DUTTON, Ellsworth
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System Research
Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division
GNANADESIKAN, Anand
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
JACOB, Daniel
Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, Harvard University
977
Annex III
JACOBSON, Mark
Stanford University
JIN, Menglin
Department of Atmospheric and
Oceanic Sciences, University of
Maryland, College Park
JOYCE, Terrence
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
KARL, Thomas R.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National
Climatic Data Center
KAROLY, David J.
University of Oklahoma
KAUFMAN, Yoram
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Space Flight Center
KELLER, Klaus
Pennsylvania State University
KHESHGI, Haroon
ExxonMobil Research and
Engineering Company
KNUTSON, Thomas
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
LUPO, Anthony
University of Missouri, Columbia
MOLINARI, Robert
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic
and Meteorological Laboratory
MACCRACKEN, Michael
Climate Institute
MOTE, Philip
Climate Impacts Group, Joint Institute for
the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans
(JIASO), University of Washington
MAGI, Brian
University of Washington
MAHLMAN, Jerry
National Center for Atmospheric Research
MURPHY, Daniel
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
MAHOWALD, Natalie
National Center for Atmospheric Research
MUSCHELER, Raimund
Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology
Center, University of Maryland &
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center,
Climate & Radiation Branch
MANN, Michael
Pennsylvania State University
MANNING, Martin
IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration,
Earth System Research Laboratory
MARQUIS, Melinda
IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration,
Earth System Research Laboratory
NEELIN, J. David
University of California, Los Angeles
NELSON, Frederick
Department of Geography,
University of Delaware
NEREM, R. Steven
University of Colorado at Boulder
MARTIN, Scot
Harvard University
NOLIN, Anne
Oregon State University
MASSIE, Steven
National Center for Atmospheric Research
NORRIS, Joel
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
KO, Malcolm
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Langley Research Center
MASTRANDREA, Michael
Stanford University
OPPENHEIMER, Michael
Princeton University
KOUTNIK, Michelle
University of Washington
MATSUMOTO, Katsumi
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities
OTTO-BLIESNER, Bette
Climate and Global Dynamics Division,
National Center for Atmospheric Research
KUETER, Jeffrey
Marshall Institue
MATSUOKA, Kenichi
University of Washington
LACIS, Andrew
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
MAURICE, Lourdes
Federal Aviation Administration
LASZLO, Istvan
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
LEULIETTE, Eric
University of Colorado, Boulder
LEVY, Robert
Science Systems & Applications,
Inc. (SSAI), NASA-GSFC
LEWITT, Martin
LI, Zhanqing
University of Maryland,
Department of Atmospheric and
Oceanic Science and ESSIC
LIU, Yangang
Brookhaven National Laboratory
LOVEJOY, Edward R.
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
978
LUNCH, Claire
Stanford University, Carnegie
Institution of Washington
MICHAELS, Patrick
University of Virginia
MILLER, Charles
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology
MILLER, Laury
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Lab for Satellite Altimetry
MILLER, Ron
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
MILLET, Dylan
Harvard University
MILLY, Chris
United States Geological Survey
MINNIS, Patrick
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Langley Research Center
OVERPECK, Jonathan
Institute for the Study of Planet
Earth, University of Arizona
OWENS, John
3M
PATT, Anthony
Boston University
PENNER, Joyce E.
Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and
Space Sciences, University of Michigan
PETERS, Halton
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Department of Global Ecology
PRINN, Ronald
Department of Earth, Atmospheric
and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
PROFETA, Timothy H.
Nicholas Institute of Environmental
Policy Solutions, D e University
RAMANATHAN, Veerabhadran
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Annex III
RAMASWAMY, Venkatachalam
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
RANDERSON, James
University of California, Irvine
RAVISHANKARA, A. R.
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
RIGNOT, Eric
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
RIND, David
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
RITSON, David
Stanford University
ROBOCK, Alan
Rutgers University
RUSSO, Felicita
UMBC/JCET
SABINE, Christopher
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory
SCHIMEL, David
National Center for Atmospheric Research
SCHMIDT, Gavin
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
SCHWARTZ, Stephen E.
Brookhaven National Laboratory
SIEVERING, Herman
University of Colorado
- Boulder and Denver
SODEN, Brian
University of Miami, Rosentiel School
for Marine and Atmospheric Science
SOLOMON, Susan
Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration,
Earth System Research Laboratory
WEBB, Robert
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Earth System
Research Laboratory
WEISS, Ray
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
WELTON, Ellsworth
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Space Flight Center
SOULEN, Richard
STEFFAN, Konrad
University of Colorado
WIELICKI, Bruce
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Langley Research Center
STEIG, Eric
University of Washington
WILES, Gregory
The College of Wooster
STEVENS, Bjorn
UCLA Department of Atmospheric
& Oceanic Sciences
WINTON, Michael
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Laboratory, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
STONE, Peter
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
STOUFFER, Ronald J.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
TAKLE, Eugene
Iowa State University
TAMISIEA, Mark
Harvard-Smithsonian Center
for Astrophysics
TERRY, Joyce
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
WOODHOUSE, Connie
National Climatic Data Center
YU, Hongbin
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Space Flight Center
YU, Jin-Yi
University of California, Irvine
ZENDER, Charles
University of California, Irvine
ZHAO, Xuepeng
ESSIC/UMCP & National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration
THOMPSON, Anne
Pennsylvania State University,
Department of Meteorology
International Organizations
THOMPSON, David
Department of Atmospheric Science,
Colorado State University
PALMER, Timothy
European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasting
SEIDEL, Dian
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Air Resources Laboratory
THOMPSON, LuAnne
University of Washington
RIXEN, Michel
University of Liege and NATO
Undersea Research Center
SEINFELD, John
California Institute of Technology
THOMPSON, Robert
United States Geological Survey
SETH, Anji
University of Connecticut,
Department of Geography
TRENBERTH, Kevin E.
Climate Analysis Section, National
Center for Atmospheric Research
SEVERINGHAUS, Jeffrey
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
University of California, San Diego
VINNIKOV, Konstantin
University of Maryland
SCHWING, Franklin
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration Fisheries
Service, SWFSC/ERD
SHERWOOD, Steven
Yale University
SHINDELL, Drew
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Goddard
Institute for Space Studies
SIMMONS, Adrian
European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasts
VONDER HAAR, Thomas
Colorado State University
WAITZ, Ian
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
WANG, James S.
Environmental Defense
SHUKLA, Jagadish
Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere
Studies, George Mason University
979
Annex IV
Acronyms & Regional Abbreviations
Acronyms
µmol
micromole
ASOS
Automated Surface Observation Systems
20C3M
20th Century Climate in Coupled Models
ASTEX
Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition
Experiment
AABW
Antarctic Bottom Water
ATCM
Atmospheric Transport and Chemical Model
AAIW
Antarctic Intermediate Water
ATSR
Along Track Scanning Radiometer
AAO
Antarctic Oscillation
AVHRR
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
AATSR
Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer
BATS
Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study
ACC
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
BC
black carbon
ACCENT
Atmospheric Composition Change: a
European Network
BCC
Beijing Climate Center
ACE
Accumulated Cyclone Energy or Aerosol
Characterization Experiment
BCCR
Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
ACRIM
Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor
BIOME 6000
Global Palaeovegetation Mapping project
Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor
Satellite
BMRC
Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre
ACRIMSAT
C4MIP
Coupled Carbon Cycle Climate Model
Intercomparison Project
CaCO3
calcium carbonate
ACW
Antarctic circumpolar wave
ADEC
Aeolian Dust Experiment on Climate
ADNET
Asian Dust Network
CAMS
Climate Anomaly Monitoring System
(NOAA)
AeroCom
Aerosol Model Intercomparison
CAPE
Convective Available Potential Energy
AERONET
Aerosol RObotic NETwork
CCl4
carbon tetrachloride
AGAGE
Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases
Experiment
CCM
Chemistry-Climate Model
AGCM
Atmospheric General Circulation Model
CCCma
Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and
Analysis
AGWP
Absolute Global Warming Potential
CCN
cloud condensation nuclei
Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to
Climate Change in Multiple Regions and
Sectors
CCSR
Centre for Climate System Research
AIACC
CDIAC
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
AIC
aviation-induced cloudiness
CDW
Circumpolar Deep Water
ALAS
Autonomous LAgrangian Current Explorer
CERES
ALE
Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment
Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy
System
AMIP
Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project
CERFACS
Centre Europeen de Recherche et de
Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientific
AMO
Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation
CF4
perfluoromethane
AMSU
Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit
CFC
chlorofluorocarbon
AO
Arctic Oscillation
CFCl3
CFC-11
AOGCM
Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation
Model
CH2I2
di-iodomethane (methylene iodide)
Atmospheric Particulate Environment
Change Studies
CH2O
formaldehyde
APEX
CH3CCl3
methyl chloroform
AR4
Fourth Assessment Report
CH3COOH
acetic acid
ARM
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement
CH4
methane
981
Annex IV
982
CLAMS
Chesapeake Lighthouse and Aircraft
Measurements for Satellites
DTR
diurnal temperature range
Europe-South America Network for Climate
Change Assessment and Impact Studies
DU
Dobson unit
CLARIS
EARLINET
European Aerosol Research Lidar Network
CLIMAP
Climate: Long-range Investigation, Mapping,
and Prediction
EBM
Energy Balance Model
CLIVAR
Climate Variability and Predictability
Programme
ECMWF
European Centre for Medium Range Weather
Forecasts
CMAP
CPC Merged Analysis of Precipitation
ECS
equilibrium climate sensitivity
CMDL
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
Laboratory (NOAA)
EDGAR
Emission Database for Global Atmospheric
Research
CMIP
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
EMIC
Earth System Model of Intermediate
Complexity
CNRM
Centre National de Recherches
Météorologiques
ENSO
El Niño-Southern Oscillation
CO
carbon monoxide
EOF
Empirical Orthogonal Function
CO2
carbon dioxide
EOS
Earth Observing System
CO32–
carbonate
EPICA
European Programme for Ice Coring in
Antarctica
COADS
Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set
ERA-15
ECMWF 15-year reanalysis
COARE
Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response
Experiment
ERA-40
ECMWF 40-year reanalysis
COBE-SST
Centennial in-situ Observation-Based
Estimates of SSTs
ERBE
Earth Radiation Budget Experiment
ERBS
Earth Radiation Budget Satellite
COWL
Cold Ocean-Warm Land
ERS
European Remote Sensing satellite
CPC
Climate Prediction Center (NOAA)
ESRL
Earth System Research Library (NOAA)
CREAS
Regional Climate Change Scenarios for
South America
ESTOC
European Station for Time-series in the
Ocean
EUROCS
EUROpean Cloud Systems
FACE
Free Air CO2 Enrichment
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization (UN)
CRIEPI
Central Research Institute of Electric Power
Industry
CRUTEM2v
CRU/Hadley Centre gridded land-surface air
temperature version 2v
CRUTEM3
CRU/Hadley Centre gridded land-surface air
temperature version 3
FAR
First Assessment Report
CSIRO
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization
FRCGC
Frontier Research Center for Global Change
CTM
Chemical Transport Model
FRSGC
Frontier Research System for Global Change
Development of a European Multimodel
Ensemble System for Seasonal to Interannual
Prediction
GAGE
Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment
DEMETER
GARP
Global Atmospheric Research Program
DIC
dissolved inorganic carbon
GATE
GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment
DJF
December, January, February
GAW
Global Atmosphere Watch
DLR
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt
GCM
General Circulation Model
DMS
dimethyl sulphide
GCOS
Global Climate Observing System
D-O
Dansgaard-Oeschger
GCSS
GEWEX Cloud System Study
DOC
dissolved organic carbon
GEIA
Global Emissions Inventory Activity
DORIS
Determination d’Orbite et
Radiopositionnement Intégrés par Satellite
GEOS
Goddard Earth Observing System
DSOW
Denmark Strait Overflow Water
GEWEX
Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment
DSP
Dynamical Seasonal Prediction
GFDL
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
Annex IV
GHCN
Global Historical Climatology Network
HCO3–
bicarbonate
GHG
greenhouse gas
HFC
hydrofluorocarbon
GIA
glacial isostatic adjustment
HIRS
High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder
GIN Sea
Greenland-Iceland-Norwegian Sea
HLM
High Latitude Mode
GISP2
Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2
HNO3
nitric acid
GISS
Goddard Institute for Space Studies
HO2
hydroperoxyl radical
GLACE
Global Land Atmosphere Coupling
Experiment
HONO
nitrous acid
GLAMAP
Glacial Ocean Mapping
HOT
Hawaii Ocean Time-Series
GLAS
Geoscience Laser Altimeter System
hPa
hectopascal
GLODAP
Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
HYDE
HistorY Database of the Environment
GLOSS
Global Sea Level Observing System
IABP
International Arctic Buoy Programme
GMD
Global Monitoring Division (NOAA)
ICESat
Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite
GOME
Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment
ICOADS
International Comprehensive OceanAtmosphere Data Set
GPCC
Global Precipitation Climatology Centre
ICSTM
Imperial College of Science, Technology and
Medicine
GPCP
Global Precipitation Climatology Project
Global Positioning System
IGBP
GPS
International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme
GRACE
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
IGBP-DIS
IGBP Data and Information System
GRIP
Greenland Ice Core Project
IGRA
Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive
GSA
Great Salinity Anomaly
IMO
International Meteorological Organization
Gt
gigatonne (109 tonnes)
INDOEX
Indian Ocean Experiment
GWE
Global Weather Experiment
InSAR
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
GWP
Global Warming Potential
IO
iodine monoxide
H2
molecular hydrogen
IOCI
Indian Ocean Climate Initiative
Hadley Centre Atmospheric Temperature
data set
IOD
Indian Ocean Dipole
HadAT
IOZM
Indian Ocean Zonal Mode
HadAT2
Hadley Centre Atmospheric Temperature data
set Version 2
IPAB
International Programme for Antarctic Buoys
HadCRUT2v
Hadley Centre/CRU gridded surface
temperature data set version 2v
IPO
Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation
Hadley Centre/CRU gridded surface
temperature data set version 3
IPSL
Institut Pierre Simon Laplace
HadCRUT3
IS92
IPCC Scenarios 1992
HadISST
Hadley Centre Sea Ice and Sea Surface
Temperature data set
ISCCP
International Satellite Cloud Climatology
Project
HadMAT
Hadley Centre Marine Air Temperature data
set
ITCZ
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
HadRT
Hadley Centre Radiosonde Temperature data
set
JAMSTEC
Japan Marine Science and Technology Center
JJA
June, July, August
HadRT2
Hadley Centre Radiosonde Temperature data
set
JMA
Japan Meteorological Agency
HadSLP2
Hadley Centre MSLP data set version 2
ka
thousand years ago
HadSST2
Hadley Centre SST data set version 2
KMA
Korea Meteorological Administration
HALOE
Halogen Occultation Experiment
KNMI
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
HCFC
hydrochlorofluorocarbon
kyr
thousand years
983
Annex IV
LASG
National Key Laboratory of Numerical
Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
MODIS
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer
mol
mole
LBA
Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere
Experiment in Amazonia
MONEX
Monsoon Experiment
LBC
lateral boundary condition
MOPITT
Measurements of Pollution in the
Troposphere
LBL
line-by-line
MOZAIC
LGM
Last Glacial Maximum
Measurement of Ozone by Airbus In-service
Aircraft
MPI
Max Planck Institute
LIG
Last Interglacial
MPIC
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
LKS
Lanzante-Klein-Seidel
MPLNET
Micro-Pulse Lidar Network
LLGHG
long-lived greenhouse gas
MRI
Meteorological Research Institute of JMA
LLJ
Low-Level Jet
MSLP
mean sea level pressure
LLNL
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
MSU
Microwave Sounding Unit
LMD
Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique
Myr
million years
LOA
Laboratoire d’Optique Atmospherique
molecular nitrogen
level of scientific understanding
N2
LOSU
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de
l’Environnement
N2O
nitrous oxide
LSCE
N2O5
dinitrogen pentoxide
LSM
land surface model
NADW
North Atlantic Deep Water
LSW
Labrador Sea Water
NAH
North Atlantic subtropical high
LW
longwave
NAM
Northern Annular Mode
LWP
liquid water path
NAMS
North American Monsoon System
Ma
million years ago
NAO
North Atlantic Oscillation
MAM
March, April, May
NARCCAP
MARGO
Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction
of the Glacial Ocean surface
North American Regional Climate Change
Assessment Program
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NCAR
National Center for Atmospheric Research
NCDC
National Climatic Data Center
NCEP
National Centers for Environmental
Prediction
NEAQS
New England Air Quality Study
NEP
net ecosystem production
NESDIS
National Environmental Satellite, Data and
Information Service
NGRIP
North Greenland Ice Core Project
NH
Northern Hemisphere
NH3
ammonia
NH4+
ammonium ion
NIES
National Institute for Environmental Studies
NIWA
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric
Research
NMAT
Nighttime Marine Air Temperature
mb
millibar
MDI
Michelson Doppler Imager
Meteosat
European geostationary meteorological
satellite
MFR
Maximum Feasible Reduction
MHT
meridional heat transport
MINOS
Mediterranean Intensive Oxidants Study
MIP
Model Intercomparison Project
MIRAGE
Megacity Impacts on Regional and Global
Environments
MISO
Monsoon Intra-Seasonal Oscillation
MISR
Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer
MJO
Madden-Julian Oscillation
MLS
Microwave Limb Sounder
MMD
Multi-Model Data set (at PCMDI)
MOC
Meridional Overturning Circulation
984
Annex IV
PMOD
Physikalisch-Meteorologisches
Observatorium Davos
PNA
Pacific-North American pattern
PNNL
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
PNV
potential natural vegetation
POA
primary organic aerosol
POC
particulate organic carbon
reactive nitrogen oxides (the sum of NO and
NO2)
POLDER
Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s
Reflectance
NPI
North Pacific Index
POM
particulate organic matter
NPIW
North Pacific Intermediate Water
ppb
parts per billion
NPP
net primary productivity
ppm
parts per million
NRA
NCEP/NCAR reanalysis
PR
Precipitation Radar
NVAP
NASA Water Vapor Project
PREC/L
Precipitation Reconstruction over Land
(PREC/L)
O(1D)
oxygen radical in the 1D excited state
molecular oxygen
PROVOST
O2
Prediction of Climate Variations on Seasonal
to Interannual Time Scales
O3
ozone
PRP
Partial Radiative Perturbation
OASIS
Ocean Atmosphere Sea Ice Soil
PSA
Pacific-South American pattern
OCTS
Ocean Colour and Temperature Scanner
PSC
polar stratospheric cloud
ODS
ozone-depleting substances
PSMSL
Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development
PSU
Pennsylvania State University
OECD
psu
Practical Salinity Unit
OGCM
Ocean General Circulation Model
QBO
Quasi-Biennial Oscillation
OH
hydroxyl radical
RATPAC
Radiosonde Atmospheric Temperature
Products for Assessing Climate
NMHC
non-methane hydrocarbon
NMVOC
non-methane volatile organic compound
NO
nitric oxide
NO2
nitrogen dioxide
NO3
nitrate radical
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
NOx
OIO
iodine dioxide
OLR
outgoing longwave radiation
RCM
Regional Climate Model
OMI
Ozone Monitoring Instrument
REA
Reliability Ensemble Average
OPAC
Optical Parameters of Aerosols and Clouds
REML
restricted maximum likelihood
Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and
Intercomparison
RF
radiative forcing
PCMDI
RFI
Radiative Forcing Index
pCO2
partial pressure of CO2
RH
relative humidity
PDF
probability density function
RMS
root-mean square
PDI
Power Dissipation Index
RSL
relative sea level
PDO
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
RSS
Remote Sensing Systems
PDSI
Palmer Drought Severity Index
potential evapotranspiration
RTMIP
PET
Radiative-Transfer Model Intercomparison
Project
PETM
Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum
SACZ
South Atlantic Convergence Zone
PFC
perfluorocarbon
SAFARI
Southern African Regional Science Initiative
Pg
petagram (1015 grams)
SAGE
PMIP
Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison
Project
Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment
or Centre for Sustainability and the Global
Environment
SAM
Southern Annular Mode or Stratospheric
Aerosol Measurement
985
Annex IV
SAMS
986
STARDEX
STAtistical and Regional dynamical
Downscaling of EXtremes for European
regions
STE
stratosphere-troposphere exchange
STMW
Subtropical Mode Water
SUNY
State University of New York
Sv
Sverdrup (106 m3 s–1)
SW
shortwave
SWE
snow water equivalent
SWH
significant wave height
T/P
TOPEX/Poseidon
T12
HIRS channel 12
T2
MSU channel 2
T2LT
MSU lower-troposphere channel
T3
MSU channel 3
T4
MSU channel 4
TAR
Third Assessment Report
TARFOX
Tropospheric Aerosol Radiative Forcing
Experiment
South American Monsoon System
SAMW
Subantarctic Mode Water
SAR
Second Assessment Report or Synthetic
Aperture Radar
SARB
Surface and Atmosphere Radiation Budget
SARR
Space Absolute Radiometric Reference
SAT
surface air temperature
SCA
snow-covered area
SCIAMACHY
SCanning Imaging Absorption SpectroMeter
for Atmospheric CHartographY
SCM
Simple Climate Model
SeaWiFs
Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor
SF6
sulphur hexafluoride
SH
Southern Hemisphere
SIO
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
SIS
Small Island States
SLE
sea level equivalent
SLP
sea level pressure
SMB
surface mass balance
TBO
Tropospheric Biennial Oscillation
SMM
Solar Maximum Mission
TCR
transient climate response
SMMR
Scanning Multichannel Microwave
Radiometer
TEAP
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel
TGBM
Tide Gauge Bench Mark
SO
Southern Oscillation
SO2
sulphur dioxide
TGICA
Task Group on Data and Scenario Support for
Impact and Climate Analysis (IPCC)
SO4
sulphate
THC
Thermohaline Circulation
SOA
secondary organic aerosol
THIR
Temperature Humidity Infrared Radiometer
SOHO
Solar Heliospheric Observatory
TIM
Total Solar Irradiance Monitor
SOI
Southern Oscillation Index
TIROS
Television InfraRed Observation Satellite
SOM
soil organic matter
TMI
TRMM microwave imager
SON
September, October, November
TOA
top of the atmosphere
SORCE
Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment
TOGA
Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere
SPARC
Stratospheric Processes and their Role in
Climate
TOM
top of the model
TOMS
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
SPCZ
South Pacific Convergence Zone
TOPEX
TOPography EXperiment
SPM
Summary for Policymakers
TOVS
TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder
SRALT
Satellite radar altimetry
SRES
Special Report on Emission Scenarios
TransCom 3
Atmospheric Tracer Transport Model
Intercomparison Project
SSM/I
Special Sensor Microwave/Imager
TRMM
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
SST
sea surface temperature
TSI
total solar irradiance
UAH
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Annex IV
Regional Abbreviations used in Chapter 11
UARS
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
UCDW
Upper Circumpolar Deep Water
UCI
University of California at Irvine
ALA
Alaska
UEA
University of East Anglia
AMZ
Amazonia
UHI
Urban Heat Island
ANT
Antarctic
UIO
University of Oslo
ARC
Arctic
UKMO
United Kingdom Meteorological Office
CAM
Central America
ULAQ
University of L’Aquila
CAR
Caribbean
UMD
University of Maryland
CAS
Central Asia
UMI
University of Michigan
CGI
East Canada, Greenland and Iceland
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
CNA
Central North America
UNFCCC
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change
EAF
East Africa
US Historical Climatology Network
EAS
East Asia
USHCN
Coordinated Universal Time
ENA
Eastern North America
UTC
upper-tropospheric relative humidity
IND
Indian Ocean
UTRH
ultraviolet
MED
Mediterrranean Basin
UV
University of Victoria
NAS
Northern Asia
UVic
Variability of Irradiance and Gravity
Oscillations
NAU
North Australia
VIRGO
NEU
Northern Europe
VIRS
Visible Infrared Scanner
NPA
North Pacific Ocean
VOC
volatile organic compound
SAF
South Africa
VOS
Voluntary Observing Ships
SAH
Sahara
VRGCM
Variable-Resolution General Circulation
Model
SAS
South Asia
W
watt
SAU
South Australia
WAIS
West Antarctic Ice Sheet
SEA
Southeast Asia
WCRP
World Climate Research Programme
SEM
Southern Europe and Mediterranean
WDCGG
World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases
SPA
South Pacific Ocean
WGI
IPCC Working Group I
SSA
Southern South America
WGII
IPCC Working Group II
TIB
Tibetan Plateau
WGIII
IPCC Working Group III
TNE
Tropical Northeast Atlantic
WGMS
World Glacier Monitoring Service
WAF
West Africa
WMDW
Western Mediterranean Deep Water
WNA
Western North America
WMO
World Meteorological Organization
WOCE
World Ocean Circulation Experiment
WRE
Wigley, Richels and Edmonds (1996)
WWR
World Weather Records
ZIA
0°C isotherm altitude
τaer
aerosol optical depth
987