Site characteristics and effect on elk and mule deer use of the Gardiner winter range, Montana
by Allen Francis McNeal
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree. Master of Science in Range
Science y
Montana State University
© Copyright by Allen Francis McNeal (1984)
Abstract:
A two year study was initiated in the spring of 1980 to evaluate elk and mule deer use of the Gardiner
winter range, an integral portion of the northern Yellowstone winter range. The study was designed to
determine the association of elk and mule deer with habitat parameters. Twenty-eight vegetation and
landform variables were characterized into six habitat types; five were sagebrush-grassland and the
sixth was a forest habitat type. Sagebrush-grassland habitat types were modified to include three
subspecies of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and black sagebrush (Artemisia nova). All habitat
types were considered to be near climax condition. Sagebrush taxa were important forage sources, as
indicated by animal use observations and sagebrush form class designations. Animal use of the area
was dependent on winter severity although there was apparent elk and mule deer preference for certain
habitat types. Elk and mule deer use was specifically associated with environmental characteristics
within habitat types. Elk use, as measured by elk pellet-counts, was most highly correlated with grass
cover (r = .66). Five site variables entering a stepwise regression analysis accounted for 71 percent
(R^2) of the variation in elk pellet-counts by site.. Mule deer use was most highly correlated With
elevation (r = -.52), reflecting their physical inability to negotiate deep snow. Eight site variables
accounted for 82 percent (R^2) of the variation in mule deer pellet-counts. Data analyses indicate elk
selected feeding sites on the winter range where the relationship of food intake to energy expenditure
was optimized. Deer selected activity areas where energy expenditure was minimized and security was
optimized on this exposed winter range. SITE CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECT ON ELK AND MULE DEER USE
OF THE GARDINER WINTER RANGE, MONTANA
Z
by
A llen F ra n c is McNeal
A t h e s i s su b m itted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
of th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r the degree.
Master o f S c ie n c e
in
Range S cience
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
June 1,984
APPROVAL
o f a t h e s i s su b m itted by
A llen F ra n c is McNeal
This t h e s i s has been read by each member of th e t h e s i s committee
and h a s b een fo u n d t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y r e g a r d i n g c o n t e n t , E n g l i s h
usage, fo rm at, c i t a t i o n s , b i b lio g r a p h ic s t y l e , and c o n s is te n c y , and i s
ready f o r su b m issio n to the College o f Graduate S tu d ie s .
C hairperson, Graduate Committee
Date
Approval fo r th e Major Department
C a
Date
w
*
V
~
Head, Major Department
Approved f o r the College o f Graduate S tu d ie s
D ate
G ra d u a te Dean
iii
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In
p re se n tin g
th is
th e sis
in
p a rtia l
f u l f i l l m e n t of th e
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a m a s t e r ’s d e g r e e a t M ontana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
I
agree t h a t th e L ib ra ry s h a l l make i t a v a i l a b l e to b o rro w e rs under th e
r u l e s of th e L ib ra ry .
B r i e f q u o ta tio n s from t h i s t h e s i s a re a llo w a b le
w ith o u t s p e c i a l p e rm is sio n , provided t h a t a c c u r a te acknowledgement of
so u rce i s made.
P e rm iss io n f o r e x te n s iv e q u o t a t i o n from or re p ro d u c tio n of t h i s
t h e s i s may be g ra n te d by my m ajor p r o f e s s o r , o r i n h i s absence, by the
D ir e c to r of L i b r a r i e s when, i n th e o p in io n o f e i t h e r , th e proposed use
of th e m a t e r i a l i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes.
m a te ria l
Any copying or use of th e
i n t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a llo w e d ,
w ith o u t my w r i t t e n p e rm issio n .
Signature.
Date.
J
To my p a r e n t s , H a rry and Ora, f o r t h e i r h e l p , p e r c e p t i o n ,
and f a i t h through th e lo n g months of a n t i c i p a t i o n .
V
VITA
A llen F r a n c is McNeal was born (1952) and r a i s e d i n th e G a l l a t i n
V alley where he grew t o a p p r e c i a t e th e i n t r i c a c y and d e l i c a t e n a tu re
of th e s u rro u n d in g e n v iro n m en t.
He s p e n t many f i n e h o u r s w i t h h i s
p a r e n t s , F. H. (H a rry ) and Ora H e le n (V e en k e r) McNeal, and s i s t e r
Linda Rae (McNeal) Svensrud,
en jo y in g a v a r i e t y of outdoor a c t i v i t i e s .
He d id n ’t r e a l i z e th e r e was s p e c i f i c te rm in o lo g y a p p lie d t o e v en ts he
o b se rv e d o c c u r r i n g i n n a t u r e u n t i l a f t e r he e n t e r e d M ontana S t a t e
U n iv e r s ity , from which he g ra d u a ted i n 1975 w ith a B achelor of Science
degree i n Zoology.
His g ra d u a te c a r e e r was i n i t i a t e d i n 1979.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS'
A h e a r t f e l t th a n k s t o my a d v i s o r , Dr. C a r l Wa m b o l t , f o r h i s
f r i e n d s h i p and guidance th roughout the study.
G r a te f u l a p p r e c ia tio n
i s extended t o my com m ittee members, Drs. Jack T aylor, B rian S i n d e l a r ,
C l i f f M ontagne, and Bob Moore, f o r h e l p f u l m a n u s c r i p t c r i t i q u e .
A
v e r y s p e c i a l t h a n k s t o G e o r g ia Ziem ba f o r i r r e p l a c e a b l e a s s i s t a n c e
w ith d a ta a n a l y s i s .
Thanks t o Drs. Jack Taylor and Dick Mackie f o r bending an e a r to
h e lp i n i t i a t e t h i s stu d y .
I
w ould l i k e
t o e x p r e s s my a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e U. S. F o r e s t
S e rv ic e G ardiner d i s t r i c t o f f i c e and Bozeman s u p e r v i s o r ’s o f f i c e f o r
f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e and c o o p e r a tio n d u rin g t h i s s tu d y .
L a s t, but d e f i n i t e l y n o t l e a s t , I thank my f a t h e r apd Jeanne Blee
f o r th e e n d le s s tim e s p e n t ty p in g t h i s behemoth.
v ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................. ...............................................
STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION. . . .....................................................
L o c a tio n ............................................................. - .................. ....
Geology. ..................................................................................................
C lim ate...................................................................................................
Topography and S o i l s ........................................................................... .
V e g e ta tio n . . . ........................................................................
Animals.....................................................................................
Human I n f l u e n c e s ..............................................................................
Management .................................................... . . . . . . . . . . .
METHODS AND MATERIALS.......................................................................... . .' .
Data C o lle c ti o n . . . ........................................................................
V e g e ta tio n Measurements...............................................................................
Animal Use Measurements'.............................................................
Landform D e s c r ip tio n ................................................ . . . . . . .
Data C o m p i l a t i o n ..........................................................................
S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s .........................................................
3
4
Ul
P r e f a c e ............................................................. ...............................................
W inter Environment - H a b ita t .............................................................
- Weather
- Snow. ,
Forage and N u t r i t i o n . . . .
Food H a b its .................................................................................. . . . . .
Foraging S t r a t e g i e s ....................................................
Cover. . ...........................................
Human I n f lu e n c e - D ire c t C o n t a c t ........................................................
- L iv e sto c k G razing. ............................................
- Logging.................................................................. .
W i ld lif e Range Im pacts . ......................................................................
3
VD
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... . . . .
iq
11
12
13
14
17
18
21
21
22
,
24
2527
3
32
33
37
37
38
42
44
45
45
v iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Continued)
Page
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.................................................................
P re f a c e . . . ...................... ' ...................................................... * . . „
V e g e ta tio n - V isu al O b se rv a tio n s ....................................................
.................................
- H a b ita t Types . . . . . . . .
- Composition ............................... . . . . . . . . .
- Sagebrush Burns . . . . . .
.......................................
- Annual V a r i a t i o n ..................................................................
- C o r r e l a t i o n s ..................................................................
Animal Use . . .......................................................................
Animal Use - Summer. . . . . . . . . . . . .
- W in te r.........................................................
M i g r a t i o n .....................
- Feeding H a b its; ..................................................................
- I m p a c t s ..............................................................................
Animal Use Compared w ith S i t e V a r ia b le s . . . . . . . . . .
47
47
47
50
56
59
63
65
69;
72
75
82
84
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.....................................
101
REFERENCES CITED. ................................................................................................
106
APPENDICES............................................................. . ■...................... ....
119
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
A
B
C
D
- P la n t S p e c ies on th e Study Area . . . . . . .
- H isto ry of th e Study A r e a ............................................
- P la n t Composition on th e Study Area . . . . .
- Elk and Deer Pel le t - C o u n t s ............................................
120
124
128
132
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Page
P e r c e n t a g e o f t o t a l m ean c o v e r f o r t h r e e f o r a g e
c l a s s e s and s i x dominant ta x a e v a lu a te d i n 1980 ................
Mean a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n i n k g / h a o f t h r e e f o r a g e
c l a s s e s and s i x d o m in a n t t a x a e v a l u a t e d i n
1980
and 1981.......................... .............................................................................
51
57
C o m p a ris o n o f v e g e t a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n and c o v e r from
tw o b u r n e d s i t e s w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y p a i r e d
u n b u rn e d s i t e s ........................................................................................
60
P e r c e n t a g e c h ange i n p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w e r i n g c u lm s o f
d o m in a n t h e r b a c e o u s s p e c i e s i n f o u r h a b i t a t t y p e s from
1980 t o 1981 ..........................................................................................
64
C o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x o f s i t e v a r i a b l e s on t h e G a r d i n e r
w i n t e r r a n g e ..............................
66
P e r c e n t a g e u t i l i z a t i o n o f 17 ta g g e d s a g e b r u s h ta x o n by
b ro w s e fo rm c l a s s , p o s t w i n t e r 1982. . .............................. .
80
C o n tin g e n c y t a b l e o f s a g e b r u s h fo rm c l a s s d e s ig n a tio n s
fr o m 1980 and 1981 b ro w se t r a n s e c t s .....................................
81
C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f e l k and d e e r p e l l e t - g r o u p
c o u n t s o b t a i n e d i n 1980 and 1981 and a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
v e g e t a t i o n and o t h e r s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................
89
S i g n i f ic a n c e l e v e l s of F - v a lu e s o b ta in e d by a n a l y s i s of
v a r i a n c e o f s i x c a t e g o r i e s e v a l u a t e d f o r e l k and d e e r
use .................................................................................................................
91
R e g re ssio n a n a ly s is of e lk p e l l e t - c o u n t s w ith a l l
v a r i a b l e s s tu d ie d , and th e r e s u l t i n g e q u a tio n ....................
94
LIST OF TABLES - (Continued)
Table
11
^a Se
R e g re ssio n a n a l y s i s of d e e r p e l l e t - c o u n t s w ith a l l
v a r i a b l e s s tu d ie d , and th e r e s u l t i n g e q u a tio n ....................
97
12
P la n t s p e c ie s i d e n t i f i e d on t h e G ard in er study a re a . . .
121
13
P la n t and m is c e lla n e o u s co m p o sitio n of
e v a lu a te d f o r p ro d u c tio n , p e rc e n ta g e
g r a s s and f o rb , canopy f o r s h r u b ) , and
o r d e n s i t y on t h e G a r d i n e r s t u d y a r e a
s i x h a b i t a t ty p es
cover (b a sa l fo r
e i t h e r freq u en cy
. ..............................
129
Elk and d e e r mean p e l l e t - c o u n t s o b ta in e d i n 1980 and 1981
w i t h i n f i v e main c a t e g o r i e s o f e n v iro n m en tal v a r i a b l e s ,
w i t h s a m p le num ber f o r e a c h v a r i a b l e ............................. ... .
133
14
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re
Page
1
Panorama of th e G ard in er study a r e a ...........................................
21
2
Map o f t h e G a r d i n e r s tu d y a r e a s h o w in g t o p o g r a p h i c
f e a t u r e s .........................................................................................................
26
3
T ran se ct f o r v e g e t a t i o n and p e l l e t - g r o u p a n a l y s i s . . . .
39
4
E lk and d e e r u s e o f s i x h a b i t a t t y p e s , a s d e t e r m i n e d by
mean p e l l e t - g r o u p c o u n ts ..............................
86
x ii
ABSTRACT
A two y e a r study was i n i t i a t e d i n th e s p rin g o f 1980 to e v a lu a te
e l k and m ule d e e r u se o f t h e G a r d i n e r w i n t e r r a n g e , an i n t e g r a l
p o r t i o n o f t h e n o r t h e r n Y e llo w s to n e w i n t e r r a n g e .
The s tu d y was
d e s i g n e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f e l k and m ule d e e r w i t h
h a b i t a t p a ra m e te rs.
T w e n t y - e i g h t v e g e t a t i o n and lan d fo rm v a r i a b l e s
w e re c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t o s i x h a b i t a t t y p e s ; f i v e w e re s a g e b r u s h g r a s s l a n d and t h e s i x t h was a f o r e s t h a b i t a t ty p e .
S agebrushg r a s s la n d h a b i t a t ty p e s were m o d ified t o in c lu d e th r e e s u b s p e c ie s o f
b i g s a g e b r u s h ( A r t e m i s i a t r i d e n t a t a ) and b lack sag eb ru sh (A rte m is ia
nova). All h a b i t a t ty p e s were c o n sid e re d to be near c lim a x c o n d itio n .
Sagebrush ta x a were im p o r ta n t fo ra g e so u rc es, as i n d i c a t e d by animal
use o b s e r v a tio n s and sagebrush form c l a s s d e s ig n a tio n s . Animal use o f
th e a r e a was dependent on w in te r s e v e r i t y although t h e r e was ap p aren t
e lk and mule deer p re fe re n c e f o r c e r t a i n h a b i t a t ty p es.
Elk and mule
d e e r u se was s p e c i f i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h i n h a b i t a t t y p e s . E lk u s e , a s m e a s u re d by e l k
p e l l e t - c o u n t s , was most h ig h ly c o r r e l a t e d w ith g r a s s cover ( r = .66).
Five s i t e v a r i a b l e s e n t e r i n g a s te p w is e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s accounted
f o r 71 p e r c e n t (R2 ) o f t h e v a r i a t i o n i n e l k p e l l e t - c o u n t s by s i t e .
Mule d e e r u s e w as m o s t h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d W ith e l e v a t i o n ( r = - . 5 2 ) ,
r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r p h y s i c a l i n a b i l i t y t o n e g o t i a t e d e ep snow. E i g h t
s i t e v a r i a b l e s accounted f o r 82 p e rc e n t (R- ) of th e v a r i a t i o n i n mule
d eer p e l l e t - c o u n t s . Data a n a ly s e s i n d i c a t e e lk s e l e c t e d fe e d in g s i t e s
on t h e w i n t e r r a n g e w h e re t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f fo o d i n t a k e t o e n e r g y
e x p e n d itu re was o p tim ized . Deer s e l e c t e d a c t i v i t y a r e a s where energy
e x p e n d itu re was m inim ized and s e c u r i t y was o p tim iz e d on t h i s exposed
w in te r range.
I
I
INTRODUCTION
J u d ic io u s management of range e co sy stem s o f t e n i n c o r p o r a t e s the
e v a lu a tio n of w ild lif e
in flu e n c e w il d l i f e
in h a b i t .
r e q u i r e m e n t s and i m p a c t s .
a c tiv itie s
in
th e
Many f a c t o r s
d y nam ic e n v i r o n m e n t s th e y
C e r ta in of th e se e n v iro n m e n ta l f a c t o r s in f l u e n c e an a n im a l's
se le c tio n
of a p p ro p ria te
The r e l a t i v e
site s
fo r
its
d iu rn a l
a c tiv itie s.
im p a c t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s on a n i m a l b e h a v i o r
d e p e n d s on th e u n iq u e q u a l i t i e s o f an a r e a i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e
seaso n of th e year.
W inter o f t e n p ro v id e s en v iro n m en tal s t r e s s e s t h a t prove to be a
rig o r o u s t e s t of en durance f o r a n im a ls ,
M o u n ta in s.
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e Rocky
The s t r e s s e s o f w i n t e r a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s f o r
h e rb iv o ro u s a n im a ls such as u n g u la te s .
Rocky M o u n ta in s l k ( C ervus
e l a o h u s n e l s o n i ) and Rocky M o u n ta in m u le d e e r ( O d o o o lle u s h em io n u s
h e m i o n a s ) a r e o f t e n a f f e c t e d by d eep snow and t h e r e s t r i c t i o n i t
imposes on a c t i v i t y l e v e l s d u rin g w i n t e r months.
These a n im a ls must
sometimes a d ap t t o v ery sev ere c o n d i t i o n s by a l t e r i n g u s e p a t t e r n s ,
and u n d e r s t a n d i n g
th e ir
re su ltin g
b e h av io r i s
e sse n tia l
t o any
comprehensive management program.
T h is
s tu d y
was
c o n d u c te d
on t h e G a r d i n e r w i n t e r
ra n g e
in
s o u t h w e s t e r n M ontana, an a r e a i d e a l l y s u i t e d f o r e x a m i n i n g w i n t e r
behavior of e lk and mule deer.
The study a re a encompasses a p o r tio n
o f th e n o r t h e r n Y e l l o w s t o n e w i n t e r r a n g e .
u t i l i z e s th e G a rd in e r w in te r range,
mpst w in te r s .
A v a r ie ty of u n g u la te s
but e lk a r e most abundant d u rin g
These e lk comprise a p o r ti o n of th e l a r g e s t re m a in in g
2
herds found i n North America, those i n and around Y ellow stone N atio n al
Park.
T h is stu d y
was d e s i g n e d t o e x p l a i n why t h e s e
e lk ,
and t h e
abundant mule d eer,
s e l e c t the s p e c i f i c h a b i t a t ty p e s they u t i l i z e on
th e w in te r in g a re a.
D e f i n i t e w in te r use p a tte r n s ' help ed i n co n ceiv in g
th e h y p o th e s is t h a t s p e c i f i c v e g e t a t i o n and la n d f o r m p a r a m e t e r s can
e x p la in e lk and mule d eer use p a t t e r n s .
The p u r p o s e of t h e s tu d y w as t o e v a l u a t e t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f e l k
and m u le d e e r w i t h h a b i t a t p a r a m e t e r s on t h e G a r d i n e r w i n t e r r a n g e .
The p rim ary o b j e c t i v e was to d e term in e p r e f e r e n t i a l e lk and mule d e e r
u se o f s p e c i f i c h a b i t a t t y p e s by c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e v e g e t a t i o n and
landform a v a il a b le .
A secondary o b j e c t i v e was to e v a lu a te the c u r r e n t
c o n d itio n and p o t e n t i a l of th e w i n t e r range f o r e lk and mule deer use.
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
P refac e
When r e v i e w i n g Rocky M o u n ta in e l k ( Cervus e lao h u s n e lso n !) and
Rocky Mountain mule d e e r ( O d o c o ileu s h e m io n u s h e m io n u s I l i t e r a t u r e ,
one i s s t r u c k n o t o n ly by t h e m ass o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e
popular big game a n im a ls,
but a ls o by t h e i r wide d i s t r i b u t i o n among
d i v e r s e e n v i r o n m e n t s . Wecker (1964) e m p h a s i z e s t h a t e a c h o rg a n is m
ten d s
to
be r e s t r i c t e d
in
d istrib u tio n
by i t s
p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s t o t h e e n v iro n m e n t.
b eh av io ral
apd
C le a rly , th e se s p e c ie s
a r e q u i t e f l e x i b l e i n t h e i r h a b i t a t r e q u ir e m e n ts w ith an a b i l i t y to
adapt to a v a r i e t y of e n v iro n m en tal d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s . With c u r r e n t game
management p r o t e c t i n g v ia b le p o p u la tio n s ,
the d is tu rb a n c e or removal
of s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t a p p e a rs t o be th e only s i g n i f i c a n t en v iro n m en tal
fa c to r
th a t
th e e x c e p tio n a l r e s i l i e n c e
of
th e se
sp ec ie s
cannot
to le ra te .
Use o f
an a r e a i s
d e term in e d
by a n im a l b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s .
Behavior i s th e f i r s t and most common way i n d iv id u a l organism s a d j u s t
to t h e i r environm ents (G e ist 1981).
Because alm o st any en v iro n m en tal
f l u x can i n f l u e n c e a n i m a l b e h a v i o r a t a p o i n t i n t i m e , d e t e r m i n i n g
what
has
caused
^ b eh av io ral
a d ju stm en t
to
th e
m u lti-fa c e te d
e n v i r o n m e n t s e l k and m ule d e e r i n h a b i t can be r a t h e r an i n d e f i n i t e
u n d e rta k in g .
general
However, l i t e r a t u r e p ro v id e s th e b a s is f o r u n d e rstan d in g
a n im a l u se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
c o n d itio n s ,
under v a ry in g en v iro n m e n ta l
4
A thorough u n d e rs ta n d in g o f a n i m a l - h a b i t a t i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n a
p a r t i c u l a r a r e a r e q u i r e s an e v a lu a tio n o f w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t on a s i t e s p e c i f i c b a s i s , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f w h ic h c a n n o t be o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d .
Drawing from p re v io u s s t u d i e s c o n d u c te d i n s i m i l a r e n v i r o n m e n t s i s
u s e f u l to th e e x te n t of u n d e rs ta n d in g g e n e ra l p r i n c i p l e s , but a p p ly in g
management s t r a t e g i e s developed i n one geographic a re a t o a n o th e r a re a
“ u s t be done w ith c au tio n .
Regional d i f f e r e n c e s and y e a r l y v a r i a t i o n
i n complex e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s may cause the dynamics and even
g e n e t i c s o f d i f f e r e n t a n im a l p o p u l a t i o n s t o v a r y .
I n v ie w o f t h i s
v a r i a b i l i t y , a n i m a l u s e w i l l n o t be c o n s i s t e n t i n a l l l o c a t i o n s and
h a b ita ts.
A ssum ing a n i m a l u se i n one a r e a w i l l p a r a l l e l t h a t fro m
a n o t h e r a r e a may be a m i s t a k e ,
even i f t h a t a r e a i s
th e a d ja c e n t
d ra in a g e .
W inter Environment - H a b ita t
G e i s t (1981) o b s e r v e s t h a t m u le d e e r move s e a s o n a l l y b e tw e e n
a r e a s o f f a v o r a b l e m i c r o c l i m a t e s and f o r a g e r e s o u r c e s so a s t o
maximize g a in (e.g.
on summer ra n g e s) o r m inim ize m aintenance c o s ts
(e.g. on w in te r ra n g e s).
Cole (1969) s t a t e s th a t n o r th e r n Yellowstone
w i n t e r e l k d i s t r i b u t i o n o c c u r s a l o n g an e l e v a t i o n a l g r a d i e n t i n
r e l a t i o n to s u i t a b l e f o r a g in g a r e a s , developed h a b i t s , th e presence of
- o t h e r e l k , c o n d i t i o n e d r e s p o n s e s t o human d is tu r b a n c e , and v a r i a b l e
w e a t h e r i n f l u e n c e s on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y
o f fo o d .
W in te r i n
th e
n o rth e rn Rocky Mountains i s th e tim e of y e a r when r e s o u r c e s a r e most
lim ite d fo r u n g u la te s.
T h is s e a s o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by deep snow
co v erin g fo ra g e , w ith cold, o f te n windy te m p e ra tu re s .
G i l b e r t e t a l.
( 1970) l i s t tw o f a c t o r s m a k in g w i n t e r a c r i t i c a l p e r i o d :
I) f o r a g e
5
n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y and ab u n d an c e a r e a t t h e i r l o w e s t , and 2 ) snow
l i m i t s th e amount of range a c c e s s i b l e f o r use.
DeNio (1938) co n clu d es t h a t most game a n im a ls a r e r e s t r i c t e d i n
w in te r t o l e s s th a n 20 p e rc e n t of th e a r e a a v a i l a b l e on summer range
i n t h e n o r t h e r n Rocky M o u n ta in r e g i o n . A p p r o x im a te ly 1.2 m i l l i o n h a
a r e a v a i l a b l e a s summer r a n g e i n t h e Y e llo w s to n e e c o s y s t e m ,
but
Houston (1978) d e s c r i b e s th e w in te r range as only 100,000 ha i n s iz e .
D i s c u s s i n g t h e same w i n t e r r a n g e , G r e e r e t a l . (I 970) n o t e t h a t f o r
s h o r t p e rio d s d u rin g s e v e re w i n t e r s a n im a ls a r e l i m i t e d t o a 20- 30,000
ha a re a .
A n im a ls a r e g e n e r a l l y f o r c e d t o l o w e r e l e v a t i o n s t o e s c a p e t h e
d e e p e s t snow.
I n t h e S o u th F o rk o f t h e F l a t h e a d a r e a o f M ontana,
Gaffney (1941) re c o g n iz e s th e w in te r range as being co n fin e d t o ^ r e a s
below 1981 ip i n e l e v a t i o n on south and w e st ex posures, and below 1676
m on n o rth and e a s t exposures.
Houston (1974) c o n s id e r s th e n o rth e rn
Y ellow stone w in te r ran g e l i m i t e d t o a r e a s below 2591 m i n e le v a tio n .
W inter Environment - Weather
Moen (1973) em phasizes t h a t th e e f f e c t of w e ath e r on an organism
in v o lv e s the exchange of th erm al energy between the organism and i t s
I
e n v ir o n m e n t.
co n d u ctio n ,
exchange,
The f o u r modes o f t h i s e n e r g y e x c h a n g e a r e r a d i a t i o n ,
c o n v e c t i o n , and e v a p o r a t i o n .
To c o m p e n s a te f o r t h i s
an anim al can in c r e a s e or d eg rease body h e a t p ro d u c tio n by
a d j u s t i n g i t s p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y and i t s m e ta b o lic r a t e .
Mule d eer reduce food consum ption d u rin g w in te r and rem ain i n a
m aintenance s t a t e r a t h e r th an a p ro d u c tio n s t a t e (S h o rt 1981).
i n a m aintenance s t a t e ,
Even
th e s t r e s s o f s u s t a i n i n g th e rm a l h o m eo stasis
6
d u rin g w in te r i s e n e r g e t i c a l l y c o s tly .
Based on o b s e r v a tio n s ,
Mautz
e t a l . ( 1976) assume a w h i t e - t a i l e d d e er fawn may undergo a 20 p e rc e n t
w e i g h t l o s s o v e r a 1 0 0 -d ay w i n t e r p e r i o d .
rep o rt
D e C a le s to e t a l . (1977)
t h a t once e n e r g y - r i c h f a t r e s e r v e s a r e d e p l e t e d ,
m u s c le
c a ta b o lis m p ro v id e s an in a d e q u a te source of energy f o r a s t a r v i n g d e er
to s u s t a i n i t s e l f .
As B e a l l n o t e s i n 1974, l i t t l e w ork h a s b e en done t o e v a l u a t e
i n t e r a c t i o n s of b ig game w ith t h e i r n a t u r a l energy environm ent.
Most
s t u d i e s o f t h i s e n e r g y e x ch a n g e h a v e b e en a c h i e v e d u t i l i z i n g d e e r .
E m p iric a lly
th in k in g ,
so m ew hat s i m i l a r ,
d e e r and e l k w i n t e r m e t a b o l i s m
s h o u ld be
a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e n o t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s due t o
a c t i v i t y l e v e l s , n u t r i t i o n , and s iz e . T h e o r e tic a l ly , i t should be l e s s
expensive from th e e n e r g e t i c p o in t of view f o r a l a r g e homeotherm to
l i v e i n a low te m p e ra tu re th an i t would f o r a sm a ll one (B e a ll 1974).
Where d e e r f e e d and r e s t i s v e r y much a f u n c t i o n o f w e a t h e r
(G e is t 1981).
L o v eless (1964) h as observed mule d e e r f e e d in g u p -s lo p e
i n s u n l i g h t when a i r te m p e ra tu re i s below -17.8°C (0°F),
but seek in g
s h e l t e r d u r i n g p e r i o d s w i t h w in d a b o v e 40.2 k m /h r (25 mph) and
t e m p e r a t u r e s below - 9 . 3°C ( 15 °F ). B e a l l (1974) n o t e s t h a t e l k had
l i t t l e r e a c t i o n t o wind v e l o c i t i e s below 16.1 km /hr (10 mph), but did
s e e k s h e l t e r a t h i g h e r w ind v e l o c i t i e s ,
te m p e ra tu re .
d e p e n d in g on a m b ie n t a i r
When th e wind c h i l l f a c t o r approaches -2 8 .9 ° t o - 3 1.7 ° C
(-20° t o -25°F ), e lk seek s h e l t e r i n tim b e r or s t e e p - s i d e d draws.
He
f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t b o th t h e r m a l and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n a r e i m p o r t a n t
components o f th e e lk ’s w in te r environm ent.
7
To i l l u s t r a t e th e e f f e c t of d i e t and wind, Moen (1968) g e n e r a te s
h e a t l o s s c u rv es f o r a 50 kg w h i t e - t a i l e d d e e r ( Odocoileus v i r g i n i a n a )
s t a n d i n g i n an open f i e l d u n d e r c l e a r n o c t u r n a l s k i e s , w i t h an a i r
te m p e ra tu re o f -20°C.
He o b serv es t h a t a f u l l - f e d d eer can w ith s ta n d
wind v e l o c i t i e s over tw ic e as g r e a t a s a deer on a m aintenance d i e t .
A deer on a s t a r v a t i o n d i e t would be i n a n e g a tiv e energy balance a t a
w in d v e l o c i t y o f 2 mph.
C l e a r l y , h o m e o th e rm s m u st e a t t o s t a y warm
(Gordon I 968).
W inter Environment - Snow
Snow not only i n i t i a t e s movement toward w i n t e r range (Anderson
1954, G i l b e r t e t a l . 1970) and i n f l u e n c e s d i s p e r s a l fr o m w i n t e r i n g
a r e a s ( S t e v e n s 1966, Ward e t a l . 1 975), b u t i t s d e p t h and c o n d i t i o n
can be a dominant in f l u e n c e c o n t r o l l i n g both e lk and mule deer use of
an a r e a .
K e l s a l l (1969) s u g g e s t s t h a t l a r g e r a n i m a l s su ch a s moose
a re p h y s ic a lly capable of n e g o t i a t i n g deeper snow th an mule deer.
He
fo u n d t h a t m ovem ents o f d e e r and moose w e re s e r i o u s l y im peded when
snow d e p th s were a p p ro x im a te ly 70 p e rc e n t of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c h e s t
h e ig h ts .
The l a r g e r e lk would t h e r e f o r e be l e s s s e v e r e ly hampered by
snow c o n d itio n th an th e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t- le g g e d mule deer.
W ard
et
a l.
(1975)
sta te
th a t
th e
d e p th
and
p h y sic a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of snow d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n , m o v em en ts, and
fe e d in g h a b i t s o f e lk on t h e i r range.
Gaffney (1941) r e p o r t s s e v e r a l
f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e am ount o f snow i n w h ic h e l k can w i n t e r
su ccessfu lly :
I) th e com position, h e ig h t, and volume of th e p a l a t a b l e
v e g e t a t i o n ; 2 ) c o n d i t i o n o f th e snow - - p a c k e d , c r u s t e d , o r l o o s e ;
3) age and c o n d itio n o f th e a n im a ls; 4) topography.
He goes on to say
8
th e in f lu e n c e of topography i s no t g r e a t u n t i l snow re a c h e s a depth of
77 cm, but he a ls o p o i n t s o u t t h a t e lk can n e g o t i a t e 30 to 46 cm more
snow on th e f l a t s th a n on a h i l l s i d e .
B e a l l (1974) n o t e s t h a t e l k move fro m a r e a s when snow d e p t h s
r e a c h 46 cm, w h i l e A n d erso n (1954) r e p o r t s t h a t 15 t o 25 cm o f snow
can c a u s e e l k t o b e g in m i g r a t i n g o u t o f Y e llo w s to n e P ark .
A fte r
r e a c h i n g a w i n t e r r a n g e i n t h e L o lo N a t i o n a l F o r e s t , Bohne (1974)
o b s e r v e s t h a t e l k move f r e e l y o v e r much of t h e a r e a u n t i l snow i s
b e lly - d e e p or c ru s te d .
A lth o u g h p h y s i c a l l y c a p a b l e o f n e g o t i a t i n g
deep snow, e lk a p p a r e n tly avoid th e s e s i t u a t i o n s i f p o s s ib le .
I n w e s t e r n Canada, E d w ard s ( 1956) d e t e r m i n e s t h a t deep snow
a p p ea rs to be a m ajor f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g th e abundance of mule deer.
S e v e r i n g h a u s (I 947) c o n s i d e r s snow d e p t h t o be th e c r i t i c a l w e a t h e r
f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g w i n t e r m o r t a l i t y among w h i t e - t a i l e d d e e r i n t h e
A d iro n d a c k s .
He p o i n t s o u t t h e e f f e c t i s e s p e c i a l l y s e v e r e i f deep
snow r e m a i n s f o r p r o lo n g e d p e r i o d s l a t e i n t o t h e w i n t e r s e a s o n ,
b e c a u s e a d e e r ’s v i t a l i t y d e c l i n e s a s w i n t e r p r o g r e s s e s .
A d v e rse
w e ath e r i n March or A p ril w i l l have a more sev e re e f f e c t on deer th an
i f th o se c o n d itio n s occur e a r l i e r i n th e season.
Snow d e p t h s fro m 45.7 t o 50.8 cm e s s e n t i a l l y p r e c l u d e d e e r u se
( G ilb e r t e t a l .
1970,
Hayden-Wing 1979,
S everinghaus 1947).
S tric k ­
l a n d and Diem (1975) s u g g e s t t h a t a s l i t t l e a s 30 cm o f c r u s t e d snow
may c a u s e m ule d e e r t o a v o id an a r e a . I n Id a h o , Hayden-W ing (1979)
t h e o r i z e s t h a t deer use i s r e s t r i c t e d t p poorer q u a l i t y browse s i t e s
where reduced snow d e p th s allow them to b alance t h e i r energy budgets,
even though b e t t e r q u a l i t y browse i s nearby on deep snow s i t e s .
9
Forage and N u t r i t i o n
One o f t h e m a in c o n c l u s i o n s e m e r g in g fro m t h e s t u d y o f a n im a l
b eh av io r i s t h a t most a c t i v i t i e s u l t i m a t e l y can be r e l a t e d t o th e way
an a n im a l a c q u i r e s s u s t e n a n c e ( G e i s t 1981).
P r o t e i n and e n e r g y a r e
g e n e r a lly the n u t r i t i o n a l components o f fo ra g e c r i t i c a l l y l i m i t i n g t o
w ild
ru m in a n ts
( Wallmo e t a l .
1977).
B e l l (1971) e x p l a i n s
th e
ru m in an t d i g e s t i v e s t r a t e g y a s m axim izing the e f f i c i e n c y of p r o t e i n
u s e . a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e s u p e r a b u n d a n t s u p p ly o f e n e r g y fo u n d i n
p la n t
c arb o h y d rates.
H owever,
u sab le
p l a n t e n e r g y may a l s o
be
l i m i t i n g t o r u m i n a n t s on p o o r q u a l i t y w i n t e r r a n g e o r e a r l y s p r i n g
r a n g e o f l u s h , w a t e r y f e e d s h a v i n g low d ry m a t t e r c o n t e n t ( D ie tz
1965).
The t h r e e
c la s s e s of forage
are
c a te g o riz e d
by Cook (1972)
a c c o rd in g t o a b i l i t y t o f u l f i l l anim al n u t r i t i o n a l needs.
speaking,
G e n e ra lly
shrubs on w in te r ra n g e s f u r n i s h animal p r o t e i n re q u ire m e n ts
bu t a re d e c id e d ly low i n energy f o r anim al m etab o lism , w h ile g r a s s e s
a r e a good s o u r c e o f e n e rg y b u t a r e d e f i c i e n t i n o t h e r n u t r i t i o n a l
re q u ire m e n ts.
F o r b s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n t e r m e d i a t e b e tw e e n s h r u b s and
g r a s s e s in- m eetin g anim al w in te r p r o t e i n and energy re q u ire m e n ts.
D e sc rib in g e lk d i e t s , Hobbs e t a l . (1979) p r e s e n t th e n u t r i t i o n a l
i
p re d ic am e n t of f o r a g in g a n im a ls i n th e w in te r.
E x p la in in g an observed
in c r e a s e i n browse consumption a s w in te r p ro g resse d ,
th e a u th o rs no te
t h a t b e c a u s e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n p r o t e i n c o n t e n t . o f b ro w se and
g r a s s in c r e a s e d ,
th e r e l a t i v e b e n e f i t of consuming browse le a v e s and
stem s was g r e a t e r i n March th a n November.
A consequence of in c re a s e d
l i g n i n i n t a k e i s d e c l i n i n g dry m a tte r d i g e s t i b i l i t y .
10
The i m p l i c a t i o n o f Leach's (1956) and Cook's (1972) work s u g g e s ts
t h a t d e e r and g r a z i n g a n i m a l s i n g e n e r a l r e q u i r e a d i v e r s e d i e t t o
meet t h e i r n u t r i t i o n a l re q u ire m e n ts through th e w in te r .
Wallmo e t a l.
(I 977) and Mautz e t a l . (1976) s u g g e s t t h e n u t r i t i v e v a l u e o f f o r a g e
is
a re a listic
m eans o f d e t e r m i n i n g d e e r w i n t e r r a n g e c a r r y i n g
c a p a c ity .
Food H ab its
Food h a b i t s t u d i e s p o in t out t h a t d i e t s of e lk and mule deer a re
a s v a r ie d as the en v iro n m en ts they i n h a b i t .
Kufeld (1973) p ro v id e s a
c o m p i l a t i o n o f 48 e l k fo o d h a b i t s t u d i e s .
K u fe ld e t a l . (1973) h ave
compiled a v a i l a b l e in f o r m a t io n on food h a b i t s of Rocky Mountain mule
d e e r.
Elk a r e g e n e r a lly b ro w sers w est of th e C o n tin e n ta l Divide i n th e
h e a v ily f o r e s t e d w i n t e r i n g a r e a s h av in g dense s e r a i - s h r u b u n derqtory
com m unities (Lyon and J e n s e n 1980, McNeill 1972).
Browse may form as
much a s 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e w i n t e r d i e t (G a ffn e y 1941).
A m a jo r ity of
th e e lk ,w in te r d i e t i s comprised o f g r a s s e s on th e e a s t e r n s lo p e s of
th e Rocky Mountains where w in te r ra n g e s a r e more o p e n -g ra ss la n d (Greer
e t a l . 1970, K n ig h t 1970, C o n s ta n 1972).
As d e m o n s t r a t e d by M o r r i s
and Schw artz (1957), g r a s s may c o n s t i t u t e 100 p e rc e n t of th e e lk d i e t
on th e s e e a s t e r n w i n t e r ranges.
The m ule d e e r i s by p r e f e r e n c e a b r o w s in g a n i m a l d u r i n g t h e
w i n t e r (Cowan 1947), alth o u g h G e ist (1981) s u g g e s ts t h a t s t e r e o ty p i n g
them as s t r i c t l y b ro w sers i s a g ro s s m is ta k e , because d e er may brow^e
Z
i n some a re a s but n o t i n o th e rs .
A ctual browse consumed i s d eterm in ed
l a r g e l y by w h at i s a v a i l a b l e ( W i l k i n s 1957).
S t u d i e s show w i n t e r
11
d i e t s o f m ule d e e r c o n t a i n fro m 62 t o 78 p e r c e n t b ro w se on f o r e s t e d
w in te r
range
(L o v aa s
1958,
W ilk in s
1957,
C o n s ta n 1972).
On a
g r a s s la n d dominated w in te r range, M o rris and Schwartz (1957) show only
2.5 p e r c e n t b ro w se i n t h e d e e r d i e t , b u t a f o l l o w - u p s t u d y by N e l l i s
Z
and R oss (1969) on t h e same w i n t e r r a n g e i n d i c a t e s a s h i f t to w a r d s
h ig h e r browse consumption by deer.
N e l l i s and Ross conclude t h a t t h i s
i n c r e a s e i n b ro w se c o n s u m p t io n i s t h e r e s u l t o f a b e t t e r b a l a n c e
between deer numbers and th e amount of p r e f e r r e d fo r a g e f o llo w in g a
h e r d re d u c tio n .
Foraging S t r a t e g i e s
Mule d e e r i n c r e a s e t h e e n e r g y p o t e n t i a l l y a v a i l a b l e t o them by
s e l e c t i n g foods c a r e f u l l y (S h o rt 1981).
B e l l (1971) o b s e rv e s t h a t the
s m a l l r u m i n a n t f e e d s v e r y s e l e c t i v e l y on t h e mope e a s i l y d i g e s t e d
p la n t p a r t s high i n p r o t e i n , such a s le a v e s , f r u i t s , and sh o o ts which
m a x im iz e s n u t r i t i o n fro m a r e l a t i v e l y s p a r s e i n t a k e o f fo o d .
T h is
o b s e r v a tio n i s no t n e c e s s a r i l y v a l i d f o r l a r g e r ru m in a n ts which can
a f f o r d t o be somewhat l e s s s e l e c t i v e i n consuming g r e a t e r q u a n t i t i e s
of stem s and o th e r l e s s e a s i l y d ig e s t e d food p a r ts .
D eer p r e f e r t o f e e d w h e re t h e r e i s no snow, b u t t h e y may rem ove
snow w ith t h e i r m uzzles or by pawing w ith a f r o n t h oof (G e is t 1981).
E lk a r e c a p a b l e o f p a w in g t h r o u g h 9 1 t o 122 cm o f snow to f e e d
(G a ffn e y 1941,
S m ith 1 930),
r e s t r i c t i v e c o n d itio n s .
but
th e y
g e n e ra lly
feed in le s s
Of 19,067 e lk fe e d in g o b s e r v a tio n s by Houston
(1976), 94 p e rc e n t of the e lk were f e e d in g i n 30.5 cm of snow or l e s s .
Both d e er and e lk u t i l i z e w ind-exposed s i t e s ' and exposed h i l l s i d e s as
a c c e s s i b l e fe e d in g a r e a s (Grimm 1939, G i l b e r t e t a l . 1970).
12
The most a c t i v e d a i l y fe e d in g p e rio d s a r e e a r l y morning and l a t e
evening (B e a ll 1974, M organtini and Hudson 1979), but a n im a ls may a ls o
f e e d t h r o u g h t h e d a y tim e when s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n s c a u s e a s h o r t a g e o f
feed (Gaffney 1941).
Elk and d e er f o r a g in g a c t i v i t y w i l l o fte n o ccu r
i n t h e p r o d u c t i v e b o t t o m l a n d s and sage b ru s h - g r a s s la n d s i n DecemberJ a n u a r y b u t w i l l s h i f t u n d e r f o r e s t c o v e r t o e s c a p e snow c r u s t s and
s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t may d e v e lo p i n February-M arch (Houston 1976,
Knight 1970,
Constan 1972).
Cover
Cover of some form i s e s s e n t i a l to e lk and mule d eer f o r th e rm a l,
escape,
and s e c u r i t y re a so n s.
Cover f o r e lk i s g e n e r a lly c o n sid e re d
to be c o n ife ro u s f o r e s t (Black e t a l. 1976, Reynolds 1966).
Mule d eer
w i l l u se c o n i f e r o u s t r e e s a s w e l l a s s h r u b s f o r c o y e r a,n t h e w i n t e r
( L o v e l e s s 1 964).
G e i s t (1981) e x p l a i n s t h e v a l u e o f lo n g ,
stee p
h i l l s i d e s a s escape t e r r a i n f o r mule deer.
Elk a p p a r e n tly have a h ig h e r s e c u r i t y re q u ire m e n t f o r cover than
d e e r (Lyon and J e n s e n 1980).
85 p e r c e n t t r e e
s tu d y .
E lk f l e d i n t o a r e a s w i t h an a v e r a g e o f
canopy c o v e r a g e a s e s c a p e c o v e r ,in Coop's ( 19 7 1)
B la c k e t a l .
(1976) d e s c r i b e h i d i n g c o v e r a s v e g e t a t i o n
c a p a b l e o f c o n c e a l i n g 90 p e r c e n t o f an e l k fro m human view a t a
d is ta n c e equal to or l e s s than 6 1 m.
s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r elk ,
I f h id in g cover re q u ire m e n ts a r e
th e same cover should be more th a n adequate f o r
d e e r (B la c k e t a l . 1976).
B e a l l (1974) d e t e r m i n e s t h a t e l k p u r p o s e f u l l y s e l e c t b e d d in g
s i t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h e r m a l c o m f o r t r a n g e needed.,
D u rin g c o l d e r
p e r i o d s e l k t e n d t o bed on m ore o p e n s o u t h e r l y e x p o s u r e s d u r i n g t h e
13
day and i n s m a l l c lu m p s o f d e n s e f o r e s t n e a r t h e l a r g e s t t r e e s a t
n ig h t tp maximize the b e n e f i t s of s o l a r and th erm al r a d i a t i o n .
a m b ie n t
re v e rs e d .
te m p eratu res
in c re ase
th is
d iu rn a l
When
b e d d in g p a t t e r n
is
Black e t a l . (1976) d e s c rib e d e er w in te r th e rm a l covpr a s a
f o r e s t stan d o f a t l e a s t a a p lin g s i z e w ith 60 p e rc e n t grown clo su rg .
W allmo and Schoen (1981) m a i n t a i n t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e r m a l c o v e r i s an
im p o rta n t a sp e c t of fo r e s te d h a b ita t,
c u r r e n t k n o w le d g e d i c t a t e s
m anagem ent m u st be b a s e d on b ro a d p r i n c i p l e s r a t t i g r t h a n p r e c i s e
p re sc rip tio n s.
Many e l k c a l v e on t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e w i n t e r r a n g e pr
a d ja c e n t t r a n s i t i o n a l range (Johnson 1951, Coop 1971).
C alving cover
a s d e s c rib e d by Johnson (1951) c o n s i s t s o f s e c u r i t y cover f o r th e cpw
and c a l f i n q l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o s u c q u l e n b f o r a g e and w a t e r .
Faw n iq g
c o v e r i s v a g u e l y d e s c r i b e d by E i n a r s e n (1956) a s s h r u b o r t r e e c o v e r
w ith s u c c u le n t v e g e t a t i o n and w a ter nearby.
Human In f lu e n c e - D ir e c t C ontact
Elk and mule d eer a r e pever f a r from human in f l u e n c e even i n th p
" n a tu r a l" en v ironm ents s e t a s id e , i n p a r t , f o r t h e i r use.
Im pacts qf
human i n f l u e n c e
c a u s e d by
r a n g e frc m
th e te m p e ra ry d is tu r b a n c e
backpackers t c com plete h a b i t a t e l i m i n a t i c n c a u s e d by s u b d i v i s i c n s .
An a n i m a l ’ s
th re sh o ld
of
to le ra n c e
e s p e c i a l l y low i n t h e w i n t e r .
for
any d i s t u r b a n c e
can be
Reed (1981) a d v i s e s t h a t mule d e e r
s u f f e r a pronounced energy d e f i c i t i n s e v e re w i n t e r s and can t o l e r a t e
l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l energy c o s t from d is tu r b a n c e i f they a r e to su rv iv e .
The m o st o b v io u s and e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d human i m p a c t i s d i r e c t
i n d i v i d u a l c o n ta c t upon an a n im a l’s sp h ere of s e c u r i t y .
Ward (1976)
14
and Lemke (1975) b o th r e p o r t t h a t e l k p r e f e r t o s t a y a t l e a s t 800 m
from human a c t i v i t y , w hether r e c r e a t i o n a l or o th e rw is e .
p o in ts
out
th a t
h e av y
cover m in im iz e s
Daneke (1980)
a d istu rb in g
in flu en c e,
i n d i c a t i n g e lk u s u a lly move no f u r t h e r th a n n e c e s sa ry t o avoid people.
A n im a ls c a n a l s o become h a b i t u a t e d t o c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s ,
fis h e rm e n or s i g h t s e e i n g t o u r i s t s ,
su ch a s
y e t b o l t from an u n f a m i l i a r human
a c t i v i t y (Altman 1958, B ea ll .1974).
S e n s i t i v i t y to th e d is ta n c e a human can approach a w ild anim al,
w ith o u t c a u sin g i t
to f l e e ,
w i l l v a r y w i t h t h e ty p e o f h a b i t a t ,
s p e c i f i c e x p e rie n c e of th e i n d i v i d u a l or group,
and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s (Altman 1958).
and i t s R eproductive
Hayden-Wing (1979) d e s c r ib e s a
c o n t r a c t i o n o f e l k d i s t r i b u t i o n due t o human a c t i v i t y on a w i n t e r
r a n g e w h ich c o n s e q u e n t l y ex p an d e d a s so o n a s t h e human a c t i v i t y
ceased.
Animals soon r e t u r n t o normal a c t i v i t y a r e a s once a tem porary
d i s t u r b a n c e , s u c h a s h u n t e r s , h a s p a s s e d (Lemke 1975, Ward 1 976,
M org an tin i and Hudson 1979).
Human I n f lu e n c e - L iv esto c k Grazing
A l t e r a t i o n s of anim al h a b i t a t by man's a c t i v i t i e s can be sybtj.e
o r d e v a s t a t i n g , b u t any c h an g e i s p o t e n t i a l l y h a r m f u l i f w i l d l i f e
r e q u ire m e n ts i n an a r e a a r e m isunderstood.
its
sc a rc ity
and i n t e n s i t y
W inter range,
of a n im a l use,
is
because of
se n sitiv e
to la n d
management d e c is io n s (Black e t a l . 1976).
L i v e s t o c k g r a z i n g i s a l a n d m anagem ent p r a c t i c e t h a t can h a v e
s i g n i f i c a n t im p a c ts on w i l d l i f e use of w in te r ranges.
A m ajor a s p e c t
of the c o n f l i c t between d o m estic l i v e s t o c k g ra z in g and w ild u n g u la te s
i s c o m p e titio n f o r fo ra g e (Holechek 1980).
Even though b ig game and
15
l i v e s t o c k may not occupy a w in te r range c o n c u r re n tly ,
t h e y . may be i n
d i r e c t c o m p e t i t i o n f o r th e same f o r a g e p l a n t s ( J e n s e n e t a l . 1972).
Southern Colorado d a ta i n C o o p errid er (1982) show a 52 p e rc e n t d i e t a r y
o v e r l a p w i t h summer c a t t l e d i e t s and e l k w i n t e r - s p r i n g d i e t s .
The
same study r e p o r t s a 25 p e rc e n t o v e rla p between summer c a t t l e d i e t s
and d e e r w i n t e r - s p r i n g d i e t s .
Smith and J u la n d e r (1953) r e p o r t th%t
t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f d e e r and s h e e p d i e t s i s s u r e t o c a u s e c o n f l i c t
w herever the supply of p r e f e r r e d fo r a g e i s in a d e q u a te to s a t i s f y the
re q u ire m e n ts of both anim al sp e c ie s.
J e n s e n e t a l . (1972) c o n c lu d e t h a t s h e e p g r a z i n g i s c o m p a t i b l e
w ith b ig game w in te r use of s i m i l a r fo r a g e mix provided sheep s p r in g
g ra z in g i s r e s t r i c t e d
t o t h e e a r l y g r o w in g s e a s o n .
A nderson and
S c h e r z i n g e r (1975) a l s o a t t r i b u t e t h e i r s u c c e s s w i t h c a t t l e s p r i n g
g ra z in g on e lk w in te r range to removing c a t t l e a t th e c o r r e c t s ta g e qf
p l a n t p h e n o l o g i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
situ a tio n ,
How ever, i n a f o r a g e c o m p e t i t i v e
an i n te n s e l i v e s t o c k management system should be employed
i f w i l d l i f e a r e to b e n e f i t ; g r a z i n g v e g e t a t i o n a t c r i t i c a l g ro w th
s t a g e s c a u s e s n o t o n ly i n s u f f i c i e n t r e g r o w t h d u r i n g t h e g ro w in g
season,
but a ls o cau ses a d e c re a se i n p la n t growth th e f o llo w in g y e ar
(W ilso n e t a l .
1966,
B la isd e ll
and P e c h a n e c
1 9 49).
C e rta in
en v iro n m en ts may not be,conducive to a s p r i n g - w i n t e r g ra z in g schedule.
Cook and S to d d a rt (1963) i n d i c a t e t h a t a r i d s a l t - d e s e r t shrub ra p g e s
a r e b e s t a d a p t e d t o w i n t e r g r a z i n g and i f u sed o n ly i n t h e w i n t e r
would have about tw ic e th e g ra z in g c a p a c ity of s p r in g use.
C o m p e titio n f o r
space
c an a l s o
be an i m p o r t a n t
l i v e s t o c k - w i l d l i f e i n t e r a c t i o n (Lonner and Mackie 1983)*
fa c to r
in
Elk have
16
been seen g ra z in g i n p ro x im ity to c a t t l e (Ward e t a l. 1973, D elguidice
and Rodiek 1982), but i n p o r ti o n s o f Montana, Mackie (1970) and Lonner
(1975) m a in ta in t h a t e lk p r e f e r e n t i a l l y avoid a r e a s being c o n c u r re n tly
g r a z e d by c a t t l e and a r e a s w h e re c a t t l e g r a z i n g r e c e n t l y o c c u r r e d .
Mule d e er do not seem to e x h i b i t to e avoidance b eh av io r to l i v e s t o c k
t h a t e lk do (Compton 1975).
The s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n e l k u s e o f an O regon w i n t e r r a n g e
th r o u g h u se o f a c a t t l e
g r a z i n g s y s te m r e p o r t e d
S c h e rz in g e r (1975) w a rra n ts c l o s e r in s p e c tio n .
by A n d erso n and
A sso c ia ted mule d eer
u se d id n o t r e s p o n d , b u t e l k n u m b e rs i n c r e a s e d i n a 10- y e a r p e r i o d
from 320 t o 1190 a n i m a l s , w i t h a c o n c u r r e n t 2.6 t i m e s i n c r e a s e i n
c a ttle
an im a l
u n it
m o n th s
g razed .
These
re m a rk a b le
in c re a se s
a c c o m p a n ie d by r e p o r t e d e c o l o g i c a l im p r o v e m e n ts a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o
improvement o f w in te r fo r a g e q u a l i t y f o r elk .
Three d e t a i l s mentioned
i n t h e i r r e p o r t a r e i n t e r e s t i n g t o b ear i n ,mind: I) t h e study a re a i s
a n a tu r a l g ra s sla n d w ith s p a r s e ly o c c u rrin g sh ru b s,
2) th e a re a
r e c e i v e s 45.7 cm (18 in c h es) annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n w ith 1/3 o c c u r rin g
d u rin g the p la n t grow ing season, and 3) th e w in te r in g a r e a was clo sed
to a l l v e h ic l e t r a f f i c d u rin g e lk occupancy.
Houston (1971) s p e c u l a t e s t h a t t u r n - o f - t h e c e n tu ry high sagebrush
d e n s i t i e s i n t h e G a r d i n e r a r e a o f t h e n o r t h e r n Y e llo w s to n e w i n t e r
range were th e r e s u l t of d o m estic l i v e s t o c k grazin g .
He c o n sid e rs th,e
d e c li n e i n sag e b ru sh d e n s it y a f t e r l i v e s t o c k rem oval as a r e t u r n to
more " n a tu r a l" c o n d itio n s .
The G ard in er a r e a i s an a r i d s h ru b -s te p p e ,
w ith c e r t a i n p o r ti o n s o f th e w in te r range r e c e iv in g l e s s th a n 30.5 cm
(12 in c h e s ) annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n (Houston 1974).
Sm ith (1949) r e p o r t s
17
m ule d e e r g r a z i n g a l o n e c a u s e d a r e d u c t i o n i n s h r u b s on a n o r t h e r n
Utah s a g e b r u s h - g r a s s l a n d r a n g e ,
but l i v e s t o c k g ra z in g p lu s d eer
reduced h e rb s and in c r e a s e d shrubs.
Human In f lu e n c e - Logging
Logging p r a c t i c e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t .
Animals
h a b i t u a t e t o t h e a c t i v i t y o f l o g g i n g ( B e a l l 1974, H e rsh e y and Leege
1976), b u t p o t e n t i a l c h a n g e s i n h a b i t a t u se o c c u r a f t e r t h e l o g g i n g
o p e r a tio n i s completed.
V a rio u s s i l v i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s i n f l u e n c e
anim al p o s t- lo g g in g use.
J u x ta p o s itio n ,
s iz e ,
shape, and c l e a n l i n e s s
o f a t i m b e r c u t h e l p d e t e r m i n e a lo g g e d a r e a s u s e f u l n e s s t o a n i m a l s
(B eall 1974, Reynolds 1969, Marcum 1976, Lyon 1976).
R e p o r te d
in c re a s e d ,
b e n e fits
b e tte r q u a lity ,
of lo g g in g
to
deer
and
e lk
focus
on a n
fo rag e supply (R a ste r 1972, Pgngelly 1963).
H owever, a n i m a l u se o f c r e a t e d o p e n i n g s i s te m p e re d by t h e s e c u r i t y
l e v e l provided (Lyon and Jen se n 1980)
D e t r i m e n t a l i m p a c t s o f l o g g i n g c a n be many.
Removal o f t r e e
canopy by l o g g i n g i n c r e a s e s snow d e p t h s n o t i c e a b l y ( P e n g e l l y 1972).
E lk a v o id a n c e r e a c t i o n t o p o s t —l o g g i n g c o n d itio n s a r e a t t r i b u t e d by
B e a ll (1974) t o removal of choice bedding s i t e s and poor s la s h c le a n ­
up.
A d i s t i n c t n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n i s noted by Leege (1976) between
the p e rc en ta g e of summer range logged and e lk co u n ts on an adjoiningw in te r range.
Even-aged reg ro w th ,
when m ature f o r tim b e r y ie ld ,
and
i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e s o f t i m b e r r e g r o w t h a r e b o th i m p o v e r i s h e d d e e r
h a b i t a t (Wallmo and Schoen 1981).
Permanent e s ta b lis h m e n t of lo g g in g ro a d s and th e d ecreased h id in g
cover q u a l i t y of even-aged t i m b e r r o t a t i o n s h a s r e d u c e d e l k h a b i t a t
18
s e c u r i t y and f o r c e d m ore r e s t r i c t i v e h u n tin g r e g u l a t i o n s i n Montana
(L o n n er and Cada 1982).
H owever, e l k do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a v o id r o a d s
u n le s s t h e r e i s human a c t i v i t y on them (G ru e ll and Roby 1976, Daneke
1980).
Perry and Overly (1976) e s t i m a t e c o n s tr u c ti o n of ro ad s i n e lk
h a b i t a t can n e g a ti v e ly im pact more th a n 259 ha (640 a c rq s) o f h^hit&b
per
1.6 km (I
c o n sid e re d .
m ile )
of ro ad ,
u n le ss
p ro te c tiv e
g u id e lin e s
are
Marcum (1976) r e p o r t s a r e a s w h e re r o a d s a r e c l o s e d t o
v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c r e c e i v e g r e a t e r e l k u s e t h a n a r e a s w h e re r e a d s
rem ain open, e s p e c i a l l y d u rin g h u n tin g seasons.
B la c k e t a l . (1976) s u g g e s t c a r e f u l s t u d y o f e l k and d e e r u s e
b e fo re a d e c is io n i s ta k en t o a l t e r th e cover - p a r t i c u l a r l y th erm al
cover.
A w e ll used e lk w in te r ra n g e i s
a lim ite d ,
c ritic a lly
i m p o r t a n t a r e a end s h o u ld be p r o t e c t e d fro m t i m b e r h a r v e s t ( B e a l l
1974, Zahn 1974, Bohne 1974, Lemke 1975).
W ild lif e Ranee Impacts
Grazing a n im a ls e x e r t an in f l u e n c e upon th e p r o d u c tiv e ran g e lan d
s y s te m by t h e i r d e f o l i a t i o n o f p l a n t s th r o u g h e a t i n g apd p h y s i c a l
damage, by t h e i r d i g e s t i v e p r o c e s s e s , and by t h e i r m ovem ents (Heady
1975).
g ra z in g
A rev iew by E l l i s o n (I960) i n d i c a t e s t h a t any damage caused by
a n im a ls
depends
on i n t e n s i t y ,
frequency,
and t i m e
of
u t i l i z a t i o n and a ls o upon i n d i v i d u a l p la n t s p e c ie s re s p o n se to fo r a g e
removal.
P la n ts a r e l e a s t s u s c e p t i b l e to heavy c o n c e n tr a tio n s o f big
game a n i m a l s d u r i n g th e d o rm a n t w i n t e r p e r i o d b e c a u s e g r a z i n g o r
c l i p p i n g p l a n t s a f t e r t h e f o o d - s t o r a g e c y cle h as been completed h as
th e l e a s t e f f e c t on subsequent p ro d u c tio n (S to d d a rt e t a l . 1975).
19
B la isd e ll
and P e c h a n e c
(1949) r e p o r t l a t e
(O ctober 3 0 ) h a d a n e g l i g i b l e
effect
fa ll
c lip p in g
on b l u e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s ?
(A gropvron
s p ic a tu m ) and a r r o w l e a f
sa g itta ta ).
C e rta in sh ru b s can w ith s ta n d re p e a te d heavy u t i l i z a t i o n
d u rin g th e w in te r (S to d d a rt e t a l .
b a lsa m ro o t
(B alsa m o rh iz a
1975, Wright 1970) which may even
promote su bsequent in c r e a s e d fo ra g e p ro d u c tio n (G a rris o n 1953, W illa rd
and McKell 1973).
I n g e n e r a l , d e f o l i a t i o n e a r l y i n t h e g ro w in g s e a s o n , when b ig
game may s t i l l be on a w i n t e r r a n g e , i s l e s s d e t r i m e n t a l t h a n l a t e r
use (S to d d a rt e t a l.
1975).
Removal of v e g e t a t i v e p a r t s has th e l e a s t
e f f e c t d u rin g th e f i r s t 2^-3 weeks of the growing season,
a fte r
th ese
g ro w th
sta g e s
can be q u i t e
d e trim e n ta l
but c lip p in g
to a p la n t
( B l a i s d e l l and P e c h an e c 1949, M c I l v a n i e 1942, W ils o n e t a l . 1966}.
Cpok and S tq d d a rt (I960) found s p r in g d e f o l i a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y sev e re oq
b ig sa g e b ru sh ( A rte m is ia t r i d e n t a t a ) .
A l a t e s p r i n g d i s p e r s a l by
l a r g e numbers o f e lk and d e er could th u s be p o t e n t i a l l y damaging t p a
w in te r range.
,
G a ffn e y (1941) c o n s i d e r s a b o u t 8094 ha o f t h e S o u th F o rk o f t h e
F l a t h e a d e l k w i n t e r r a n g e t o be i n a b a d ly d e p l e t e d c o n d i t i o n .
He
r e p o r t s t h a t n o t o n ly a r e p r e f e r r e d b ro w se p l a n t s b e in g k i l l e d by
overuse but bunchgrasses a re being damaged from e a r l y s p r in g g razin g .
R o b i n e t t e e t , a l . (1952) a t t r i b u t e t h e l o s s o f 40 p e r c e n t o f one m ule
d e e r h e r d t o o v e r b r p w s e d r a n g e , w h ic h th e y co m pare t o a 10 p e r c e n t
l o s s o f d e er f o llo w in g a se v e re w in te r on good c o n d itio n browse range.
Many o f t h e e a r l y a u t h o r s d i s c u s s i n g t h e n o r t h e r n Y e llo w s to n e
w i n t e r r a n g e d e s c r i b e i t s d e t e r i o r a t e d c o n d i t i o n (Rush I 932, Grimm
20
1939,
K itta m s
195 3 ),
w hich
c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h 1968.
p ro m p te d l a r g e
e lk
herd
re d u c tio n s
A f t e r e x a m i n i n g o v e r 200 s i t e s ,
(1971) concluded t h a t very l i t t l e
H o u sto n
of th e n o rth e rn Y ellow stone w in te r
ran g e was i n a d e p le te d c o n d itio n .
I n s te a d ,
he c o n sid e re d r id g e to p s
and o t h e r h a r s h t o p o e d a p h i c s i t e s p r e v i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d a ^ u sp d ,
z o o t i c or topoedaphic clim a x c o n d itio n s (Houston 1974).
Y ellow stone
Park now m a in ta in s a p o lic y of n a t u r a l r e g u l a t i o n f o r i t s u n g u la te s,
e f t e r co ncluding t h a t h e r b iv o r e s a re no t cau sin g r e t r o g r e s s i v e changes
of v e g e t a t i o n on some Park w in te r ra n g e s (Cole 1978).
G razing a n im a ls can i n c r e a s e c o m p a c tio n o f s o i l s t o s u r p r i s i n g
d ep th s,
e s p e c i a l l y d u rin g s p r in g o r o th e r m o ist sea so n s (S to d d art e t
a l . 1975).
S o il com paction r e s t r i c t s s o i l m o is tu re , r o o t development,
and s e e d lin g emergence and v ig o r (S to d d a r t e t a l .
1966, McNeal and W eaver 1982).
"yarded"
e lk
or
m u le
deer
in
1975, Barton e t a,l.
P o s s i b l e s o i l c o m p a c tio n c a u s e d by
e a rly
sp rin g
is
an i n t e r e s t i n g ,
unexplored t o p i c .
An e s ti m a te d 47 p e r c e n t of th e e a r t h ’s la n d s u r f a c e i s ran g elan d
( W i l l i a m s e t a l . 1968).
p a rtly
The k n o w le d g e t o p r e s e r v e l a n d r e s o u r c e s
in v o lv e s e a r ly d e te c tio n of changes i n p l a n t s ,
a n im a ls,
and t h e s k i l l
ecosystem (S to d d a rt e t a l .
so il,
t o r e t u r n a m e a s u re o f s t a b i l i t y
1975).
and
to th e
Although e lk and mule deer w in te r
r a n g e s a r e o n ly a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f o u r r a n g e l a n d , t h e b e n e f i t s o f
p r e s e r v in g such a s m a ll lan d re s o u rc e a r e r e tu r n e d i n many ways (S w ift
1941, R o b in e tte e t a l . 1952, Reed 1981).
2
1
STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION
Location
The s tu d y a r e a i s l o c a t e d i n t h e G a l l a t i n N a t i o n a l F o r e s t n e a r
th e tow n o f G a r d i n e r i n s o u t h w e s t e r n M ontana ( F i g u r e I) .
area i s
bounded by L i t t l e
T r a i l C reek on t h e n o r t h ,
The s t u d y
Yellow s t o n e
N a t i o n a l P ark on th e s o u t h , and U. S. Highway 89 w h ic h f o l l o w s t h e
Y e llo w s to n e R i v e r on t h e w e s t.
Deep w i n t e r snow i n t h e A b saro k a
M o u n ta in s f o r m s t h e l e s s w e l l - d e f i n e d e a s t e r n b o u n d a ry .
The a r e a
encompassed c o n ta in s about 5830 ha (14,000 a c re s ) o f N a tio n al F o re s t
w ith a p p ro x im a te ly 1416 ha (3500 a c r e s ) of p r i v a t e la n d in te rm ix e d .
F ig u re I .
Panorama of th e G ard in er study a re a .
The p a n o ra m a i n F i g u r e I was t a k e n fro m w i t h i n Y e llo w s to n e
N a tio n al Park lo o k in g tow ards th e study area.
View i s to th e north on
t h e l e f t s i d e o f th e panoram a and t o t h e e a s t on t h e r i g h t s i d e .
G a r d i n e r i s l o c a t e d j u s t o u t o f t h e p i c t u r e on t h e l o w e r l e f t .
The
Park b o u n d ary l i n e f o l l o w s t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e R iv e r i n t h e im m e d ia te
foreground to th e f o r e s t e d rid g e on th e f a r r i g h t .
f o r e s t e d channel i n th e m id d l e - r i g h t of the panorama.
Bear Creek i s th e
2
2
G a r d i n e r i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e Y e llo w s to n e R i v e r V jalley a t 1615 m
(5300 f e e t ) e l e v a t i o n s u r r o u n d e d by p e a k s r e a c h i n g 3353 m (1 1 ,0 0 0
fe e t).
A r a i n shadow c r e a t e d by t h e s e m o u n ta in p e a k s m akes t h e
benches and a d ja c e n t s lo p e s of th e G ard in er v a l l e y a p r e f e r r e d w in te r
range f o r a n im a ls fo r c e d out of h ig h e r e l e v a t i o n s • by deepening saow.
M i g r a t o r y h e r d s s u m m e rin g i n Y e llo w s to n e P a rk and t h e a d j a c e n t
A b s a r o k a - B e a r t o o t h W i l d e r n e s s Area com prise th e m a jo r ity of an im a ls
u t i l i z i n g the study a re a.
A n im a ls a p p r o a c h i n g t h e G a r d i n e r v a l l e y a r r i v e a lo n g d e e p l y
en tre n ch e d stream ch annels or a d ja c e n t s te e p - s lo p e d mountain^ ii)tp a
r e l a t i v e l y w id e (4-6 km) v a l l e y o f open s l o p e s and b e n c h e s g r a d i n g
i n t o the Y ellow stone River.
Upon e n t e r i n g t h i s r e l a t i v e l y sn q w -free
v a l l e y t h e y a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h s a g e b r u s h - g r a s s c o v e r e d s l o p e s apd
t e r r a c e s w ith a s c a t t e r i n g of c o n if e r s .
The p r o t e p t i v e c o v e r o f
c o n tin o u s f o r e s t i s about 762 m (2500 f e e t ) above th e v a l l e y f l o o r on
t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f t h e w i n t e r i n g a r e a , w here snow c o v e r may be o v e r
I m deep.
A l a r g e p a r t o f th e a n im a ls' fo r a g in g tim e i s co nsequently
sp en t pn th e r e l a t i v e l y exposed sagebrush dominated ran g e d u rin g th e
w in te r.
T h erefo re,
a n im a ls
b e co m e e s p e c i a l l y
s u s c e p tib le to
e n v iro n m e n ta l s t r e s s e s .
Geology
T ran sfo rm atio n s
w h ich
o ccu rred
d u rin g
g e o lo g ic
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m a k in g t h e G a r d i n e r a r e a a w i n t e r r a n g e .
tim e s
are
G e o lo g ic
f o r c e s which formed th e v o lc a n ic Y ellow stone p l a te a u to th e south and
the s p e c t a c u l a r B e a rto o th Mountains to the e a s t had a s i g n i f i c a n t r p l e
23
i n sh ap in g th e G a rd in e r a re a .
The s t u d y a r e a a d j o i n s t h e s e two
d i s t i n c t g e o lo g ic u n its .
The B e a rto o th Mountains which shape th e study a r e a 's n o r t h e a s t e r n
b o u n d a ry r e s u l t fro m an u p l i f t e d g r a n i t i c b lo c k .
tre n d in g u p l i f t
(Foose e t a l .
T h is n o r t h w e s t
1961) fo r m s a r i d g e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
64.4 km (40 m i l e s ) l o n g w i t h more c o n t i n u o u s a r e a ab o v e 3048 m
(10,000 f e e t ) i n e l e v a t i o n t h a n a n y w h e re e l s e i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s
(Koch 1972).
In a d d i t i o n to pre-C am brian rocks,
p a le o z o ic lim e s to n e s
and d o lo m ite s c o n s t i t u t e th e prom inent backbone of th e se im p re s s iv e
m ountains ( R i t t e r 1967).
N e a r l y t h e e n t i r e B e a r t o o t h r a n g e i s o u t l i n e d by f a u l t s , one o f
w h ic h r u n s e a s t and w e s t th r o u g h t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n o f L i t t l e T r a i l
C reek ( F r a s e r e t a l . I 969),
T h is f a u l t a c t i o n i n l a t e C r e ta c e o u s o r
e a r l y T e r t i a r y t i m e s ( W ils o n 19 34), r a is e c ) th e &rea n o r t h o f t h e
fa u lt,
and dropped and f o ld e d th e a r e a to th e South.
The Yellow stone
^tiver flow ed over the dropped a re a c a rv in g o u t the broad v a l l e y of the
G ard in er w i n t e r range.
Lava flo w in g n o rth w e s t from th e v o lc a n ic Absaroka Mountains or
fro m f a r t h e r s o u t h i n t h e P ark " d u r i n g t h e P l i o c e n e (? ) epoch ponded
i n th e G a rd in er v a lle y " (F ra se r e t a l. 1969).
At l e a s t f i v e d i f f e r e n t
e p iso d e s surged i n t o th e v a l l e y and formed i t s broad b a s a l t benches.
On th e s e same benches P l e is to c e n e - a g e d t r a v e r t i n e was formed from ho t
c a r b o n ife ro u s s p r in g w ater.
Mining f o r t h i s d e c o r a tiv e ro ck began i n
t h e I 9 3 0 's ( W h ith o rn 1968) and s t i l l c o n t i n u e s on t h e w i n t e r r a n g e
today.
24
Three P le is to c e n e g l a c i a l advances f i r s t d e s c rib e d by B lackw elder
(1915) a f f e c t e d the Y ellow stone a re a.
The second and t h i r d of th e s e ,
t h e W isc o n so n B u l l Lake and P i n e d a l e , a p p l i e d f i n i s h i n g t o u c h e s to
topography of th e G ard in er w in te r range.
During P in e d a le tim e, m ajor
i p e s tre a m s from fo u r s o u rc es converged n e a r G a rd in er (P ie rc e 1979).
P i e r c e ' s (1979) w ork s u g g e s t s i c e w as a t l e a s t
1100 m t h i c k and
covered th e e n t i r e area.
C hoice f o r a g i n g s i t e s f o r w i n t e r i n g w i l d l i f e w e re c r e a t e d a s
g l a c i a l s c o u r in g and t i l l d e p o s it io n smoothed the s u r f a c e of Deckard
and T r a v e r tin e F l a t s .
Eroded outwash ch annels now p ro v id e r e l a t i v e l y
l e v e l f e e d in g and r e s t i n g a r e a s on the o th e rw is e s te e p m o u n tain sid es.
M o r a in a l
d e p o sits
d isse c te d
by
m e lt-w a te r
c h an n e ls
c o n trib u te
to p o g ra p h ic r e l i e f i n the exposed Bear Creek and Eagie Creek a re a s .
Climate
The G a r d i n e r a r e a i s
hum id w i t h a summer w a t e r d e f i c i e n c y
f o l l o w i n g T h o r n t h w a i t e ' s (1948) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
summers can be dry,
season m o is tu re .
and se v e re ,
A lth o u g h G a r d i n e r
c o n v en tio n al show ers o f t e n p ro v id e some growing
During w in te r months when sto rm s a r e more w idespread
snow may be 1-2 m deep i n nearby m ountains y e t ab sen t i n
G ard in er.
F a m e s ' (1975) a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n map of th e a r e a i l l u s t r a t e s
th e r a i n shadow c r e a te d i n th e G ard in er v a l l e y w ith ip o h y e ts c lo s e ly
f o ll o w i n g lane} c o n to u rs and g r e a t l y in c r e a s i n g wit% e le v a tio n .
Annual
p r e c i p i t a t i o n a l o n g t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e R iv e r g o rg e a v e r a g e s 30.5 cut
(12 i n c h e s ) , w h i l e t h e b a s a l t b e n c h e s g e t a b o u t 40.6 cm (16 in c h e s ) .
25
apd s u r r o u n d i n g m o u n t a i n s r e c e i v e up t o 76.1 cm (30 i n c h e s ) .
About
h a l f of t h i s m o is tu re g e n e r a lly f a l l s as snow.
The U. S. Weather Bureau s t a t i o n . a t Mammoth, l o c a t e d about 3po m
h ig h e r and 8 km upstream from G ard in er,
a f f o r d s a good a p p ro x im a tio n
of c o n d itio n s on th e G ardiner w in te r range.
Weatiier d a ta r^preppntinjg
94 y e a r s a c c u m u l a t i o n show a n n u a l a v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f 4 1.? cm
(16.25 i n c h e s )
w ith F eb ru ary
t h e d r i e s t m onth,
a v e r a g i n g 2.7 cm
(1.05 i n c h e s ) and J u n e t h e w e t t e s t , a v e r a g i n g 4.9 cm (1 .9 ? i n c h e s ) .
T e m p e r a tu r e d a t a r e v e a l a mean, a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e o f 4 .1 0 C (3 9 .9 °F)
w ith January the c o l d e s t month a v e ra g in g -7.4°C (18.7°F) and J u ly th e
w a rm e s t a v e r a g i n g 17.3°C (63.10F).
The g r o w in g s e a s o n i s fro m a b o u t m i d - A p r i l t o m id - S e p te m b e r
a l t h o u g h a k i l l i n g f r o s t can o c c u r d u r i n g any m onth.
F a ll re g ro w th
can be s u b s t a n t i a l d u r i n g a f a v o r a b l e " I n d i a n summer",
O v e ra ll,
c lim a te combined w ith o th e r e n v iro n m e n ta l f e a t u r e s of the study a r e a
c r e a t e s a d iv e r s e , y e t o f te n l i m i t i n g p l a n t environm ent.
Topography and S o i l s
T o p ography o f t h e a r e a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h ig h s t e e p - s l o p e d
m ountains w ith nearby r e l a t i v e l y f l a t or r o l l i n g benchlands d is s e c te d
by d e e p l y e n t r e n c h e d s t r e a m s ( F i g u r e 2 ).
th e Y ellow s t o n e R iv e r r i s e
E l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n 5 km o f
1100 m ab o v e th e r i v e r f l o o r .
S te e p ,
weakly d i s s e c t e d s lo p e s a r e p re v a le n t.
Slopes o f 50-60 p e rc e n t r i s e from th e Y ellow stone R iver apd Bear
Creek to th e 1-2 km wide b a s a l t bench which ex ten d s from th e P^rk l i n e
n o rth w e s t to L i t t l e T r a i l Creek.
From Deckard and T r a v e r tin e F l a t s ,
s l o p e s a g a i n r i s e a b r u p t l y i n t o t h e A b sa ro k a M o u n ta in s .
M o ra in a l,
F ig u re 2.
Map of the G ard in er study a re a showing to p o g ra p h ic f e a t u r e s
w ith e l e v a t i o n ex p re ssed i n m e te rs.
AbsoreKe - Beortootb
27
topography i n th e Eagle Creek a r e a p ro v id e s a more g ra d u a l a sc e n t i n t o
th e m ountains.
Most o f th e study a r e a h as a south and w est f a c i n g a sp e c t.
and e a s t f a c i n g s l o p e s a r e m a i n l y a l o n g s t r e a m
mountainous e le v a t i o n s .
North
c h a n n e l s and i n
Both convex and concave shaped s lo p e s o f 2-
70 p e rc e n t r i s e a r e e x i s t e n t .
S o il s '!
sco u rin g ,
i n t h e a r e a h a v e b e e n s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by g l a c i a l
m o ra in a l d e p o s itio n
and o u tw a sh
sed im e n ts.
P arent
l i t h o l o g i c m a t e r i a l s a r e a m i x t u r e o f g r a n i t e s and l i m e s t o n e s fro m
g l a c i a l a c t i o n i n a r e a s t o th e s o u t h and e a s t .
Cold w i n t e r s and d ry
summers c h a r a c t e r i z e th e s o i l c lim a te .
S o il r e g o l i t h depth ra n g e s from a few c e n t i m e t e r s i n g l a c i a l l y
scoured a r e a s to s e v e r a l m e te rs i n d e p o s i t i o n a l a r e a s .
G la c ia l t i l l
h as a sandy loam t e x t u r e and a high course frag m en t c o n te n t ra n g in g i n
s i z e fro m g r a v e l s t o b o u l d e r s 3 -4 m i n d i a m e t e r .
The s u r f a c e i s
c o v e r e d w i t h g r a n i t e e r r a t i c s w h ic h p r o b a b ly came fro m t h e B la c k
Canyon of the Y ellow stone (P ie r c e 1979).
Most o f th e s o i l s i n th e a r e a a r e M o llis o ls.
fro m l o a m y - s k e l e t a l A r i d i c H a p l o b o r o l l s
A rg ib o ro i l s .
to
S o il f a m i l i e s range
fin e -lo a m y
P a q h ic
T h e re a r e some I n c e p t i s o l s n e a r b e d r o c k o u t c r o p s and
A l f i s o l s i n f o r e s t e d a re a s .
V e g e ta tio n
T h e re i s a g r e a t d e a l o f p l a n t d i v e r s i t y i n t h e a r e a , from t h e
s e m i - a r i d v a l l e y f l o o r t o t h e s u b a l p i n e meadows.
A lijs t of p la n ts
S o i l s d a t a c o l l e c t e d by G a l l a t i n N. F., U. S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e s o i l s
crew, J u l y 1980.
2
8
id e n tifie d
on t h e
stu d y
area
is
p r e s e n t e d i n A p p e n d i x A.
A
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of v e g e ta tio n i s p re s e n te d in t h i s s e c tio n w ith a
q u a n tita tiv e
d e s c r ip ti o n of v e g e ta tiv e c o m p o sitio n p re s e n te d in
R e s u lts and D is c u s s io n .
Study a r e a v e g e t a t i o n i s p red o m in a n tly s a g e b ru s h -g ra s s la n d .
Over
54 p e rc e n t of th e a r e a i s open s a g e b ru s h -g ra s s ra n g e w ith a n o th e r 14
p e r c e n t h a v i n g s a g e b r u s h d o m in a n te d under s to r y and a s c a t t e r e d t r e e
o v e rsto ry .
About 27 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d y a r e a p r o v i d e s p r o t e c t i v e
o v e r s t o r y c o v e r o f c o n t i n u o u s f o r e s t w h ic h b e g i n s a t a b o u t 2300 m
e l e v a t i o n on the upper p e rip h e ry of th e w i n t e r i n g a re a.
The re m a in in g
5 p e rc e n t of th e a r e a has been c le a r c u t .
Due t o m i c r o s i t e v a r i a t i o n , v e g e t a t i o n a l m o s a i c s a r e c r e a t e d
m a i n l y by o r o g r a p h i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n , v a rie d topography and d i f f e r i n g
s o il p ro p e rtie s.
This m osaic p ro v id e s a fiigh degree o f v e g e t a t i o n a l
choice to a n im a ls w i n t e r i n g i n th e a re a.
V e g e ta tio n a l asymmetry i s
b e s t d e s c rib e d i n te rm s of dominant s h ru b s and g ra s s e s .
A w a te r l i m i t e d environm ent o c c u rs alo n g th e Y ellow stone R iver,
e s p e c i a l l y from G ardiner upstream t o th e mouth o f Bear Creek.
S a lin e
seep on th e s te e p h i l l s i d e s has c r e a te d a v e g e t a t i v e complex u s u a ll y
d e sc rib e d
as a s a l t
d esert
sh ru b
ty p e
d o m in a te d
by g re a se w o o d
( S a r o o b a t u s v e r m i c u l a t u s ) . s p i n y h o p s a g e ( G r a v ia s n i n o s a ). G a rd n e r
s a l t b u s h (A t r i n l e x g a r d n e r i ) and i n l a n d
s a ltg ra ss
(D is tic h lis
s t r i c t a ). T h is s i t e i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l b u t i t r e f l e c t s t h e m ost
r e s t r i c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p of p r e c i p i t a t i o n to e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n on th e
a re a .
29
T h ree s u b s p e c i e s o f b i g s a g e b r u s h ( A r t e m i s i a t r i d e n t a t a ^ and
b lack sag e b ru sh (A rte m is ia nova) occur sympat r i e a l l y but w ith v a ry in g
frequency.
These d e ep r o o t e d s h r u b t a x a e a c h h a v e an optim um n i c h e
but a l l a r e im p o r ta n t components of th e G ardiner w i n t e r range.
ra b b itb ru sh
(.Ch.ry_s_ot h a m n u s
Rubber
n a u s e o s u s )f g re e n ra b b itb ru sh
(C.
iei.s.cp.difl o r u s ) and gray h o rs e b ru sh ( T e tr a d v m i a c a n e s c e n s ) a l s o o c c u r
throughout th e sagebrush dom inated p o r t i o n s o f th e area.
Black sagebrush a p p ea rs to be c l o s e ly a s s o c i a t e d w ith q la c a re o u s
s o i l s over b u rie d t r a v e r t i n e .
This Idw shrub d o m in ates th e o v e rs to ry
on sandy t i l l co v erin g t r a v e r t i n e and i t i s a ls o found downslope from
th e se a re as.
Wyoming b ig s a g e b r u s h (A. t . w v o m in g e n s is l
i
s fp u n d on
deep sandy loam s o i l s r e s u l t i n g from g l a c i a l outwash and more r e c e n t l y
p la ce d a l l u v i a l s i l t s .
B asin big sagebrush (A.t.
b a s a l t o u tc ro p s ,
on lo w e r p o r ti o n s of s te e p s lo p e s o r i n o th e r a r e a s
where w a te r flow i s enhanced.
is
t r i d e n t a t a ) grows m ainly downslope of
Mountain big sagebrush (A.t. vasevana^
t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t and d o m in a n t s h r u b i n t h e a r e a .
It
g ro w s
throughout th e study a re a and i s th e only sagebrush taxon found above
2100 m.
B lu e b u n ch w h e a t g r a s s (A g ro o v ro n s p i c a t u m ) and I d a h o f e s c u e
CF e stu ca J^dahoensis) a r e th e two p r i n c i p a l g ra s s s p e c i e s on the study
a re a .
Dominance by e i t h e r s p e c ie s a p p e a rs to be r e l a t e d t o a g r e a t e r
to le r a n c e f o r a r i d i t y by blue bunch w h e a t g r a s s .
B lu e b u n c h d o m i n a t e s
lo w e r e l e v a t i o n s i t e s w ith s te e p south f a c in g ex p o su res, sandy s o i l or
o th e r m o is tu re l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s .
30
Id a h o f e s c u e i s t h e p r i n c i p a l g r a s s on n o r t h f a c i n g s l o p e s and
deep s i l t y s o i l s i t e s .
Idaho f e s c u e i s a prom inent g r a s s s p e c ie s a t
h ig h e r e l e v a t i o n s where m o is tu re a v a i l a b i l i t y i s no t l i m i t i n g .
Other
p ro m in en t g r a s s e s i n l o c a l a r e a s a re p r a i r i e J u n e g r a s s (K o e le ria
p y r a m i d a t a ), n e e d l e a n d t h r e a d ( S t i o a c o m a t a ) and I n d i a n r i c e g r a s s
(O rvzopsis h v m e n o id e s ).
S c a t t e r e d t r e e s a t l o w e r e l e v a t i o n s a r e m a i n l y Rocky M o u n ta in
j u n i p e r CJuriiperus scopulorum ) and lim b e r pine CPinus f l e & i l i s ) .
Near
stre a m s and a t h ig h e r e l e v a t i o n s Douglas f i r CPseudotsnga m e n zieslj I
i s th e d o m in a n t o v e r s t o r y s p e c i e s .
m ix tu re s o f Douglas f i r ,
Above 2300 m m u l t i p l e - s p e c i e s
w h ite b a rk p in e CPinus a l b l o a u l u a ) . Iodgepole
pine CPinus c o n t o r t s ) , and s u b a lp in e f i r CAbies l a s i o c a r p a ) occur.
D om inant
o v e rsto ry
and
u n d e rsto ry
d i f f e r e n t i a t e h a b i t a t ty p e s i n th e a re a .
v e g e ta tio n
w as u sed
to
P f i s t e r e t a l . (1977) w as
C
used as a r e fe re n c e f o r th e f o r e s t h a b i t a t ty p e s.
M u eg g ler and
S te w a r t's (1980) s h ru bland h a b i t a t ty p e s were m o d ified to in c lu d e the
s u b sp e c ie s o f b ig sag eb ru sh f o r th e n o n -f o re s te d p o r t i o n o f th e stuciy
area.
Animals
The study a re a i s p a r t o f th e n o r th e r n Y ellow stone w in te r range
w h ic h i s b e s t known f o r t h e l a r g e num ber o f m i g r a t i n g e l k u t i l i z i n g
it.
Most o f th e se e lk summer i n th e broad expanse o f Y ellow stone Park
w h ile a s m a l le r number summer i n th e mountainous A bsaroka-B eartooth
W ilderness.
b e g in t o
Small summer h erd s fo r c e d to lo w er e l e v a t i o n by f a l l snow
c o n g re g ate
on b e n c h e s and e x p o se d h i l l s i d e s
Y ellowstone R iv er and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s .
a lo n g
th e
These c o n g re g a tin g h e rd s a r e
31
c o l l e c t i v e l y known a s t h e n o r t h e r n Y e llo w s to n e e l k h e r d , w hich i s
c u r r e n t l y e s ti m a te d a t 16,000 an im als^ .
E lk may b e g i n a r r i v i n g i n t h e G a r d i n e r a r e a a s e a r l y a s m id -.
November.
Many more e l k c o n t i n u e t h e i r m i g r a t i o n i n s e a r c h o f l e s s
sev e re c o n d itio n s a s w in te r snows deepen.
Some may t r a v e l as f a r &s
113 km t o r e a c h t h e G a r d i p e r a r e a ( C r a i g h e a d ' e t a l .
mountainous snow may p e r s i s t w e ll i n t o th e s p rin g ,
1972).
Deep
however, by May,
m o st o f t h e e l k h a v e l e f t th e s t u d y a r e a , m oving b a ck to w a r d t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e summering a re a.
Elk m ig r a tio n i n l a r g e numbers beyond th e Park boundary may occur
one y e a r i n two or two y e a r s i n th r e e (Houston 1978).
Thus, th e r e may
be o n ly a few h u n d re d e l k , o r up t o f o u r to f i v e th o u s a n d , u t i l i z i n g
th e stu d y a r e a i n a g iv e n w in te r .
W in te r r a n g e n o r t h o f t h e P ark 1$
e s s e n t i a l i n more se v e re w i n t e r s t o compensate f o r u n a v a ila b le w in te r
r a n g e i n s i d e t h e P ark.
The v a l u e o f t h e s tu d y a r e a and t h e r e s t o f
t h e w i n t e r r a n g e n o r t h o f t h e P a rk t o e l k i s t h u s e v i d e n t . However,
th e a r e a ' s a b i l i t y t o f u r n i s h much n e ed e d w i n t e r h a b i t a t i s a l s o
im p o r ta n t to o th e r l a r g e anim al s p e c ie s .
Fo u r h u n d re d
o r m ore m ule
deer
u t i l i z i n g th e G a rd in er w in te r range.
w in te r s on th e study a re a ,
y e a r,
are
c o n sp ic u o u s r e s i d e n t s
Elk may be more numerous most
but d e e r m ig ra te to th e w i n t e r range each
a lth o u g h t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i s dependent on w i n t e r s e v e r ity .
Dominance o f t h e a r e a by e l k h a s d e t r a c t e d fro m t h e a t t e n t i o n
t h a t m ight o th e rw is e have fo cu sed on t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t d e er p o p u la tio n .
2 D eS p ain , Don. R e s e a r c h B i o l o g i s t , N a t i o n a l P a rk S e r v i c e , p e r s o n a l
communication, O ctober 1982.
32
Most o f t h e d e e r a p p e a r t o s p e n d su m m ers i n t h e n e a r b y m o u n ta in s o f
th e W ild ern ess, th e Park or the study a r e a i t s e l f .
They u s u a lly bogi'n
to a r r i v e on th e study a re a around th e f i r s t o f October and may rem ain
through J u n e .
Other b ig game a n im a ls o c c a s io n a ll y fre q u e n t th e G ardiner w in te r
range as p a r t - t i m e r e s i d e n t s .
S m a ll b an d s o f b i g h o r n s h e e p ( O vis
.canadensis) can be found w i n t e r i n g alo n g th e b l u f f s o f th e Yellow stone
River and Bear Creek around Deckard F l a t s (F ig u re I).
These sheep a re
p a r t o f t h e n o r t h e r n P a rk s h e e p h e r d w h ic h c u r r e n t l y n u m b ers a ro u n d
100 a n i m a l s b u t can num ber t w i c e t h a t many.
An o c c a s i o n a l moose
( A lo e s a l o e s ) may w an d er a c r o s s t h e a r e a , a l t h o u g h i t seld o m s t a y s
long.
During deep snow w in te r s ,
a few b iso n (Bison bison) m ig r a tin g
^own th e Y ellow stone R iver v a l l e y may c r o s s th e Park boundary onto £h§
Deckard F l a t s a re a and re m a in f o r s h o r t p e rio d s of tim e.
A d d itio n a l l a r g e anim al s p e c ie s p r e s e n t on th e a re a can have an
i n d i r e c t in f l u e n c e on th e range re s o u rc e .
G riz z ly b e a r (Ursus a r c to s )
and b lack b e ar (Ul am ericanus) a r e p r e s e n t i n th e f a l l and s p r in g when
th e l a r g e h e r b i v o r e s a r e a l s o on t h e w i n t e r r a n g e .
l a t r a n s ),
C oyote ( Canus
b o b c a t (Lynx r u f u s ) and m o u n ta in l i o n ( F e l l s c o n c o l o r )
c o m p le te t h e d i v e r s e l i s t o f l a r g e a n i m a l s p e c i e s p r e s e n t on t h i s
w in te r range.
Human I n f lu e n c e s
Man's
a c t i v i t i e s h av e h i s t o r i c a l l y
i n f r i n g e d on t r a d i t i o n a l
w i n t e r r a n g e i n t h e G a r d i n e r a r e a (A p p en d ix B).
Man's im p a c t on t h e
w i n t e r r a n g e i s e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e to w n o f G a r d i n e r i t s e l f and t h e
Park i t s e rv e s .
G ardiner,' a town of ab o u t 350 p eople, and the nearby
33
m in in g co m m u n ity o f J a r d i n e w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f a b o u t 30,
lie
d i r e c t l y .in the path of a n im a ls m ig r a tin g ou t of th e Park an£ nearby
m ountains.
Animals must no t only m ig r a te around t h e s e two towns, but
they a re a ls o c o n fro n te d w ith thousands of people a t t r a c t e d each y e a r
to t h i s s c e n ic a r e a to view w ild a n im a ls.
G ard in er had been a n , i n t e g r a l e x te n s io n o f Y ellow stone Park f o r
t h r e e d e c a d e s when T h e o d o re R o o s e v e l t d e d i c a t e d t h e P a r k 's n o r t h
e n tra n c e
th e re
in
1903.
As t h e
P a r k 's
n o rth
e n tra n c e ,
it
has
accommodated m i l l i o n s o f people t r a v e l l i n g through th e w o rld 's o l d e s t
n a tio n a l
park.
T h is
c lo se
a sso c ia tio n
w ith
th e
P a rk n o t
o n ly
in f l u e n c e s G a rd in e r's economy, but i t a l s o h e lp s d i c t a t e management o f
m ig ra to ry a n im a ls on a d ja c e n t p u b lic la n d s.
Management
At L. H a in e s (1963) d e s c r i b e s t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f Y e llo w s tq n e
Park a s one b e s e t w ith o f f i c i a l in d e c i s io n .
N e v e rth e le s s , d u rin g the
P a r k 's i n f a n c y t h e r e w e re g r e a t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p r e s e r v i n g a n i m a l
p o p u la tio n s r e m in is c e n t of the once l a r g e Great P l a i n s h erd s.
soon
e v id e n t
th a t
e lk
Y ellowstone ecosystem .
o th e r
u n g u la te
w as
th e
m o st
p ro m in en t
sp ec ie s
I t was
in
th e
Management was d i r e c t e d a t i n c r e a s i n g e lk and
n um bers
w ith
little
a tte n tio n
g iv e n
to
th e
consequences.
Around th e t u r n of th e c e n tu ry , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s began to re c o g n iz e
th a t
s e n sitiv e
m o u n ta in h a b i t a t
c o u ld n o t w i t h s t a n d
th e
range
d e t e r i o r a t i n g im p a c ts o f l i v e s t o c k g ra z in g , i n a d d i t i o n to g ra z in g by
l a r g e numbers o f w i l d l i f e ,
A Park s u p e r in te n d e n t's r e p o r t from 1905
(Rush 1932) m entions th e co m p le tio n o f a fen ce alo n g t h e G a rd in e r-P a rk
I
34
l i n e e x c lu d in g free -rran g in g l i v e s t o c k from a d ja c e n t Park w in te r range.
T h e r e a f t e r , p e o p l e w e re amazed to s e e w i l d l i f e a p p e a r i n g on w i n t e r
i
range which i n p re v io u s y e a r s had been denuded by l i v e s t o c k .
W i n t e r r a n g e n o r t h o f t h e P a rk w as p e r c e i v e d a s c r i t i q a l t o
w i l d l i f e and e f f o r t s b egan i n 1917 t o s e c u r e t h i s l a n d f o r p u b l i c
management.
I n 1926, a l l p u b lic la n d s i n the a re a w ere w i t h e r awrji from
hom esteading and m ining and w ere p ro claim ed N a tio n a l F o re s t.
E ffo rts
were made to purchase or tr a d e f o r p r i v a t e la n d h o ld in g s to c o n s o lid a te
p u b lic la n d s on th e c r u c i a l w in te r in g a re a , a p r a c t i c e which continue^
today.
Removal of most g ra z in g p e r m its on w in te r ra n g e la n d s further-
a ss u re d fo ra g e a v a i l a b i l i t y .
Today, l i v e s t o c k g r a z in g i s n o t allp w ed
!
on N a tio n al F o r e s t la n d s i n the study a re a.
M anagement o f t h e a r e a h a s o c c a s i o n a l l y r e l i e d on c o n c e p t s
borrowed from th e l i v e s t o c k i n d u s tr y .
C o n tract h u n te r s were h ire d by
th e N a tio n a l Park S e rv ic e to e x te r m in a te p r e d a to r s " th re a te n in g " th e
j
e x is te n c e of o t h e r w i l d l i f e both i n and o u ts id e th e Park (Wonderland
1905).
Consequently,
th e r e were very few,
w o lv e s i n t h e a r e a by t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 's.
i f any,
m ountain l i o n and
S a ltin g to in flu e n c e b e tte r
d i s t r i b u t i o n and w in te r hay fe e d in g w ere continued i n t o th e 1930's f o r
th e in te n d e d a d v an tag e o f a l l u n g u la te s .
The o n ly r e a l b e n e f i t o f
th e se management e f f o r t s was th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t w ild u n g u la te s do
n o t alw ays respond t o management o r m a n ip u la tio n as d o m e stic sto ck tfo.
‘i
M anagement o f t h e w i n t e r r a n g e h a s m a in ly b e e n d i r e c t e d a t
r e s t o r i n g d e p l e t e d r a n g e by c o n t r o l l i n g e l k n u m b e rs.
The N a t i o n a l
P a rk S e r v i c e , U. S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e , and M ontana D e p a r tm e n t o f F i s h ,
W i l d l i f e and Parks a r e a l l in v o lv e d w ith some a s p e c t of the a n im a ls'
I
35
liv e s .
S tu d y a r e a l a n d m anagem ent i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e U. S. F o r e s t
S e r v i c e , w h i l e a n i m a l s on t h o s e l a n d s a r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e
Montana Department of F ish , W i l d l i f e and Parks.
S p o rt h u n tin g h a s always been the a c c e p te d method f o r c o n t r o l l i n g
n u m b e rs o f e l k m i g r a t i n g o u t s i d e t h e P ark .
For many y e a r s l a r g e
groups o f e lk were o c c a s io n a ll y caught on the open sagebrush f l a t s of
t h e w i n t e r r a n g e , by u n r e s t r i c t e d
n u m b ers o f h u n te r s .
These
d i s a g r e e a b l e e p i s o d e s g ave r i s e t o th e n o t o r i o u s G a r d i n e r " f i r i n g
l i n e " s t o r i e s s u rro u n d in g th e hunt.
Since 1963, a l a t e season p ro v id in g 2-4 day weekend e l k h u n ts has
o fte n
been a u th o r iz e d
h o ld e rs3 .
d istric t,
in
th e
G a rd in e r a re a f o r
sp e c ia l
p e rm it
A l i m i t e d num ber o f h u n t e r s i s a l l o w e d on t h e h u n t i n g
w h ic h i n c l u d e s
th e
s tu d y a r e a ,
m a k in g t h e h u n t more
a e s t h e t i c and l e s s d i s r u p t i v e f o r w i n t e r i n g a n im a ls.
Hunter su cc e ss
f o r th e l a s t e i g h t y e a r s (1975-1983) ra n g e s from 11 t o 87 p e rc e n t,
and
d u rin g t h i s p e rio d 7199 h u n te r s have averaged 67 p e r c e n t success.
I n a d d i t i o n t o m o n i t o r i n g r a n g e t r e n d s , l a n d m anagem ent on t h e
study a re a h a s in c lu d e d lo g g in g on th e p e rip h e ry of th e w in te r range
a t t h e h e ad o f E a g le C reek and i n B e a r Creek.
A lso , m ore t h a n 809 h a
(2000 a c r e s ) o f s a g e b r u s h r a n g e h a s b e en b u rn e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t f o u r
y e a r s by t h e U. S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e w i t h th e o b j e c t i v e o f im p r o v in g
range c o n d itio n s f o r w i l d l i f e by i n c r e a s i n g w in te r ran g e fo rag e (Tyeris
1981).
The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d w i t h t h e
F o s s , A rn o ld .
W i l d l i f e B i o l o g i s t , M ontana D e p a r t m e n t o f F i s h ,
W i l d l i f e and Parks, p e rso n al communication, A p ril 1983.
36
re su lts
of
th is
stu d y .
By i n c r e a s i n g a v a i l a b l e f o r a g e
through
burning, i t i s hoped more a n im a ls w i l l rem ain on p u b lic la n d s lo n g e r
th e re b y d e c r e a s in g th e im pact on p r i v a t e l y owned -segments.
37
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Data C o lle c tio n
T h is s t u d y was i n i t i a t e d i n J u n e , 1980, a s a s u r v e y o f e l k and
mule d e er w in te r ran g e, but s h o r t l y evolved i n t o an-a n a l y s i s of anim al
use.
F i e l d w ork was c o m p le te d i n J u n e , 1982, w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y
e l e v e n m o n th s s p e n t on t h e s t u d y a r e a d u r i n g t h i s tw o y e a r p e r i o d .
Almost nine months o f f i e l d work w ere conducted d u rin g th e summer a,nd
f a l l p e rio d s w ith th e remaining; two months sp en t d u rin g th e w in te r and
s p r in g p e rio d s .
D e f i n i t e e l k ,and m u le d e e r u se p a t t e r n s w e re d i s c e r n i b l e upon
i n i t i a l i n s p e c t i o n of th e study a re a.
These f in d i n g s gave r i s e to t h e
h y p o th e s is t h a t an a n im a ls' p re fe re n c e of one a r e a over a n o th er m ight
be measured i n d i r e c t l y by I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a s s o c i a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l
p a ra m ete rs.
R e a l i z i n g a m u l t i t u d e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s can
i n f l u e n c e an im a l use,
th e s t u d y m e th o d s w ere d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u re
anim al a s s o c i a t i o n w ith v e g e t a t i o n and Iandform p a ra m e te rs.
\ Th®^s t Udy a r e a wa6 d e l i n e a t e d by h a b i t a t ty p e a f t e r e x t e n s i v e
v
survey o f a e r i a l photographs and ground re c o n n a issa n c e .
H a b ita t ty p e s
re c o g n ize d a re c o n tin u o u s over a t l e a s t 160 ha alth o u g h eco to n es and
m ic ro site
in c lu sio n s
e x ist
w ith in
th e
d iffe re n t h a b ita t
ty p es,
Shrublaqd h a b i t a t ty p es d e sc rib e d by Mueggler and S te w a r t (1980) were
m o d ified t o in c lu d e th e th r e e s u b s p e c ie s of big sag eb ru sh p re s e n t, i n
o r d e r t o c o n s i d e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n a n i m a l u s e w i t h i n and among t h e
s a g e b r u s h ta x o n .
M u e g g le r and S t e w a r t ' s (1980) r e s e a r c h c l a s s i f i e s
38
g r a s s l a n d s and s h r u b l a n d s o f t h e w e s t e r n t h i r d o f M ontana b a se d on
p o te n tia l n a tu ra l v eg eta tio n .
T w e n ty -e ig h t permanent t r a n s e c t s t o sample v e g e t a t i o n and anim al
use were e s t a b l i s h e d d u rin g the summer o f 1980.
A s t r a t i f i e d random
sam p lin g p ro c e d u re was employed t o l o c a t e t r a n s e c t s i t e s . '
w e re
tra n sv e rse ly
th roughout th e a re a .
p la c e d
every
400
m a lo n g
Transects,
n o rth -so u th
lin e s
These n o r th - s o u th l i n e s w ere ap p ro x im a te ly 800
t o 1600 m a p a r t , moving from e a s t t o w e st. ,
The 30.5 m l i n e i n t e r c e p t employed (F ig u re 3) was a m o d if ic a tio n
o f C a n f ie ld 's (1941) method.
c i r c u l a r hoops.
Shrub d e n s it y p l o t s w ere 89 dm^(9.6 f t 2 )
P e l l e t - g r o u p p l o t s were 3.6 m i n r a d i u s (1/100 a c r e ) .
A fte r b a s e l i n e v e g e t a t i o n i n f o r m a t io n was c o l l e c t e d i n 1980, th e
f o c u s o f f i e l d w ork a t t e m p t e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h a s s o c i a t e d anim al use.
A nim al u s e w as o b s e r v e d d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r s o f 1980-81 and 19 8 1 -8 2 .
S e l e c t e d p e r m a n e n t t r a n s e c t s w e re re -e x a m in e d d u rin g th e summer of
1981 to d e te rm in e y e a r - t o - y e a r v a r i a t i o n i n g r a s s and f o r b production.
T h i r t y - s i x b e l t t r a n s e c t s m o d ified from a d e s c r i p t i o n by Groh and Dore
(1945) were u t i l i z e d d u rin g the summer' o f 1981 to p ro v id e a d d i t i o n a l
browse and p e l l e t - g r o u p in fo r m a tio n .
V e g e ta tio n Measurements
To d e t e r m i n e v e g e t a t i o n p o t e n t i a l l y
a v a ila b le
to w in te rin g
a n im a ls , v e g e t a t i o n i n f o r m a t io n was g a th e re d a f t e r th e f i r s t o f J u ly
and c o n t i n u e d u n t i l snow becam e l i m i t i n g .
G r a s s e s h ad s e t s e e d and
m o s t f o r b s h a d f l o w e r e d by t h e f i r s t o f J u l y .
C o n s e q u e n tly , many
e a r l y f lo w e r in g f o r b s w ere s e n e s c e n t and sam pling d id n o t provide a
r e lia b le e stim a te o f ,th e ir e a r lie r s ta tu s.
S agebrush" p l a n t s w,ere.
39
F ig u re 3. T ran sect f o r v e g e t a t i o n and p e l l e t - g r o u p a n a l y s i s .
P e lle t- g r o u p
p lo t
( 4 0 .7 m )
25° N
E ast
North
Shrub d e n s i t y
p lo t
(89 dm )
40
e s s e n t i a l l y i n w in te r f o l i a g e h av in g l o s t most ephemeral le a v e s except
those on flo w e r s t a l k s (Qepuit and C ald w ell 1973).
P la n t cover was re c o rd ed by s p e c ie s l i n e i n t e r c e p t to th e n e a r e s t
2 mm.
G ra s s and f o rb c o v e r was o b t a i n e d fro m b a s a l l i n e i n t e r c e p t ,
Shrub canopy cover i n t e r c e p t i o n was measured and c o n sid e re d continuous
i f canopy o p e n i n g s w e re l e s s t h a n o r e q u a l t o 15 cm.
A m e a s u re o f
l e a f i n t e r c e p t i o n was noted f o r decumbent,
mat fo rm in g s p e c ie s ,
such
a s d e n s e c lu b m o s s ( S e l a g i n e l l a d e n s a ).
A plumb bob was u s e d t o
a c c u r a t e l y a s s e s s i n t e r c e p t s on s t e e p s l o p e s o r when t h e l i n e was
e le v a te d due to s h ru b s.
L itte r,
recorded.
ro ck ,
g ravel
and b a r e g ro u n d i n t e r c e p t s w e re a l s o
Dead v e g e t a t i v e o r a n i m a l m a t e r i a l f o r m i n g a p r o t e c t i v e
cover on th e s o i l s u rfa c e was c o n sid e re d l i t t e r .
Rock w^s dqnotjed a s
any mass g r e a t e r th a n 5 cm i n w id th w h ile g ra v e l was d e fin e d as stony
m a t e r i a l from 2 mm to 5 cm i n w id th .
Annual p r o d u c t i o n o f g r a s s and f o rb s p e c i e s w as d e t e r m i n e d by
c lip p in g 10 r e c t a n g u l a r p l o t s o f 18.6 dm2 (2 f t 2) a t 3.05 m i n t e r v a l s
a lo n g
th e
lin e
r
used f o r
c o l l e c t i o n of p la n t i n t e r c e p t i o n d a ta .
C lip p e d p l a n t m a t e r i a l was o v e n - d r i e d a t 59° C and w e ig h e d tP t h e
n e a r e s t .01 gm.
'
>
Shrub d e n s it y was determ in ed by co u n tin g only th q s e p l a n t s ro o te d
w i t h i n the shrub d e n s it y p l o t (F ig u re 3). ■Annual shrub p ro d u c tio n was
i n t i a l l y c a l c u l a t e d by c lip p in g c u r r e n t annual growth and w eighing th e
g reen c lip p in g s .
Leaders of deciduous sh ru b s e n co u n tered were c lip p e d
and s t r i p p e d o f le a v e s t o e s t i m a t e w in te r fo rag e p ro d u ctio n .
41
A p r o f ic ie n c y i n e s t i m a t i n g g re e n w e ig h t of shrubs was developed
a f t e r c lip p in g s e v e ra l p l a n t s from each shrub taxon.
Ocular e s t i m a t e s
o f p r o d u c t i o n w e re t h e n made by g r o u p i n g l e a v e s o f e v e r g r e e n s h r u b s
and a l l c u r r e n t y e a r l e a d e r s i n t o 5 gm in c re m e n ts.
P e r io d ic c lip p in g
of e n t i r e shrubs showed th e e s t i m a t e s to be w i t h i n 10 p e rc e n t of th e
a c t u a l w eight.
Clipped shrub p ro d u c tio n was oven d r i e d f o r co n v ersio n
of g re e n w eig h t e s t i m a t e s to dry weight.
T h ree -d im e n sio n al crown m easurements as used by R itte n h o u se and
S neva ( 1977) f o r Wyoming b ig s a g e b r u s h w e re r e c o r d e d f o r a l l s h r u b s
e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h i n th e s h r u b d e n s i t y p l o t s .
These s h r u b s w e re a l s o
a ssig n e d t o one of th r e e browse form c l a s s e s d eterm in ed by p a s t anim al
use.
The fo rm c l a s s e s w ere none t o l i g h t ,
m o d e ra te,
and h e a v y ,
depending on second y e a r or o ld e r grow th e x h i b i t i n g about 0-20 p e rc e n t
p a s t u s e , 21-60 p e r c e n t p a s t u s e , and g r e a t e r th a n 60 p e r c e n t p a s t
use,
resp ectiv ely .
The 1981 b e l t t r a n s e c t s em p lo y e d a 30.5 m l i n e .
Shrub p l a n t s
ro o te d w i t h i n 1.5 m on e i t h e r s id e of th e l i n e were re c o rd e d to o b ta in
d en sity .
Crown measurements were a l s o re c o rd ed f o r th e s e p la n ts .
' Permanent t r a n s e c t s from 1980, r e p r e s e n t i n g a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f
p r o d u c t i o n v a l u e s i n e a c h h a b i t a t t y p e , w ere r e c l i p p e d i n 1981 to
e s t i m a t e annual v a r i a t i o n i n g r a s s and f o rb p r o d u c t i o n .
V e g e ta tio n
cover and browse d e n s i t i e s were assumed t o be s i m i l a r t o th o se of the
p re v io u s y e a r and were no t re-m easu red .
T r a n s e c ts were not e s t a b l i s h e d i n th e f o r e s t h a b i t a t type u n t i l
1981.
V e g e ta tio n m easurements t a k e n on a l l p r e v i o u s t r a n s e c t s w e re
r e c o r d e d f o r t h e f o r e s t h a b i t a t ty p e .
A d d itio n a lly .,
t r e e canopy
42
c o v e r a g e was m e a s u re d u s i n g a s p h e r i c a l d e n s i o m e t e r d e s c r i b e d by
Lemmon (I 956).
Animal Use Measurements
Animal use i n t h i s study was c o n sid e re d a f u n c t i o n o f tim e sp en t
by e l k and m ule d e e r on v a r i o u s h a b i t a t t y p e s i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r
d iu rn al a c t i v i t i e s .
Consequently, knowing what th o se a c t i v i t i e s w ere
became a n e c e s sa ry component of the study.
Due to the n a tu re of t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , d e te r m in in g anim al w in te r use p a t t e r n s in v o lv e d summer
s u rv e y s when few a n im a ls were p r e s e n t on th e w in te r ran g e and p e r io d ic
w in te r o b s e r v a tio n s when anim als were g e n e r a lly abundant.
D u rin g t h e summer and f a l l s u r v e y s , p e l l e t - g r o u p c o u n t s w e re
r e l i e d on f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f u s e .
F o u r 40.25 m2 p e l l e t -
g ro u p p l o t s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e p e r m a n e n t t r a n s e c t s ( F i g u r e 3) w e re
used a t sam pling s i t e s d u rin g th e 1980 s u m m e r-fa ll p e rio d .
In 1981,
p e l l e t - g r o u p c o u n ts were conducted w i t h i n th e 92.9 m2 b e l t t r a n s e c t s
adapted f o r browse d e n s ity counts.
During both y e a r s ,
a t ' l e a s t one-
h a l f of a p e l l e t - g r o u p had to be w ith in a p l o t to be counted.
E lk and
deer
p e lle t-g ro u p s
w ere
c o u n t e d and a s s e s s e d an
a p p r o x i m a t e ag e on th e b a s i s o f f i r m n e s s ,
c o l o r and w e a t h e r i n g .
P e l l e t - g r o u p s w e re ag ed a s e i t h e r new o r o ld .
New w ould h av e b e en
d e p o s ite d w i t h i n th e l a s t 3-4 months or c l a s s i f i e d p o s t- w in te r ,
old was d e p o s ite d d u rin g th e p re v io u s w in te r or p r e - w in te r .
and
P e lle t-
groups were perm anently lo c a t e d th ro u g h o u t the study a r e a i n I960 t o
}
su p p o rt
th e se
age
a sse ssm e n ts
d e t e r i o r a t i o n r a t e s on th e a r e a .
and a l s o
to
e sta b lish
p e lle t
43
During th e summer f i e l d season,
g e n e ra l o b s e r v a tio n of d i s t i n c t
s ig n s a ls o i n d i c a t e d anim al use p a t t e r n s .
When compared t o the e n t i r e
a r e a , c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f i n t e n s e b ro w se u s e , o b v io u s t r a i l s , and a
few s m a l l a r e a s o f r a n g e d e t e r i o r a t i o n a l l p o i n t e d t o a r e a s o f h ig h
use.
T h is e v i d e n c e o f heavy p a s t u se was q u i t e d i s c e r n i b l e t h e
fo llo w in g summer.
S e v e n t e e n s a g e b r u s h p l a n t s had b e en s e l e c t e d n e a r p e rm a n e n t
tra n se c ts
by th e
second y e a r of th e
u t i liz a tio n e stim a te s.
s tu d y
a s a check, on s h r u b
L e a d e r s o f a few p l a n t s w e re ta g g e d and
m e a s u re d d u r i n g t h e f a l l t o g au g e a c t u a l u t i l i z a t i o n and t o a l s o
p ro v id e a b a s i s f o r a c c u r a te e s ti m a te s .
These p l a n t s a l s o m onitored
t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d b ro w se fo rm c l a s s e s f o r
s a g e b ru s h p la n ts .
S ix b r a n c h e s w e re ta g g e d on e a c h
f o l l o w i n g A ld o u s ’s (1945) m ethod.
se le c te d
sagebrush p la n t
L eaf m a te r ia l, seedhead, c u rre n t
y e a r ’s l e a d e r and secondary growth w ere each measured above th e ta g t o
the n e a r e s t m i l l i m e t e r .
These same branches were th e n re-m easu red the
fo llo w in g s p r in g t o o b ta in a d i r e c t enum eration of u t i l i z a t i o n .
F ie ld o b s e r v a tio n s were conducted both w i n t e r s t o observe an im al
b e h av io r.
A n im a ls w e re t r a c k e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e a r e a w i t h s p e c i a l
emphasis on r e l a t i v e amounts of tim e s p e n t and type o f a c t i v i t i e s i n
th e v a rio u s h a b i t a t ty p es.
A c tu a l o b s e r v a t i o n o f a n i m a l s was a Jrso
used to s u b s t a n t i a t e th e se p e r c e p tio n s whenever p o s s ib le .
Grass and f o r b u t i l i z a t i o n e s t i m a t e s d u rin g th e w i n t e r employed a
fo rm o f o c u l a r e s t i m a t e by p l o t d e s c r i b e d by P e c h a n e c and P i c k f o r d
44
(1937).
An 89 dm2 c i r c u l a r m ic ro p lo t was used t o e s t i m a t e th e a i r dry
w e i g h t o f g r a s s and f o rb u t i l i z a t i o n a t t w e n t y - t w o f e e d i n g s i t e s
encountered.
Three 1.85 m2 u t i l i z a t i o n e x c lo s u re s w ere p laced on tfye
a r e a i n th e f a l l
a d ja c e n t
o f 1981.
to th e s e
One 18.6 dm2 p l o t c l i p p e d w i t h i n and
cages serv ed as checks fo r
19^1^82 v tfp te r
u t i l i z a t i o n e s ti m a te s .
Landform D e s c r ip tio n
At each t r a n s e c t s i t e ,
both permanent and b e l t ,
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were q u a n t i f i e d .
c e r t a i n landform
T r a n s e c t e l e v a t i o n w as a c c u r a t e l y
d e r i v e d fro m U.S.G.S. t o p o g r a p h i c maps.
Due t o m i c r o s i t e v a r i a t i o n ,
t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f o t h e r la n d f o r m p a r a m e t e r s w e re d e t e r m i n e d by t h e
m o st p r e v a l e n t c o n d i t i o n a t e a c h t r a n s e c t s i t e .
As an e x a m p le , tfre
most p r e v a le n t s lo p e a t a s i t e was d eterm in ed u s in g a K leinpm eter.
A sp e c t w as d e t e r m i n e d fro m
g r i d N o rth u s i n g a com pass and
f o l l o w i n g g r i d d i v i s i o n s , a s d e t a i l e d by Bohne (1 9 7 4 ).
S o il r - g ro u p s
w e re c l a s s i f i e d a f t e r a d e s c r i p t i o n by Zacek e t a l . (1976).
so il-g ro u p s
co m bine
so il
su b -su rface
te x tu re
w ith
These
to p o g ra p h ic
fe a tu re s.
Two d e s c r i p t i v e
c la ssific a tio n s
d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g l a n d f o r m s.
S lo p e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a t e ac h s i t e was
c h a ra c te riz e d as:
I) f l a t ,
aspect (ro llin g ).
T o p o g r a p h ic p o s i t i o n
c a te g o rie s:
5) swale.
w e r e em p lo y e d t o d e f i n e
2) c o n c a v e , 3) c o n v ex ,
of a s i t e
o r 4) c h a n g in g
in c lu d e d f iv e
I) b e n c h , 2) m id s l o p e , 3) u p p e r s l o p e , 4) r i d g e ,
and
45
Data Com pilation
A ll d a t a f o r c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e s w e re s c a l e d t o c o m p a r a b le
dim en sio n s f o r each t r a n s e c t .
Measurements on an a r e a b a s is such a s
b ro w se d e n s i t y , p e l l e t - g r o u p d e n s i t y and v e g e t a t i o n p ro d u c tio n w ere
con v erted to u n i t s p e r h e c t a r e t o eq u ate v a lu e s from th e v a rio u s p l o t
size s.
Cover d a ta were c a l c u l a t e d a s a p e rc e n t o f th e t o t a l .
B row se g e o m e tr y was d e d u c e d a s a n e l l i p s o i d and c a l c u l a t e d i n
in c re m en ts of d e c im e te rs.
Li
fo rm u la,
Canopy a r e a was d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e
Li
A =
ir , w h e re L1. and L9 a r e t h e l o n g e s t canopy
w id th and a p e r p e n d ic u la r measurement, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
R i t t e n h o u s e and Sneva ( I 977).
fo rm u la ,
H
V = 4 /6 ( - 2 - ) A,
a s d e s c rib e d by
S h ru b v o lu m e was c o m p u ted u s i n g t h e
w here
H is
th e
average
h e ig h t
of
photo s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l .
G eneral
tre n d s
in
th e
d a t a w e re d i s c o v e r e d fro m
a v erag in g
m easurements f o r each t r a n s e c t and comparing th e range o f v a lu e s among
h a b i t a t types.
For s t a t i s t i c a l com parisons,
d a ta from each t r a n s e c t
were c o n sid e re d a n . in d i v i d u a l s e t o f d a ta or case, and were compared
w ith a l l o th e r t r a n s e c t s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s .
V e g e ta tio n d a ta
w e re d i v i d e d i n t o g r a s s , f o rb o r s h r u b c a t e g o r i e s f o r s t a t i s t i c a l
an aly sis.
S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly sis
S t a t i s t i c a l com parison of d a ta from t h i s study i s more a b s t r a c t
t h a n f i r s t im a g in e d due t o m i c r o s i t e v a r i a t i o n and v a r y i n g h a b i t a t
s i z e g e n e r a t i n g u n e q u a l s a m p le s i z e s .
The i n t e n d e d p u r p o s e o f many
s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s d o e s n o t a l w a y s l e n d i t s e l f t o d a t a fro m a
n a t u r a l environm ent where sample s i z e o f a s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e can not
I
46
be p re d e term in ed or c o n t r o l l e d by a form of random sam pling.
The need
f o r c a u tio n i n choosing a p p r o p r ia te s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u res and a ls o i n
in te rp re tin g
re su lts
of
th e se
te sts
is
th e re fo re
e sse n tia l.
C autionary i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of c e r t a i n s t a t i s t i c s fro m t h i s s tu d y i s
d is c u s s e d where a p p r o p r ia te w ith th e r e s u l t s .
S c a t t e r diag ram s were p l o t t e d comparing e lk and d eer use witfi th e
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s s a m p le d .
A n a l y s i s o f v a ria n c e and sim p le
c o r r e l a t i o n s among the co n tin u o u s v a r i a b l e s were computed t o t e s t f o r
s ig n if ic a n t d ifferen ces.
All v a r i a b l e s w ere s u b je c te d t o a m u l t i p l e
r e g r e s s i o n procedure ( s te p - w is e fo rw a rd s e l e c t i o n ) su g g este d by Nia e t
a l . ( I 975) t o s e l e c t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s s a m p le d t h a t w e re
most i n f l u e n t i a l on e lk and deer use.
47
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
P reface
T h is c h a p t e r i s
d iv id e d i n t o
t h r e e m a jo r p a r t s .
The f i r s t
s e c t i o n d e t a i l s t h e v e g e t a t i o n and la n d f o r m a v a i l a b l e , w h i l e t h e
second d e s c r ib e s how e lk and mule d eer use t h a t environm ent.
A th ird
s e c t i o n s t a t i s t i c a l l y combines the e n v iro n m e n ta l p a ra m e te rs measured
w ith a s s o c ia te d an im al use a s a means o f i n t e r p r e t i n g tfye in f lu e n c e of
th e se p ara m ete rs on animal b e h av io r.
The G a r d i n e r w i n t e r r a n g e i s a u n iq u e a r e a t o s t u d y w i l d l i f e e n v i r o n m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n due t o th e num ber and v a r i e t y o f a n i m a l s
involved.
D eterm in in g anim al " p re fe re n c e " f o r v a r io u s silpes a c t u a l l y
becomes an a tte m p t to s e g re g a te i n t e n s e l y u t i l i z e d greq^ from pre^p
l e s s i n t e n s e l y used.
E n v iro n m en tal
fa c to rs
e v a lu a te d
v e g e t a t i o n and landform p a ra m ete rs.
d e v e lo p e d w i t h
th e e x i s t i n g
in
th is
stu d y
are
m a in ly
V e g e ta tio n s u c c e s s io n i n the a r e a
c lim a te ,
p h y sio g rap h y ,
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u n iq u e t o t h e G a r d i n e r a r e a .
and c d a p h i c
H ow ever, p r e s e n t day
v e g e t a t i o n a l s o developed i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith h i s t o r i c a l w i l d l i f e use,
i n a d d i t i o n to c o n c e n tra te d human in f l u e n c e w i t h i n th e l a s t century.
Judgm ent of
th e
n a tu ra l
v e g e ta tio n
p o te n tia l
of
th e
a r e a m ust
c o n seq u en tly be tempered w i t h aw aren ess of p a s t use and th e in te n d e d
p r e s e n t use.
V e g e ta tio n - V isu al O b serv atio n s
E d a p h ic and p h y s i o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s a p p e a r t o be t h e p r i m a r y
in f l u e n c e s d e te r m in in g p la n t s p e c ie s d i s t r i b u t i o n and dominance w i t h i n
48
th e r e l a t i v e l y
a r i d G ard in er v a lle y .
Both c a t e g o r i e s g r e a t l y im p a c t'
th e e f f e c t i v e m o is tu re a v a il a b le to p la n ts ,
e s p e c i a l l y a t lo w e r
e l e v a t i o n s w h e re a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s 31 t o 38 cm.
In creased
p r e c i p i t a t i o n w ith r i s i n g e l e v a t i o n a f f e c t s v e g e t a t i o n c o m p o s i t i o n
also .
I n i t i a l in s p e c tio n s of th e G a rd in e r w in te r ra n g e re v e a le d th e '
u n iq u e f e a t u r e
of th re e
su b sp e c ie s
o f b ig s a g e b r u s h
(A rte m isia
t r i d e n t a t a ) to g e th e r w ith b lack sagebrush (A rte m is ia nova) growing i n
c l o s e p r o x i m i t y on t h e s tu d y a r e a .
in c lu d e
m o u n ta in
( A .t .
subsp.
S u b sp e cie s o f b ig sag eb ru sh
v a s e y a n a ) f Wyoming (A.t.
w v o m in g e n s i s ). and b a s i n (A.t. s u b s p . t r i d e n t a t a ).
su b sp .
A ll s a g e b r u s h
taxon a r e found growing i n an e l e v a t i o n a l b e l t from th e v a lle y f l o o r
a t 1615 m to a p p ro x im a te ly 1950 m.
These s a g e b r u s h ta x o n w e re i n i t i a l l y i d e n t i f i e d t a x o n o m i c a l l y
f o ll o w i n g the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f B e e tle (I960) i n a s s o c i a t i o n w ith use
o f an u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t (W inward and T i s d a l e I 969).
F u r t h e r ta x o n
v e r i f i c a t i o n w as l a t e r made w i t h t h i n - l a y e r c h ro m o td g ra p h y fro m
specim ens i n th e a r e a (Kelsey e t a l .
1976).
M o u n tain b i g s a g e b r u s h i s t h e m o st common d o m in a n t and w i d e l y
d is p e r s e d o v e r s to r y shrub i n th e a re a .
I t i s m o st p r o d u c t i v e
at
e l e v a t i o n s fro m t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e R iv e r g o rg e a t 1600 m t o 1950 m on
g la cial t i l l .
I t s h ig h e s t d e n s i t i e s i n t h i s e l e v a t i o n a l b e l t a r e on
s lo p e s o f l e s s th a n 20 p e rc e n t or i n s w a le s where w a te r s t r e s s i s l e s s
sev ere.
M o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h i s t h e o n ly s a g e b r u s h ta x o n g ro w in g
a b o v e 'I 950 m w h e re i t i s fo u n d i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h f o r e s t h a b i t a t s t o
2700 m.
49
Wyoming b ig sag eb ru sh and b la ck sagebrush a r e found growing on
t h e m o st a r i d s i t e s on t h e w i n t e r r a n g e .
th a t
Wyoming b i g s a g e b r u s h i s
sagebrush complex.
W inward (1 9 8 0 ) p o i n t s o u t
t h e m o st x e r i c
ta x o n of th e b ig
Both ta x a grow i n th e 30.5 to 38.1 cm (12-15 in ch )
annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n zone.
Wyoming b ig sag eb ru sh i s g e n e r a l l y found growing on gentle; s lo p e s
of south or w est f a c i n g a s p e c t t h a t r e c e i v e maximum s o l a r r a d i a t i o n .
It
is
d o m in a n t
c ry sta llin e
till
on san d y
lo a m s w h ic h
are
ty p ic a l
of g la c ia te d
fro m p r e - C a m b r i a n r o c k i n t h e a r e a .
These a r e
e v i d e n t l y a r e a s o f a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s due t o t h e l a r g e s u b s u r f a c e
l a y e r s o f w e ll s o r te d sand.
These s o i l s a re r e l a t i v e l y f r e e of co arse
frag m e n ts, but t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e com paction of th e sandy C h o rizo n s.
Calcium c a rb o n a te l a y e r i n g d e te c te d i n th e se a r e a s i s g e n e r a lly j30 to
45 cm below t h e s o i l s u r f a c e w h ic h p r o b a b l y i n d i c a t e s v g ry shsiilQw
m o is tu re p e n e tr a ti o n .
B la c k
sagebrush
ap p ears
to
c a lc a re o u s s o i l s (Winward 1980).
have
an a f f i n i t y
for
stro n g ly
Black sagebrush i n th e Gardener a r e a
t h r i v e s on sandy loam s o i l s high i n calcium .
These, s o i l s e i t h e r coyer
or a re downslope from t r a v e r t i n e d e p o s its .
T r a v e r tin e i s a calcium
c a rb o n ate d e p o s it r e s u l t i n g from h o t s p rin g w a te r em anations i n tt>e
area.
An A r i d i c C a l c i b o r o l l d e v e lo p e d on g l a c i a l a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s
o v e r t r a v e r t i n e h a s h ig h c a lc iu m c a r b o n a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s from t h e
s u rfa c e down through th e h o rizo n s.
B asin big sag eb ru sh ’s to le r a n c e f o r high s o i l m o is tu re (M orris e t
a l . 1976) i s d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e G a r d i n e r a r e a .
A re as d o m in a te d by
b a s i n b ig s a g e b r u s h r e c e i v e c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n ts o f s p r i n g r u n o f f .
50
Evidence of r u n o f f i s t h e weak d i s s e c t i o n o f s te e p (50 to 60 p e rc e n t)
s lo p e s w ith m oderate channel en tren ch m en t i n l o c a l i z e d a re as.
B asin
b i g s a g e b r u s h i s a l s o fo u n d i n s m a l l s t a n d s down s i o p e o f b a s a l t
o u tc ro p s or around o u tc ro p s and e r r a t i c s on more l e v e l ground.
Id a h o f e s c u e
(F e s t u c a i d a h o e n s i s ) and b lu e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s
(Igrpjiyrp n s p io a tu m ) a r e the two dominant g r a s s e s on th e study area.
D ominance o f e i t h e r i n t h e u n d e r s t o r y v e g e ta tio n a p p e a rs r e l a t e d t o
m o istu re a v a i l a b i l i t y .
B lu e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s i s p r o m i n e n t i n more
x e r i c s i t u a t i o n s w h ile Idaho fe s c u e i s t h e predom inant g r a s s i n more
m e s o p h y t i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 38 cm o r more a n n u a l
p re c ip ita tio n .
E c o to n e s w h e re b o th s p e c i e s a r e c o d o m in a n t o c c u r,
th roughout th e a re a.
B lu e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s i s t h e p r i n c i p a l g r a m i n o i d i n t h e 30.5 t o
35.6 cm p r e c i p i t a t i o n z o n e ,
e le v a tio n .
w h ic h i s fo u n d fr o m 1615 t o 1830 m
Above t h i s z o n e , b lu e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s i s c o n s p ic u o u s on
d r i e r south and w e st f a c i n g a s p e c ts , s te e p s lo p e s , and sandy loam s o i l
site s.
Idaho fe s c u e i s t h e predom inant g r a s s on n o rth and e a s t f a c in g
s l o p e s and s i l t y loam s o i l s .
W r ig h t and W rig h t' (1948) n o te d i n t h e
B rid g e r Mountains t h a t b lu e bunch w h e a tg ra s s com m unities occupied south
f a c i n g s l o p e s w h i l e I d a h o f e s c u e c o m m u n itie s o c c u p i e d n o r t h f a c i n g
slopes,.
Idaho fe s c u e i s th e dominant g r a s s i n s a g e b ru s h -g ra s s la n d and
open f o r e s t a r e a s above a p p ro x im a te ly 2300 m e le v a tio n .
V e g e ta tio n - H a b ita t Types
Six m ajor h a b i t a t ty p e s were v e g e t a t i v e l y analyzed on th e s t u d y i
a r e a ( T a b l e s I and 2).
F iv e o f t h e s i x h a b i t a t t y p e s s t u d i e d w e re
shrub h a b i t a t ty p e s a s a consequence o f s a g e b ru s h -g ra s s la n d prominence
51
and a p p a r e n t i m p o r t a n c e t o a n i m a l s on t h e s tu d y a r e a .
M u eg g le r an#
S te w a r t’s (1980) work was f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t o in c lu d e s u b sp e c ie s
of b ig sagebrush,
i n a d d i t i o n to b la ck sagebrush,
because th e se ta x a
occupy s u b s t a n t i a l a c re a g e s and ap p ear to be s t a b l e p o p u la tio n s .
fo rest
h a b i t a t ty p e i n v e s t i g a t e d i n
One
1981 f o l l o w s P f i s t e r e t a l .
(1977).
T a b le I i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e l a t i v e a b u n d an ce o f t h e m a jo r p l a n t
s p e c i e s and f o r a g e c l a s s e s i n e a c h h a b i t a t ty p e .
S a g e b ru s h i s a
prom inant component o f t o t a l cover i n a l l of th e sage b ru s h -g ra s s la n d
Table I. Percentage of t o t a l mean c o v e r1 f o r th re e fo ra g e c l a s s e s an# s i x
dominant taxa evaluated in 1980.
r
Habitat2
type
A .t.va
Dominant taxon^ cover
A.t.wy A . t . t r Arno Feid
Agsp
Foraee class InnvAr»
Grass Forb Shrutp Total
A.t . va/Feid
6.7
0.2
0.1
-
6.8
1.5
11.2
2.6
7.2
21.0
Arno/Agsp
0.8
0.7
-
17.0
0.3
1.0
3.8
1.8
18.8
24.4
A. t . va/Agsp
13.1
-
-
0.2
1.1
1.6
5.0
1.2
14.4
20,6
A.t.wy/Agsp
4.6
14.6
-
-
0.4
2.4
6.i:
2.3
19.5
2 7.9
A.t . tr/Agsp
2.8
-
20,1
-
-
1.8
2.0
0.1
22.8
24.9
Psme/Feid3
1.5.
-
-
-
3.6
0.8
7.0
6.1
1.8
14.9
I
A,.t.va/Feid an# A.t.va/Agsp include data from burned areas:
for grass and forb, canopy for shrub.
cover i s IpasaJ7
Common names of s c i e n t i f i c name abbreviations are: A.Lva - mountain big
sagebrush; Feid - Idaho fescue; Arno - b lack sagebrush; Agsp - Blue bunch
w h e a tg ra s s; A.t.wy - Wyoming b ig sagebrush; A.L t r - basin big sagebrush;
Psme - Douglas f i r .
%)ata from 1981.
52
h a b ita t
ty p e s.
Low f o r b c o v e r v a l u e s a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f f o rb
d e s s i c a t i o n and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n
by t h e
r e l a t i v e l y a r i d shrub h a b i t a t types.
tim e
of
sam p lin g i n
th e
Forb ground co v er i s r e l a t i v e l y
i n s i g n i f i c a n t by the d a te s m ig r a tin g an im als re a ch the study a re a .
Mean shrub canopy cover f o r m ountain big sag eb ru sh h a b i t a t ty p e s
i s somewhat A ess i n Table I compared to Mueggler and S te w a r t's (I960)
s tu d y
of
p ristin e
M ontana
shrub
h a b ita t
ty p e s.
M o u n ta in
b ig
s a g e b r u s h / I d ah o f e s c u e s h r u b canopy c o v e r i s 66 p e r c e n t l e s s on th e
study a re a , w h ile m ountain big sage b ru s h / b l ue bun ch w h e a tg ra s s ha^ a 20
- p e rc e p t r e d u c t i o n from shrub cover r e p o r te d by Mueggler and S te w a rt
(1 9 8 0 ).
G ra s s and f o r b c o v e r m e a s u r e m e n ts i n T a b le I a r e g r e a t l y
reduced i n com parison t o t h e i r work, because b a sa l co v er was measured
i n t h i s study as opposed t o canopy cover i n t h e i r s .
The
la rg e st
h a b ita t
sag e b ru sh /Id a h o fescu e.
ty p e
d e lin e a te d
is
m o u n ta in
b ig
The m a j o r i t y o f t h i s h a b i t a t ty p e l i e s
between 1830 and 2290 m e l e v a t i o n on r o l l i n g topography p r im a r i ly i n
th e Eagle Creek and Deckard F l a t s a r e a s (F ig u re 2).
This h a b i t a t tyPS
encompasses a p p ro x im a te ly 1980 ha of the study a re a.
S o i l s may or may
not have co arse frag m e n ts, but they a r e g e n e r a lly s i l t loams.
M o u n tain b i g s a g e b r u s h / I d a h o f e s q u e i s th e o n l y s h r u b h a b i t a t
t y p e e n c o u n t e r e d w h e re s a g e b r u s h c o v e r i s l e s s t h a n g r a s s c o v e r.
O th e r s h r u b s o c c a s i o n a l l y
e n co u n te re d
are
ru b b er
ra b b itb ru sh
( C h ry s o th a m n u s n a u s e o s u s ), g r e e n r a b b i t b r u s h (C. v i s c i d i f l o r u s l and
g ra y h o r s e b r u s h ( T e t r a d v m i a c a n e s c e n s ) .
P r o m in e n t g r a m i n o i d s a r e
b lu e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s , p r a i r i e j u n e g r a s s (K o e l e r i a o v r a m i d a t a ), and
S a n d b e rg b l u e g r a s s ( Poa s a n d b e r g i i ).
Forbs a re g e n e r a l l y s c a rc e a t
53
t h e l o w e r , more a r i d e l e v a t i o n s .
In h ig h e r e l e v a t i o n s , a r r o w le a f
b a lsa m ro o t (B a lsa m o rh iz a s a a i t t a t a ) and
silk y
lu p in e
( L u o in u s
s e r io e u s ) a r e common.
B la c k s a g e b r u s h / b l u e b u n ch w h e a t g r a s s i s
h a b i t a t ty p e i n t h e a r e a .
th e
second l a r g e s t
I t i s l o c a t e d m a in ly i n t h e TravertjLnp
F l a t s a r e a b e tw e e n P h e lp s C reek and L i t t l e T r a i l C re ek and w e s t t o
U. S. Highway 89.
ha i n
siz e .
This h a b i t a t type c o v ers an a re a a p p ro x im a te ly 1130
Rocky
M o u n ta in
ju n ip e r
(Ju n io eru s
s p o r a d ic a lly s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t th e a re a .
sco o u lo ru m l i s
O ccasio n al p a tc h e s of
l i m b e r p i n e ( P in u s f l e x i l i s ). w i t h an a v e r a g e o f 16 p e r c e n t canopy
coverage, p ro v id e s the only t r e e cover on th e h a b i t a t type.
Isla n d s
g ro w in g
in
of a ll
th re e
a llu v ia l
s u b s p e c i e s o f b ig s a g e b r u s h a r e fo u n d
o u tw a sh
c h a n n e ls
Qf
T ra v e rtin e
O ccasional shrubs a r e ru b b er r a b b itb r u s h and g reen r a b b i tb rp sh .
F la ts.
Gppss
cover i s s p o t t y w ith p r a i r i e J u n e g ra s s prom inent i n l o c a l i z e d sandy
a re a s .
N eedleandthread (S tio a comata) and In d ia n r i c e g r a s s (O rvzoosis.
hvmenoides) a re o th e r c o n t r i b u t i n g gram inoids:
ste m le ss
Although n o t abundant,
g o ld e n w e e d (H a n lo p a p p u s a c a u l i s ) and Hood p h lo x (P h lo x
hjoodjLi) a r e t h e m o st p r o m i n e n t f o r b s i n t h i s r e l a t i v e l y d ry h a b i t a t
ty p e.
M o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h / b l u e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s i s a h a b i t a t ty p e
p r i m a r i l y l o c a t e d on s t e e p (>20 p e r c e n t ) s l o p e s o f s o u t h and w e s t
fa c in g a sp e c ts.
T h is h a b i t a t ty p e i s
s itu a te d p r im a r ily in th e
e l e v a t i o n a l b e l t fro m 1950 t o 2130 m e l e v a t i o n w h e re t h e A b sa ro k a
M o u n ta in s b e g i n t o r i s e fro m t h e b a s a l t f l a t s b elo w ,
.it s t r e t c h e s
54
a lm o st th e e n t i r e w id th of th e study a r e a from th e Park boundary l i n e
t o L i t t l e T r a i l Creek.
I t i s a p p ro x im a te ly 650 ha i n s iz e .
M o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h i s t h e p r e d o m in a n t s h r u b w i t h r u b b e r
r a b b itb r u s h and g reen r a b b itb r u s h the o n ly o th e r shrubs, o f consequence
on t h i s r e l a t i v e l y dry h a b i t a t type.
N eedleandthread i s abundant i n
a r e a s w ith sandy te x tu r e d s u r f a c e s o i l .
throughout th e h a b i t a t type.
P r a i r i e J u n e g ra s s i s common
Hairy g o ld e n a s te r (H e te ro th e c a v i l l o s a )
i s abundant on d r i e r s i t e s w h ile a r r o w le a f b alsam ro o t and s i l k y lu p in e
a r e common f o r b s on w e t t e r s i t e s .
Most of th e h a b i t a t type s o i l s have
an abundance of s u r f a c e rock and s o i l c o u rse frag m en ts.
Wyoming b i g s a g e b r u s h / b l u e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s q i s l o c a t e d on t h e
n o r t h w e s t end o f T r a v e r t i n e F l a t s and a l s o n e a r t h e m outh o f B ear
C reek.
A lth o u g h o n ly a p p r o x i m a t e l y 280 Iaa i n s i z e , t h e s e two ^ r e s s
occupy an i m p o r t a n t e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e on t h e G a rd e n e r w i n t e r r a n g e .
This h a b i t a t type s u p p o rts r e l a t i v e l y p ro d u c tiv e v e g e t a t i o n on sandy
Ioem s o i l s i n s p i t e of occupying some of th e most x e r i c s i t e s on th e
study a r e a .
A ll th r e e s u b sp e c ie s o f b ig sag eb ru sh a re found growing i n t h i s
h a b i t a t t y p e and c o n s t i t u t e
the. m a j o r i t y o f t h e s h r u b s p r e s e n t .
Judging from m o rp h o lo g ical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th e r e a p p e a rs t o be some
h y b r i d i z a t i o n among the th re e s u b sp e c ie s .
B e e tle .(I960) noted c a se s
of h y b r id i z a tio n .
Bluebunch w h e a tg ra ss makes up over o n e - th ir d o f t o t a l g r a s s cpver
w ith p r a i r i e Ju n e g ra s s and n e ed le a n d th re ad the only a d d i t i o n a l g r a s s e s
of consequence.
O ccassional Idaho fe s c u e p l a n ts i n d i c a t e t h i s h a b i t a t
marks th e l i m i t o f Idaho f e s c u e ’s t o l e r a n c e to a r i d i t y .
As w ith o th e r
55
d ry s i t e s ,
t h i s h a b i t a t e x h ib its a p a u c ity of fo rb s.
Most o f t h e
a re a occupied by t h i s h a b i t a t type i s on r e l a t i v e l y g e n tle s lo p e s .
B asin b ig sa g e b ru s h /b lu e b u n c h w h e a tg ra s s i s found e x c lu s iv e ly
alo n g
th e
ste e p ,
so u th
fa c in g
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 180 ha i n s i z e .
slo p e
of
Bear
C reek.
It
is
T h is p o r t i o n o f t h e w i n t e r r a n g e i s
c h a r a c te r iz e d by s lo p e s o f '50-60 p e rc e n t w ith a r e a s of exposed bedrock
and sc r$ e rock.
I t r e c e i v e s a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f th e s p r in g r u n o f f from
d ra in a g e s between Eagle and Bear Creeks.
s u b i r r i g a t e d d u rin g May and June.
Consequently,
S teep s lo p e s ,
t h is area i s
s o u th e r ly exposure,
and p a u c ity of developed s o i l combine t o make th e r e s t of the summer
season very dry.
P e r e n n i a l h e rb c o v e r i s s p a r s e due t o t h e r e l a t i v e s c a r c i t y o f
d e v e lo p e d s o i l s and e x t r e m e s i n g r o w in g c o n d i t i o n s . ■ T a l l ^up £o
2.5 m) b a s in b ig sagebrush p l a n t s a r e r e g u l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d w ith la r g e
i n d i v i d u a l b u n c h e s o f b lu e b u n e h w h e a t g r a s s s c a t t e r e d on t h e g ro u n d
su rface.
I n d i a n r i c e g r a s s and p r a i r i e j u n e g r a s s a r e t h e o n ly o t h e r
g r a s s e s of s i g n i f i c a n c e .
D o u g la s f i r
Forbs a r e r a r e i n th e a r e a .
( P se u d o tsu e a m e n z i e s ii)/Id a h o fe s c u e v e g e ta tio n
t r a n s e c t s were only conducted d u rin g th e 1981 summer.
This h a b i t a t
ty p e e x t e n d s fro m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2000 m t o o v e r 2400 m e l e v a t i o n i n
some a r e a s .
s lo p e s .
I t o c c u r s on a l l s l o p e s and a s p e c t s on m id - t o u p p e r
O v erall i t o c cu p ie s around 400 ha.
Canopy c o v e r o f D o u g la s f i r
is re la tiv e ly
o p e n w i t h canopy
coverage measurements ra n g in g from 23 to 86 p e rc e n t, w ith a mean o f 60
p e rc e n t coverage.
Limber p in e i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h i s h a b i t a t type a t
I
low er e l e v a t i o n s w ith w h ite b a rk p in e (P inus a l b i c a u l i s ) an# su b a lp in e
56
fir
( A b ie s l a s i o c a r p a ) fo u n d s c a t t e r e d
B lu e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s
and m o u n ta in
b ig
in th e
upper e le v a tio n s .
sagebrush
are
p ro m in en t
u n d e rs to ry s p e c ie s , e s p e c i a l l y a t lo w er e l e v a t i o n s and on sou^h f a c in g
a s p e c ts .
V e g e t a t i o n on o t h e r l a n d i n t h e s tu d y a r e a w as n o t e v a l u a t e d ,
i n c l u d i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 360 ha u n a v a i l a b l e t o a n i m a l u s e due t o t h e
two town s i t e s , a d d i t i o n a l p r i v a t e r e s id e n c e s , and a c t i v e mine s i t e s .
A pproxim ately 180 ha a re occupied by r i p a r i a n h a b i t a t .
The re m a in in g
1460 ha of th e study a r e a a r e s u b a lp in e and a lp in e h a b i t a t .
V e g e ta tio n - Composition
A c o m p ila tio n of v e g e t a t i v e c o m p o sitio n by h a b i t a t type from a l l
t r a n s e c t s i s p r o v i d e d i n A ppendix C.
T a b le 2 s u m m a r iz e s v e g e t a t i v e
p ro d u c tio n i n th e a r e a f o r 1980 and 1981.
These numbers e x h i b i t ttie
r e l a t i v e d o m in a n c e o f th e p r i n c i p a l p l a n t s p e c i e s i n e a c h h a b i t a t
type.
C o l l e c t i v e l y , th e two dominant s p e c ie s com prise a m ajor p o r ti o n
of t o t a l p ro d u c tio n i n each h a b i t a t ty p e.
M o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h / I d a h o f e s c u e and
b a s in b ig s a g e b ru sh /
bluebunch w h e a tg ra s s a r e the only shrub h a b i t a t ty p e s e x h i b i t i n g much
d isc re p a n c y between shrub and g r a s s p ro d u ctio n .
Abundance of g r a s s i n
mountain b ig s a g e b ru sh /Id a h o f e s c u e i s ex p lain ed by r e l a t i v e l y jnesic
c o n d i t i o n s a c c o m p a n ie d w i t h r e d u c e d s h r u b p r o d u c t i o n i n l o c a l i z e d
a r e a s of c o n c e n tr a te d a n im al use.
B a s in b i g s a g e b r u s h / b lu e b u p c h
w h e a tg ra s s shrub and g r a s s p ro d u c tio n v a lu e s r e f l e c t th e dominance of
la r g e b a s in b ig sag eb ru sh p la n ts w ith ro b u s t s o l i t a r y
w h e atg rass p l a n t s s c a t t e r e d beneath them.
b lu e b u n c h
5
7
Table 2. Mean annual p r o d u c tio n 1 i n k g/ha of th r e e fo ra g e c l a s s e s and s i x
dominant taxa evaluated i n 1980 and 1981.
Dominant taxon^ nroduction
A.t . va A.t.wy A. t . t r Arno Feid
Habitat^
type
A.t . va/Feid
220
I
22
9
2
A.t.va/Agsp
300
A.t.wy/Agsp
Agsp
Forage class
nroduction
Gpass Forb Shrub Total
-
335
116
586
T
258
21
86
—
I
-
64
44
338
10
-
A.t . tr/Agsp
26
-
637
Psme/Feid3
135
-
-
Arno/Agsp
265
1108
215
88 282
5p5
164
397
235 340
972
11
211
361
48
395
804
-
-
216
223
11 698
932
-
142
Jl
270
257
198
139
607
1A .t.va/Feid and A.t.va/Agsp include data from burned areas.
p
A.t.va - mountain b ig sagebrush; F eid - Idaho f e s c u e ; Arno r, b^ack
sagebrush; Agsp - bluebunch w h e a tg ra s s; A.t.wy - Wyoming b ig sagebrush;
A.t.tr - basin big sagebrush; Psme - Douglas f i r .
^Data from 1981 only.
T = Trace (<0.5 kg/ha).
H ig h e r f o r b v a l u e s f o r m o u n ta in b i g s a g e b ru sh /Id a h o fe scu e and
m o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h / b l u e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t
p re v a len c e of a r r o w le a f b alsam ro o t and s i l k y lu p in e .
Forb v a lu e s I n
D o u g la s f i r / I d a h o f e s c u e a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r by a v a r i e t y o f f o r b
s p e c ie s and a slo w er fo r b d e s s i c a t i o n r a t e under f o r e s t canopy.
Low
f o r b v a l u e s i n o t h e r h a b i t a t t y p e s n o t o n ly r e f l e c t a p a u c i t y o f
f orbs,
b u t a l s o t h e r a p i d d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f f o r b s i n t h e e x p p se d
sagebrush a r e a s i n th e l a t t e r p a r t o f summer.
5
8
Wyoming b i g s a g e b r u s h / b l u e bunch w h e atg rass i s th e only h a b i t a t
ty p e
w ith
sagebrush.
a p p re c ia b le
a m o u n ts
of
a ll
th re e
s u b sp e c ie s
b ig
R e l a t i v e l y - low p r o d u c t i o n v a lu e s f o r blaq k sagebrush i n
the b la ck sag e h ru sh /b lu eb u n ch w h e a tg ra s s h a b i t a t type,
to i t s
of
h ig h c o v e r v a l u e s ( T a b le I ) ,
re fle c t i t s
i n comparison
lo w s t a ^ u r q ^nd
sp re a d in g grow th form.
Comparison o f b a s in b ig s a g e b ru s h /b lu e bunch w h e a tg ra s s p ro d u c tio n
v a lu e s w ith Daubenmire’s ( I 970) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s t q p p e v e g e t a t i o n
com m unities shows th e study a r e a had only h a l f th e g r a s s p ro d u c tio n
b u t c o m p a r a b le t o t a l
p ro d u c tio n .
D 'au b en m ire's (1 9 7 0 ) s^udy was
c o n d u c te d i n e a s t e r n W a s h in g to n .
A lth o u g h t h e tw o a r e a s a r e n o t
e n v iro n m e n ta lly comparable, th e r e i s some v a lu e i n making comparison^
b e c a u s e h a b i t a t t y p i n g was a l s o u s e d i n h i s r e s e a r c h .
S o i l s &n h i s
study were loams or stony loams and the stu d y s i t e s do no t appear to
have been as e n v iro n m e n ta lly l i m i t i n g a s th e south f a c e of Bear Creek
where b a sin b ig sag eb ru sh /b lu eb u n ch w h e a tg ra s s was im p o r ta n t on the
s tu d y area.
Comparison o f Table 2 d a ta w ith p ro d u c tio n d a ta means r e p o r te d by
Mueggler and S te w a rt (1980) shows t o t a l p ro d u c tio n i n th e mountain big
s a g e b r u s h h a b i t a t t y p e s a r e e q u a l l y c o m p a r a b le , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e
d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n p r o d u c t i o n o f f o r a g e c l a s s e s .
P ro d u c tio n i n
Table 2 f o r m ountain b ig sage b ru s h / Idaho fe sc u e i s 29 p e rc e n t more f o r
g r a s s , 59 p e rc e n t l e s s f o r f o r b s , and 68 p e rc e n t more f o r shrubs th an
c o m p a ra b le
num bers
p re se n te d
in
M u e g g le r and S t e w a r t (1980).
C o m p a riso n o f m o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h / b l u e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s n u m b e rs
5
9
r e v e a l s g r a s s p r o d u c t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y e q u a l , f o r b p r o d u c t i o n 15
p e r c e n t m o re, and s h r u b p r o d u c t i o n 14 p e r c e n t m ore t h a n t h e i r d a t a .
The E c o lo g ic a l S i t e Method used by th e S o il C o n se rv a tio n S e rv ic e
(SCS) f o r d e te r m in in g clim a x c o m p o sitio n was no t used a s a g u id e lin e
f o r a s s e s s i n g r a n g e c o n d i t i o n on t h e s t u d y a r e a . A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n s
w i t h SCS p e r s o n n e l ^ ,
i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s m eth o d d o e s n o t
a d eq u a te ly account f o r th e c lim a te ,
topoedaphic c o n d itio n s ,
or c l a s s
of anim al use i n th e G ard in er area.' C onsequently, a c o n d itio n r a t i n g
o f any o f t h e s e h a b i t a t t y p e s fro m t h e SCS t e c h n i q u e (Zacek e t a l .
1976) w o u ld n o t r e f l e c t t h e a c t u a l e c o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e s t u d y
a re a .
P la n t com m unities on t h e study a r e a appear to be s t a b l e and n e a r
c l i m a x s t a t u s a? d e t e r m i n e d by th e q o p i p o s i t i o n # f ^oiB lnant p l a n t
s p e c ie s p r e s e n t (Appendix C,
ra n g e
c o n d itio n
Tables I and 2),
(re tro g re ssio n )
in
Signs o f d e t e r i o r a t i n g
lo c a liz e d
areas
is
p ro b ab ly
a t t r i b u t a b l e t o human i n f l u e n c e su c h a s m ine s i t e s , r o a d c u t s , e t c .
O v e rall, w ild u n g u late use h a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d v e g e t a t i v e
c o m p o sitio n on th e study area.
V e g e ta tio n - Sagebrush Burns
P r o d u c t i o n and c o v e r v a l u e s i n T a b l e s I, and 2 i n c l u d e d a t a
c o l l e c t e d from sagebrush s i t e s burned i n p a s t y e a rs.
S in ce 1979, th e
U.S. F o r e s t S e rv ic e h as implem ented a program of c o n t r o l l e d sagebrush
burns to promote in c r e a s e d fo ra g e p ro d u c tio n f o r w i n t e r i n g u n g u la te s.
^ P h i l l i p i , D e n n is. S t a t e Range p o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n
S e rv ic e , p e rs o n a l communication, August 1981.
60
V e g e t a t i o n r e g r o w t h i n tw o b u rn e d a r e a s h a s beeij co m pared w i t h
v e g e t a t i o n of s i m i l a r unburned s i t e s (T able 3).
Data p re s e n te d i n Table 3 were c o l l e c t e d i n 1980 from t r a n s e c t $
l o c a t e d i n th e m ountain b ig sag e b ru sh /Id a h o fe s c u e h a b i t a t type. ' All
o f t h e s i t e s w e re on g l a c i a l t i l l i n t h e E a g le C reek a r e a .
s i t e s w e re n e a r t h e b u rn e d a r e a s .
Unburned
T r a n s e c t s on u n b u rn e d s i t e s wer©
s i t u a t e d on a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same p e r c e n t s l o p e , p o s i t i o n on t h e
s lo p e, and a s p e c t, a s t r a n s e c t s w i t h i n burned a re a s .
The s p rin g 1980
burn was a c o n t r o l l e d f i r e w h ile th e summer 1974 burn r e s u l t e d from a
w i l d f i r e on J u l y 29.
D a ta fro m T a b le 3 r e v e a l a d e c r e a s e i n g r a s s p r o m in e n c e on t h e
1980 s p r in g burn.
Idaho fe sc u e and p r a i r i e ' June g r a s s c o m p o sitio n was
Table 3. Comparison of vegetation production and cover from two burned s i t e s
with environmentally paired unburned s ite s.
Location
Production (ke/hal
Grass Forb Shrub Total
479
Unburned s i t e
511
191* 227°
Sunmer 1974 burn s i t e
851
175
Unburned s i t e
823
143
17
CO
OO
883
5.2
4.2
0.1
9.5
929
13.7
4.4
10.6
28.7
13.9
1.9
0.4
16.2
11.9
1 .8
14.3
28.0
4"
387
S
Spring 1980 burn s i t e
Cover
of t o t a l I
Graes Forb Shrub Toiial
634° 1600°°
^Production values s ig n ific a n tly d iff e r e n t from the paired s i t e value,
.01 pro b ab ility level.
00Production values s ig n ific a n tly d iff e r e n t from the paired s i t e
the .10 probability level.
a t the
value, a t
61
n o t i c e a b l y l e s s i n t h e b u rn e d a r e a co m p ared t o s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s .
Id ah o
fescu e
re sp ec tiv e ly ,
p ro d u c tio n
and
cover
of th e unburned s i t e .
w ere
3 2
and
31
p e rc e n t,
P r a i r i p ju n e g r a s s p ro d u c tio n and
c o v e r w e re 27 and 9 p e r p e n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
o f t h e y n b u rn e d s i t e .
Damage t o I d a h o f e s c u e by f i r e h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d and e x p l a i n e d i n
o th e r s t u d i e s (Conrad and P o u lta n 1966, B l a i s d e l l 1953).
Mueggler and B l a i s d e l l (1958) n o ted t h a t b urning sagebrush a re a s
c a u s e d an i n c r e a s e i n f o r b s l a s t i n g a t l e a s t t h r e e y e a r s .
S ilk y
lu p in e , p u rp le d a is y fle a b a n e (E rig e ro n corvmbosus), arid w e s te rn yarrow
(.AphiIIriri m i l l e f o l i u m ) w e re
among t h e
p r o d u c t i o n on t h e 1980 b u rn .
fo rb s
s h o w in g i n c r e a s e d
I n c r e a s e d f o rb p r o d u c t i o n i n s h r u b
h a b i t a t s on th e G a rd in er w in te r ran g e h a s l i t t l e p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t t o
e lk
ri&d BylG
dri^r.
As n o t e d
e a rlie r,
summer d e s s i p a t i o n
and
d i s i n t P g r p t i on o f ' m o s t f o rb s p e p i e s !'p a v e s n e g l i g i b l e am o u n ts o f
s ta n d in g herbage a v a i l a b l e to w in te r in g an im als.
Herbaceous s p e c ie s p ro d u c tio n and cover i n the six; y e a r old burn
was a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o t h a t o f . u n b u r n e d a r e a s .
p ro d u c tio n and cover was equal to
rJ k
Id a h o f e s c u e
and 78 p e rc e n t, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
of
'
c o m p a r a b le d a t a fro m t h e u n b u rn e d s i t e .
I n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n and
c o v e r o f b lu e b u n c h w h e a t g r a s s on t h e b u rn e d s i t e a c c o u n t e d f o r th e
r e l a t i v e l y e q u a l g r a s s p r o d u c t i o n and c o v e r b e tw e e n t h e two s i t e s .
B fu e b u n ch w h e a t g r a s s i s l e s s a f f e c t e d
(Conrad and P o u lto n 1966).
by f i r e
t h a n Id a h o f e s c u e
E v id e n tly , d e p re ssed Idaho fe s c u e presence
62
i n t h e v e g e t a t i o n n i c h e was c o m p e n s a te d f o r by i n c r e a s e d b lu e b u n c h
w h e atg rass abundance.
M o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h h a s e s s e n t i a l l y b e en e l i m i n a t e d i n t h e
burned a re a s .
Sagebrush d e n s ity around the p e rip h e ry o f the s i x y e a r
o ld b u rn was .03 s e e d l i n g p l a n t s p e r s q u a r e m e t e r .
p e rc e n t of shrub p ro d u c tio n i n th e r e s t
r a b b itb r u s h or gray horse brush,
of th e
S e v e n ty -six
b u r n w as e i t h e r
s p e c ie s which a re undamaged and o f t e n
b e n e f ite d by s p r o u tin g a f t e r f i r e , (V a l l e n t i n e 1977).
T o tal
p ro d u c tio n
u n b u rn e d s i t e ,
le v e l.
in th e
1974 b u r n ,
com pared t o
th e p a ire d
i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t a t t h e .10 p r o b a b i l i t y
However,
shrub p ro d u c tio n .
th e only r e a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two s i t e s i s i n
In the t e s t f o r d i f f e r e n c e s between two independent
sam ples (Snedecor and Cochran 1980) t h e . s i g n i f i c a n c e of t depends on
t h e num ber o f o b s e r v a t i o n s .
C o n s e q u e n tly , d i f f e r e n c e s i n g r a s s and
f o rb d a t a b e tw e e n t h e p a i r e d s i t e s w o u ld a c t u a l l y be w e i g h t e d m ore
h e a v i l y , b e c a u s e g r a s s and f o rb p r o d u c t i o n w e re e s t i m a t e d fro m t e n
p l o t s w h ile shrub p ro d u c tio n was e s ti m a te d from only fo u r p lo ts .
From t h e s e d a t a ,
it
a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e may be ho p o t e n t i a l
b e n e f i t , t o a n im a ls from in c re a s e d herbage p ro d u c tio n i n burn s i t e s on
the study a re a.
T o tal v e g e ta l cover may be g r e a t l y red u ced the f i r s t
y e a r w ith f i r e ,
as i t was i n th e s p r in g 1980 burn, and t h i s r e d u c tio n
may p e r s i s t .
How ever, s a g e b r u s h c o m p o s i t i o n a p p e a r s t o be th e o n ly
component of the p la n t community s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d by f i r e on th e
w in te r range.
B e c a u se s i z e o f th e c o n t r o l l e d b u r n s r a n g e fro m s p o t
63
bu rn s t o more th an 20 ha,
th e p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f sagebrush removal
on w i l d l i f e u s e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n t h i s
c h ap te r under
Animal Use.
V e g e ta tio n - Annual V a r ia tio n
Weather v a r i a t i o n has a pronounced in f l u e n c e on p l a n t p ro d u c tio n
and v ig o r.
P r e c i p i t a t i o n i n s o u th w e s te rn Montana d u rin g the p e rio d of
most a c t i v e p la n t growth may c o n t r i b u t e more to t o t a l p ro d u c tio n th a n
t h a t f a l l i n g a t o th e r tim e s (Mueggler 1967).
May p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n the
G ardiner a re a was 62 and 88 p e rc e n t above th e mean f o r 1980 and 1981,
re sp ec tiv e ly .
June p r e c i p i t a t i o n was 30 p e rc e n t below normal i n 1.980
and 31 p e r c e n t ab o v e n o rm a l i n 1981.
T h re e y e a r s o f below a v e r a g e
g ro w in g s e a s o n p r e c i p i t a t i o n p r e c e d e d t h e s e two y e a r s o f i n c r e a s e d
m o is tu re .
The p e r c e n t a g e ch an g e i n h e r b a c e o u s p r o d u c t i o n and g r a s s v i g o r
from 1980 to 1981 i s p re s e n te d i n Table 4.
Number o f f lo w e r in g g r a s s
c u lm s i s a s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t i o n o f v i g o r (M u e g g le r 1 970).
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t r a n s e c t s were r e c l i p p e d i n 1981.
E le v e n
F lo w erin g culms were
counted only on c lip p e d g r a s s p l a n t s .
G ra s s
re c lip p ed .
p ro d u c tio n in c re a s e d
in
te n
of
th e e le v e n t r a n s e c t s
F o rb p r o d u c t i o n c h a n g e s w e re l e s s w e l l d e f i n e d .
F orb
p r o d u c t i o n showed s l i g h t i n c r e a s e s on f i v e o f e l e v e n t r a n s e c t s , b u t
s in c e p ro d u c tio n was r e l a t i v e l y s c a n t y , s m a l l c h a n g e s t r a n s l a t e d t o
h i g h p e rc en ta g e s.
i
64
Table 4 . P e r c e n t a g e change i n p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w e r i n g c u lm s o f
dominant herbaceous s p e c i e s i n f o u r h a b i t a t ty p e s from 1980
to 1981•
Item
A .t.v a /F e id
H a b ita t tvoe^
Arno/Agsp
A. t . v a / Agsp
A . t . t r / Agsp
Herbaceous p ro d u c tio n
Grass
+55
+71
+54
-42
Forb
-44
+44
+28
+135
-32
Flow erine culms
Agsp1
+145
+28
+155
F e id 1
+11,219
+1800
+1371
-
A .t.v a - m o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h , F e id - Id a h o f e s c u e ; Arno - b l a c k
s a g e b ru s h ; Agsp - bluebunch w h e a tg ra s s; A . t . t r - b a s in b ig sag eb ru sh .
A n o th e r f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i n c r e a s e d g r a s s p r o d u c t i o n and
v i g o r c o u ld h a v e b e e n t h e below a v e r a g e number o f u n g u l a t e s on th e '
s tu d y a r e a d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 8 0 -8 1 .
H ow ever,
e a r l y g ro w in g
s e a s o n m o i s t u r e r e c e i v e d i n 1980 and 1981 i s b e l i e v e d t o be t h e
p rim ary e x p la n a tio n f o r th e in c re a s e d g r a s s p ro d u c tio n and v ig o r opted
th roughout th e study area.
Annual v a r i a t i o n i p p la n t p ro d u c tio n ^nd
v ig o r h a s an im p o r ta n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith d a ta a n a l y s i s throughout the
R e s u l t s s e c tio n ,
6?
V e g e ta tio n - C o r r e la tio n s
P la p t r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e fo ra g e c l a s s e s and w ith n u m e ric a lly
c o n t i n u o u s e n v i r o n m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s a r c shown i n T a b le 5.
Jhese
c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s h e lp c h a r a c t e r i z e th e y e g e t a t i o n component of
th e
G a p flip e r w i n t e r
ran g e.
Many
of
th e
c o rre la tio n s
r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t would be expected i n any p lp n t community.
show
Other
c o r r e l a t i o n s d e m o n strate th e v e g e t a t i o n 's a d a p ta tio n t o th e landform
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e c u l i a r to th e G a rd in er area.
The p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n
g rass
cover
and g r a s s
p r o d u c t i o n ( r = .65) i s an e x a m p le o f an e x p e c t e d h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n .
A n o th e r w ould be t h e n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n g r a s s c o v e r and
s h r u b c o v e r w i t h r = - . 6 3 . T h is n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p r e f l e c t s t h e
a r i d i t y i n the shrub h a b i t a t s . An i n t e r e s t i n g n o te i s t h g t fo r b coyer
co m p ared w i t h f o r b p r o d u c t i o n h a s an r v a l u e o f .3 2 , T h is r e l a t i v e l y
low c o r r e l a t i o n p r o b a b ly i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t b a s a l c o v e r was
re c o rd ed f o r herbaceous v e g e ta tio n .
B a s a l c o v e r o f an a r r o w l ^ a f
b alsam ro o t p l a n t might be i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of an e lk t h i s t l e ( Clrsium
fo lio s u m ) nearby,
but
p ro d u c tio n of
e ach p l a n t
w o u jd
be q u i t e
d issim ila r.
Of t h e t h r e e f o r a g e c l a s s e s ,
c o r r e l a t e d w ith t o t a l p ro d u ctio n .
h ig h ly c o r r e l a t e d w ith t o t a l cover.
g r a s s p r o d u c t i o n i s m o st h i g h l y
S im ilarly ,
fo r b cover i s th e most
These c o r r e l a t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e th e
r o l e of prom inent bunchgrasses i n fo ra g e p ro d u c tio n and th e im p o rtan ce
o f th e ground co v erin g f o r b s i n th e v e g e t a t i o n component of th e area.
G r a s s and f o r b c o v e r i s n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a l l s h r u b
p a ra m ete rs.
However, b o th g r a s s and f o r b p r o d u c t i o n a r e s l i g h t l y
T a b le 5 . C o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x o f s i t e v a r i a b l e s on t h e G a r d i n e r w i n t e r r a n g e .
S ite v a ria b le
G ra s s
G ra ss c o v e r
1 .0 0
F o rb c o v e r
S hrub c o v e r
! to ta l c o v e r
G ra ss p r o d u c tio n
F o rb p r o d u c tio n
S hrub p r o d u c tio n
T o ta l p r o d u c tio n
S h ru b d e n s i t y
S hrub volum e
S hrub h e i g h t
S hrub a r e a
S p e c ie s num ber
S lo p e
E l e v a tio n
B are g ro u n d
L itte r
G ra v e l
Rock
C over
F o rb .Shrub
.l g * * -.63**
1 .0 0
-.? 6 »
1 .0 0
T o ta l
G ra ss
P r o d u c tio n
F orb S hrub
.65** .18
.k 2 * * -.1 1
.32*
.35* - .5 7 * * -.3 2 *
.Oii
1 .0 0
-.? 3
1 .0 0
.01
1.0C
.PO
* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l
** S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 1 p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l
-.ii8*»
-.2 1
. 6 k **
.15
-.IlO**
—.lii
1.00
=FruK
T o ta l
D e n s ity Volume H e ig h t
-.3 5 *
-.0 7
-.2 5
-.0 8
.6ii*»
• li8**
• 2ii
1.00
-.87**
-.Oii
.58**
.16
-.53**
-.2 ii
.08
—. ii6**
1.00
-.Oil
-.0 6
-.26* -.0 8
.Oii
.07
-.1 1
.Oil
.08
.27*
.08
.01
.69** .60**
.66** .ii?**
-.37** -.ii5**
1.00
.75**
1.00
A rea
—.16
-.3 2 *
.12
-.1 1
.35
.01
• 7ii**
.56**
-.ii3**
.85**
.83**
1.00
S i e c i e s ------------- E T ^ — B are
num ber S lo p e r a t i o n g ro u n d L i t t e r G ra v e l
.31*
.37**
-.53**
-.1 2
.25*
.29*
-.65**
—.06
-.38**
-.1 6
-.1 2
-.2 5
1.00
-.3 2 *
-.1 7
.10
-.2 2
-.1 5
.21
.ill**
.2i|
-.27**
.ill**
.35**
.ii8**
.01
1.00
-.1 3
.11
-.27*
-.2 3
-.0 3
.37**
.10
.17
-.27**
.09
.18
.16
.35*
.ii2**
1.00
.21
-.Oii
.05
—*03
.a
-.2 3
-.1 6
—•IL
.06
-.1 9
-.1 2
-.23
.13
-.3 2 *
-.2 6
1.00
.32*
.27*
-•55**
—.20
.22
.33*
-.57**
-.0 1
-.36**
-.2 6 *
-•13
-.3 5 *
.ii7**
-.1 5
.38**
.12
1.00
-.36**
-.1 6
.35*
—.09
-.2 2
-.2 5
.30*
-.1 3
.52**
.09
-.1 2
.06
-.2 3
.oil
-.2 6 *
—.30*
-.75**
1.00
Rock
-.2 9 *
-Jj6**
.16
—.lit
-.0 1
-.0 6
.51**
.31*
_.3l|*
.51**
.52**
.73**
-.38**
.55*»
.lii
—.30*
—.ill**
-.0 6
1.00
cn
67
p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to shrub s i z e p a ra m e te rs , p o s s ib ly i n d i c a t i n g ,
t h e t e n d e n c y f o r h e r b a c e o u s p l a n t s t o c l u s t e r a ro u n d th e b a se o f
la rg e r
sagebrush
c o rre la te d
w ith
p la n ts.
A ll
shrub s i z e
one a n o th e r .
p a ra m ete rs a re h ig h ly
C o n v e rse ly ,
sh ru b
d e n sity
is
n e g a t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith shrub s iz e .
O th e r c o r r e l a t i o n s h e l p t o e x p l a i n some o f th e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s tu d y a r e a .
e le v a tio n ,
N um ber
of
e le v a tio n ,
S lo p e t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e w i t h
i n d i c a t i n g th e a b ru p t r i s e
p la n t
sp e c ie s
w h ic h
a lso
re fle c ts
o f t h e A b sa ro k a M o u n ta in s.
sig n ific a n tly
m ore
d istin c tiv e
me s i c
in c re a se s
c o n d itio n s
at
w ith
h ig h e r
e lev a tio n s.
T o t a l p r o d u c t i o n and g r a s s p r o d u c t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c l i n e ,
as
sh ru b
d e n sity
in c re a se s.
B la c k
sag e b r u s h /b lu e bunch
w h e a t g r a s s h a s t h e h i g h e s t d e n s i t y o f s h r u b s on t h e s tu d y a r e a .
Y e t,
o v fe ra ll
p ro d u c tio n
is
th e
lo w e st
of
any
h a b ita t
ty p e
b e c a u s e o f b l a c k s a g e b r u s h 's g r o w th fo rm i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e low
g rass
fo r
p ro d u c tio n
th e se
on t h i s
n e g a tiv e
a rid
site .
a sso c ia tio n s
is
A n o th e r f a c t o r
a cc o u n tin g
t h a t som e o f t h e h i g h e s t
g r a s s p r o d u c in g s i t e s i n o t h e r h a b i t a t ty p e s a r e a r e a s w here
a n i m a l s c o n g r e g a t e and d e p l e t e t h e s h r u b c o m p o n en t.
G rass p ro d u c tio n i s
v o lu m e i n c r e a s e s
sig n ific a n tly
a s s o c ia te d w ith sh ru b
w h ic h e x p r e s s e s t h e te n d e n c y f o r g r a s s p l a n t s
t o grow u n d e r n e a t h l a r g e r o b u s t s a g e b r u s h p l a n t s .
G ra s s p l a n t s
I
68
a r e n o t o n ly p r o t e c t e d fro m g r a z i n g u n d e r s a g e b r u s h p l a n t 's ,
but
a r e a l s o s h i e l d e d fro m th e d r y i n g e f f e c t s o f th e su n and w in d .
S hrub p a r a m e t e r s
are
a ll
n e g a tiv e ly
c o rre la te d
w ith l i tte s r
a c c u m u l a t i o n w h ic h p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t s s a g e b r u s h ’s slo w c y c l i n g o f
n u trie n ts
b a ck i n t o t h e e c o s y s te m .
T o tal p ro d u c tio n in c r e a s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
w ith in c r e a s e d
r o c k c o v e r due. p r i m a r i l y t o s h r u b p r o d u c t i o n .
B ig s a g e b r u s h
ij
p l a n t s i n c r e a s e a ro u n d a r e a s o f e x p o se d r o c k , o f w h ic h t h e r e a r e
c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s on th e s t u d y a r e a .
e r r a t i c s fro m g l a c i a t i o n ,
Rock o u t c r o p s ,
S
I
la rg e
a n d e v e n o l d m in e s i t e s c o n t r i b u t e
r o c k s u r f a c e t o g a t h e r a d d i t i o n a l r u n o f f m o i s t u r e which, seem s t o
b e n e fit
b ig sag eb ru sh .
M ost
of
th e
c o rre la tio n s
d isc u sse d
illu stra te
p la n t
c o m p e t i t i o n f o r m o i s t u r e i n th e d r y G a r d i n e r e n v i r o n m e n t .
m ic ro site
v a ria tio n
has
c re a te d
e n v iro n m e n t.
G e n e ra lly s p e a k in g ,
area
to
ap p ears
v e g e ta tio n
th e
V e g e ta tio n
u sin g
su rp risin g ly
th e
area.
a n i m a l s u se t h e s t u d y a r e a .
good
to
p ro b a b ly c l o s e l y a p p r o x im a tin g c l i m a x c o n d i t i o n s .
a n im a ls
re la tiv e ly
a d a p te d
p la n t
c o n d itio n ,
is
in
and d i v e r s e
ran g e
c o n d itio n
be
a u n iq u e
Yet,,
good d e s p i t e
The
th e
e x p la n a tio n
la rg e
lie s
num ber of
in
th e
way
:
'
-
69
Animal Use
Animal o b s e r v a tio n s and i n d i c a t i o n s o f anim al use w ere documented
t h r o u g h o u t th e s tu d y p e r i o d .
w ith o u t b eing d e te c te d ,
An e f f o r t was made t o o b s e r v e a n i m a l s
whenever they were encountered.
A major p a r t
of the summer p e rio d was s p e n t on th e lo w e r e l e v a t i o n s of th e w in te r
range where anim al summer use i s in f r e q u e n t.
However, s u f f i c i e n t tim e
was s p e n t on the upper e l e v a t i o n p e rip h e ry t o i d e n t i f y anim al a c t i v i t y
p a t t e r n s and a re as.
O b serv atio n o f anim al w in te r use was conducted d u rin g p e r io d ic
fie ld
trip s
to
th e
stu d y a re a .
B e c a u se
th e se f i e l d
trip s
w e re
b e lie v e d i n s u f f i c i e n t t o a d eq u a te ly sample anim al use under a l l w in te r
c o n d itio n s ,
o b s e r v a tio n s were not n u m e ric a lly analy zed i n com parison
w ith s i t e v a r i a b l e s .
Rather,
o b s e r v a tio n s were used t o s u b s t a n t i a t e
or i n t e r p r e t th e se data.
Animal Use - Summer
Although the m a jo r ity of anim al use o ccu rs d u rin g w in te r months
on the study a re a ,
range p e rip h e ry .
th e r e i s a ls o s u b s t a n t i a l summer use of th e w in te r
Both e lk and mule d eer a r e s c a t t e r e d throughout th e
Douglas f i r and s u b a lp in e h a b i t a t s d u rin g summer month's.
Some of th e
m ig r a tin g a n im a ls appear to use th e upper p e rip h e ry as in te r m e d ia te
range w h ile o t h e r s remain i n the a re a through the e n t i r e summer.
A m a j o r i t y o f e l k on t h e s t u d y a r e a b eg an a r e v e r s e m i g r a t i o n
back i n t o
t h e m o u n t a i n s a s so o n a s snow and w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s
moderated d u rin g both y e a r s o f th e study.
This movement began slo w ly
w i t h a few a n i m a l s b u t grew i n n u m b e rs a s w e a t h e r c o n t i n u e d t o
moderate.
Some e lk c ro s se d th e Y ellow stone R iver on t h e i r ro u te back
70
i n t o t h e P a rk .
O th e r s b egan d r i f t i n g i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n s to w a r d s
Crevice Creek, o f te n t r a v e l l i n g through s n o w d r if ts over I m deep.
Some e l k r e m a in e d on t h e s t u d y a r e a t a k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e
v e g e t a t i o n g r e e n u p i n A p r i l and May.
These e l k s l o w l y f o l l o w e d
g r e e n u p a s i t p r o g r e s s e d u p w a rd i n e l e v a t i o n and s c a t t e r e d i n t o t h e
fo re st.
I n b o th J u n e 1980 and 1981 t h e r e w e re o v e r 300 e l k i n t h e
North Fork o f Bear Creek-M onitor Peak a r e a which i s . oh t h e p e rip h e ry
of th e w in te r range.
These e l k d i s p e r s e d to w a r d t h e end o f J u n e ,
p o s s i b l y i n d i c a t i n g th e y summer i n t h e h ig h a l p i n e a r e a s o f t h e
W ild ern ess and w ere w a i t i n g f o r snowmelt.
The num ber o f e l k a c t u a l l y r e m a i n i n g on t h e s t u d y a r e a f o r t h e
e n t i r e summer a p p e a rs r e l a t e d t o w in te r numbers.
There were over 2000
e lk
19 7 9 -8 0 5 ' w h i l e t h e
on t h e
s tu d y
a r e a d u rin g th e w in te r of
f o l l o w i n g w i n t e r t h e r e w e re o n ly a b o u t 500.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 e l k
w e re u s i n g t h e E a g l e - P h e lp s C re e k s a r e a d u r i n g t h e summer o f 1980
w h i l e d u r i n g t h e summer o f 1981 a b o u t 40 e l k w e re i n t h e same a r e a ,
i n d i c a t i n g " r e s id e n t" summer h e rd s may be augmented by m ig r a tin g e lk .
In the summer o f 1980, a group o f 35 y e a r l i n g e lk w ith 15 sp ik e b u l l s
was o b s e r v e d i n t h e E a g le C reek a r e a .
y e a r l i n g s among t h e l o c a l
T h is e x c e s s i v e number o f
e l k s u g g e s t s many o f t h e s e y e a r l i n g s
probably rem sined on th e study a r e a when th e cow h erd s m ig rate d back
to
th e P ark o r W ild e r n e s s .
M a r t i n k a ( 19 6 5 ) a l s o
observed a
d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e number o f y e a r l i n g e l k i n r e s i d e n t h e r d s d u r i n g a
study of the s o u th e rn Park e lk h erd n e a r Jackson Hole, Wyoming.
E r i c k s o n , Glenn. W i l d l i f e B i o l o g i s t , M ontana D e p a r t m e n t o f F i s h ,
W i ld lif e , and Parks, p e rs o n a l communication, J u ly 198I .
71
F o r e s t e d a r e a s o f E a g le , D a v is , and P h e l p s C re e k s a l s o s e r v e a s
c a l v i n g g ro u n d s .
th e s e d ra in a g e s ,
by Johngon (1951).
Cows w i t h new b o rn c a l v e s w e re o f t e n o b s e r v e d i n
which a r e t y p i c a l of e lk c a lv in g a r e a s a s d e sc rib e d
On June 11, 1980,
s e v e n ty -p lu s cows and y e a r l i n g s
w e re o b s e r v e d m oving o f f t h e s t u d y a r e a , i n t o t h e N o rth F o rk o f B ea r
C reek.
At l e a s t e i g h t new born c a l v e s w e re i n t h e g ro u p i n d i c a t i n g
t h i s a r e a a l s o s e r v e s a s c a l v i n g g ro u n d s f o r some o f t h e m i g r a t o r y
e lk .
P r o p o s e # U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e t i m b e r s a l e s i n t h e E a g le C reek
d ra in a g e would p o t e n t i a l l y remove v i t a l c a lv in g s e c i i r i t y cover i n th e
a r e a , i n a d d i t i o n t o accompanying c o m p lic a tio n s from lo g g in g c r i t i c a l
w in te r range (See Human In flu e n c e i n L i t e r a t u r e Review).
Mule d e e r m ig r a tio n from th e G a rd in er w in te r range o ccu rred o n ly
when t h e s n o w l i n e r e c e d e d i n t h e s p r i n g d u r i n g b o th y e a r s o f th g
study.
Deer fo llo w e d s p r in g greenup a s i t advanced u p slo p e, but they
only u t i l i z e d a r e a s t h a t were r e l a t i v e l y sn o w -free.
Many deer a ls o
te n d e d t o r e m a i n on t h e low e l e v a t i o n s a g e b r u s h - g r a s s i a n d o f t h e
w in te r range i n t o mid-May, f o r a g in g m ainly on herbaceous v e g e ta tio n .
Most o f t h e d e e r had moved up i n t o t h e f o r e s t e d a r e a s by t h e
first
o f J u n e , . a f t e r w h ic h t i m e v e r y few d o e s w i t h fa w n s w e re
observed.
These o b s e r v a tio n s a re not n e c e s s a r i l y an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t
d e e r do n o t g i v e b i r t h on t h e s tu d y a r e a .
be a r e f l e c t i o n
of deer s c a t t e r i n g
R ath er, i t i s b e lie v e d to
t h r o u g h o u t t h e im m ense a r e a
av ailab le .
T h e re w e re r e l a t i v e l y few d e e r s i g h t i n g s on t h e s tu d y a r e a i n
comparison t o e lk s i g h t i n g s d u rin g summer months.
Deer observed
w q re
72
m o stly s o l i t a r y or o c c a s io n a lly i n groups o f two t o f i v e .
Perhaps 20
to 30 d eer used the ^tudy a re a d u rin g each summer.
Animal Use - W inter
A n ip a l
u se
d u rin g
th e
two w i n t e r s
of
th e stu d y
d i f f e r e n t because o f v a r i a t i o n i n snow a c c u m u l a t i o n .
was q u i t e
P re c ip ita tio n
l e v e l s u n t i l th e f i r s t of December were n e ar normal i n both 1980 and
1981.
However, December through March p r e c i p i t a t i o n d u r i n g 1980-81
was only 29 p e rc e n t of th e 93 y e a r mean w ith v i r t u a l l y no snow f a l l i n g
i n January.
December through March p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n 1981-82, on the
o th e r hand,
was 121 p e rc e n t o f normal w ith above average sn o w fa ll in
a l l months.
The c o n t r a s t i n w e ath e r allo w ed th e o b s e r v a tio n o f ex trem es from
l i g h t t o h e av y a n i m a l u se b e tw e e n t h e tw o y e a r s .
V i r t u a l l y no P a rk
e l k a p p e a r e d on t h e G a r d i n e r w i n t e r r a n g e i n 1980-81 co m p ared t o
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3000 u s i n g t h e a r e a d u r i n g t h e 1 9 81-82 w i n t e r .
Mule
d eer numbers w ere ap p ro x im a te ly th e same each w in te r a lth o u g h d eer use
of th e w in te r ran g e was much more r e s t r i c t e d i n 1981- 82.
Animal Use - M ig ra tio n
M ig ra tio n p a tte r n s
to
th e w in te r ran g e p la y
d e t e r m i n i n g e l k u se o f t h e s tu d y a r e a .
a key r o l e i n
E lk m i g r a t i n g n o r t h on t h e
e a s t s id e of th e Y ellow stone R iver converge on th e G a rd in e r V alley in,
the Deckard F l a t s a re a.
Those a r r i v i n g on th e w est s id e of th e r i v e r
c o n g r e g a t e a l o n g t h e P a rk l i n e , m oving n o r t h a s n u m b e rs b u i l d ,
E lk
c r o s s in g i n t o th e study a r e a from th e w est s id e may only spend a few
h o u rs t r a v e r s i n g p a r t s of i t a lo n g m ig r a tio n r o u te s , w h ile o th e r s
rem ain lo n g e r .
73
Elk m ig r a tio n t o th e G ard in er v a l l e y i s d e s c rib e d by Craighead e t
a l . (1972).
B a s i c a l l y , e l k r e a c h t h e G a r d i n e r v a l l e y e i t h e r on t h e
e a s t o r w e s t s i d e o f t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e R iv e r , d e p e n d in g on w h e re th e y
s t a r t e d i n t h e P ark .
E lk movement c o r r i d o r s on t h e s t u d y a r e a a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d i n Johnson (1981),
but an e x p la n a tio n o f th e se c o r r i d o r s
h e l p s t o d e s c r i b e e l k u se o f t h e a r e a .
E lk m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n s w e re
l a r g e l y a s s e s s e d fro m o b s e r v a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e se c o n d w i n t e r o f t h e
stu d y .
Most e lk r e a c h in g th e C revice Mountain a re a co n tin u e d tow ards th e
B ea r C reek d r a i n a g e u p s t r e a m fro m J a r d i n e . i f snow d e p t h s w e re l e s s
th ap 2 /3 m.
I f shows w ere deeper a t th e se m ig r a to r y e l e v a t i o n s ,
te n d e d t o move down t o t h e D eckard F l a t s a r e a .
e lk
Any e l k movement
f a r t h e r n o rth from Deckard F l a t s c ro sse d Bear Creek downstream from
J a r d i n e and c o n t i n u e d i n t o E a g le C reek.
D eckard F l a t s i s t h u s a key
s t a g i n g a r e a f o r e l k movement n o r t h o f t h e P a rk , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g
more sev e re w in te r s .
Elk e n t e r i n g th e w est s id e of th e G ardiner v a l l e y must c ro s s th e
Y ellow stone River t o re a c h the study a re a.
Some e lk c ro s se d th e r i v e r
n e ar th e mouth of Bear Creek and s c a t t e r e d onto Deckard F l a t s o r i n t o
the Eagle Creek a re a.
. Most e lk c ro sse d th e r i v e r and U.S. Highway 89
n ear th e a i r s t r i p about 2 km n o rth of G ard in er.
Few of th e e lk c r o s s in g n ear th e a i r s t r i p appear t o rem ain i n th e
a r e a lo n g .
Most e l k moved up i n t o L i t t l e T r a i l C reek and t r a v e r s e d
o v e r i n t o B a s s e t t C reek.
E lk w erp a l s o n o te d c r o s s i n g t h e r i v e r a t
n ig h t to fe e d i n th e L i t t l e T r a i l Creek a r e a and th e n r e t u r n i n g t o th e
74
P a rk b e f o r e d a y l i g h t .
E v id en tly
th e r i v e r
and h ig h w a y a r e n o t
b a r r i e r s to n o c tu rn a l movement.
Mule d e er m ig r a tio n t o th e study a re a was much l e s s w e ll d e fin e d
th a n e lk movement,
although deer numbers on th e a r e a were r e l a t i v e l y
c o n s ta n t through both w in te r s .
I t a p p ea rs most d e er u sin g th e study
a r e a m ig r a te from the nearby W ild e rn e ss or Park la n d s on th e e a s t s id e
o f t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e R iv e r .
D eer b e g an a c c u m u l a t i n g i n t h e f o r e s t e d
a r e a s i n mid-rOctober both y e a r s of the study even b e fo re th e r e was any
a p p r e c ia b le snow accum ulation.
Movements a f t e r October w ere g e n e r a lly
t o lo w e r e l e v a t i o n s i n accordance w ith snow depths.
Deer were r a r e l y
observed i n snow over 1/3 m deep.
Human im p a c ts i n f l u e n c i n g w i n t e r anim al d i s t r i b u t i o n ranged from
w ild lif e s ig h ts e e rs , v e h ic le t r a f f i c ,
s e a rc h in g f o r shed a n t l e r s .
by f a r
t h e m o st
m in in g a c t i v i t y ,
to p eo p le
However, l a t e e lk h u n tin g a c t i v i t i e s were
s i g n i f i c a n t human i n f l u e n c e .
D eer w ere
p fte n
d i s l o d g e d fro m f e e d i n g a r e a s by h u n t e r a c t i v i t y , b u t t h e e f f e c t was
g e n e r a lly s h o r t term.
E lk w e re d i s p l a c e d t o h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n f o r e s t e d a r e a s w h ic h i n
1981-82 meant n e g o t i a t i n g over I m of snow.
Elk r e tu r n e d to fe e d i p
th e s a g e b ru s h -g ra s s la n d a t n ig h t, but th ey a ls o fe d on upper e l e v a t i o n
so u th f a c in g e x p o su res.
F e e d in g s i t e s i n a s much a s 1.5 m o f snow
w e re o b s e r v e d i n 1981-82 a t o v e r 2500 m e l e v a t i o n .
e v id e n t h a rd s h ip imposed on a n im a ls,
D e sp ite th e
the c u r r e n t method o f conducting
l a t e h u n ts d id n o t ap p ear to s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e lk m ig r a tio n out of
th e Park d u rin g th e more sev ere w in te r o f 1981-82.
75
The p r a c t i c e of c lo s i n g Deckard F l a t s to h u n tin g d u rin g th e l a t e
e l k h u n t , i n i t i a t e d i n 1980—81, s h o u ld p r o b a b ly be c o n t i n u e d .
T h is
p r a c t i c e a llp w s e l k a needed f e e d in g and r e s t i n g b u f f e r zone below th e
d eep snow s o f h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s .
D eckard
F la ts
c o n c e n tra te d
sh o u ld
in
th e
be
H owever, v e g e t a t i o n t r e n d s on
c lo se ly
area fo r
m o n i t o r e d a s e l k may becojne
p r o lo n g e d
p e rio d s
and
th u s
cause
e c o l o g i c a l re g r e s s io n .
Animal Use - Feeding H ab its
Even w ith th e d isp la c e m e n t caused by l a t e h u n ts , f e e d in g a c t i v i t y
was most c o n c e n tra te d below 2100 m i n s a g e b ru s h -g ra s s ran g e i n 198182.
E lk a p p e a r e d t o sp en d m ore t i m e f e e d i n g i n a r e a s w i t h 1 /3 m p r
l e s s snow a cc u m u la tio n , although they are c e r t a i n l y capable of f e e d in g
i n much d e e p e r snow.
The few s c a t t e r e d e l k on t h e a r e e i n 1980-81
s p e n t m o st o f t h e i r t i m e a b o v e 2100 m e l e v a t i o n , b u t many f e e d i n g
s i t e s w ere observed i n m ountain b ig sagebrush h a b i t a t ty p e s a t lo w er
e le v a tio n s.
D eer w e re s c a t t e r e d up t o 2300 m e l e v a t i o n d u r i n g t h e
1980-81 w in te r , and th ey were a l s o o f t e n observed f e e d in g i n sagebrush .
areas.
D eer f e e d i n g h a b i t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c e r n ( G e i s t I 9 8I ), b u t
s a g e b r u s h a p p e a r s t o c o n s t i t u t e a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f t h e i r d i e t on
th e study area.
Deer use of m ountain b ig sagebrush was noted a s e a r l y
a s mid-October on th e w in te r range.
Deer used b la ck sagebrush and a l l
t h r e e s u b s p e c i e s o f b i g s a g e b r u s h , b u t Wyoming b i g s a g e b r u s h and
mountain b ig sagebrush r e c e iv e d th e p o s t use.
Not only did d e er fe e d
on s a g e b r u s h , b u t th e y a l s o u s e d d e n s e s t a n d s o f b i g s a g e b r u s h a s
r e s t i n g a re a s .
Sagebrush p ro v id e s th e only v e g e t a t i v e cover on much
76
o f t h e e l e v a t i o n a l zo n e d e e r a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o i n w i n t e r s su ch a s
1981-82.
Grass u t i l i z a t i o n was p r e v a le n t a t e lk f e e d in g s i t e s d u rin g both
y e a r s o f the study.
U t i l i z a t i o n e s t i m a t e s i n d i c a t e d a p re fe re n c e f o r
Idaho fe sc u e and bluebunch w h e a tg ra s s e a r l y i n th e w in te r .
Elk seemed
to s e l e c t fo r a g e i n p r o p o r tio n t o i t s abundance when g r a s s r e s o u r c e s
became d e p le te d a s w in te r p ro g resse d i n 1982.
T h e re w as a s u r p r i s i n g am ount o f s a g e b r u s h u t i l i z a t i o n a t e l k
fe e d in g s i t e s .
Elk w ere observed brow sing on sagebrush d u rin g t h e i r
fe e d in g a c t i v i t i e s .
G re e r e t a l . (1970) fo u n d t h a t b i g s a g e b r u s h
c o m p r is e d fro m a t r a c e t o f i v e p e r c e n t o f P a rk e l k d i e t s , w i t h t h e
h ig h p e r c e n t a g e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h h ig h p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y .
E lk w e re
u s i n g s a g e b r u s h on t h e s tu d y a r e a e v e n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1980-^1
when t h e r e w e re l e s s t h a n .07 e l k p e r h e c t a r e .
S a g e b r u s h u s e on t h e
G ardiner w i n t e r range by e lk perh ap s r e f l e c t s a s p e c i a l need a f t e r th e
lo n g m ig r a tio n f o r n u t r i e n t s no t provided by g ra s s .
There i s l i t t l e
o th e r browse of consequence on th e stu d y area.
A v a ila b le fo ra g e re c e iv e d very l i t t l e
u s e on t h e s tu d y a r e a
d u rin g th e w i n t e r of 1980-81 due to th e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll number of e lk
p re s e n t.
Yet, up to an e s tim a te d 50 p e rc e n t of the g r a s s was consumed
i n l o c a l i z e d a r e a s on Deckard F l a t s where a p p ro x im a te ly 300 e lk were
c o n c e n tra te d f o r two weeks i n February.
in
1981
o n ly
an e s t i m a t e d
average
However,
fiv e
by i n i t i a l grqenup
percen t
of
herbaceous
v e g e t a t i o n had b een g r a z e d i n o t h e r u t i l i z a t i o n p l o t s on t h e w i n t e r
range.
Of s i x tagged m ountain b ig sagebrush p l a n t s s c a t t e r e d over th e
study a re a ,
s i x p e rc e n t of th e p re v io u s y e a r 's grow th was browsed by
77
sp rin g .
A lth o u g h t h e s a m p le s i z e was s m a l l ,
t h e s e m e a s u r e m e n ts
appeared to correspond w ith sagebrush u t i l i z a t i o n on most of the study
d re a by th e s p r in g o f 1981.
The w i n t e r of 1981-82 provided a c o m p letely d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e of
a p im a l v e g e t a t i o n use.
A nim al p r e f e r e n c e f o r f e e d i n g s i t e s w as
c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d by heavy f o r a g i n g i n c e r t a i n a r e a s com pared t o
.others.
The d e l i n e a t i o n b etw een p r e f e r r e d f e e d i n g s i t e s and o t h e r s
C lo sely approximated h a b i t a t type b o u n d a rie s.
S ix te e n u t i l i z a t i o n
p lo ts
c o m b in e d w i t h
u tiliz a tio n
c l i p p i n g s p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r g r a s s u se e s t i m a t e s .
cage
S p r in g 1982
p r o d u c t i o n d a t a fro m i n and o u t s i d e one u t i l i z a t i o n c a g e l o c a t e d i n
th e m ountain b ig sag eb ru sh /b lu eb u n ch w h e a tg ra ss h a b i t a t type i n d i c a t e ^
81 p e r c e n t u t i l i z a t i o n
f o r b lu e b u n c h w h e a tg ra s p .
A sim fja f
u t i l i z a t i o n cage i n t h e Wyoming b i g s a g e b ru s h /b lu e b u n c h w h eatg rp ss
h a b i t a t type had 29 p e rc e n t u t i l i z a t i o n of bluebunch w h e atg rass neap
it.
Bluebunch w h e a tg ra s s showed an e s ti m a te d 32 p e rc e n t u t i l i z a t i o n
i n the nearby b lack sag eb ru sh /b lu eb u n ch w h e a tg ra ss h a b i t a t type.
Of c o u r s e , u t i l i z a t i o n w i t h i n a h a b i t a t ty p e a l s o v a r i e d .
The
most d r a s t i c example was i n th e m ountain b ig sag e b ru sh /Id a h o fe s c u e
h a b i t a t type.
An e s ti m a te d 80 p e r c e n t o f Idaho fe s c u e had been grazed
on m o st o f D eckard F l a t s by t h e s p r i n g o f 1982.
H ow ever, c l i p p i n g s
n e ar a u t i l i z a t i o n cage i n th e 1974 w i l d f i r e burned a r e a i n d i c a t e d 38
I
p e rc e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f Idaho fe sc u e . ' Grass u t i l i z a t i o n throughout th e
w i l d f i r e b u rn a p p e a r e d t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h a t fo u n d i n
nearby sag eb ru sh a re a s .
T h is p a t t e r n o f d e c r e a s e d u t i l i z a t i o n was
78
a ls o noted i n o th e r p r e s c r i b e d burn a r e a s which r e f l e c t s th e la c k o f
observed animal w in te r use of sagebrush burns.
E lk d i d f e e d i n b u rn e d a r e a s .
However, e l k d i d n o t g e n e r a l l y
sp en d c o n c e n t r a t e d f e e d i n g t i m e i n b u r n s , a s t h e y w o u ld i n a d j a c e n t
sagebrush
areas.
As T a b le 3 i l l u s t r a t e d ,
b u rn e d a r e a s (lid h a v e
r e l a t i v e l y h ig h g r a s s p ro d u c tio n a s s e c o n d a ry s u c c e s s i o n p r o g r e s s e d ,
su g g e stin g o th e r p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n s fo r d ecreased e lk w in te r
u t i l i z a t i o n i n burned a r e a s .
A verage
snow d e p t h
in
b u r n s was l e s s
accum ulated between b ig sagebrush p la n ts .
th a n d e p th s found
However, snow acc u m u la tio n
u n d e r b i g s a g e b r u s h c a n o p i e s was l e s s t h a n t h e u n i f o r m snow d e p t h s
fo u n d on b u rn e d s i t e s .
S a g e b r u s h c a n o p i e s c r e a t e d a v a r i a b l e snow
c r u s t w hereas th e c r u s t i n g i n burned a r e a s was more c o n s is te n t,
EJ7k;
f e e d i n g s i t e s w e re o f t e n l o c a t e d n e a r th e b a se o f b i ^ s a g e b r u s h
p l a n t s , which was a l s o observed by Houston (1976) i n t h e Park.
Mule d eer a c t u a l l y appeared t o avoid the burned a r e a s d u rin g th e
w in te r.
Deer were p o s s ib ly r e s t r i c t e d by snow c r u s t i n g i n th e burns,
b u t a l s o by t h e l a c k o f t h e r m a l and s e c u r i t y c o v e r p r o v i d e d by b i g
sagebrush.
D eer c o u ld be a p p r o a c h e d m ore c l o s e l y when f e e d i n g o r
re stin g
b ig sag e b ru sh
in
th a n i n a r e a s w ith o u t i t ,
su ch a s IrU
r e l a t i v e l y low growing b lack sagebrush a re as.
An e x a m p l e
of th e se
o b se rv a tio n s is
a g roup o f
18 d e e r
en co u n tered i n March 1980 fe e d in g around th e p e rip h e ry or i n f i n g e r s
o f u n to u c h e d b i g s a g e b r u s h o f a b u rn .
f i n g e r s o f b ig sag e b ru sh
D eer s t a n d i n g i n t h e e x p o s e d
sp o o k ed when a p p r o a c h e d w i t h i n 100 m,
b o u n d in g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m a c r o s s th e b u rn e d a r e a and s t o p p i n g i n
7
9
sagebrush on th e f a r edge of th e burn.
Other d e er i n th e su rro u n d in g
sagebrush moved o f f when approached w i t h i n 75 m, by w a lk in g w i t h i n the
s a g e b r u s h a ro u n d t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e b u rn t o r e j o i n t h e o t h e r d e e r .
Big sagebrush canopy cover perhaps p ro v id e s needed s e c u r i t y f o r d e e r
i n th e exposed G ard in er a re a ,
e s p e c i a l l y w ith a l l th e human a c t i v i t y
d u rin g th e w in te r.
One t o t h r e e y e a r o ld s a g e b r u s h b u r n s w e re u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y by
b o th d e e r and e l k d u r i n g s p r i n g g re e n u p .
A n im a ls w e re a t t r a c t e d t o
th e s e burns by a two to t h r e e week e a r l i e r greenup,
which Daubenmire
(1968) a t t r i b u t e s t p i n c r e a s e d s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e c a u s e d by b la c k e n e d
and unshaded s o i l i n burns.
Also,
r e l e a s e of p la n t n u t r i e n t s through
burning may make su bsequent fo r a g e more p a l a t a b l e ( V a lle n tin e 1977),
but t h i s e f f e c t i s only s h o r t- te r m .
Big sagebrush a c h ie v e s a d e f i n i t e hedged appearance w ith re p e a te d
herbage rem oval (Cook and S to d d a rt 1960).
Many b ig sagebrush p l a n t s
i n th e G ard in er a r e a d e f i n i t e l y have a hedged appearance,
below 2100 m e le v a tio n .
e sp e c ially
Seventeen sagebrush p l a n t s had been tagged by
t h e f a l l o f I 981 a s a c h e c k on fo r m c l a s s d e s i g n a t i o n s a s s i g n e d t p
s a g e b r u s h p l a n t s t a l l i e d i n summer d e n s i t y p l o t s .
R e s u l t s fro m
re m e a su rin g sagebrush l e a d e r s i n t h e s p r in g o f 1982 a r e p re s e n te d i n
Table 6.
Percen tag e u t i l i z a t i o n was determ in ed by d iv i d i n g the le n g th
browsed by th e t o t a l le n g th tagged.
Form c l a s s e s t i m a t i o n s a re those
a ss ig n e d to p l a n t s when tagged.
A lth o u g h t h e s a m p le s i z e was s m a l l , d a t a i n T a b le 6 seem t o
i n d i c a t e form c l a s s d e s i g n a t i o n s a s s i g n e d t o ta g g e d s a g e b r u s h a r e a
f a i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p a s t anim al use.
Annual growth u t i l i z a t i o n of
80
Table 6 . Percen tag e u t i l i z a t i o n o f 17 tagged sagebrush taxon by browse
form c l a s s , p o s tw in te r 1982.
U t i l i z a t i o n (2)
C u rren t
y e a r ' s growth
Woody growth
Taxon^
Form c l a s s
A. t . v a
Arno
lig h t
lig h t
36
10
0
0
A. t . v a
A.t.wy
moderate
moderate
47
46
.14
7
A. t . v a
A. t.wy
heavy
heavy
I
93
100
16
54
.
A .t.v a - m o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h ; Arno - b l a c k s a g e b r u s h ; A.t.wy Wyoming b ig sag e b ru sh .
heavy form c l a s s p l a n t s was tw ic e a s high as t h a t of p l a n t s placed i n
th e m oderate form c l a s s .
Consumption o f woody growth a ls o in c re a s e d
g r e a t l y as brow sing in c r e a s e d on p a r t i c u l a r p la n ts .
A ll
of
th e
ta g g e d
sagebrush
p la n ts
showed
a m o u n ts
of
use
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p r e - a s s i g n e d fo rm c l a s s e s , e x c e p t t h a t o f t h e
l i g h t m ountain b ig sagebrush c la s s .
Most of the u t i l i z a t i o n measured
on l i g h t form c l a s s p l a n t s was from removal of l e a f m a te r ia l.
b r o w s in g o f s a g e b r u s h t w i g s re m o v e s much o f t h e
Animal
p la n ts reserv e
c a r b o h y d r a t e s b e c a u s e a h ig h p e r c e n t a g e of th e s to r e d c a rb o h y d rates
a re n ear tw ig growth p o i n t s i n b ig sag eb ru sh (Coyne and Cook 1970).
T h e o r e t i c a l l y th en ,
m a te ria l
c o u ld
a c o n s id e r a b le amount of b ig sagebrush l e a f
be rem o v ed d u r i n g
e f f e c t i n g grow th form.
th e w in te r w ith o u t
s e rio u sly
Browsing o f l e a d e r growth would cause th e more
h ed g ed a p p e a r a n c e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m o d e r a te and h e a v y fo rm c l a s s e s .
81
When a n im a ls a r e c o n c e n tra te d on th e study a re a ,
l i g h t l y browsed big
s a g e b r u s h p l a n t s may r e c e i v e m ore u s e t h a n i n i t i a l l y i n d i c a t e d by
form c l a s s .
Big sag eb ru sh can o c c a s io n a ll y w ith s ta n d c o n s id e r a b le use d u rin g
th e f a l l and w i n t e r (W right 1970).
H eavily used sagebrush p l a n t s i n
t h e G a r d i n e r a r e a p r o b a b l y r e c e i v e some u se e v e r y w i n t e r , b u t g r e
h e a v i l y u t i l i z e d o n ly when deep snow c o n c e n t r a t e s d e e r , and l a r g e
numbers o f e lk a r e p re s e n t.
Other p l a n t s e v id e n t ly r e c e iv e muqh use
o n ly when a n i m a l s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e a r e a .
Heavy fo rm c l a s s
p l a n t s a r e found i n t e r s p e r s e d w ith l i g h t form c l a s s p la n ts .
V a r i a b i l i t y of u t i l i z a t i o n among and w i t h i n the sagebrush taxon
h a s b e en n o t e d i n o t h e r r e g i o n s ( W r ig h t 1970, Cook e t a l . 1954) and
v a r i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n s h av e b een p r o p o s e d ( P o w e ll 1970,
P e d e r s o n 1981,
Nagy e t a l .
1984).
Welch and
D a ta i n T a b le 7 r e v e a l s t h e
v a r i a b i l i t y o b s e r v e d b e tw e e n and w i t h i n t h e s a g e b r u s h ta x o n on t h e
Table 7. Contingency t a b l e of sagebrush form c l a s s d e s ig n a tio n s from
1980 and 1981 browse t r a n s e c t s .
Taxod
A. t . v a
A.t.wy
A. t . t r
Arno
I
Form c l a s s v a lu e s . observed/eynentAriSL ig h t
Moderate
Heavy
654/617
16/63
15/12
120/113
292/298
47/30
3/6
47/55
46/77
38/8
1/2
15/14
A .t.v a - m o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h ; A.t.wy - Wyoming b i g s a g e b r u s h ;
A . t . t r - b a s in b ig sag e b ru sh ; Arno - b lack sagebrush.
2 Chi s q u a r e = 179.3 w i t h 6 d . f . , s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 p r o b a b i l i t y
le v el.
82
study area.
Form c l a s s d e s ig n a tio n s were a ssig n e d t o sagebrush p l a n t s
en co u n tered i n browse t r a n s e c t s .
O b se rv e d v a l u e s i n d i c a t e t h e r e l a t i v e a b u n d a n c e o f t h e v a r i o u s
sagebrush ta x a on the study a re a.
Mountain b ig sagebrush com prises 77
p e r c e n t o f s a g e b r u s h p l a n t s c l a s s i f i e d t o fo rm c l a s s .
B a s in b i g
s a g e b r u s h , Wyoming b i g s a g e b r u s h , and b l a c k s a g e b r u s h make up 2, 8,
and 14 p e rc e n t of c l a s s i f i e d p l a n t s , r e s p e c tiv e ly ;
I t a p p e a r s o n ly Wyoming b i g s a g e b r u s h i s u t i l i z e d h e a v i l y i n
p r o p o r tio n t o i t s abundance.
sagebrush,
However, th e only a r e a s where b a s in b ig
Wyoming b ig sagebrush,
and b lack sagebrush grow i s below
1950 m e l e v a t i o n where c o n c e n tra te d fe e d in g a c t i v i t y occurs.
b i g s a g e b r u s h g ro w s t o o v e r 2500 m.
Mountain
T h i r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e m o u n ta in
b ig sagebrush browse t r a n s e c t s w ere conducted above 2100 m e l e v a t i o n
where w in te r snow dep th s g r e a t l y c u r t a i l f e e d in g a c t i v i t y .
Form c l$ s s
d e s i g n a t i o n s i n d i c a t e m o u n ta in b i g s a g e b r u s h h as a p p ro x im a te ly th e
same
p ro p o rtio n
of use as
Wyoming b i g
sagebrush
b elo w
1950
m
elev a tio n .
S a g e b ru s h
re c e iv e s
c o n sid e ra b le
u se
on t h e
i n d i c a t e d n o t o n ly by a c t u a l u s e o f ta g g e d p l a n t s ,
c l a s s e s s y m b o liz in g p a s t use.
stu d y
area
as
b u t a l s o fo rm
R e l a tiv e ly l i g h t use of sag eb ru sh i n
1980-81 w ith average numbers of d eer on th e a r e a i n d i c a t e sagebrush i s
a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o e l k a s a fo o d s o u r c e .
I n d i c a t i o n s o f p a s t u se a r e
to o e x te n s iv e t o a t t r i b u t e a l l use s o l e l y to mule d e e r.
Animal Use - Imnants
Animal im p a c ts on th e study a r e a a r e g r e a t l y m inim ized due to th e
season of use, p a t t e r n s of use dependent on w in te r s e v e r i t y , and human
83
a ctiv ity .
Deer a r e g e n e r a lly s c a t t e r e d i n sm a ll groups over a s much
o f t h e a r e a a s snow d e p t h s a l l o w .
th e G a rd in e r a re a y e a r ly .
L a rg e n u m b e rs o f e l k do n o t r e a c h
Human a c t i v i t y k e e p s e l k d a y t i m e f e e d i n g
and r e s t i n g a c t i v i t y r e s t r i c t e d m ainly t o upper e l e v a t i o n s , l e s s e n i n g
t h e p o t e n t i a l im p a c t on l o w e r e l e v a t i o n f e e d i n g a r e a s .
Damage t o
herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n i s l a r g e l y p rev en ted by m ig r a tio n of most e lk
soon a f t e r greenup.
S h e e r n u m b e rs o f a n i m a l s do c a u s e damage i n l o c a l i z e d a r e a s .
Major tra v a lw a y s a re t r a i l s som etim es 20 t o 30 cm deep b e a te n i n t o th e
ground by p a s s in g hooves through th e y e a rs.
A s m a ll p e rc en ta g e of th e
Rocky Mountain j u n i p e r a r e hedged or h ig h lin e d .
Some a r e a s on s o u t h and w e s t f a c i n g s l o p e s n e a r f o r e s t c o v e r
e x h i b i t l e s s p e r e n n ia l g r a s s cover th a n nearby a re a s .
These a re pj,tes
g e n e r a lly l e s s th a n 10 ha i n s i z e t h a t i n i t i a t e s p r in g growth apoper
t h a n o t h e r s i t e s i n m i g r a t i o n a r e a s , and a r e c l o s e t o e s c a p e c o v e r .
S p rin g d e e r g ra z in g p ro b a b ly c o n t r i b u t e s to a d e c lin e i n g ra s s
abundance on the s i t e s .
B ig s a g e b r u s h on D eck ard F l a t s i s t h e o n ly p l a n t s p e c i e s t h a t
a p p e a r s t o h av e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
u n g u l a t e u se on t h e s tu d y a r e a .
d e c r e a s e d i n a b u n d a n c e fro m w i l d
F iv e t r a n s e c t s on D eck ard F l a t s
showed m ountain and Wyoming b ig sagebrush c o n s t i t u t e 4.6 p e rc e n t of
t o t a l c o v e r w h i l e t h e same t a x a on t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e o f B ea r C reek
make up 11.3 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l c o v e r .
b o th a re as.
G ra s s c o v e r i s c o m p a r a b le on
84
Animal Use Compared w ith S i t e V a ria b le s
P e lle t- g r o u p c o u n ts w ere used t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a s s e s s anim al use
on t h e s tu d y a r e a .
Low ( i n N e f f 1968) fo u n d 24.1 p e r c e n t o f m ark ed
p e l l e t - g r o u p s w e re s t i l l
re c o g n iz a b le a f t e r f iv e y ears.
On t h e
G a r d i n e r w i n t e r r a n g e , 77.8 and 71.4 p e r c e n t o f f l a g g e d e l k and d e e r
p e lle t-g ro u p s,
resp ec tiv e ly ,
were s t i l l re c o g n iz a b le a f t e r ty o yeays.
Thus, p e l l e t - c o u n t s on th e s t u d y a r e a r e p r e s e n t s e v e r a l y e a r s o f
anim al use and should d e p ic t an average of anim al a c t i v i t y .
Less th a n
two p e r c e n t o f th e p e l l e t - g r o u p s c o u n te d w e re i d e n t i f i e d a s b e i n g
d e p o s ite d d u rin g th e summer,
so most of th e p e l l e t - g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t
w in te r use.
Neff (1968) p r e s e n t s a review of th e p e l l e t - c o u n t tech n iq u e f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g v a r i o u s b i g game t r e n d s .
N e f f ( 1968) and C o l l i n s and
Urness (1979) have ad v ised r e s e a r c h e r s t o use c a u tio n when i n f e r r i n g
anim al h a b i t a t p re fe re n c e from f e c a l counts because d e f e c a tio n r a t e s
depend on an im al a c t i v i t y and tim e of y e a r ( C o llin s and Urness 1979,
I r b y 1981).
I n t h i s s t u d y , ti m e o f f e c a l d e p o s i t i o n s h o u ld n o t b i a s
t h e d a t a , s i n c e m o st p e l l e t s w e re w i n t e r d e p o s i t e d .
D iffere n c es in
a n im a l a c t i v i t y l e v e l s b e tw e e n t h e h a b i t a t t y p e s w o u ld be th e o n ly
re a so n p e l l e t - c o u n t s m ight not a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e l k and d eer use
of the d i f f e r e n t h a b i t a t types.
Observing pronghorn a n te lo p e ,
Irb y (1981) concluded t h a t p e l l e t -
counts could be an ad eq u ate in d e x of tim e s p e n t i n an a r e a i f a n im a ls
u t i l i s e th e same a r e a s f o r r e s t i n g and a c t i v i t y .
I f a n im a ls fe e d i n
one a re a and r e s t i n a n o th e r, p e l l e t - c o u n t s would presum ably be b ia se d
to w a r d s t h e f e e d i n g a r e a s .
F o l l o w i n g t h i s r e a s o n i n g , t h e D o u g la s
85
f ir /I d a h o f e s c u e h a b it a t typ e w ould be th e o n ly a rea s tu d ie d on th e
w in te r ran ge w here tim e s p e n t m igh t be under r e p r e s e n te d by e lk
p e lle t-c o u n ts .
Elk appeared to spend more tim e r e s tin g than fe e d in g
in t h i s h a b it a t ty p e .
I t i s b e lie v e d th a t p e l l e t —c o u n ts a c c u r a t e ly
a s s e s s mule deer w inter use of a l l h a b ita t typ es stu d ied .
Mean e lk and mule d eer p e lle t- g r o u p co u n ts from a l l h a b i t a t ty p e s
sa m p le d d u r in g t h e tw o y e a r s tu d y a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F ig u r e 4.
The
mean counts correspond w ith observed an im al use o f th e v a rio u s h a b i t a t
ty p e s .
S in c e a l l
s h ru b h a b i t a t ty p e s a r e e q u a l l y a c c e s s i b l e to
a n im a ls d u r in g w i n t e r m o n th s, th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n mean p e l l e t - g r o u p
cd u n ts a r e b e lie v e d to r e p r e s e n t an im al p re fe re n c e f o r c e r t a i n a re a s .
The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
b e tw e e n m eans may be som ew hat
c o n f u s in g w ith o u t e x p l a n a t i o n ( F ig u r e 4).
S m a lle r mean d if f e r e n c e s
being s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t when l a r g e r mean d if f e r e n c e s a re not can
be e x p la i n e d by h a b i t a t s i z e .
P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y m ore t r a n s e c t s w e re
sa m p led on l a r g e r h a b i t a t ty p e s due to
s a m p lin g te c h n iq u e .
For
exam ple, 39 p e lle t- g r o u p tr a n s e c t s w ere conducted i n th e m ountain b ig
sag e b ru sh /Id a h o fe s c u e h a b i t a t type compared to only f i v e tr a n s e c ts i n
th e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll b a s in b ig sag eb ru sh /b lu eb u n ch w h e a tg ra ss h a b i t a t
ty p e.
The l e a s t s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e (LSD) t e s t s b etw een means a r e
in flu en ced by sample s iz e .
Since the degrees o f freedom are l e s s in
comparing two sm a ller h a b ita t typ es, the d iffe r e n c e between th e means
must
be p r o p o r t io n a t e ly
s ig n ific a n t.
la r g e r
to
be
c o n s id e r e d
s ta tis tic a lly
There are more degrees o f freedom in volved when a la r g er
86
F ig u re 4 . Elk and d e er use of s ix h a b i t a t ty p e s, as d eterm in ed by mean
p e lle t- g r o u p c o u n ts.
A .t .v a /F e id
2543
Arno/Agsp
A .t.v a /A g sp
A .t.w y/A gsp
«
.2239
ab
A .t .t r /A g s p
1435
A .t .v a /F e id
Arno/Agsp
A .t.v a /A g sp
V X N V l
2820 I
A .t .t r /A g s p
Psm c/Feid
1000
P e lle t-g r o u p s /h a
^Numbers among each anim al s p e c ie s fo llo w e d by a d i f f e r e n t l e t t e r a re
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t a t th e .05 p r o b a b ility l e v e l .
p
^Common nam es o f th e s e s c i e n t i f i c name a b b r e v i a t i o n s a r e : A .t.v a m ountain b ig sagebrush, Feid - Idaho fe s c u e , Arno - b lack sag eb ru sh ,
Agsp - bluebunch w h e a tg ra ss, A.t.wy - Wyoming b ig sag eb ru sh , A .t.tr b a sin b ig sag eb ru sh , Psme - Douglas f i r .
87
h a b i t a t ty p e i s
com pared w ith
a n o th e r mean,
so t h a t a s m a l l e r
d iff e r e n c e can be c o n sid e re d s i g n i f i c a n t .
I n th e h a b i t a t ty p e p e l l e t - c o u n t m eans f o r d e e r , b o th m o u n ta in
b ig s a g e b ru s h h a b i t a t ty p e s a p p e a r t o be d i f f e r e n t fro m b a s in b ig
s a g e b r u s h /b lu e b u n c h w h e a tg r a s s . Only m o u n ta in b ig s a g e b r u s h /I d a h o
fe s c u e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t b e c a u s e o f sa m p le s i z e .
H ow ever,
th e m o u n ta in b ig s a g e b r u s h /b lu e b u n c h w h e atg rass mean compared w ith
b a s in b ig s a g e b r u s h /b lu e b u n c h w h e a tg r a s s i s c l o s e t o th e a s s ig n e d
s ig n if ic a n c e le v e l ,
w ith th e mean d if f e r e n c e only 61 p e lle t- g r o u p s /h a
l e s s th an t h a t re q u ire d a t th e .05 p r o b a b ility le v e l.
E lk and d e e r u se o f th e b a s i n b ig s a g e b r u s h a r e a w as t h e lo w e s t
o f a l l h a b i t a t ty p e s .
B oth a n im a l s p e c i e s d id f e e d i n th e a r e a , b u t
g e n e r a l l y j u s t w h ile t r a v e l l i n g th ro u g h th e ro u g h t e r r a i n o f B ea r
C reek.
D o u g la s f i r / I d a h o f e s c u e h ad th e sec o n d l o w e s t f e c a l c o u n ts
f o r b o th a n im a l s p e c i e s .
As p r e v i o u s l y m e n tio n e d , e l k u s e o f t h i s
h a b i t a t type may be u n d e rre p re se n te d by p e lle t- c o u n ts .
Deep snow k ep t
d e e r out o f most o f t h i s h a b i t a t .t y p e i n 1981- 82. .
The b la ck sag eb ru sh /b lu eb u n ch w h e a tg ra ss h a b i t a t type s tr a d d le s
one o f
th e
m a jo r
e lk
m ig ra tio n
ro u te s in to L i t t l e
p a r t i a l l y e x p la in in g th e r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p e lle t- c o u n ts .
T ra il
Q reek
However,
e lk
d id fre q u e n t th e a re a to fe e d and r e s t .
Elk use was a ls o r e l a t i v e l y h ig h in both m ountain b ig sag eb ru sh
h a b i t a t ty p e s and Wyoming b ig sage b ru s h / b lu e bunch w h e atg rass.
w e re
a ls o
p r o d u c tio n
th e h a b i t a t
in
th e
ty p e s
s tu d y
a re a
w ith
th e
( T a b le s
h ig h e s t
I
and
g ra ss
2 ).
s a g e b r u s h /b lu e b u n c h w h e a tg r a s s h ad th e h i g h e s t
These
co v er
and
M o u n tain
b ig
g ra ss
c o v e r and
88
-
p r o d u c tio n a lo n g w ith th e h i g h e s t o v e r a l l e l k u s e . P e l l e t - c o u n t s i n
, th e Wyoming b ig sage b ru sh /Id a h o fe s c u e ty p e may r e f l e c t e lk s e a rc h in g
o u t t h i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll h a b i t a t ty p e f o r n o t o n ly th e g r a s s , b u t
a ls o th e sagebrush a v a ila b le .
D eer u se o f th e Wyoming b ig s a g e b r u s h / b l u e bunch w h e a tg r a s s
h a b ita t
ty p e
a p p e a rs
to
show
th e ir
p re fe re n c e
fo r
th is
a re a .
Sagebrush u t i l i z a t i o n i s heavy in th e h a b i t a t ty p e, bu t th e a re a a ls o
p r o v id e s some o f th e b e s t c o v e r i n s a g e b r u s h h a b i t a t s on th e w i n t e r
range.
R e la tiv e ly la rg e sagebrush p la n ts p ro v id e th e rm a l and r e s t i n g
cover w h ile nearby b reak s and r o l l i n g topography o f f e r escap e t e r r a i n .
Much o f th e h a b i t a t ty p e i s on s o u th and w e s t e x p o s u r e s g e n e r a l l y
w ith o u t snow accu m u latio n .
Some s i t e s w ith in th e m ountain b ig sag eb ru sh and b la c k sag eb ru sh
h a b i t a t ty p e s had hig h p e lle t- c o u n ts w h ile o th e r s had l e s s , r e f l e c t i n g
f a i r l y s e l e c t i v e d eer use w ith in th e s e ty p e s.
Most d e e r use i n th e se
h a b i t a t ty p e s w as on s o u th o r w e s t e x p o s u r e s and a r e a s n e a r c o v e r.
I n t e n s i v e l y u s e d s i t e s i n t h e b la c k s a g e b r u s h / b l u e bunch w h e a tg r a s s
h a b i t a t type were n e a r is la n d s o f b ig sagebrush or around Douglas f i r
s ta n d s .
Animal use appeared to be g e n e r a lly r e la te d to h a b i t a t ty p e, but
m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y
In fo rm a tio n i n
w ith c e r t a i n
c h a ra c te ris tic s
T a b le 8 show s t h e
w ith in
ty p e s .
c o r r e l a t i o n o f a l l c o n tin u o u s
n um erical p a ra m ete rs measured w ith e lk and deer p e lle t^ g ro u p c o u n ts.
E lk
u se
p a r a m e te r s .
is
h ig h ly
c o rre la te d
w ith
a num ber o f v e g e t a t i o n
I t i s m ore c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith g r a s s c o v e r ( r = .6 6 )
th a n any o t h e r p a r a m e te r m e a s u re d .
E lk u se i s
a ls o
p o s itiv e ly
89
Table 8 . C o rre la tio n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f e lk and d e e r p e lle t- g r o u p co u n ts
o b ta in e d i n 1980 and 1981 and a s s o c ia te d w ith v e g e ta tio n and
o th e r s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
S ite
c h a r a c te r
G rass cover
Forb cover
Shrub cover
T o tal cover
G rass p ro d u c tio n
Forb p ro d u c tio n
Shrub p ro d u c tio n
T o tal p ro d u c tio n
Shrub d e n s ity
Shrub volume
Elk
. 66**
.15
- .2 9 °
.24
.36**
-.1 6
- .4 4 ° °
- .1 2
- .0 3
- .2 8 ° °
Deer
.21
- .1 3
.08
.12
.21
-.2 1
-.1 6
.06
.12
- .1 8
S it e
c h a r a c te r
Elk
Shrub h e ig h t
Shrub a re a
P la n t s p e c ie s
number.
Slope
E le v a tio n
Bare ground
L itte r
G ravel
Rock
Deep
- .1 5
- .2 7 ° °
- .1 5
- .1 6
.14
- .4 0 ° °
- . 3 4 0tt
. 26°
.09
- .0 9
- .3 6 ° °
-.1 1
- .2 4 °
- .5 2 ° °
.31*
—.08
,07
- .2 2
^ S ig n if ic a n t a t th e .05 p r o b a b ility l e v e l .
tt0S ig n i f le a n t a t th e .01 p r o b a b ility le v e l .
c o r r e l a t e d w ith g r a s s p r o d u c tio n , a lth o u g h n o t a s s t r o n g l y a s w i t h
cover.
Perhaps e lk key more on g ra s s cover because cover i s a v is u a l
a s p e c t o f g r a s s c o m p o s itio n w h e re a s p r o d u c tio n i s
a le s s v is u a l
component.
Elk use i s n e g a tiv e ly c o r r e la te d w ith a l l shrub p a ra m e te rs ,
m o st s t r o n g l y w ith th o s e r e l a t e d to s h ru b s i z e .
but
S i t e s w ith l a r g e
ro b u s t sagebrush p la n ts such as b a s in b ig sag eb ru sh re c e iv e l e s s e lk
u s e , and a l s o , s a g e b r u s h p l a n t s i n h i g h e r e lk u t i l i z a t i o n a r e a s a r e
r e l a t i v e l y s m a lle r due to t h e i r hedged s t a t u r e . , Less e lk use i n a re a s
w ith in c re a s e d fo r b p ro d u c tio n p ro b ab ly r e f l e c t s fe w er e lk a t h ig h e r
e l e v a t i o n s w h e re f o r b p r o d u c tio n i s r e l a t i v e l y h ig h , r a t h e r th a n a
d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith fo rb p ro d u c tio n .
90
Elk w ere hampered by snow a c c u m u la tio n , a s in d ic a t e d by th e
negative c o r r e la tio n w ith e le v a tio n .
Percentage slo p e in c r e a se s w ith
e le v a tio n which p a r t ia lly accounts fo r i t s n eg a tiv e a s s o c ia tio n w ith
e lk u se (r = -.4 0 ).
S lo p e s are a ls o s t e e p a lo n g th e Y e llo w s to n e R iv er
and Bear Creek g o r g e s w hich e lk g e n e r a lly u se o n ly w h ile t r a v e l l i n g
through.
The h ig h e s t p e r c e n ta g e s o f rock co v er a r e a l s o found on
s t e e p s lo p e s ( s e e d is c u s s io n o f T able 5 ).
G reater e lk u se w ith an
in c r e a s in g p e r c e n ta g e o f bare ground prob ab ly r e f l e c t s u se on d r ie p
south and w est exposures.
D eer u se i s m o st s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith e l e v a t i o n ( r = - .5 2 ) .
The n e g a tiv e a s s o c ia tio n d e m o n stra te s mule d e e r 's p h y s i c a l i n a b i l i t y
to n e g o t i a t e d e e p e r snow s a t h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s .
T h e re i s a l s o a
s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n w ith slo p e (r= -.2 4 ), b u t i t i s n o t a s
h ig h
a s t h a t d e te r m in e d f o r
e lk .
The r e l a t i v e l y
lo w e r r v a lu e
p a r t i a l l y r e f l e c t s th e tendency o f d eer to fe e d on th e s te e p s lo p e s o f
t h e Y e llo w s to n e R iv e r g o rg e and n e a r t h e m outh o f B e a r C reek.
The
s tro n g a s s o c ia ti o n w ith bare ground may lik e w is e in d ic a te u t i l i z a t i o n
o f d r i e r south and w est exposures.
D eer u se i s n o t h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith any o f th e v e g e t a t i o n
p a ra m e te rs.
e x p la n a tio n s .
T his n o n -a s s o c ia tio n could in d ic a te a t l e a s t two p o s s ib le
One e x p la n a tio n may be t h a t d e er a c t i v i t i e s d u rin g th o
w i n t e r a r e n o t a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e v e g e t a t i o n p a r a m e te r s t h a t w e re
q u a n tif ie d .
A second e x p la n a tio n may be t h a t v e g e ta tio n m easurem ents
a n d /o r th e u se o f f o r a g e m eans w ere n o t s p e c i f i c enough to d e t e c t
v a r i a t i o n s i n th e s e l e c t i v e n a tu re o f d e e r a c t i v i t y .
91
The only o th e r s i t e p a ra m e te rs e v a lu a te d w ith p e lle t- c o u n ts w ere
i
s ix
c a te g o rie s
of v a ria b le s
re c o rd e d
to
h e lp
d e s c rib e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t r a n s e c t s i t e s (T a b le 9 and A p p en d ix D).
th e
T hese
c a te g o r ie s and v a r ia b le s were n o t q u a n tif ia b le , b u t th ey w ere in c lu d e d
t o p o s s i b l y h e lp e x p l a i n a n im a l u s e .
F o r b o th d e e r and e l k ,
a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e was used to s t a t i s t i c a l l y
th e
te s t fo r s ig n ific a n t
d if f e r e n c e s betw een p e lle t- c o u n t means o f th e v a r ia b le s f o r each of
th e s ix c a te g o r ie s (T able 9 ).
Table 9 . S i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s o f F - v a lu e s o b ta in e d by a n a l y s i s o f
v a ria n c e of s ix c a te g o r ie s e v a lu a te d f o r e lk and d eer u se.
C ategory
S ig n ific a n c e o f F
Elk
Deer
Topographic p o s itio n
Slope c o n fig u ra tio n
S o il-g ro u p
Prom inent g ra s s
Prom inent shrub
H a b ita t type
.01
.00
.01
.13
.00
.02
.08
.05
.19
.34
.00
.00
T hese s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s s u g g e s t t h a t e l k and d e e r s e l e c t
f o r p a r t i c u l a r s i t e c a te g o rie s .
H a b ita t ty p e v a r ia b le s a re shown i n
F ig u re 4 where d if f e r e n c e s betw een h a b i t a t ty p e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d .
Elk
and d e er p e lle t- c o u n t means w ith in th e o th e r f iv e c a te g o r ie s a re shown
i n Appendix D.
The a s s o c i a t i o n o f e lk u s e w ith to p o g r a p h ic p o s i t i o n and s lo p e
c o n fig u ra tio n r e f l e c t s th e tendency o f e lk to c o n g reg ate and spend th e
m ost
c o n c e n tra te d
fe e d in g
tim e
on r e l a t i v e l y
le v e l
a re a s.
9
2
C o n cen trated d e e r a c t i v i t y in and around g l a c i a l m o rain al d e p o s its and
v a r i o u s l a v a f lo w s i s r e v e a l e d i n th e a s s o c i a t i o n w ith to p o g r a p h ic
p o s i t i o n and s lo p e c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
b e s t th e r m a l and s e c u r i t y
T hese a r e a s p r o v id e some o f th e
cover in
th e s a g e b r u s h h a b i t a t
ty p e s .
Sagebrush i n sw a le s p ro v id e s th e rm a l and r e s t i n g co v er w h ile nearby
s lo p e s o f f e r escape t e r r a i n to d eer.
The n o n - s ig n if ic a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e lk w ith th e prom inent g ra s s
c a te g o r y c o i n c i d e s w ith th e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t g r a s s w as g e n e r a l l y
consum ed i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s a b u n d a n c e .
D eer u se w as m o st h i g h ly
a s s o c ia te d
of
w ith
Wyoming b ig
sag e b ru sh
th e
p ro m in e n t
v a r ia b le s , p ro b ab ly f o r re a so n s p re v io u s ly d isc u sse d .
s h ru b
The s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e lk w ith th e prom inent shrub c ate g o ry i s due to l i t t l e
u se o f th e b a s i n b ig s a g e b r u s h h a b i t a t ty p e and d e c r e a s e d s a g e b ru s h
p ro m in e n c e from h eav y p a s t u t i l i z a t i o n i n l o c a l i z e d a r e a s .
Two
tr a n s e c t s w ere conducted w here e lk p e lle t- c o u n ts w ere h ig h and ru b b e r
r a b b itb ru s h was th e m ost prom inent shrub.
These w ere a r e a s where p a s t
u t i l i z a t i o n w as b e lie v e d t o h a v e c a u s e d a r e d u c t i o n i n s a g e b ru s h
p ro m in e n c e , i n s t e a d o f a p o s i t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n e lk u se and
ru b b e r ra b b itb ru s h .
D a ta
p re s e n ta tio n
to
th is
p o i n t i n d i c a t e s a n im a l u se i s
a s s o c ia te d wih s i t e p a ra m e te rs on th e G ard in er w in te r ran g e.
Animal
u se i s a p p a r e n t l y d e p e n d e n t t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e on t h e r e l a t i v e
a b u n d a n c e o f some o f t h e s e s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
C o n s e q u e n tly , a l l
d a t a w e re s u b j e c t e d t o r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s t o f u r t h e r d e f i n e th e
r e l a t i v e a s s o c ia tio n of s i t e v a r ia b le s w ith anim al u se .
93
Elk and m ule d e e r p e lle t- c o u n ts w ere used a s dependent v a r ia b le s .
U sin g th e SPSS p ro g ra m (N ie e t a l . 19 7 5 ), a t r u e s t e p - w i s e a n a l y s i s
w ith fo rw ard s e le c tio n ,
and backw ards e lim in a tio n , o f both l i n e a r and
q u a d r a t i c f u n c t i o n s w as c o n d u c te d .
A ll c a t e g o r i c a l d a t a (T a b le 9 )
. w ere coded a s dummy v a r i a b l e s (a v a r i a b l e e n te r e d e i t h e r a s I o r 0 ,
depending on i t s p resen ce or a b se n c e ).
When u sin g c a te g o r ic a l v a r ia b le s ,
one l e s s dummy v a r ia b le from
each type o f c ate g o ry i s u s u a lly e n te r e d in to th e r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s is .
H ow ever, c a t e g o r i c a l v a r i a b l e s p o t e n t i a l l y im p o rta n t i n e x p la in in g
d e v ia tio n s o f d a ta p o in ts from th e mean may be ex clu d ed from a n a ly s is
u s in g t h i s s ta n d a rd procedure.
T h erefo re,
a l l c a te g o r ic a l v a r ia b le s
w ere e n te re d i n t o th e r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s is to p re v e n t t h i s type o f d a ta
m is in te r p r e ta tio n , a s su g g ested by D o rs e tt and W ebster (1 9 8 3 ).
In many r e g r e s s io n a p p l i c a t i o n s , th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s a r e
c o r r e la te d among th e m se lv e s and w ith o th e r v a r ia b le s n o t in c lu d e d i ti­
th e m o d el, b u t a r e r e l a t e d t o th e m o d el (N e te r and W asserm an 1974).
M u ltic o llin e a rity
i s th e s t a t i s t i c a l
in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s
c o r r e la te d .
w ith in
th e
te r m in o lo g y a p p l i e d t o tw o
re g re s s io n
th a t
a re
h ig h ly
The e f f e c t of m u l t i c o l l i n e a r i t y i s t h a t th e s ig n if ic a n c e
o f a v a r ia b le (o r v a r ia b le s ) e n te r in g th e e q u a tio n i s
ex plained, by t h a t v a r ia b le .
only p a r t i a l l y
With s te p w is e e n try , i f two v a r ia b le s a re
h ig h ly c o r r e l a t e d w ith e ac h o t h e r , th e f i r s t t o e n t e r t a k e s w ith i t
b o th i t s
u n iq u e v a r i a n c e and t h e v a r i a n c e th e y s h a r e so t h a t th e
s e c o n d v a r i a b l e r a r e l y h a s enough i n f l u e n c e r e m a in in g t o e n t e r th e
e q u a tio n (T abachnick and F id e ll 1,983).
94
Many o f
th e v a r i a b l e s q u a n t i f i e d
in
th is
s tu d y
c o r r e la te d w ith one a n o th e r, a s d is c u s s e d w ith Table 5.
a re h ig h ly
Some o f th e se
same v a r ia b le s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith s i t e v a r ia b le s n o t q u a n tif ie d ,
w h ic h h a v e a n e f f e c t
on a n i m a l u s e .
Im p lic a tio n s
but
of th e s e
a s s o c ia tio n s w i l l be d is c u s s e d w ith a p p ro p ria te r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s e s .
R e s u l t s fro m th e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s o f e lk p e l l e t - c o u n t s a r e
p re s e n te d i n T able 10.
A ll v a r ia b le s l i s t e d e n te re d th e model w ith in
th e .10 p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l ,
as in d ic a te d
by th e F - t o - e n t e r .
The
r e l a t i v e c o n tr ib u tio n o f each v a r ia b le to th e e q u a tio n a t th e end o f
th e a n a ly s is i s a ls o in c lu d e d a s th e f i n a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f F.
Table 10. R eg ressio n a n a ly s is o f e lk p e lle t- c o u n ts w ith a l l v a r ia b le s
s tu d ie d , and th e r e s u l t i n g e q u a tio n ^ .
Step
V a ria b le
S ig n ific a n c e
of
F - to - e n te r
R2
F in a l
S ig n ific a n c e
of F
X1 G rass cover
.#
.00
2
X2 T o tal p ro d u c tio n
CO
in
.00
O
O
3
X3 E le v a tio n
.65
.01
.01
4
X^ Forb cover
.68
VO
O
.04
5
Xg T h in - h illy s o il-g ro u p
.71
.07
.07
■
O
O
I
1 Y = 5987.5 + 1 5 0 .SX1 - I . IX2 - 0 , 6X3 “ 8 6 . 5 X4 + 4 8 9 ;6X5
G ra s s c o v e r and e l e v a t i o n a r e th e o n ly tw o v a r i a b l e s w h ich a r e
h ig h ly c o r r e l a t e d w ith e lk p e l l e t - c o u n t s (T a b le 8 ) s u g g e s t i n g th e
o t h e r v a r i a b l e s e n t e r e d t h e e q u a ti o n f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n s .
G ra ss
95
c o v e r a p p e a r s t o be th e s i n g l e m o st i m p o r ta n t f a c t o r m e a su re # f o r
i n f l u e n c i n g e l k u se on th e s tu d y a r e a .
I n a l l d a t a a n a l y s i s , .an
in c re a s e i n g ra s s cover was a p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n f o r in c re a s e d e lk
use in v a rio u s a re a s .
I t s im p o r ta n c e i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f h a b i t a t s
s tu d ie d which encompass e s s e n t i a l fe e d in g s i t e s f o r e lk .
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d e c r e a s e d e lk u s e w ith e l e v a t i o n l i k e l y
r e f l e c t s e l e v a t i o n 's p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith snow a c c u m u la tio n .
A lth o u g h e l k w ere c a p a b le
re tre a te d
of n e g o tia tin g
d eep snow ,
th e y
o n ly
a s h ig h i n e l e v a t i o n a s n e c e s s a r y f o r s e c u r i t y d u r in g
d a y l i g h t h o u rs .
As w ith a l l w i n t e r i n g w ild u n g u l a t e s , th e n eed t o
conserve energy p la y s an im p o rta n t r o l e i n e lk a c t i v i t i e s , even durijng
th e l a t e h u n ts a d m in is te re d on th e a re a .
T o tal p ro d u c tio n i s h ig h ly c o r r e la te d w ith shrub s i z e p a ra m e te rs
(T a b le 5).
S hrub s i z e p a r a m e te r s w e re a l l s i g n i f i c a n t a t o r below
th e .0 5 p r o b a b i l i t y
e q u a tio n .
le v e l
b e fo re
to ta l
p r o d u c tio n e n t e r e d t h e
A ll s h ru b s i z e p a r a m e te r s becam e h i g h l y n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t
a f t e r t o t a l p r o d u c tio n e n t e r e d t h e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g
m u ltic o llin e a rity .
As p r e v i o u s l y d is c u s s e d , e l k u s e i s n e g a t i v e l y
a s s o c ia te d w ith shrub s iz e which in d ic a te s e lk have h a b itu a lly avoided
a r e a s w ith la r g e
sh ru b s.
A ls o ,
a r e a s o f m o re i n t e n s i v e
e lk
u t i l i z a t i o n h a v e s m a l l e r and l e s s d e n se sagebrush due to h i s t o r i c a l
brow sing re d u c in g sagebrush prom inence.
R ea so n s f o r e n t r y o f f o r b c o v e r and t h e t h i n - h i l l y s o i l - g r o u p
i n t o th e m odel a r e m ore d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c e r n .
its e lf
i s h ig h ly
im proves th e model.
a s s o c i a t e d w ith
e lk u s e ,
N e i t h e r v a r i a b l e by
and n e i t h e r s t r o n g l y
Forb cover i s s l i g h t l y p b s itiy e ly c o r r e la te d w ith
96
e lk p e lle t- c o u n ts and i s n o t h ig h ly c o r r e la te d w ith any o th e r v a r ia b le
a s s o c ia te d w ith e lk use.
The n e g a tiv e a s s o c ia tio n of fo r b cover w ith
th e m odel i s b e l i e v e d t o be n o th in g m ore th a n an a d ju s t m e n t o f th e
model f o r th e high p o s itiv e v alu e o f g ra s s cover.
th in -h illy
The a d d itio n of th e
s o i l - g r o u p s u p p o r ts t h e a d ju s t m e n t o f f o r b c o v e r ,
as
in d ic a te d by fo rb c o v er’s in c re a s e d f i n a l ' s ig n if ic a n c e .
In c lu s io n of
fo rb
to
cover
and
th in -h illy
s o il-g ro u p
a re
b e lie v e d
be
o n ly
refinem ents of the equation that b e tte r e x p la in v a r ia tio n in the data.
The model p r e se n te d i n T ab le 10 e x p la in s 71 p e r c e n t (R2 ) o f th e
v a r i a t i o n i n th e d a ta and i s in c lu d e d to i l l u s t r a t e
th e r e l a t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f each v a r ia b le w ith ch a n g es i n p e l l e t - c o u n t s .
p r e d ic tiv e value of the equation i s q u estio n a b le,
The
sin c e the l a s t two
v a r ia b le s a r e not a s s o c ia t e d w ith e lk u se i n any way d e t e c t e d from
o b s e r v a t io n or d a ta a n a ly s is .
T h e r e fo r e , a b e t t e r p r e d ic t iv e model
m igh t in c lu d e j u s t th e f i r s t th r e e v a r ia b le s and i s : I = 5738.3 +
I 2 9 .OX1 - . 9 X2 - . 6 X3 , (R2 = .6 5 ).
N e ith e r e q u a tio n w as t e s t e d f o r
p r e d ic tiv e a b i l i t y .
Deer p e lle t- c o u n t r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s is i s p re s e n te d i n Table 11.
The i n c l u s i o n o f s u c h a v a r i e t y
in d ic a te
of v a ria b le s in to
m ule d e e r ’ s w i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e
th e m odel i s
b e lie v e d
to
s tu d ie d .
A lso , v a r i a b l e s e n t e r i n g th e e q u a ti o n a r e r e l a t i v e l y m ore
s i t e s p e c if ic th a n th o se in c lu d e d f o r e lk .
on th e a r e a
Most o f th e v a r ia b le s i n
th e e q u a ti o n a r e o n ly fo u n d i n l i m i t e d r e g i o n s o f th e s tu d y a r e a ,
w h ic h r e v e a l s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s p e c i f i c s i t e s by d e e r on t h e w i n t e r
ra n g e .
97
Table 11. R eg ressio n a n a ly s is o f d e e r p e lle t- c o u n ts w ith a l l v a r ia b le s
s tu d ie d , and th e r e s u l t i n g e q u a tio n ^ .
S tep
2
X1 Wyoming b ig sagebrush
.36
.00
.00
^2 Sandy s o il-g ro u p
.49
.00
.00
.58
.00
.00
.00
Bare ground
Xg
4
X^ M idslope topography
.64
5
E a st-w e st a s p e c t
.70
.01
Xg N o rth -so u th a sp e c t
.73
.08
.00
7
X6 T h in - h illy s o il-g ro u p
.76
.04
.00
8
X j
O
.01
.01
9
Xg R o llin g c o n fig u ra tio n
.04
Y
(Forb p ro d u c tio n )^
Remove e a s t-w e s t a sp e c t
00
6
Co
u>
3
10
1
R2
F in a l
S ig n ific a n c e
of F
CVJ
O
I
V a ria b le
S ig n ific a n c e
of
F - to - e n te r
.82
■
'
-01
.18
= -7 5 6 .6 + 1778.SX1 + 1661.7X2 + 89 . 9 X 3 + 693. 7X4 -544
.OXg +
1 23 9. IX6 - .OO2 X7 + 53 8 . 6 Xg
The la r g e r e g r e s s io n c o e f f i c i e n t s i n th e model a ls o r e f l e c t th e
g r e a t v a r i a t i o n in d eer p e lle t- c o u n ts from s i t e to s i t e .
These la r g e
p o s i t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e p a r t i a l l y due t o th e s c a l i n g o f p e l l e t g r o u p s /h a , b u t th e y g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e w i l l be many m ore
p e l l e t - g r o u p s a t a s i t e , i f th e s i t e v a r i a b l e i s p r e s e n t .
w e s t a s p e c t d ro p p e d o u t o f th e m odel b e c a u s e i t s
e x p la in e d away by v a r ia b le s e n te r in g a f t e r i t .
The e a s t -
v a r i a t i o n w as
9
8
E ntry p o in t and s ig n if ic a n c e o f Wyoming b ig sag eb ru sh in d ic a te s
th e im p o rtan ce of t h i s shrub taxon to d e er on th e w in te r range.
Area?
w h e re t h i s ta x o n grow a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll i n s i z e b u t d e e r seem to
, c o n g reg ate on them.
Deer a re a p p a re n tly a t t r a c t e d to th e s e a re a s n o t
o nly fo r th e shrub,
but a ls o f o r th e s e c u r ity (p re v io u s ly d isc u sse d )
and r e l a t i v e l y s l i g h t snow accu m u latio n on th e se d r i e r s i t e s .
Sandy s o i l - g r o u p and m id s lo p e to p o g ra p h y b o th a p p e a r h ig h ly
c o r r e la te d w ith e le v a tio n .
Sandy s o il-g ro u p i s g e n e r a lly only found
on th e lo w e r e le v a tio n g la c ia te d f l a t s and m oderate s lo p e s .
Areas o f
m idslope topography exam ined were g e n e r a lly below 2200 m e le v a tip p .
The s ig n if ic a n c e le v e l o f e le v a tio n i n th e r e g r e s s io n dropped from .01
t o .73 w ith
T h e re fo re ,
th e
th e s e
a d d itio n
to
th e
tw o v a r i a b l e s
m odel
of th e s e
p r o b a b ly
tw o v a r i a b l e s .
re p re se p t
m u le d e e r ’ s
avoidapce o f deep snow accu m u latio n on th e a re a .
B are ground i s a ls o somewhat n e g a tiv e ly c o r r e la te d w ith e le v a tio n
( s e e T a b le 5 ), b u t i t s e n t r y i n t o th e m odel i s b e l i e v e d to be m ore
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f d e e r use on d r i e r s i t e s .
in d ic a te
d e e r ’s
p re fe re n tia l
use
of
Both a s p e c t d e lin e a tio n s
s o u th
and
w est
e x p o su res.
Although a m a jo rity o f th e study a re a s lo p e s fa c e w e st o r so u th , d e er
d id spend a d is p r o p o r tio n a te amount of tim e on them, e s p e c ia lly d u rin g
sunny days.
The e n try o f t h i n - h i l l y s o il-g ro u p pro b ab ly shows th e im p o rtan ce
to d e er use of th e s te e p s lo p e s alo n g th e Y ellow stone R iv er gorge.
As
w ith e lk r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s is , no p la u s i b le e x p la n a tio n e x i s t s f o r th e
e n try of fo rb p ro d u c tio n i n t o th e m odel, e x ce p t a s a re fin e m e n t o f th e
r e g r e s s io n l i n e .
R o llin g c o n f ig u r a tio n i s p o s itiv e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith
9
9
d e e r u s e , p o s s i b l y i n d i c a t i n g d e e r 's n e e d f o r e s c a p e c o v e r i n th e
exposed sagebrush s i t e s .
The model e x p la in s 82 p e rc e n t (R2) o f th e v a r i a t i o n i n th e d a ta.
Again, t h i s e q u a tio n i s n o t p re s e n te d a s a p r e d ic to r o f d eer use, bu t
r a t h e r a s an e x a m p le o f th e r e l a t i v e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e v a r i a b l e s to
d e e r use.
A s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n o f th e m o d el, th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
w h ic h c o u ld be i n v e s t i g a t e d a s a p r e d i c t o r o f d e e r u se on th e s tu d y
a r e a i s : Y = -1 9 6 .0 + 2 9 2 2 .SX1 + 1 3 3 7 .IX2 + 7 3 .2X3 + 6 6 8 . 9X4.
T h ese
f o u r v a r i a b l e s e x p l a i n 64 p e r c e n t (R2 ) o f th e v a r i a t i o n i n th e d a t a ,
a p p ro x im a te ly th e same a s th e model su g g e ste d f o r p r e d ic tio n o f e lk
uae.
However, p r e d ic tio n o f anim al use w ith any o f th e m odels should
p ro b a b ly be u se d w ith c a u t i o n , s i n c e none o f th e m o d e ls hav e b een
te s t e d f o r p r e d ic tiv e a b i l i t y or w ith any a d d itio n a l f i e l d d a ta from
th e G ardiner a re a .
Management a p p lic a tio n o f th e m odels i n th e G a rd in e r a re a would,
r e q u i r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f f i e l d m e a s u re m e n ts c o n d u c te d i n t h i s s tu d y .
L i m i t a t i o n s im p o se d by tim e , m oney, r e s e a r c h e x p e r t i s e , e t c . c o u ld
p o s s ib ly make d u p lic a tio n of f i e l d d a ta im p r a c tic a l.
Perhaps a check
l i s t o f th e r e l a t i v e p r e s e n c e o f th e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s w ould be a
more p r a c t i c a l management te c h n iq u e f o r d e te rm in in g th e p o te n tia l o f
f u tu r e anim al use i n a g iv e n a re a .
D a ta a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s e l k and d e e r u se i s d e p e n d e n t on s i t e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a lth o u g h each a n im a l s p e c ie k e y s on d i f f e r e n t s i t e
v a ria b le s .
E lk a r e p h y s i c a l l y c a p a b le o f u t i l i z i n g m o st r e g i o n s o f
th e s tu d y a r e a .
Y et, t h e i r m o st i n t e n s i v e f e e d i n g a c t i v i t y i s i n
a re a s w ith 1/3 m of snow o r l e s s and u s u a lly in th e sagebrush h a b i t a t s
100
where g ra s s i s r e l a t i v e l y abundant.
T h erefo re, e lk a p p a re n tly s e l e c t
p r e f e r r e d fe e d in g h a b i t a t s w here th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f fo o d i n t a k e t o
energy e x p e n d itu re i s o p tim ized .
Mule d e er a re g e n e r a lly r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e i r use o f th e G ard in er
w in te r range to th e sagebrush h a b i t a t s because o f snow a cc u m u la tio n on
fo re s te d e le v a tio n s .
D eer u se i s
c o n s e q u e n tly d i c t a t e d by c o v e r
r e q u i r e m e n t s i n th e r e l a t i v e l y e x p o se d f e e d i n g and r e s t i n g a r e a s .
T h e re fo re , d e e r e v id e n tly s e l e c t a c t i v i t y a re a s to m axim ize s e c u r ity
and th e rm a l cover on s i t e s where a minimum of energy i s re q u ire d to do
so.
The m ost in te n s iv e ly used a r e a s m eetin g co v er re q u ire m e n ts a re
p r e f e r r e d fe e d in g s i t e s .
101
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
T his study was i n i t i a t e d i n th e s p rin g o f 1980 and was co n tin u ed
through the s p rin g o f 1982 to e v a lu a te w ild u n g u la te use and to a s s e s s
th e f u n c t i o n o f th e G a r d in e r w i n t e r ra n g e i n d e f i n i n g e l k and m u le
deer u tiliz a tio n .
The s tu d y a r e a e n c o m p a sse d a b o u t 5800 ha o f th e
n o rth e rn Y ellow stone w in te r range from th e Y ellow stone N atio n al Park
boundary l i n e n o rth to L i t t l e T r a il Creek.
The G a r d in e r w i n t e r ra n g e i s
e s p e c ia lly
u n g u la te s d u r in g s e v e r e w i n t e r s w hen i t
i m p o r t a n t to w ild
s e rv e s a s an e s s e n t i a l
w in te r in g a re a f o r a n im a ls m ig ra tin g from Y ellow stone N a tio n al Park.
E lk a r e
th e
m o st a b u n d a n t a n im a l
s p e c ie s ,
but
th e re
a re
a ls o
s u b s ta n tia l- numbers o f mule d e er w in te rin g i n th e a re a .
V e g e ta tio n and landform c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s tu d y a r e a w e re
c h a r a c t e r i z e d and q u a n t i f i e d d u r in g t h e sum m ers p f 1980 and 1981.
V e g e ta tio n w as d e l i n e a t e d
by h a b i t a t
ty p e s t o
a id in
a s s e s s in g
p la n t com m unities and anim al u se.
A nim al w i n t e r u se was e v a l u a t e d fro m p e l l e t - g r o u p c o u n ts and
brow se form c la s s e s .
P e rio d ic w in te r f i e l d t r i p s d u rin g th e 1980-81
and 1981-82 w in te rs help ed to s u b s ta n tia te and i n t e r p r e t e lk and mule
d eer use of the stu d y a re a .
A nim als appeared to fa v o r c e r t a i n h a b i t a t
ty p e s .
A m a jo r p o r t i o n o f th e G a r d in e r w i n t e r ra n g e i s
g ra s s la n d .
s a g e b ru sh -
V e g e ta tio n o f th e s tu d y a r e a was c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o s i x
h a b i t a t ty p e s, f iv e of which were dom inated by sag eb ru sh and g ra s s .
102
T h ree s u b s p e c ie s o f b ig s a g e b ru s h (A rte m is ia t r i d e n t a t a auhapp.
y asey an a, W yomingensisr and t r i d e n t a t a ) i n a d d itio n to b la ck sag eb ru sh
( A r t e m i s i a n o v a ) grow on th e s tu d y a r e a .
The tw o m o st p ro m in e n t
g ra s s e s a re Idaho fe s c u e (F e stu c a id a h o e n s is ) and bluebunch w h e a tg ra ss
(Agropyron sp io atu m ).
c lim ax c o n d itio n .
su c c e ssio n .
V e g eta tio n on th e a re a a p p ea rs to be i n s ta b le ,
Animal use h a s c a u s e d l i t t l e r e t r o g r e s s i v e p ^ a n t
Most a re a s o f d is c iim a x v e g e ta tio n can be a t t r i b u t e d to
human im p a c ts.
Animal use of th e a re a i s dependent on w in te r s e v e r ity .
Few e lk
m ig r a te d to th e a r e a d u r in g th e m o d e ra te w i n t e r o f 1980-81 and m ule
d e e r u se w as s c a t t e r e d
o v e r m o st o f th e w i n t e r ra n g e .
In t h e
r e l a t i v e l y sev e re w in te r o f 1981-82 o v er 3000 elk; u t i l i z e d the stu d y
a r e a to some e x t e n t w h ile m ule d e e r u se w as g e n e r a l l y r e ^ t r i c t e d l to
e le v a tio n s below 2100 m.
B oth e lk and mul(e d e e r b ro w sed on s a g e b ru s h i n t h e a r e a , ev en
d u rin g th e m ild w in te r o f 1980-81.
S e le c tiv e brow sing of sagebrush
p l a n t s , b o th w i t h i n and among t h e ta x o n , i s e v i d e n t fro m fo rm c l a s s
d e s ig n a tio n s .
Wyoming b ig s a g e b ru sh and m o u n ta in b ig s a g e b ru s h a r e
t h e m o st h e a v i l y b ro w sed s h ru b ta x a i n t h e lo w e r e l e v a t i o n f e e d i n g
a r e a s , a s i n d i c a t e d by 1294 p l a n t s c l a s s i f i e d to b ro w se fo rm c l a s s .
Sagebrush i n th e a re a o b v io u sly r e c e iv e s heavy u t i l i z a t i o n i n w in te r s
when la r g e numbers o f e lk a re p re s e n t.
Elk and d e e r both showed s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s i n use among th e
h a b ita t
ty p e s .
Mean e lk
u s e w as h i g h e s t
sa g e b ru sh /Id a h o fe sc u e h a b i t a t type.
in
th e
m o u n ta in
b ig
Deer appeared to p r e f e r e n t i a l l y
s e l e c t f o r th e Wyoming b ig s a g e b r u s h /b lu e b u n c h w b e a tg r a s s h a b i t a t
103
type.
However, most o f th e d if f e r e n c e s i n anim al use w ere a t t r i b u t e d
t o e l k and d e e r p r e f e r e n t i a l s e l e c t i o n o f c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
w ith in h a b i t a t ty p e s.
The im p o rtan ce of th e a re a f o r e lk fe e d in g a c t i v i t y i s em phasized
by s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a ly s is .
E lk p e l l e t - c o u n t s
c o r r e l a t i o n w ith g r a s s c o v e r ( r = .6 6 ),
have a p o s itiv e
E lk u s e o f th e f l a t s and
b e n c h e s i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o f o t h e r to p o g r a p h ic and
lan d fo rm c o n f ig u r a tio n f e a tu r e s .
A m a jo rity o f e lk fe e d tq g a c t i v i t y
o ccu rred below 2100 m e le v a tio n .
E lk u se o f th e s tu d y a r e a i s h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t on a num ber o f
v a r ia b le s .
Five o f th e e n v iro n m e n ta l v a r ia b le s c h a r a c te riz e d had an
p
R o f .71 when s u b je c te d to a tru e s te p -w is e r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s is w ith
e lk p e lle t- c o u n ts .
by
its e lf
G rass cover was th e f i r s t to e n te r th e e q u a tio n ,
a c c o u n tin g
v a ria tio n s .
fo r
44
p e rc e n t
(r2) of
e lk
p e lle t-c p u n t
The d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t e l k s e l e c t f e e d i n g s i t e s on th e
stu d y a re a w here tfce r e l a t i o n s h i p o f food in ta k e to energy e x p e n d itu re
I s o p tim iz e d .
Deer, on th e o th e r hand, a re r e s t r i c t e d i n use o f th e a re a by th e
p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s im p o sed by snow .
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f snow
im posed h in d e ra n ce i s in d ic a te d by e le v a tio n h aving th e h ig h e s t sim p le
c o r r e l a t i o n w ith d e e r u se o f r = - .5 2 .
I n c r e a s e d d e e r u se a l s o
o c c u r r e d w ith p e r c e n ta g e b a r e g ro u n d i n c r e a s e s , i n d i c a t i n g u s e o f
d r i e r south and w e st exposures.
Deer use o f landform c b a r a c te r ip tip s
f o r s e c u r ity re a so n s i s r e f l e c t e d by high a s s o c ia tio n w ith a r o l l i n g
c o n fig u ra tio n .
104
The very s e l e c t i v e n a tu re o f d e e r ch o ice f o r a re a s w ith in h a b i t a t
ty p e s i s
in d ic a te d
by r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s .
D eer u s e i s
a s s o c i a t e d (R^ = . 8 2 ) w ith e i g h t e n v ir p n m e n ta l v a r i a b l e s .
h ig h ly
Th? m o st
im p o rta n t a s s o c ia tio n ( r 2 = .36) i s w ith Wyoming b ig sagebrush.
pa£a
^ n s l y s i s r e f l e c t s t h e t o t a l d e p e n d e n c e o f d e e r on th p s a g e b r u s h —
g ra s s la n d a re a s d u rin g th e w in te r and a ls o the s p e c if ic , s e le c tio n g f
s i t e s to m inim ize energy e x p e n d itu re .
5pme management o b je c tiv e s f o r th e a re a have a ls o beep examine^.
S a g e b ru s h b u rn s e v i d e n t l y do n o t a t t r a c t w i n t e r e l k u s e , w h ile d e e r
ap pear to avoid burned a re a s .
There a p p ea rs to be a marked d ecrea se
i n t o t a l fo ra g e p ro d u c tio n a f t e r sag eb ru sh burns w ith p o t e n t i a l l y JrOng
la s tin g
e f f e c t s on p l a n t s p e c i e s
c o m p o s itio n .
S a g e b ru s h i s
an
i m p o r t a n t fo o d s o u rp e f o r b o th e f k and m nle d e e r on th e e tu d y a r e a ,
e s p e c i a l l y d u r in g s e v e r e w i n t e r s .
T h e r e f o r e , c o n t r o l l e d s a g e b ru s h
hu m s can not be recommended i n th e c o n c e n tra te d fe e d in g areap below
2100 m e le v a tio n , based on th e r e s u l t s o f p re v io u s burns.
Sm all burns
above 2100 m m ight p o s s ib ly enhance an im al s p rin g use f o r a few y e a rs.
The s c a r c i t y o f e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e f p r e s t c o v e r d u r in g s p v e r p
w in te rs i s a p o s s ib le f a c t o r l i m i t i n g a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f th e stu d y e re a
to e lk .
F o re s t cover w ith in th e E agle Creek a re a p ro v id e s some o f th e
o n ly r e l a t i v e l y a c c e s s i b l e e s c a p e and r e s t i n g c o v e r f o r e lk on th e
n o rth s id e o f B ear Creek.
T h erefo re,
f u r th e r lo g g in g a c t i v i t y -fn th e
E a g le C reek a r e a c o u ld o n ly be a d e t r i m e n t t o e lk u s e and sh o u ld be
avoided.
T his a re a a ls o p ro v id e s w hat a p p ea rs to be th e b e s t c a lv ip g
g ro u n d s on th e s tu d y a r e a f o r b o th r e s i d e n t and m i g r a t i n g e lk , and
105
I
t h e s e c a l v i n g g ro u n d s c o u ld a l s o be p o t e n t i a l l y harm ed by tim b e r
rem oval.
H i s t o r i c a l a n im a l u se o f th e G a rd in e r w in te r ran g e e s ta b lis h e s
its
u n iqueness and p o te n tia l f o r w i l d l i f e .
V e g e ta tio n on th e w in te r
range i s ad ap ted to th e dry m o is tu re reg im e and to p o ed ap h ic c o n d itio n s
o f th e G a rd in e r a r e a , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s h i s t o r i c a l a n im a l u s e .
Man’s e f f o r t s to m a n ip u la te th e n a tu r a l v e g e ta tio n have no t r e s p ite d
i n i n c r e a s e d a t t r a c t i v e n e s s t o w i n t e r i n g a n im a ls .
F u rth e r h a b ita t
a l t e r a t i o n s from m u ltip le use o r ie n te d management o f th e a re a could
e a s ily make th e a re a l e s s v a lu a b le to e lk and mule d e er and p o s s ib ly
t i p th e d e l i c a t e b alan ce of anim al range use tow ard ran g e d e g ra d atio n .
106
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APPENDICES
120
APPENDIX A
plant
SPECIES ON THE STUDY AREA
121
Table 12.
P la n t s p e c ie s i d e n t i f i e d on th e G ard in er stu d y a re a I
Grami noiris
Agropyron c ris ta tu m
A. s m ith ii
A. spicatum
A, subse cynduni
A. t r a chycaulurn
A g ro s tis e x a r a ta
A. s t o l o n i f e r a
B outeloua g r a c i l i s
Bromus anomalus
B. ip e rm is
B. ja p o n ic u s
B. m arg in atu s
B. tectorum
C alam a g ro stis c a n a d e n sis
C. ru b e sce n s
Carex f e s t i y e l l a
C. f i l i f o l i a
C. g e ry i
D anthonia in te rm e d ia
D is tic h lis s tr i c t a
Elymus c in e re u s
F e stu ca id a h o e n s is
Hordeum jubatum
Juncus b a ltic u s
K o e le ria p y ram idata
Lolium perenne
M elica s p e c t a b i l i s
O ryzopsis hymenoides
Phleum p ra te n s e
Poa ampla
P. c u s ic k ii
P. f e n d le r ia n a
P. j u n c i f o l i a
P. p r a te n s is
P. s a n d b e rg ii
S ita n io n h y s t r i x
S tip a colum biana
S. comata
T risetum sp icatu m
F o rb s. F e rn s. M osses. V ines and C actus
A c h ille a m ille fo liu m
A ctaea ru b ra
A goseris g la u ca
Allium b re v isty lu m
A. t e x t i l e
A n ten n aria dimorpha
A. ro s e a
A. u m b rin e lla
A rabis h o l b o e l l i i
A re n a ria co n g esta
A rnica c o r d if o li a
A rte m isia d racu n cu lu s
A ster canes c e ns
A. conspicuus
A. s c o p u lo rum
A stra g a lu s c ib a r iu s
A. g i l v i f l o r u s
A. m iser
A. p u rs h i i
B alsam orhiza s a g i t t a t a
Campanula u n if l o r a
C a s tille ja a n g u s tifo lia
C erastium arv en se
C irsium arv e n se
C. fo lio su m
C lem atis colum biana
C. h ir s u tis s im a
C o llin s ia p a r v if lo r a
Comandra p a l l i d a
C rep is acum inata
Delphinium b ic o lo r
D. o c c id e n ta le
Dodecatheon conjugans
Draba p a y so n ii
Epilobium a n g u stifo liu m
Equisetum a rv e n se
E rig e ro n compos i t u s
E. corymbosus
E. g la b e llu s
E. g r a c i l i s
E. o ch ro leu cu s
E. pum ilus
Table 12.
(C ontinued)
Eriogonum h e ra c le o id e s
E. o v a lifo liu m
E. umbellatum
Erysimum asperum
F r a g a ria v esca
F. v ir g in ia n a
F ra s e ra sp e c io sa
F r i t i l l a r i a a tro p u rp u re a
F. pudica
Geranium r ic h a r d s o n ii
G. viscosissim um
Geum tr if lo r u m
G rin d e lia s q u a rro sa
Haplopappus a c a u lis
H e la n th e lla u n if l o r a
Heracleum lanatum
H e te ro th e c a v i l l o s a
H ieracium e y n o g lo sso id e s
L a th y ru s b iju g a tu s
L e s q u e re lla a lp in a
L ew isia r e d iv iv a
L in a ria d a ljn a tic a
Linum l e w i s i i
Lithospermum incisum
L. ru d e ra le
Lomatium macrocarpum
L. t r i t e r naturn
Lupinus s e r ic e u s
Medicago s a t i v a
M e lilo tu s o f f i c i n a l i s
Mentha a rv e n s is
M en tz e lia l a e v i e a u l i s
M erten sia c i l i a t a
Monotropa h y p o p ith y s
M yosotis a l p e s t r i s
O enothera c a e s p ito s a
O puntia p o ly c an th a
Orobanche f a s c i c u l a t e
O x y tro p is s e r ic e a
P aronychia s e s s i l ! f l o r a
Penstemon cyaneus
P h a c e lia s e r ic e a
Phlox c a e s p ito s a
P. h o o d ii
P lan tag o p a ta g o n ic a
Polygonum b is t o r t o i d e s
P o t e n t i l l a g la n d u lo sa
P. g r a c i l i s
P e terid iu m aquilinum
Sedum sten o p etalu m
S e la g in e lla dense
S enecio canus
S. s e r r a
Sisymbrium altissim u m
S m ilncina racem osa
S. s t e l l a t e
S o lid ag o c a n a d e n sis
S p h a e ra lc e a c o c c ihea
Taraxacum o f f i c i n a l e
T h alictru m o c c id e n ta le
Townsendia p a rry !
Tragopogon dubiup
T rifo liu m h a y d e n ii
V io la adunca
V. p u rp u rea
Zigadenus p a n ic u la tu s
123
Table 12.
(C o n tin u e d ).
Shruhdll H alf-S h ru b s and T rees
Abies la s io c a r p a
Acer glabrum
Alnus t e n u i f o l i a
A m elanchier a l n i f o l i a
A rc to s ta p h y lo s u v a -u rs i
A rte m isia f r i g i d a
A. nova
A. t r i d e n t a t a su b sp . t r i d e n t a t a
A. t r i d e n t a t a subsp. vaseyana
A. t r i d e n t a t a su b sp . wyomingensis
B e rb e ris re p e n s
B e tu la o c c id e n ta lis
Ceanothus v e lu tin u s
C erato id eq la n a t a
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
C. v i s c i d i f l o r u s
Cornus s t o l o n i f e r a
G rayia sp in o sa
J u n ip e ru s h o r i z o n t a l i s
J . s copulorurn
L ep to d a cty lo n pungens
Physocarpus m alvaceus
P icea engelm annii
P inus a l b i c a u l i s
P. c o n to r ts
P. f l e x i l i s
Populus a n g u s t i f o l i a
P. tre m u lo id e s
Prunus V irg in ia n s
Pseudotsuga m e n z ie s ii
Rhus t r i l o b a t a
R ibes cereum
R. setosum
R. v isco ssissim u m
Rosa w o o d sii
Rubus Idaeus.
R. p a r v if lo r u s
S a lix spp.
Sambucus m elanocarpa
S a rc o b a tu s v e rm ic u la tu s
S h ep h erd ia c a n a d e n sis
, Sym phoricarpos a lb u s
S. o c c id e n ta lis
Tetradym ia canqscens
Vaccinium membranaceum
V. scoparium
Xanthocephalum s a ro th ra e
1Main r e f e r e n c e s : H itchcock, A. S. 1951. Manual o f th e g ra s s e s of th e
U n ite d S t a t e s . USDA M isc. P u b l. No. 20 0 . 1039 p p .; and B o o th , W. E.
and J. C. W rig h t. 1959. F l o r a o f M ontana P a r t I I . M ontana S t a t e
U n iv ., Bozeman. 305 pp.
A PPENDIX B
HISTORY OF THE STUpY AREA
1
2
5
H is to ry p f th e G ard in er Study Area
N a tu r a l w o n d e rs o f th e Y e llo w s to n e N a tio n a l P a rk a r e a h a v e
a t t r a c t e d p e o p le to th e G a r d in e r v i c i n i t y f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s ,
from th e e a r ly In d ia n h u n te rs to th e p re s e n t-d a y t o u r i s t .
Much e a r ly
s e ttle m e n t i n th e Rocky M ountains was due to q u e s tin g e a r ly day m in e rs
who w ere among th e f i r s t to e s t a b l i s h re s id e n c e a f t e r a r r iv in g alo n g
r o u t e s d e s c r ib e d by e a r l y e x p l o r e r s . The i n i t i a l s e t t l e m e n t o f th e
G ardiner a re a was ty p ic a l o f t h a t e ra .
P r o s p e c to r J o e Brown f o l l o w i n g t h e Y e llo w s to n e R iv e r fo u n d
e n c o u r a g in g p l a c e r g o ld d e p o s i t s a t th e m outh o f B e a r C reek i n 1866
(Wonderland 1902).
News o f th e d isc o v e ry sp read to su rro u n d in g m ining
camps and th e in e v i t a b l e ru s h to th e a re a was on.
V e s tig e s from th e
e n su in g f l o u r i s h of a c t i v i t y a re s t i l l q u ite e v id e n t tpday.
Moss c o v e re d
e v e r y t h i n g fro m
tre e
s tu m p s a t t e s t
s a lo o n s t o
s lu ic e
to
b o x e s.
th e lu m b e r
n eed ed
P ro sp ect p i t s
fo r
abound
th r o u g h o u t th e a r e a w ith p l a c e r d ig g in g s and h y d r a u l i c s c a r s a lo n g
stre am s.
D ila p id a te d m i l l s and mine works i n h ig h m ountain meadows
a re evidence of th e energy and p e r s is ta n c e o f th o se se e k in g to s t r i k e
i t ric h .
Jam e s Graham and J o e Brown d is c o v e r e d i n t r u s i v e q u a r t z v e in s
f a i r l y r i c h w ith g o ld i n 1870 (S e a g e r 1944) a b o u t 6 km n o r t h e a s t o f
G a r d in e r i n B e a r G ulch.
The v e i n s lo o k e d p r o m is in g and th e m in in g
camp, which became J a r d in e , sp ran g i n t o e x is te n c e .
J a r d in e hap s in c e
e x p erien c e d th e boom and b u st p e rio d s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e f o r tu n e s o f
i t s m ines.
126
The expense o f hard ro c k underground m ining h a s ta k e n i t s t o l l on
m in in g c o m p a n i e s ,i n c l u d i n g th o s e o p e r a t i n g n e a r J a r d i n e ,
I n 1900,
J a rd in e was d e sc rib e d a s "the most w ide awake m ining camp i n Montana"
w ith 130 b u ild in g s (L iv in g sto n E n te r p r is e S o u v en ir 1900).
F if ty y e a rs
l a t e r i t was e s s e n t i a l l y a town o f han g ers-o n .
J a r d i n e q u a r t z v e i n s h a v e p ro d u c e d n o t o n ly g o ld ,
m a r k e ta b le q u a n t i t i e s o f a r s e n i c and tu n g s te n .
b u t a ls o
D elu d ed a r s e n i c
t a i l i n g s pon d s j u s t d o w n stre a m fro m J a r d i n e t e s t i f y t o m i l l s w h ich
h a v e n o t o p e r a te d s i n c e th e l a t e
m o 's .
H ow ever, o ld m in e s and
c la im s i n th e a r e a a r e c u r r e n t l y b e in g r e j u v e n a t e d by new o w n e rs.
M ig ra tin g a n im a ls may once a g a in be s u b je c te d to sounds o f th e m in e r's
b i t and d is lo c a tio n caused by new m ines.
B ack i n 1870, G a rd in e r w as a c q u i r i n g e lo o k o f p e rm a n en c e %'s a
c e n te r f o r th e su rro u n d in g m ining a c t i v i t y .
Park on March I ,
F o rm atio n o f Y ellow stone
1872, ,w ith i t s n o rth e rn boundary a t th e v ery edge of
town e n su red th e f u tu r e o f G ardiner.
Along w ith t h i s s t a b i l i t y
came
th e ra n c h in g and fa rm in g n e c e ssa ry to su p p o rt a grow ing community.
Although th e re were n o t many t o u r i s t s to g r e e t d u rin g th e B ark's
f i r s t few decades,
G ardiner became th e most a c c e s s ib le s te p p in g -o ff
p o ic t f o r Park f r e i g h t i n g and manpower.
Good re a d s and a la r g e number
o f s to c k a n im a ls w ere re q u ire d f o r tr a n s p o r ta tio n .
These a d d itio n a l
encroachm ents on t r a d i t i o n a l w i l d l i f e w i n t e r ra n g e w e re e s s e n t i a l l y
u n n o tic e d f o r many y e a rs .
P a rk m anagem ent p o l i c i e s h a v e h i s t o r i c a l l y b e e n e m b r o ile d i n
c o n tr o v e r s y , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e c o n c e r n in g th e g r e a t e l k h e r d s .
The
n a tu re and e x te n t of th e se c o n tro v e rs ie s have been w e ll documented i n
127
o t h e r p a p e r s (T y e rs 1981, H o u sto n 1974).
The P a rk S e r v ic e h a s b een
e n tr u s te d to conserve th e P ark 's sp le n d o r i n such a manner a s to le a v e
i t " u n im p a ire d f o r th e e n jo y m e n t o f f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s " ( S u tto n and
S u tto n 1972).
th e
P a rk
T h erein l i e s
a re a ,
th e enigm a o f p re s e rv in g th e w ild n e ss of
y e t a llo w in g
so much human i n f l u e n c e
in to
it§
ecosystem .
The problem of p re s e rv in g an a re a l i k e Y ellow stope N a tio n a l Park
f o r w i l d l i f e use i s e x a c e rb a te d when Park a n im a ls le a v e i t s sap ctu p ry
and move to stu d y a re a la n d s o u ts id e th e Park boundary.
These landp
a re c u r r e n tly under m u ltip le use management where th e an im al and ran g e
re s o u rc e s a re n o t th e s o le concern.
T h e re fo re , m a in ta in in g th e stu d y
a r e a 's ra n g e re s o u rc e a t a s u f f i c i e n t le v e l to m eet an im al needs eaph
w in te r and s t i l l f u l f i l l man's re s o u rc e o b je c tiv e s h a s u n d e rstan d a b ly
c re a te d c o n f l i c t s thrpugh th e y e a r s .
128
APPENDIX C
PLANT COMPOSITION ON THE STUDY AREA
Table 13. P la n t and m is c e lla n e o u s c o m p o s itio n o f s i x h a b i t a t t y p e s 1
e v a lu a te d f o r p r o d u c tio n , p e r c e n ta g e c o v e r ( b a s a l f o r g r a s s and
f o r b , canopy f o r s h r u b ) , and e i t h e r fr e q u e n c y o r d e n s i t y on th e
G ardiner study a rea.
S p e c ie s o r Item
H a b ita t t y p e ^ '
A .t.v a /f e x d
A rn o /A g s p
A .t .v a /A g s p
A .t.w y V A g sp
A . t .' t r / A g s p
P sm e A V iri
166 / 1 . 6 / 0 .9 5
/
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ 0 .0 8
2 1 1 / 2 .6 /0 .9 0
• / - / • / - / - / • / - / - / —/ - / —/ - / —/ - / 2 / - / 0.10
- / — / —/ — / 11 / 0 . a/o.io
- / - / - / - / 9 5 / 2 .1 /0 .9 5
T / T / 0 .0 5
- / - / —/ — / - / - / 1 0 / 0 . l i / 0 . 75
- / - / 3 2 / 0.7/0.1x5
- / - / -
1 5 6 / 1 .8 /0 .7 0
—/ — / —
- / - / —
- / - / - / / - / / - / - / —
- / - / - / - / • / - / - / - / - / - / • / - / • / - / —
3 / T /0 .2 0
1x1 / 0 . 1 / 0 .1 0
—/ - / —
- / — / —
- / / - / - / —
- / - / - / - / —/ — / -
7 1 / 0 .7 /0 .1 5
8 / 0 .2 /0 .0 5
/
/ _
- / T / —/ - / - / T / - / - / - / 0 . 1/ _
lx/ 0 .6 /0 .1 5
10 / - /0 .2 5
- / / 11x3/ 3.1x/0.70
I / - / 0 .0 5
- / - / 8/ 0 .1 /0 .1 5
- / - / 1 6 / 0 .6 /0 .3 0
- / - / - / - / —/ — / —
2 / 0 .1 /0 .1 5
• / - / —
6 / - /0 .1 5
- / -
- /
I/
- /
- /
- /
- /
- /
- /
I/
—/
- /
- /
- /
Graminoiri S p e c ie s
A gropyron spicatum
A. subsecundum
A. trachycaulum
Bromus anomalus
B. Ja p o n icu s
B. m a rg in a tu s
B. tec to ru m
C a la m a g ro stis c a n a d e n s is
Carex g e y e ri
C. f e s t i v e l l a
Qymus c in e re u s
F e stu c a Id a h o e n s is
Hordeum Jubatum
Juncus b a l t i c u s
K o e le ria p y ram id ata
O ry zo p sis hym enoides
Poa ampla
P . c u s ic k ii
P . J u n c ifo lia
P . s a n d b e rg ii
S tip a Columbiana
S. comata
T risetum spicatum
116 / l . S / O . y o ^ 66 / 1 . 0 / 0 .8 2
-
/
2/
- /
T /
- /
I/
- /
6/
- /
- /
335/
- /
- /
50/
—/
- /
10 /
6/
32/
I/
32/
- /
/ / 0 .0 1
/ / 0 .0 2
/ / 0.01
/ -
0 . 1 / 0 .1 0
- / T / 6 .8 /0 .9 8
- / T / 1 .1 /0 .7 9
- / - / 0 . 2/ 0 .1 1
0 . 1 / 0 .0 2
1 .0 /0 .7 1
0 .1 /0 .0 3
0 .2 /0 .1 9
- / -
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
-
/
-
/
-
/
-
/
-
/
/
/ / -
I / T / 0 .0 1
- / - / -
9 / 0 . 2 /0 .1 0
21 / 0 .3 /0 .0 5
66 / 1 .1 /0 .7 8
- /
67/
6/
- /
I/
- /
10 /
- /
26/
—/
- /
- /
77/
- /
- /
2/
- /
5/
- /
76/
- /
- / - / 1 .7 /0 .6 9
0 . 1 / 0 .2 1
- / - / 0 .0 1
- / 0 .5 /0 .2 6
- / 0 . 2 /0 .3 6
- / —
/ _
- / - / 0 .9 /0 .7 5
- / - / - / 0 .1 0
- / 0 . 1 / 0 .3 5
- / .
1 .0 /0 .6 2
- / -
F o rb , F e rn , Moss and C actu s S pecies
A c h ille a m ille fo liu m
A llium t e x t i l e
A n te n n a ria dim orpha
A. ro se a
A. u m b rin e lla
A rabia hol b o e l l i i
A re n a ria c o n g e s ts
A rn ica c o r d i f o l i a
A s te r c an e sc en s
A. c o n sp icu u s
A s tra g a lu s g i l v i f l o r u s
A. m is e r
A. p u r s h l i
2/
T /
- /
18/
—/
- /
I/
- /
3/
- /
- /
13/
16/
T / 0 .0 5
T /0 .0 2
- / 0 .5 /0 .3 5
— / —
T / T /0 .0 3
- / T / 0 .0 6
- / - / 0 .3 /0 .0 8
0 .2 /0 .1 8
/ —
— / —
T /0 .1 5
0 . 1 / 0 .1 8
- / —
— / - / — / —
T /0 .0 6
- / T / -Z- / —
5 / o .i/o .io
— / —
■ /
7/
3/
—/
- /
- /
—/
I/
- /
- /
- / - / T / T /0 .0 8
- / - / 6 / 0 .2 /0 .2 5
/
/ - /
/
/ - / / - / 3 / T /0 .0 8
- / - Z—/ — / —
- / - / .
8 / 0 . 1 /0 .1 0
3/
• /
6/
- /
- /
• /
- /
2/
- /
- /
- /
- /
/ —
T /0 .1 0
- / —
0 .2 /0 .0 5
- / - / —
- / —
- / T /0 .1 5
- / —
- / - / — / -
—
-
/ /0 .1 0
/ —
/ — / —
- / —
- / —
- / —
- / 0 .1 0
— / —
— / / —
- / -
17/ 0. a/o.35
-
/
-
/
-
- / — / —
- / 0 . 2/ -
T/
—/
- /
2/
- /
26/
- /
38/
- /
- /0.05
—/ —
- / - /0.05
- / 1 . 2/ 0 .a0
- / 0.8/0.50
— / —
rv>
VO
T a b le 13. ( C o n t i n u e d )
S p e c i e s o r I te ir
A .t.v a /F e id
B a ls a m o rh iz a s a g i t t a t a
C a s tille ja a n g u s tifo lia
C e ra s tiu m a r v e n s e
C o llin s ia p a rv iflo ra
C o m an d ra p a l l i d a
C re p is a c u m in a ta
E r i g e r o n c o m p o s !t u s
E . c o ry m b o s u s
E. g r a c ilis
E . o c h ro le u c u s
E rio g o n u m h e r a c l e o i d e s
E. o v a lifo liu m
E . u m b e lla tu m
E ry sim u m a s p e ru m
F r a g a ria V irg in ia n s
Geum t r i f l o r u m
H a p lo p a p p u s a c a u l i s
H e lia n th e lla u n i f lo r a
H e te r o th e c a v i l l o s a
L e s q u e re lla a lp in a
L ith o s p e rm u m i n c is u m
L. ru d e ra le
L o m atiu m m a c ro c a rp u rn
L u p in u s s e r i c e u s
M y o s o tis a l p e s t r i s
O p u n tia p o l y c a n t h a
O x y tro p is s e r i c e a
P a ro n y c h ia s e s s i l i f l o r a
P e n s te m o n c y a n e u s
F h a c e lia s e r ic e a
P h lo x c a e s p i t o s a
P . h o o d ii
P te rid iu m a q u ilin u m
Sedum s t e n o p e t a l u m
S e la g in e lla densa
T a ra x a c u m o f f i c i n a l e
T b w n s e n d ia p a r r y !
T ra g o p o g o n d u b i u s
V io la a d u n ca
Z i e a d e n u s n a n l c i i l a t .i i s
7 1 / 0 .2 /0 .0 6
I / T / 0 .0 1
- / T / -
/
-
IV
V
T/
7/
T /
- /
7/
- /
- /
—/
—/
T/
2/
—/
—
-
/
/
/
-
-
0 .1 /0 .1 8
T / 0 .1 0
T / 0 .0 2
0 .1 /0 .1 8
T / 0 .0 1
- / 0 .V 0 .0 6
- / - / — / — / T / 0 .0 8
T / 0 .0 3
— / —
-
/
/
—
—
T/
- /
T /
71/
- /0 .0 1
T / - / 0 .0 1
0 .2 /0 .2 5
—
-
/
—
/ -
/
— /
—
- / T / - / 2 .8 / I / - / 0 .0 2
- / T / -
/
V
T/
T/
—/
T/
- /
2/
- /
I/
-
/
-
0 .2 /0 .0 5
- / 0 .0 1
T /0 .0 2
— / —
T /0 .0 2
- / T / 0 .0 2
— / T / 0 .0 8
A m o /A g s p
—/
9/
—/
—/
T/
T/
—/
- /
* /
2/
- /
I/
I/
-
— / —
0 .1 /0 .2 0
— / —
— / - /0 .0 1
T / 0 .0 8
- / — / —
— / T /0 .0 5
- / 0 .1 /0 .0 6
T /0 .0 1
/ — / —
—/ / —
- / T / 1 8 / T / 0 .1 0
- / — / —
—/ — / —
3 / 0 . 1 /0 .1 5
—/ — / -
5 / - /o .o i
—/ — / —
- / / —/ — / —/ / -
- / T / - / 0 .3 / - / /
—/ — /
-
- / 0 .3 / 1 9 / 0 .9 /0 .8 2
“ / — / —
- / — / —
— / —
/ —
T / - /0 .0 1
T / 0 .1 /0 .0 1
—/ -
2/ - / -
/
-
/o .n 8
/
-
H a b ita t
A . t . v a /A g s p
6v T /0.10
t
y
p
e
i
A -.t.w y /A g s p
- Z - Z8Z 0.1Z0.10
- / / - Z - Z- / / - Z - ZI / T /0.05
2Z T Zo.io
- / / —
IZ 0.1Z0.15
-Z- / - Z - Z-Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z2Z - Zo.io
iiZ 0.1Z0.20
-Z - Z—
- Z - Z-Z - Z—
2Z - Zo .05
-Z- Z—
- Z - Z-Z - Z—
-Z - Z—
-Z - Z—
-Z - Z—
-Z - Z—
IZ - Zo.05
-Z - Z—
- Z o.2Z —Z — Z —Z - Z —
9$Z 0.6/0.28 - Z - Z 2Z T / 0 , 2 2
IZ 0.1Z0.10
-Z- Z—
-Z- Z—
IZ - Zo .02 - Z - Z —
- Z - Z-Z - Z—
37Z T Zo.15 - Z - Z —
-Z- Z—
-Z - Z—
—Z o.iZ —Z 0.6Z —
-Z- Z—
-Z - Z—
-Z- Z—
- Z - Z-Z- Z—
-Z- Z—
- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z-Z- Z—
—Z — Z -Z- Z—
-ZTZ-Z - Z—
- Z - Z5Z o .6/0.10
—Z 0 .ZjZ —
- Z — ZT Z - Zo .02
2/ - /0.05
I / T Z0.02 - Z - Z IZ - Zo .02 - Z - Z - Z - Z- Z Z —
- Z - Z-Z - ZI/ -
/0 .0 2
/
~
"
A .t.tr /A g s p
- Z -
P s m e /F e ld
-ZTZ-Z- Z-
Z —
- Z - Z—
- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z — Z—
- Z - Z- Z- Z—
- Z- Z—
- Z - Z-Z-
18/
- Z -
/ 0 .1 0
-Z-
Z—
-Z- / —
- Z - Z—
- Z - Z- Z - Z—Z — Z —
- Z — Z- Z - Z-Z- / —
- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z-
- Z - Z—
/ -
8/ 0.6/0.10
- Z - Z- Z - Z5/ o .i/o .io
Z-
10 / -
0 .1 /0 .1 5
10/ 1.3/0.35
- Z - Z6 / 0.2/0.15
- / - /- Z - Z- Z - Z-
12/ 0 . 2/ 0 .2 0
I / 0 .1 /0 .0 5
V - /0.15
10/ 0.2/0.10
—Z — / —
- Z— / —
- Z—Z—
- Z - Z- Z - Z3 8 / 0 .V 0 .3 0
2/ - /0.05
— Z —
Z -
—Z — Z —
- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z - Z- Z— Z—
- Z - Z—Z — Z —
I / 0.2/0.10
-Z- /- Z - Z- Z - Z-
- Z -
/ _
-Z-Z-
Z/ -
-
- Z 3.8/ -Z- / —
- Z - Z-Z- Z- Z - Z- Z -
/ T
-Z-Z-
/
-
/ -
ZZ-
UO
O
T a b le 13. ( C o n t i n u e d )
S p e c ie s o r Item
A .t.v a /F e id
Arno/Agsp
H a b ita t t y p e ! /
A .t.v a /A g sp
A .t.w y/A gsp
A .t.tr /A g s p
9 / 0 .2 /0 .1 8
- / - / V 0 . 1 / 0 .0 5
V 0 .1 /0 .0 5
- / - / V 0 . 3 /0 .1 5
-
—/ — / - / 0 .2 / I / - /0 .0 1
3 0 0 A 3 .1 /0 .7 8
- / - / 1 9 / 0 . 1 / 0 .OL
16/ 0 .1 /0 .0 3
—/ — / —
—/ - / —
3 / - /0 .0 1
—/ - / —
—/ - / —
- / — / i o / - /O.OL
L V L. 6 /0 .0 9
3 3 8 A L .6 /0 .L 9
I / 0 .2 /0 .0 1
I / - /0 .0 1
- / - / —/ — / —
—/ — / - / - / -
Psm e/Feid
H a lf Shrub S p e c ie s
A rte m isia f r i g i d a
C e ra to id e s l a n a t a
L e p to d a c ty lo n pungens
8/ T / 0 .0 6
- / - / 2 / T / 0 .0 6
2 / T /O.OL
0 . 1 / 0 . OL
T / - /0 .0 1
6/
///-
/ / / -
“ /- / — /— / - /- / -
Shrub S p e c ie s
A m elanchier a l n i f o l i a
A rte m isia nova
A .t . su b s p . t r i d e n t a t a
A .t . su b s p . v asey an a
A . t . su b s p . wyom ingensis
Chrysotham nus nau seo su s
C. v i s c i d i f l o r u s
R ib es cereum
Siymphoricarpos a lb u s
T etradym ia c an e sc en s
Xanthocephalum s a r o t h r a e
- /
- /
22/
220/
I/
IV
3/
—/
» /
2/
2/
- / - ^ —/ — / - / —
2 5 8 /1 7 .0 /1 .9 1
0 .1 / T
T / - /0 .0 1
6 .7 /0 .7 2
9 / 0 . 8/ 0 .0 6
0 .2 / T
2 / 0 .7 / T
0 .2 /0 .0 1
I / - / 0 .0 3
11/ 0 . 2 / 0 .0 6
0 .1 / T
— / —
- / T / —/ — / —
■ / —
T /0 .0 2
- / - / T
T / T
T / - / T
—/ - / —
■ / - / —
6 3 7 /2 0 .1 /0 .2 2
2 6 / 2 . 8 / 0 .OL
—/ — / - / - / 0 .0 1
- / - / 0 .0 1
- / - / T
—/ — / —
- / - / T
- / - / -
- /
- /
—/
135/
—/
- /
■ /
—/
- /
3/
—/
0 .2 / T
- / — / —
1 .6 /0 .2 6
— / —
— / —
— / —
— / —
0 .1 / T
- / T
— / —
M isc e lla n e o u s
L itte r
Dead pedon
Bare ground
O ravel
Rock
L ichen
i / D ata from
-
1980,
/L i.7/
/ 1 .7 /
/1 1 .V
A l.V
/ 8 .3 /
/ 0 .5 /
-
- /2 8 .8 /
—/ 1 .1 /
- /1 0 .8 /
- /3 0 .9 /
- / 3 .1 /
- / 0 .2 /
—
-
-
e x c e p t f o r Psme /F e ld w hich i s from 1981.
/2 6 .7 /
/ 0 .7 /
/ 7 .6 /
/2 1 .L/
/2 2 .7 /
/ 0 .1 /
-
■
-
/2 6 .8 /
/ 0 .6 /
/2 2 .6 /
/2 3 .1 /
/ - /
/ - /
—
-
- / 10.li/
- / 0 . 1/
—/ — /
- A 3. V
- /I 16. I /
- / - /
-
*
-
/7 2 .5 /
/ — /
/ 7 .7 /
/ — /
/ 1 .0 /
/ 0 .5 /
- Not re c o rd e d .
-
A '* '™ - m ountain b ig sa g e b ru s h ; F e id - Idaho f e s c u e ; Arno - b la c k s a g e b ru s h ; Agsp - bluebunch w h e a tg ra s s ;
A .t. wy - Wyoming b ig sa g e b ru s h ; A . t . t r - b a s in b ig sa g e b ru s h ; Psme - D ouglas f i r .
y
Mean c o m p o sitio n f o r Oram inoid s p e c ie s ; F o rb , F e m , Moss and C actu s s p e c ie s ; H a lf Shrub s p e c ie s ; and
M isc e lla n e o u s - p ro d u c tio n (k g /h a V p er ce n t c o v e r (? o f t o t a l V freq u en cy (p ro d u c tio n p l o t s i n which s p e c ie s
found f t o t a l p l o t s ) .
h / Mean com position fo r Shrub s p e c ie s - produ ction (k g /h a V p ercen t cover (% o f t o t a l ! /d e n s it y (p la n ts /m 2 ) .
T - T rac e. For O ram inoid s p e c ie s ; F o rb , F e rn , Moss and C actus s p e c ie s ; H a lf Shrub s p e c ie s ; and M isc e lla n e o u s (p ro d u c tio n <0.9 k g /h a , p e r c e n t c o v er
.05*). F o r Shrub s p e c ie s - (p ro d u c tio n <0.5 k g /h a , p e rc e n t c o v er
•^0.05%, d e n s i t y -cO.005 p l a n t s / V ) .
—
—
-
132
APPENDIX D
ELK AND DEEIf PELLET;-COUNTS
133
Table 14. E lk and d e e r mean p e l l e t - c o u n t s o b ta in e d i n 1900 and 1981
w ith in f i v e m ain c a te g o r ie s o f en v iro n m e n ta l v a r ia b le s , w ith
sam ple number for. each v a r ia b le .
C a te g o ric a l
v a r ia b le s
P e l l e t - c o u n ts 1
Elk
Deer
Sample
number
Topographic p o s itio n
bench
m idslope
upper slope
rid g e
sw ale
2888a2
1874 b
1757 b
21735b
233lab
1828a
1217 b
982 b
1321ab
1732ab
20
31
8
13
6
Slope c o n fig u ra tio n
fla t
concave
convex
ro llin g
3237a
1866 b
1844 b
2246 b
1518ab
1128 b
1388ab
1823a
S o il-g ro u p
sandy
th in h i l l y
stony
s ilty
t h i n breaks
shallow to c la y
shallow to bedrock
th in h i l l y to sto n y
2687a
1786 b
1966ab
1557 b
1147 b
1473 b
2835ab
2083ab
1725a
1271 a t
9T9ab
1283ab
574 b
I 028ab
1086ab
1079ab
36
18
3
5
3
4
2
7
Prom inent g ra s s
Idaho fe sc u e
bluebunch w h eatg rass
p r a i r i e Ju n e g ra ss
e lk sedge
2472a
1930 b
I829ab
1828ab
1336a
1599a
790a
861a
42
30
4
2
Prom inent shrub
m ountain b ig sagebrush
Wyoming b ig sag eb ru sh
b a sin b ig sagebrush
b lack sag eb ru sh
g re e n ra b b itb ru s h
ru b b e r ra b b itb r u s h
2241 b
2368 be
1032 C
2077 b
2029 be
5113a
1352 b
3122a
517 c
1601 b
856 be
I668abc
52
3
5
14
2
?
,
14
35
9
? o
10 v e ra ll mean o f a l l c a te g o r ie s f o r e lk = 2207; f o r d e e r = 1406.
2N um bers among e a c h c a te g o r y f o r e ac h a n im a l s p e c i e s f o ll o w e d by a,
d i f f e r e n t l e t t e r a re s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t a t th e .05 p r o b a b ility
le v e l.
M O N T A N A S T A TE U N IVER S ITY LIBR AR IE S
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