Change strategies utilized in rural Alaskan schools when implementing an innovation
by Terry Dale Bentley
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education
Montana State University
© Copyright by Terry Dale Bentley (2000)
Abstract:
In 1994 the Commissioner of Education in the state of Alaska mandated the implementation of the
Alaska Quality Schools Initiative for all school districts. Using a telephone survey, superintendents in
thirty-two Alaskan rural school districts were interviewed about the progress of the Initiative’s
implementation in their districts. Specifically, the research focused on the relationship of the success of
implementation to the school districts’ culture, size, and the method of implementation.
Results of the study revealed that after five years only about half of the districts had successfully
implemented the mandated Initiative. In the larger districts, which for the most part reflected a secular
culture, adoption of a modified version of the Initiative proved to be a successful strategy. There
seemed to be no visible pattern for successful implementation in the smaller districts.
Attitudes of the superintendents toward the changes mandated by the Initiative varied in relation to the
success of their district’s implementation. However, it was felt by all that a lack of funding, little or no
support from the Alaska Department of Education, and short timelines for implementation all
constituted real and significant barriers to the success of their district’s implementation efforts. CHANGE STRATEGIES UTILIZED IN RURAL
ALASKAN SCHOOLS WHEN
IMPLEMENTING AN
INNOVATION
by
T e rry Dale B entley
A
d is s e rta tio n s u b m itte d in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t
of the requirem ents fo r the degree
of
D octor of E ducation
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
Ju ly 2000
J > ^ «
APPROVAL
of a thesis subm itted by
T erry Dale B entley
T h is th e s is has been read by each m e m b e r o f th e th e s is
com m ittee and has been found to be sa tisfa cto ry regarding content,
E nglish usage, citatio ns, b ib lo gra phic style, and co n siste n cy, and is
ready fo r subm ission to the C ollege of G raduate S tudies.
Dr. Duane M e llin g
(S ig n a tu re )
D ate
A p p ro ve d f o r th e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u ca tio n
D ate
A p p ro ve d f o r th e C o lle g e o f G raduate S tu d ie s
Dr. B ruce McLeod
(S ig na tige )
Date
111
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In p re s e n tin g t h i s th e s is in p a r t ia l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
re q u ire m e n ts fo r a doctoral degree at M ontana S tate U niversityB o ze m a n 1 I agree tha t the Library shall m ake it a va ila b le to
borrow ers under rules of the Library.
I fu rth e r agree tha t copying of
this th e sis is a llo w a b le only fo r s c h o la rly purposes, c o n s is te n t with
“fa ir use” as prescribed in the U.S. C opyright Law.
R equests for
e xte nsive copying or reproduction fo this thesis should be referred
to U niversity M icro film s International, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann
A rbor, M ichigan 48106, to whom I have granted “the exclusive right
to reproduce and d istricu te my ab stract in any fo rm a t in whole or in
p a rt.”
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.
2.
3.
L i s t o f Figures.............................................. ..........................................
vi
L is t o f Tables.................................................... .....................................
v iii
Abstract......................................................................................................
jx
INTRODUCTION..............................
T h e o r e tic a l Basis............................................
S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem.................................................. .
P urpose o f th e Study...................... .............................. ...........
Im p o rta n c e o f th e Study............. ................................... ........
R esearch Questions....................................................................
Definitions...... .......................................... ..................................... .
Limitations...... ..................... ..........................................................
Delimitations...................................
I
5
I 2
I 3
15
18
I 9
21
21
REVIEW.CF LITERATURE............................................................
23
E d u c a tio n a l H is to r y o f Alaska..................... ......................... . 2 4
H is to r y o f E d u c a tio n a l Change................................ 2 6
F id e lit y Perspective................................................
31
M u tu a l Adaptation.....................................................
33
B a r r ie r s t o Change........................................... ..................... ..... 3 7
METHODOLOGY..:......... ......................... ....................:............ ..... ............
D e s c rip tio n o f Population..... ...... ................... ......................... .
D ata Collection......................
The Interview........ ...................................
The S u rv e y Protocol................ ............................. .......................
D ata Analysis..............................................................................
41
42
44
45
46
48
page
A n a ly s is o f R e la tio n s h ip s o f Im p le m e n ta tio n
S tr a te g ie s and C u ltu re o f Im plem entation......................
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS CF DATA
Results...........................
............. ........
53
.
59
59
60
A n a ly s is o f D ata fr o m th e Interviews.......................... .....
S u p e rin te n d e n t’s A t t it u d e to w a r d th e In itia tiv e ..........
Denial.....................................................
Anger............. :................................................................................
Resignation.......................
Acceptance...................................:.................................................
Excitement.......................................................................................
91
S u p e rin te n d e n t R e a c tio n s t o th e Four Major....................
Questions................ .........,..........!.......................................
98
70
72
73
79
85
103
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS...............
S u m m a ry o f Findings.......... .....................................................
Conclusions........................................................ i.............. ...........
S u m m a ry o f Conclusions.............................................
R e co m e n d a tio n s f o r F u rth e r Research..................... ........
R e co m m e n d a tio n s f o r Action................................................
11 9
121
References..................
126
Appendices...............................................................................................
A p p e n d ix A .................................................................................
T e le p h o n e Survey...............................................!..........
A p p e n d ix B............................................ ................................... .
13 8
139
140
145
A la s k a ’ s Q u a lity S c h o o ls Initiative............ .............
146
104
108
1 17
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re
Page
1.
T im e and d i f f i c u l t y in v o lv e d i n m a k in g v a r io u s changes.,.......
2.
F id e lit y o r m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n continuum........................
50
3.
S a cre d o r s e c u la r continuum.........................
50
4.
U n s u c c e s s fu l o r s u c c e s s fu l continuum..................
53
5.
S u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n m a t r ix by ty p e o f C u ltu re and
change model............................. ...............................................................
54
U n s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n m a t r ix by ty p e o f c u ltu r e and
change model..............................................................................................
55
S u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n m a t r ix by s iz e o f s c h o o l
d i s t r i c t and change model.....................................................................
56
6.
7.
9
8.
U n s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n m a t r ix b y s iz e o f th e d i s t r i c t
and change model...............................................................................
57
9.
F id e lit y o r m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n C o n tin u u m o f th e A la s k a
i n i t i a t i v e by s iz e o f s c h o o l district............................ ....................... 61
I. 0.
S a cre d o r s e c u la r c u ltu r e c o n tin u u m by s iz e o f s c h o o l
district.....................
62
II.
U n s u c c e s s fu l o r s u c c e s s fu l c o n tin u u m b y s iz e o f s c h o o l
district...... ..................... ............. .................. ............................ .....................6 4
12.
S u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n a ta tio n m a t r ix by ty p e Of c u ltu r e
v e rs u s change model.................................. .............................................. 6 5
13.
U n s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n m a t r ix by ty p e o f c u ltu r e
Vll
F ig u re
Page
v e rs u s change model.................. ...............................................................6 6
14.
15.
S u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n m a t r ix by s iz e o f d i s t r i c t and
change model..................................................... .......................................
67
U n s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n m a t r ix s iz e o f s c h o o l
d i s t r i c t and change model....................................................................
69
16.
S u p e rin te n d e n t re a c tio n s by f i d e l i t y o r m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n .. 101
17.
S u p e rin te n d e n t re a c tio n s by s a c re d o r s e c u la r d is tr ic t s ...... 1 0 2
18.
S u p e rin te n d e n t re a c tio n s by u n s u c c e s s fu l o r s u c c e s s fu l
districts....................
19.
103
S u p e rin te n d e n t re a c tio n s by v e r y s m a ll, s m a ll, and la rg e
districts................................. ....................... ...................................................104
Vlll
LIST OF TABLES
T a b le
Page
I.
P u b lic s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s and e n r o llm e n t by
s iz e o f district.......................................................................
43
ABSTRACT
In 1 9 9 4 th e C o m m is s io n e r o f E d u ca tio n in th e s t a t e o f A la s k a
m andated the im ple m en tatio n of the A la ska Q ua lity S chools
In itia tive fo r all school districts.
U sing a te le p h o n e survey,
s u p e rin te n d e n ts in th irty -tw o A la s k a n rural scho ol d is tric ts w ere
in te rvie w e d ab o u t the p rogress of the In itia tiv e ’s im p le m e n ta tio n in
th e ir d istricts.
S p e cifica lly, th e . research fo cu sed on the
re la tio n sh ip of the success of im ple m en tatio n to the school
d is tric ts ’ cu ltu re , size, and the m ethod of im p le m e n ta tio n .
R e s u lts o f th e s tu d y re v e a le d t h a t a f t e r f iv e y e a rs o n ly a b o u t
half of th e d istricts had su cce ssfu lly im plem ented th e m andated
In itia tive .
In the la rg e r d istricts, w hich fo r the m o st pa rt re flected
a s e cu la r culture, adoption of a m o dified version o f th e Initiative
proved to be a successful strategy. There seem ed to be no visible
p a tte rn fo r su cce ssfu l im p le m e n ta tio n in the s m a lle r districts.
A t t it u d e s o f th e s u p e rin te n d e n ts to w a r d th e changes m andated
by the In itia tive va rie d in relation to the success of th e ir d is tric t’s
im ple m en tatio n.
H ow ever, it w as fe lt by all th a t a lack of funding,
little or no sup port from the A laska D epartm ent of E ducation, and
sh o rt tim e lin e s fo r im p le m e n ta tio n all c o n s titu te d real and
s ig n ific a n t b a rrie rs to th e succe ss of th e ir d is tric t’s
im p le m e n ta tio n e ffo rts .
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
S in c e th e f i r s t v illa g e s c h o o ls w e re e s ta b lis h e d i n th e New
E ngland colo nies in the seventeenth century, A m erican education has
been in h e re n tly a politica l institu tion.
The school is a visible
em blem of the com m un ity and of p a rtic ip a to ry dem ocracy.
It is no
accid ent th a t w hen A m ericans vote, the y usually do so at our
neighb orh ood e le m en tary school.
As a politica l en tity, th e A m erican
school is th e re fo re su b je ct to and fre q u e n tly b u ffete d by the w inds
of political change.
In no other cou ntry of the w estern w orld do
citize n s ro u tin e ly go to the polls to vote on in itia tiv e s ab out the
school.
S tate le g isla tu re s annually vote, not m erely on educational
spending, but oh w h e th e r to include, am ong oth er th in g s, specific
com pon ents of history, reading m ethodology, or m a them atics in the
school program (Lutz & Merz, 1992),
A s p o l it ic a l e n t it ie s , s c h o o ls a re s u b je c t t o c o n s ta n t change,
2
and A laskan schools are no more protected from the w inds of
political change than those of any o th e r state.
In 1994 the
G o ve rn o r’s S tate C om m issioner of E ducation m andated change fo r
A laskan S chool D istricts through the A la ska Q ua lity S chools
In itia tive (R eferre d to as the In itia tive ).
T h is w as a p o litic a lly
pow ered reform d ire cte d p rim a rily at rural A laskan scho ols.
Legislato rs pe rceived rural schools to be m ore e xp ensive and less
e ffe c tiv e tha n th e ir urban c o u n te rp a rts (H ollo w a y,
1996).
Change i s a t o p ic o f en o rm o u s im p o rta n c e t o e d u c a tio n a l
leaders in A laska as w ell as the rest of the U nited S tates.
A
consensus has em erged in the educational research base tha t since
change is inevitable , the ed ucational leaders of a school district
m ust s y ste m a tica lly m anage th a t cha nge rather than let it occur
incide nta lly.
T hrough research and practice, ed ucators have
identified and explored m any types and p h ilo sop hies of change and
the best w ays to su cce ssfu lly im ple m en t it (C uban, 1992; Deal,
1990; DiNataIe, 1994; Foley, 1994 & M cKenzie, 1985).
O ne of the
m ost p o p u la r m ethods of change, or reform , is fo r a d is tric t to
3
id e n tify a p a rtic u la r p ractice or program w hich has been valida ted in
a n o th e r d is tric t and to im plem ent th a t innovation (H all & Hord,
1 9 8 7 ).
The p r im a r y q u e s tio n f o r a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ’ s le a d e rs h ip s e e k in g
to ach ieve reform or change through the im plem entation of an
e xistin g p ra ctice is w h e th e r to a d o p t fa ith fu lly and e x a c tly all the
key ele m en ts of the innovation or to th o u g h tfu lly ad a p t only som e
e le m en ts of the innovation.
a d o p tio n
Fullan and P om fret (1977) call faith ful
“fid e lity a d o p tio n ” and a d a p ta tio n
a d a p ta tio n ” .
a d o p tio n “ m utual
The choice w h e ther to use the fid e lity adoption or the
m utual adaptation approach faces each school leader.
E d u c a tio n a l re s e a rc h e rs have a ls o n o te d t h a t one o f th e key
va ria b le s in p redictin g the success of a scho ol reform e ffo rt is not
on ly the sele ction of the external program to be in trodu ced into the
school, but the p re va ilin g internal school cultu re or clim ate .
R e se arch ers stud ying th is va ria b le have id e n tifie d tw o fa ce ts of
school cultu re - secular, w hich em braces change, and sacred, w hich
r e s is t s change (la n n a co cco n e & L u tz , 1 9 7 0 ).
4
11 has been su g g e ste d by Ian na coccon e and L u tz (1 9 7 0 ),
th a t th e se va ria b le s, the school cu ltu re (se cu la r/sa cre d ) and the
typ e of ch a n g e p ro ce ss se le cte d
(fid e lity /m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n ), w ill
im pact both the degree to w hich reform s are im ple m en ted and
a ctu a lly im proving education (H ansen, 1985).
S ince m ost rural
schools in A la ska have responded to the political dem and fo r reform
by adoptin g or adapting existing program s, practices, and standards,
the In itia tive p rovide s a virtu a l la b o ra to ry to an a lyze th e dynam ics
of change.
11 w a s th e in t e n t o f t h i s s tu d y t o id e n t if y and d e s c rib e
patterns of relation ships am ong the type s of change proce sse s and
the p re va ilin g school cultu res in the c o n te x t o f re ce n t educational
reform in rural A laskan S chools.
re la tio n s h ip
of th e tw o va ria b le s
T his study, w hich fo cu sed on the
(fid e lity /m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n
change
and se c u la r/s a c re d cu ltu re ) to s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n of the
A la ska Q u a lity S chools Initiative, fo cu se d on the 37 rural school
d is tric ts of A la ska .
sup e rin te n d e n t.
Inform a tion w as g a the red from
each d is tric t’s
It w as anticipate d th a t the analysis of the survey
5
results w ould reveal fo r each d is tric t w ha t w as ge n e ra te d by the
Initia tive, h o w the reform w as m anaged, w hich typ e of culture
existed, and the success of the reform .
O f prim ary inte rest w as the
question o f w hich change m anagem ent approach w as related to a
p a rtic u la r typ e of scho ol culture.
The b a s is f o r t h is s tu d y w a s th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e te n
core co n te n t stan da rds of the A la ska Q ua lity S choo ls Initia tive (see
A ppe nd ix B).
The A laska Q uality S chools Initiative w as to have been
fu lly im ple m en ted by the sta rt of the 1999-2000 scho ol year.
T h e o re tic a l
B asis
I t i s c r u c ia l t h a t e d u c a to rs u n d e rs ta n d th e p ro c e s s o f change.
W h en ever new educational standards are developed, a solid
un derstanding of the change process is n e cessary in ord e r for
m eaningful and lasting change to occu r (O sborne, 1993).
D ynam ic organ ization s, such as schools, are co n sta n tly under public
scru tin y a n d th e re fo re sub ject to p re s s u re s fo r cha nge from sources
6
outside of the school (C ham plin, 1991).
A lthough change is
inevitable, d e sirab le change is not alw ays the result.
W hile,
desirab le change m ay occur by chance, the likelihood of it occurring
is increased if the change is planned (G riffith, 1979).
Change can be in c o rp o ra te d in to th e c u ltu r e o f an o rg a n iz a tio n .
H ow ever, fo r full inco rpo ratio n to occur, the a p p ro p ria te approach to
im ple m en ting an innovation m ust be utilized.
In th is study, two
approaches to the change process w ere exam ined.
These approaches
are categorized by Fullan and P om fret as: 1) fid e lity adoption, and 2)
m utual a d a p ta tio n
(1977).
The f i d e l i t y a d o p tio n m o d e l i s o fte n a s s o c ia te d w i t h a lin e a r
approach to change th a t is directed at a defined organ ization al goal.
U sually the se goals are im posed from the top dow n.
T he fide lity
approach requires th a t the innovation be adhered to as close ly as
po ssible.
Im p lem e ntatio n m ust fo llo w the original plan, and any
varia tion is discouraged (Fullan, 1991; Hall & Hord, 1987; Snyder,
Bolin & Zum w alt, 1992).
In c o n tr a s t, th e m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n approach a llo w s f o r
7
m o d ifica tio n of the innovatio n by in d ivid u a ls in the o rg a n iza tio n to
adapt cha nge s at a low er level during im ple m en tatio n (Fullan, 1991;
Hall & Hord, 1987; Snyder, Bolin, & Zum w alt, 1992).
M utual
a d a p ta tio n p ro vid e s the fle x ib ility to ad a p t to o rg a n iz a tio n a l needs,
sup porting personal and grow th w ithin an o rgan ization o r school.
When a tte m p tin g t o b rin g a b o u t o r g a n iz a tio n a l le v e l planned
change, som e basic cornerstones m ust be built into the foundation of
the change fo r success.
A ccording to Fullan (1991) th e se strategies
fo r cha n g e sho uld include: “an a ctive in itia tio n and p a rticip a tio n ,
pressure and support, changes in behavior and beliefs, and the
o ve rrid in g problem of ow n e rsh ip ” (p. 91).
By a p p ly in g a s y s te m s v ie w t o o rg a n iz a tio n a l change,
in te rre la tio n s h ip s sho uld be noted w hich w ill a s s is t in planning fo r
the change.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Leaders w ithin the organization should rem em ber that:
Change i s a p ro c e s s , n o t ah e v e n t;
Change i s a c c o m p lis h e d by in d iv id u a ls ;
Change i s a h ig h ly p e rs o n a l e x p e rie n c e ;
Change in v o lv e s d e v e lo p m e n ta l g r o w th ;
Change i s b e s t u n d e rs to o d in o p e ra tio n a l te r m s ; and,
The fo c u s o f f a c i l i t a t i o n s h o u ld be on in d iv id u a ls ,
in n o v a tio n s , and th e c o n te x t (H a ll & Hord, 19 8 4 ).
8
A c c o rd in g t o H o rse y and B la n c h a rd (1 9 8 8 ) th e r e a re th re e
elem ents to changing an organization: I ) use of personal o r
o rg a n iza tio n a l pow er, 2) b e h a vio r m o dificatio n, and 3) planning fo r
and im plem enting a planned change.
These authors exam ined change
from m ore than ju s t a behavioral perspective.
C hanges in behavior
often re sult from applying new know ledge, w hich often leads to a
change I n a tt it u d e .
O rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e and c u ltu r e can have a d ir e c t im p a c t
on the nature of change.
There is a grow ing aw areness tha t the
succe ss of any org a n iza tio n is d ire c tly d e pen den t upon its e ffe ctive
use of available hum an resources.
C hange and
grow th involve
changing people at fo u r d iffe ren t areas: 1) know ledge,
2) attitudes, 3) behavior, and 4) group or o rg a n iza tio n a l b e h a vio r
(O sborne, 1993).
The relative d iffic u lty involved in m aking each of
the above areas of change from a vo lu n ta ry perspe ctive is
illu s tra te d
in F igure
1.
9
(H ig h )
Group B ehavior
A
In d ivid u a l
■cs
3 CU
O >
O
>
C
B e h a v io r
A t t it u d e s
(L o w )
-s> (Long)
(S h o rt)
T im e Invo lved
Figure 1. Tim e and difficu lty involved in m aking v a rio u s changes.
H ersey and Blanchard. (1988) M anagem ent of O rg a n iza tio n a l
B e h a v io r. (5th ed.). E nglew ood C liffs: P rentice Hall p.4.
Change i n in d iv id u a l k n o w le d g e te n d s t o be th e e a s ie s t to
make.
This may be accom plished in a variety of w ays such as giving
a person a book or an article to read, o r having som eone learn
som ething new through a w orkshop.
W hen a change in attitude
involves highly em otional issues, the change requires a longer tim e
period and is m ore d iffic u lt to accom plish (O w ens, 1991).
A f f e c t iv e a t t it u d e s d i f f e r fr o m c o g n itiv e k n o w le d g e i n t h a t
p e o p le ’s em otion s re fle ct e ith e r a p o sitive or n e gative v ie w of the
proposed change.
C hanges in individual behavior seem to be
s ig n ific a n tly m ore d iffic u lt and tim e co n su m in g th a n
know ledge or attitude.
e ith e r
A person m ay change th e ir know ledge base or
attitudes by reading and w atching others over a period of tim e.
To
a ctu a lly learn a new behavior, a person m ust practice th a t w hich is
to be learned and m ake the new course of action re le van t to his/her
own behavio r (M ersey & Blanchard, 1988).
Change in te a c h in g p r a c tic e s is b ro u g h t a b o u t by in d iv id u a l
teachers, not by institutions.
R esearch by Joyce and S how ers (1983)
on te a c h e r m otivation indicates it is the te a ch e r w ho m akes the
d iffe re n ce .
W ith o u t com m itted , e d ucated te a ch e rs a n y in stru ctio n a l
reform e ffo rt w ill be m uted and s h o rt-live d .
A lth o u g h m any w orry
a b o u t te a c h e rs ’ m otivation and w illin g n e s s to learn, te a ch e rs have
been fou nd to be able to w ithstand the discom fort involved in new
learning and change (Joyce & S how ers, 1983).
Even m o re d i f f i c u l t th a n a change i n in d iv id u a l b e h a v io r i s a
change in group or organizational behavior, because it is at the
o rg a n iza tio n a l level th a t custom s, m ores and tra d itio n s are changed.
C ustom s, m ores, and tra d itio n s are steeped in a ttitu d e s of the
individ ual, and tho se individual a ttitude s m ake up group norms.
G roups tend to be se lf-re in fo rcin g units and th e re fo re , a pe rso n ’s
b e h a vio r as a m em ber of a group is m ore d iffic u lt to a lte r w ithout
firs t m odifying the group norm s (O w ens, 1991).
The q u e s tio n is n o t w h e th e r s c h o o ls w i l l change, b u t h o w and
w ho w ill m anage the change.
In an attem pt to keep a school viable
and current, the issue is how to cope w ith the ine vitable barrage of
change th a t confronts the school daily.
E ffective leaders can no
longer be con ten t to let change occur at random ; the y m ust be able to
control change through a system atic process.
C hange is constant,
nothing rem ains the sam e from one m om ent to another, especially in
scho ols w hich are steeped in socie tal politics.
T h is is especially
tru e in rural schools w here the d istricts tend to be, as Iannaccone
and Lutz (1970) have described, sacred societies, or th o se that tend
to avoid change.
S a cre d s o c ie tie s a re th o s e w h ic h a re h ig h ly r e s is t a n t to
change.
The sacred com m unity m ay display sentim en ts w hich are
c o n s is te n t w ith
a ce n tra l c h a ra c te ris tic of a vo id in g
change (Lipham & Hoeh, 1974).
o r resistin g
The secular com m unity has the
te n de ncy to w elcom e or seek change and expresses sentim ents
c o n s is te n t w ith
its m a jo r c h a ra c te ris tic of p u rsu in g
new
innovations (Lipham & Hoeh, 1974).
S ta te m e n t of the Prohlmm
T h a t s c h o o ls a re i n need o f fu n d a m e n ta l change i s no lo n g e r
debated by m uch of society (M cNeil, 1988; Shanker, 1988 & Tim ar
and Kirp, 1989).
The A laska Q uality S chools Initia tive w as m andated
as a result of the changing dem ographics in A laskan com m unities
and of socie tal dem ands fo r ed ucational im provem ent.
A p p r o p r ia te s t r a t e g ic im p le m e n ta tio n o f a change p ro c e s s m ay
m ean the d iffe re n ce betw een a succe ssful and unsuccessful
innovatio n im ple m en tatio n.
th e
re la tio n s h ip
is be tw een
The p ro b le m is th a t it is unknow n w hat
su c c e s s fu l
im p le m e n ta tio n
s tra te g ie s
and d e m o g ra p h ic ch a ra c te ris tic s in the school d is tric t.
Purpose of the Study
The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y w a s t o a n a ly z e th e im p le m e n ta tio n
s tra te g ie s of the A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive in A la s k a ’s rural
school d istricts.
To accom plish this, the study fo cu sed on fou r
areas of change.
W hich change process was being used when
im p le m e n tin g the in n ovatio n?
W hat w as the d is tric t’s cultu re
(secular or sacred) in regard to change?
su c c e s s fu lly im ple m en ted ?
W as the innovation being
W as th e re a d is c e rn ib le re la tio n sh ip
betw een the change process, cultu re of the district, size Of the
d istrict, and su cce ss of the im p le m e n ta tio n ?
The Ti r s t ta s k w a s t o d e te rm in e w h a t change p ro c e s s e s w e re
b e in g utilized in A la s k a ’s ru ral scho ols w hen im p le m e n tin g the
Initiative.
T w e n ty years of research ab out change p ro c e s s e s in
schools have provided a w ealth of inform ation ab out the se
processe s.
H ow ever, it w as un clear from the lite ra tu re if rural
14
schools respond best to the fid e lity approach or to the m utual
adaptation approach in order to accom plish the d e s ire d change
(lan na ccone & Lutz, 1970).
Second, th e re s e a rc h e r needed t o d e te rm in e i f th e s u c c e s s o f
A la s k a ’s Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive related to a s p e c ific change
process.
M ost school change studies focus on how adm inistrators
(at the top) m anage the change process im plem ented by teachers (at
th e bottom ).
T h ird , d id th e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f each d i s t r i c t r e la te t o a
sacred or se cu la r culture?
The successful im ple m en tatio n of an
innovation in a sacred rural environ m en t rem ained som ew ha t of a
dilem m a.
W as it b e tte r to utilize a fid e lity approach in a sacred
socie ty or w as it b e tte r to use m utual adaptation?
The school
leaders neede d to know w hich process to select as th e y attem pted to
p o sitively, im p a ct stu d e n t ou tcom e s (S te ig e lb a u e r,
1994).
The f i n a l p o in t in v o lv e d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s iz e . D id th e s iz e o f
the stu d e n t p o p u la tio n
relate to the d is tric t’s su cc e s s fu l
im p le m e n ta tio n of the A la ska Q ua lity S chools In itia tiv e ?
W as it
b e tte r to utilize a fid e lity or m utual adaptation appro ach to change
w ith a large, sm all, or ve ry sm all school district?
Im portance of th e S tudy
S tu d ie s re la te d t o change in r u r a l A la s k a w e r e f e w in nu m be r
and th e re fo re w ere hard to relate to this study.
M ost rural studies
have been conducted in the low er fo rty -e ig h t states.
T he literature
on rural schools focused on the choice betw een the fid e lity approach
and the m utual a d a p ta tio n approach (lanna coccon e & Lutz, 1970).
L ittle re le va n t research w a s a va ila b le concerning: e ith e r the
fid e lity -m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n
and th e
s a c re d -s e c u la r s o c ie tie s
issues
w hich w ere de rive d from
rural, or s p e c ific a lly A la ska n schools.
I f a d m in is tr a to r s w a n t change t o be s u c c e s s fu l, th e y have t o
m anage change.
S uccessful im plem entation of any innovation
re quire s not on ly , th a t o rg a n iza tio n a l proble m s be c le a rly identified
and a p p ro p ria te so lu tio n s sele cted,r but th a t the y be co rre c tly
introduced depending upon the school culture.
S uccessful
16
in n o va tio n s m ay be e ith e r fu lly adopted (fid elity) or adapted (m utual
adaptation) to m eet the needs of the school.
A succe ssful innovation
is one th a t has achieved the desired outcom es and becom es
e n culturate d or im bedded into the practice of the school.
It is
im p o rta n t th a t rural scho ol a d m in is tra to rs know w h ich process to
.
use t o a c h ie v e th e b e s t r e s u lts (M ersey & B la n c h a rd , 1 9 8 8 ).
11 i s u n c le a r w h ic h change p ro c e s s , th e f i d e l i t y appro ach o r
m utual ad a p ta tio n approach, a ctu a lly w orks best in A la s k a ’s rural
school environm ent.
The prevailing role of an educatio nal
ad m in istra tive leader in rural A laska has been one of an external
b e n e fa cto r providing service s to an indigenous, la rg e ly Native,
population.
This is all the more com pelling because, m uch of the
early education in rural A laska was sacred and w as done by
m issio n a rie s, p rie s ts , o r nuns.
In h e re n t w ithin th is tra d itio n a l
m odel is the h ig h ly centralized process of com m and and control of
e d u c a tio n a l program s,
A d m in is tra to rs are perceived as autho rity
fig u re s re spon sible fo r m akin g changes and seeing th a t subordinates
fo llo w throug h on the im ple m en tatio n of the se cha nge s (B arnhardt,
17
1 9 7 9 );
In A la s k a , th e h ie r a r c h ic a l s t r u c t u r e has had th e e f f e c t o f
stiflin g new inn ovatio ns, exce pt th o se th a t are in tro d u ce d or blessed
by o ffic ia lly sa n ctio n e d a d m in is tra to rs .
It is p o s s ib le th a t
su b o rd in a te s are accustom ed to im plem enting in n o va tio n s through a
fid e lity approach instead of allow ing fo r m utual ad a p ta tio n .
As a
result, program in n o va tio n s w hich have introdu ced new varia bles or
have posed a th re a t to established procedures have been
su cce ssfu lly resisted (E arnhardt, 1979).
The con tinue d use of a
fid e lity approach m ay rein force the re sistance to ch a n g e th a t the
a d m in is tra to r seeks to avoid in the firs t place.
It is q u estion able if
it is po ssible to im plem ent adaptive change in a sacred society at
all.
Yet, a d aptive im plem entation is m ore likely to be successful.
T h e re fo re , it is im p o rta n t to know if a fid e lity approach or a mutual
adaptation approach seem s to be m ost related to success.
T h is s tu d y has fo c u s e d on th e r e s u lts o f u s in g d if f e r e n t
a p p ro a ch e s (m utual a d aptation or fid e lity ) in A la s k a ’s rural schools
or socie ties (se cu la r o r sacred).
An a d m in istra to r needs to
understan d the local educatio nal settin g in w hich the innovation is
to be im plem ented.
W ith o u t this un derstanding of the educational
settin g and the understan ding of the innovation process, change w ill
not be e a s ily im ple m en ted or in s titu tio n a liz e d (E astw o od & Louis,
1 9 9 2 ).
R esearch Q uestions
T h is s tu d y fo c u s e d on: a n a ly z in g th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e
A la s k a
Q u a lity
S ch o o ls
In itia tiv e ;
id e n tify in g
re la tio n s h ip s
betw een
cha nge process, school culture, d is tric t size, and inn ovatio n
success; and describing the person al response of su p e rin tend ents to
the dem and fo r change posed by the Initiative.
To explore these
areas, se ve ra l questions w ere posed.
1. W h ich change p ro c e s s w a s used w h e n im p le m e n tin g th e
in n o v a tio n ?
2. W h a t w a s th e d i s t r i c t ’ s c u ltu r e (s e c u la r o r s a c re d ) i n
regard to change?
3. W as th e in n o v a tio n s u c c e s s fu lly im p le m e n te d ?
4. W as th e r e a d is c e r n ib le r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e change
process, cu ltu re of the district, size of the d is tric t and success of
th e
im p le m e n ta tio n ?
D e fin itio n s
R ural district.
A rural d istrict is a d istrict th a t is not on the
highw ay or road system s of A laska (A ir o r m arine tra ve l is
necessary to reach the school.), or does not have a student
p o p u la tio n o y e r 3 ,5 0 0 (D ig e s t o f E d u c a tio n a l S t a t is t ic s , 1 9 9 7 ).
Change process.
A change process is the strategy by which
scho ols acco m plish th e ir goals m ore e ffe c tiv e ly by re placing som e
stru ctu re s, p rogram s a n d /o r p ra ctice s w ith b e tte r on es (Fullan,
1 9 9 1 ).
Innovation. An innovation is any thought, behavior, or idea tha t
is new b e cause it is q u a lita tiv e ly d iffe re n t from th e e xistin g
educational approach w hich is being used (O wens, 1991).
20
Successful change.
A successful change is one th a t has
achieved the desired effects, and the results of w hich m ay be placed
on a continuum ranging from very desirab le outcom es to very
undesirable outcom es (H anson, 1985; K erse y & B lanchard, 1988).
Successful innovation. A successful innovation is an
innovatio n th a t h a s ach ieved its de sired outcom es or im plem entation
and the results m ay be placed on a continuum ranging from very
desirab le outcom es to very un desirable outcom es (H anson, 1985;
K erse y & B lanchard, 1988).
Sacred society. A sacred socie ty is a school, school district,
in stitu tio n , or co m m u n ity w hose cu ltu re ten ds to be m ore highly
resistant to or tends to avoid change (lan na ccone & Lutz, 1970).
Secular society.
A se cu la r so cie ty is a school, school district,
institu tion, or com m un ity w hose cultu re tends to be m ore open to or
seeks change (lannaccone & Lutz, 1970).
Fidelity approach to change.
The fid e lity approach is
cha racte rized by a high degree of adherence to the d e ve lo p e r’s model
th a t is expected from the school or te a c h e r (Fullan, 1991).
'
21
Mutual adaptation approach.
The m utual adaptation approach is
the process by w hich schools can m ake adaptations or im provem ents
to the d e ve lo p e r’s innovation (Hail & Herd, 1987).
L im ita tio n s
1. T he s tu d y w a s lim it e d t o th e d i s t r i c t s fr o m r u r a l A la s k a
th a t had a d is tric t s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n
un der th re e -th o u s a n d -fiv e -
hundred (3,500).
2. T h is s tu d y used o n ly r u r a l p u b lic K - 1 2 d i s t r i c t s and no
p riva te sch o o l d is tric ts w ere in clud ed .
3. D is t r ic t s t h a t w e re K -6 , K - 8, K - 1 0, o r any c o n fig u r a tio n
o th e r than K -12 w ere not included.
D e lim ita tio n s
1. The d a ta c o lle c t io n c o v e re d a p e rio d o f t im e fr o m F e b ru ary,
1999 to M arch, 1999.
22
2. The r e s u lts o f th e s tu d y r e f l e c t th e b ia s o f th e p e rso n s w h o
com plete d the survey.
3. The r e s u lts o f th e s tu d y r e f l e c t th e b ia s o f th e re s e a rc h e r’s
in te rp re ta tio n of the answ ers of the survey.
23
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
E d u ca tio n i s c o n s ta n tly c o p in g w i t h change t h a t o r ig in a te s
from m any sources.
This investigation w as concerned w ith change
w hich is planned versus change w hich occurs as a re su lt of p o litica l
fo rce s or throug h the natural p ro c e s s of o rg a n iza tio n a l evolution.
A n y change i s d i f f i c u l t and re s is ta n c e t o change is n a tu ra l,
occu rring at both the personal and o rgan ization al level.
This reality
often im p a cts school a d m in is tra to rs a ttem p ting to m ake changes
w ith in
rural scho ols.
It is w e ll-kn o w n th a t te a c h e rs often resist
w ell th o ug ht out reasonable changes (Hall & Hord, 1987).
Most
a d m in istra to rs have been surprised w hen innovatio ns th a t are near
and de ar to th e ir core beliefs fail due to a lack of te a c h e r support.
T h e re fo re , in ord e r to understand th e change process, adm inistrators
need an understanding of the historical perspective of change.
K now ledge of past change processes w ill help to d a y ’s
24
a d m in is tra to rs m anage change inn ovatio ns.
T h is c h a p te r i s d iv id e d in t o th e f o llo w in g m a jo r a re a s o f
lite ra tu re review : a) e d u ca tio n a l h isto ry of A laska, b) h isto ry of
change, c) m utual adaptation, d) the fid e lity perspe ctive, and e)
ba rriers to change.
E ducational H istory of A laska
F o rm a l e d u c a tio n in A la s k a began w i t h G re g o ry S heM kov w he n
he began teaching fo r the Russian colony in 1784 on K odiak Island.
The firs t recorded school w as a R ussian O rthodox school at Sitka in
1805.
T he A m erican religious and ed ucational m ission arie s made a
great e d u ca tio n a l e ffo rt to educate the A laskan p o pula tion
(C a rp e n te r,
1978).
C on gre ss passed th e O rg a n ic A c t in 1 8 8 4 , w h ic h d ir e c te d th e
S e cre ta ry of the In te rio r to provide educatio n fo r all children in
A laska w ith o u t regard to race.
A lthough C ongress appro pria ted
m onies fo r education, the funds w ere inadequate to accom plish the
25
ta sk of educatin g the children of A laska.
It w as th e re fo re necessary
fo r the D irecto r of E ducation, S heldon Jackson, to appeal to various
relig ious o rg a n iza tio n s to help in the ed ucational process (Naske &
S io tn ic k ,
1987).
The s ta t e w a s d iv id e d in to a re a s by th e c h u rc h o rg a n iz a tio n s
fo r m issio n a ry educatio n - so u th e a st A la ska w as fo r the
P resbyterians, upper B ristol Bay and K uskokw im area fo r the
M oravians, Low er Yukon or Holy C ross area fo r the Rom an Catholics,
the A laskan P eninsula and A leutia ns fo r the M ethodists, C ook Inlet
and P rince W illiam S ound fo r the B aptists, the In te rio r and North
S lope fo r the E piscopalians, the Bering Sea and B ering S trait for the
C o n g re gatio nalists, the N orton Sound and Port C larence fo r the
S w edish and N orw egian m issions (C arpenter, 1978).
In 1 9 1 2 , to w n s s u p p o rte d e d u c a tio n f o r n o n -N a tiv e s and th e
Bureau of E ducation operated schools fo r non-N atives.
W hen Alaska
becam e a te rrito ry , the te rrito ria l Ie g ista tu re p a s s e d a law tha t all
children w ould be educated (N aske & S iotnick, 1987),
In 1 9 3 1 , th e Bureau o f In d ia n A f f a i r s to o k o v e r th e o p e ra tio n
26
of rural schools in A laska.
The S tate of A laska opened several
regional high schools fo r educating the high school students.
The
villa g e s m issed having high school stud en ts in th e ir com m un itie s
and in 1972, the S tate of A laska w as sued by M olly H ootch, a student
from Em m onak, because she had to attend high school in Anchorage
ra ther than in her hom etow n.
In 1976, the S tate agreed w ith the
p la n tiff and w ith the co n s e n t decree and constructed high schools in
village s th a t had an elem entary school.
In 1984, the Bureau of
Indian A ffa irs turned ove r the education of A laska N atives to the
S tate of A laska.
S enate Bill 36, passed in the spring of 1999, has
fun de d th o se K -12 schools w ith stud en t po pulations of ten or more
(A ntonson & H anable, 1985).
H istory of E ducational C hange
In A m e ric a n s c h o o ls , change has t r a d it io n a lly been
im ple m en ted throug h a process of natural diffusion.
N atural
diffusion is the p rocess by w hich new ideas and practices are spread
in an un planned w ay from school d is tric t to school d is tric t (O w ens,
1991).
The result is th a t schools adopt changes haphazardly or
ad opt in n o va tio n s ve ry slow ly.
Innova tions th a t are im plem ented
throug h natura l d iffu sio n often fail to produce the re su lts th a t are
desired (M ort, 1958).
C hange takes ab out fifty yea rs to be diffused
and acce pte d in school d istricts th ro u g h o u t the country.
C o n se q u e n tly, the ave rag e d istric t lags tw e n ty -fiv e y e a rs behind the
accepted best practice of the tim e s (M ort, 1958).
E d u c a tio n a l change p ro ce e d s v e r y s lo w ly . A f t e r an
in v e n tio n w h ic h is d e s tin e d t o sp re a d th ro u g h o u t th e
s c h o o l a p pea rs, f i f t e e n y e a rs t y p ic a lly e la p s e b e fo re i t
i s fo u n d i n th r e e p e rc e n t o f th e s c h o o l s y s te m s ....A fte r
p r a c tic e s re a ch th e th r e e p e rc e n t p o in t o f d iffu s io n ,
t h e i r r a te o f s p re a d a c c e le ra te s .
An a d d itio n a l 2 0
y e a rs u s u a lly s u f f ic e s f o r an a lm o s t c o m p le te
d if f u s io n i n an a re a th e s iz e o f an a ve ra g e s ta te . T h e re
a re in d ic a tio n s t h a t th e r a te o f sp re a d th ro u g h o u t th e
nation is not m uch slow er today.
The la u n ch o f S p u tn ik I i n 1 9 5 7 a c c e le ra te d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
innovations during the 1960s.
The sixties b ro u g h t ab o u t new math
and scien ce curriculum s, ungraded schools, open classroom s, audiolingu al lan gua ge lab o ra to rie s, and program m ed in s tru c tio n (Fullan,
1991; G ibboney, 1991).
A ccording to Fullan (1991), the sixties w ere
28
know n as the adoption period because districts w ere preoccupied
w ith how m any innovations could be im plem ented.
T he more
in n o va tio n s, the b e tte r the d is tric t a n d th is w as how d is tric ts w ere
jud g e d as being succe ssful.
D u rin g th e s ix t ie s , n e w id e a s w e re a d o p te d w it h o u t q u e s tio n
and w ith little or no th o u g h t to fo llo w -th ro u g h a c tiv itie s .
The
con se q u e n ce s of w h o le sa le adoptions of inn ovatio ns resulted in
d is s a tis fa c tio n w ith any im p ro ve m e n t p ro je c t and m any
im p le m e n ta tio n
e ffo rts
fa ile d
(F u lla n ,
1991).
In n o v a tio n s in th e la te s e v e n tie s and e a r ly e ig h tie s w e re
sta rtin g to em erg e w ith succe ssful ideas includ ing b e h a v io ra l
o b je ctive s, m a stery learning, a c c o u n ta b ility , and c o m p e te n c y based
cu rricu lu m and te stin g (G ibboney, 1991).
The eig h tie s also
cu lm in a te d the research based on effe ctive schools and effective
tea ching th a t began in the seventies.
W ithin the sam e tim e fram e
the D epartm ent of E ducation released A Nation at Risk. (1983).
A N ation at R isk (1983) proposed changes th a t w ere assum ed
esse ntial fo r education in to d a y 's c o m p e titive w orld.
These
29
re co m m e n d a tio n s ca lle d fo r to u g h e r cou rse w ork require m en ts,
hig h e r a d m issions standards to u n iversities, a lo n g e r school day,
m erit pay fo r tea che rs, and m ore pa rticip a tio n by pa ren ts in schools
(Keedy, 1990).
D u rin g t h e e i g h t i e s a l l s ta te s m a de changes i n t h e i r s c h o o ls as
a re su lt of A N ation at Risk (1983). - C hief am ong these changes w ere
h ig h e r stan da rds fo r high school g radu ation , co m p e te n cy testing fo r
teachers, open enrollm ent, and m agnet schools (D oyle, C ooper &
T ra ch tm a n ,
1991).
D u rin g th e e a r ly n in e tie s , m any s ta te s and d i s t r i c t s tu rn e d t o
m a n d a to ry s o lu tio n s, and w ith a cris is m entality, sc h o o ls quickly
adopted solu tions th a t w ere believed to address a s p e c ific issue.
P rim ary ch a nge s im plem ented during the nineties w e re site-based
m a nag em e nt, te a c h e r em pow e rm en t, c o lla b o ra tiv e w o rk cultures,
and stra teg ic planning (Fullan, 1991).
These changes cam e at a tim e
w hen there w as less fu n d in g for schools and a g re a te r dem and made
fo r q u a lity in education (C uban, 1992)!
In p a s t decades, e f f o r t s t o im p ro v e s c h o o ls ca m e a b o u t p a r t ly
due to a w ave of prosperity, im ple m en ting succe ssful change w ill
becom e harder in the future.
The 1990s and beyond w ill be
d iffe re n t; sch o o ls w ill have lim ited resources to deal: w ith m ore
m andates from state level authorities.
E xcellence in schools can be
attaine d in the fu tu re by using the positive focu sed approaches to
change th a t occurred in the eighties and nineties (D oyle, C ooper & .
T ra c h tm a n , 1991).
The p u rp o se o f pla nne d change is t o h e lp s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s
acco m p lish th e ir stated m ission m ore e ffe c tiv e ly by replacing som e
stru c tu re s ,
p rogram s, a n d /o r p ra ctice s w ith
s o m e th in g
better.
C urrent approaches to change are dom inated by develop ing strategies
and ta ctics to control the change process (O w ens, 1991).
T h e re a re nu m e ro u s d e f in it io n and m e th o d o lo g ic a l p ro b le m s
involved w ith a sse ssm en t of the success of the in n ovatio n being
im ple m en ted .
O ne dire ction fo r research about im ple m en tatio n
processes ten ds to study the degree of im plem entation of the
innovation according to the intended o r planned use; th is is called
fid e lity of im p le m e n ta tio n .
The second prim a ry d ire c tio n for
b
31
im p le m e n ta tio n is to exam ine how the innovatio n is m o dified during
the ad a p ta tio n process; this is called m utual a d aptation (Fullan &
P o m fre t,
1977).
F id e lity
P e rs p e c tiv e
The s tu d y o f th e f i d e l i t y p e rs p e c tiv e i n im p le m e n ta tio n has
focused on the degree of adherence to the original te n e ts of the
innovatio n.
By clo se ly follo w in g the innovation, the desired outcom e
of the change occurs.
Innovations con sist of a nu m be r of relatively
w e ll-d e sig n e d com pon ents called key elem ents, and should closely
fo llo w rigo rou sly developed and evaluated program s.
Innovations are
supposed to be im plem ented as close ly as possible to the original
m odels.
D oing oth erw ise w ill lead to innovations th a t are less than .
e ffective (B oruch & G om ez, 1977; C alsyn, T o rna tzky & D ittm ar,
1 9 7 7 ).
A m o re m o d e ra te approach t o f i d e l i t y w a s ta k e n by H a ll and
Loucks (1978) w ho stated tha t adaptation is a cce pta ble up to a
32
point, beyond w hich the innovation loses its in te grity.
Therefore,
the p a ra m e te rs of fid e lity are of c ru cia l im p o rta nce to the
in n o va tio n being im plem ented.
T h e re a re f i v e s it u a t io n a l p a ra m e te rs o f change t o be
considered w hen p la n n in g to im plem ent an innovation: (1)
in cre m e n ta l or m a jo r change, (2) th e o re tic a l or te c h n o lo g ic a l
ce rta in ty, (3) c o n flic t o ve r goals and m eans, (4) in s titu tio n a l
stru ctu re , and (5) s ta b ility of en viro n m e n t.
A re la tiv e ly stru cture d
e n viro n m e n t sup ports the fid e lity approach (B erm an, 1980).
A d m in is t r a to r s w it h in th e c e n tr a l o f f ic e le v e l o r a t th e
building level often fail to acknow ledge the needs of th o se w ho are
being asked to im plem ent the change in the classroom .
Educators
are ta u g h t to respond to the needs of students, but som ehow
a d m in istra to rs fo rg e t to respond to the needs of th o se required to
im p le m e n t in stru ctio n a l change, the te a ch e rs (W hite,
1990),
Som e o f th e b e n e fits o f th e f i d e l i t y approach a re t h a t i t
w orks, save s m oney, and saves tim e w ith little e xp lo ra tio n
(B erm an, 1980).
The problem s th a t can arise from th e fid e lity
33
approach are the lack of ow nership by those w ho are im plem enting
the change and the use of canned program s (M cLaughlin, 1989).
M utual A d a p ta tio n
In th e m id - s e v e n tie s re s e a rc h e rs began t o d o c u m e n t t h a t
ed ucators, w hen im ple m en ting inn ovatio ns, changed th o se
in n o va tio n s to fit th e ir own situa tions.
T his is know n as mutual
adaptation , a process th a t allow s com ponents of the innovation to
a d a p t to the ind ivid ual cultu re w ithin an o rgan ization (Loucks, 1983
& M e aral 1979).
The Rand s tu d y gro u p fo u n d t h a t fe d e r a l p o lic ie s had a m a jo r
role in e n co u ra g in g local school d is tric ts to un d e rta ke projects th a t
w ere g e n e ra lly c o n g ru e n t w ith fed era l g u ideline s, bu t th a t adoption
of a p ro je ct co n siste n t w ith fed era l goals did not e n su re successful
im ple m en tatio n.
The Rand study fu rth e r found th a t although
su cce ssfu l im p le m e n ta tio n
did not p re d ic t lon g-ru n co n tin u a tio n of
the p ro je c t, e ffe ctive innovatio n did prom o te m utual a d aptation in
34
each in s titu tio n a l se ttin g .
E ffe ctive im p le m e n ta tio n of an
innovation sup ported the process of adaptation th ro u g h feedback,
id e n tific a tio n and co rre ctio n of m ista kes, and b u ild in g su p p o rt fo r
the project.
The Rand study group concluded tha t local choices about
how to put an innovation into practice h a ve m ore s ig n ifica n ce for
- ■ '
cha nge than the innovation itself (M cLaughlin, 1989).
,
R esearch h a s c a s t c o n s id e ra b le d o u b t on th e v a l i d i t y o f th e
fid e lity a p p ro a ch to im p le m e n ta tio n (F ullan & P om fret,
1977).
F u lla n ’s and P o m fre t’s study concluded th a t any d e s c rip tio n of the
use of the innovation should take into account not only the
ch a ra cte ristics of the organ ization , but the process by w hich the
innovation is adapted and im plem ented.
R esearchers have cast doubt
on the assu m ptio n th a t the degree of e ffe ctive n e ss is often
influ ence d by the degree of im plem entation (Fullan & P om fret, 1977;
Hall & Loucks, 1977).
A s th e n e w p ro g ra m i s im p le m e n te d , th e p a r t ic ip a n t s begin to
id e n tify d iffe re n t needs and th e re fo re m ake m o d ific a tio n s to fit the
needs id e n tifie d w ith in the o rg a n iza tio n .
S uccessful
35
im p le m e n ta tio n of an innovation w ill not occu r unless it is
pe rceive d as m eeting a sp e cific need in the o rgan ization , identified
during the adaptation of the innovation (W hite, 1990).
P ro p o n e n ts o f th e m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n p ro c e s s h a v e s ta te d t h a t
adopters of the innovation (teachers) have a g re a te r understanding
of the o rg a n iza tio n a l clim a te and s tru c tu re w hich re la te to the use
of the innovation than those w ho developed the change o r those who
require the change (H all & Hord, 1987).
The diffe ring organizational
con text results in a need to incorporate the level and degree of
te a ch e r invo lve m en t in the change process:
1. F re q u e n t s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s d e s ig n e d to m e e t
th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l needs o f th e te a c h e rs a re seen as a
s u p p o rtin g f a c t o r (G uskey, 1 9 8 6 ).
2. The le n g th o f te a c h in g c a re e r i s n e g a tiv e ly c o r r e la te d w it h
s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n and i s g e n e ra lly seen as an
o b s ta c le t o th e p ro c e s s (B erm an & M cL a u g h lin , 1 9 7 8 ).
3. W h e n te a c h e rs v ie w th e p r in c ip a l as s u p p o r tiv e o f an
in n o v a tio n , th e le v e l o f im p le m e n ta tio n te n d s t o in c re a s e
(H a ll & Hord, 1 9 8 7 ).
4. T he a v a ila b ilit y and v a r ie t y o f in c e n tiv e s e n c o u ra g in g
p a r t ic ip a t io n in an in n o v a tio n a re im p o r ta n t f a c t o r s i n
d e te rm in in g th e le v e l o f te a c h e r in v o lv e m e n t i n th e change
p ro c e s s (H a ll & Hord, 1 9 8 7 ).
F id e lit y o r m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n d i f f e r t o th e d e g re e t o w h ic h th e
im p le m e n te d in n o va tio n is s im ila r to the in n o va tio n in its orig inal
form and to the degree th a t p a rticip a n ts e ffe ct the fo rm a tio n of the
adoption.
It is possible tha t adoption w ould becom e routinized and
survive because it w as used with a high degree of fide lity.
On the
oth er hand, a program tha t is adapted w ould becom e routinized and
survive because the teachers or change agents changed the
innovation to fit the school cultu re (B lakely, 1983).
The
im ple m en tatio n of the innovation, w h e th e r it be large o r sm all,
adapted p a rtia lly o r adopted as a w hole, is as im p o rta n t to the
succe ss of its outcom e as the o rgan ization al s tru ctu re of the school
(W hite ,
1990).
O th e r re s e a rc h s u g g e s ts t h a t o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e , c u ltu r e ,
and political facto rs can have a d ire c t im pact on the n a tu re and
exte nt of change occurring w ithin the school.
te a c h e r p a rtic ip a tio n
The im portance of
is a critica l e le m e n t in the su c c e s s fu l
im ple m en tatio n of change.
A d m in istra to rs should vie w change as an
ongoing process, not as a single e v e n t (W hite, 1990).
37
B arriers to C hange
S a c re d -s e c u la r c o n c e p ts h e lp us u n d e rs ta n d b a r r ie r s t o change.
It is p re d icta b le th a t c o n flict w ill o ccu r in p u b lic e d u ca tio n because
scho ols w hich are sacred socie ties im press upon th e ir m em bers
ce rta in o rg a n iz a tio n a l behaviors, and th is cu ltu re of tra d itio n m akes
fo r a higher degree of resistance to change.
A se cu la r school is not
likely to be as isolated or as resistant to change and ten ds to be
m ore open w itho ut the rigid barriers to change (Lutz & Merz, 1992).
S m a ll r u r a l A la s k a n s c h o o ls p ro v id e a n a tu ra l e n v iro n m e n t f o r
sacred behaviors.
E ducation lite ra lly w as syno nym o us w ith sacred
so cie tie s in rural areas due to the ea rly p re se n ce of m issionaries,
priests, and nuns w ho started rural schools.
A lso, in rural A laskan
com m un itie s everyone know s nearly everyone else, of w h a t they are
capable, and not only w ha t they are doing, but also th e ir faults,
needs, potential, and background (E arnhardt, 1979).
T h is is not to
say th a t all sm all schools are sacred or tha t large urban schools are
secu lar (Lutz & Merz, 1992).
The schools tha t tend to search for
38
consensus, avoid con flict, or resist change are con sid e re d sacred
(la n n a cco n e & Lutz, 1970).
A s e c u la r s o c ie ty i s li k e l y t o be le s s is o la te d th a n a s a c re d
socie ty be cause a se cu la r socie ty is one in w hich resistance to
change is at a m inim um .
S ecular societies are no rm a lly open to
change, w h e rea s sacred socie ties are com m un itie s th a t resist
change and value tradition (Lutz & Merz, 1992).
C o m m u n itie s e x is t a lo n g th e s a c r e d - s e c u la r c o n tin u u m ; th e y
tend to be m ore o n e or the other, and m ore than likely the com m unity
w ill e xh ib it som e elem ents at both ends of the con tinuu m (Lutz &
M erz, 1992).
S uccessful introduction of Inriovatiohs m ay require
d iffe re n t and so m e tim e s o p posite m ethods of im p le m e n ta tio n
depending on w h e th e r the com m unity is sacred or secular.
M o st s c h o o l re fo r m e r s a re f r u s t r a t e d as a r e s u lt o f
o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tru ctu re , cu ltu re , and the p o litica l n a tu re of
co m m u n itie s.
M ost A m erica ns still regard schools as successful
according to H aberm an (1994).
The public w ants to im prove the
e d u ca tio n a l system th a t it believes in, w h ile m ost e xp e rts or
39
reform ers w a n t to cha nge it in pa rt or in to ta lity (H a b e rm a n j 1994).
D e s p ite th e w id e s p re a d c a ll f o r e d u c a tio n a l r e fo r m , th e
lite ra tu re on cha nge states th a t cha nge is d iffic u lt and resistance is
natural (M argolis, 1991).
There is a natural c o n flic t betw een
tra d itio n a l view s and reform in A m erica n education.
P arents w ant
schools to be like th e y w ere in the past b u t know th e ir children m ust
be prepa red fo r a d iffe re n t fu tu re (M argolis, 1991).
A t t h e b u ild in g le v e l, s u c c e s s fu l change re q u ire s t h a t th e
a d m in istra to rs understan d w hy te a ch e rs are re s is ta n t to change.
R esistance is less likely to occur w hen teachers vie w th e change or
innovation as m eaningful to th e ir lives.
M argolis (1991) has urged
th a t th o se desiring change should:
* N o t im p o s e s o lu tio n s upon people.
^ C o n c e n tra te on b e lie fs and p e rc e p tio n s .
"E m p h a s iz e p ro c e s s e s and open s y s te m s th in k in g .
"F o c u s on w h a t pe o p le t h in k is im m e d ia te ly im p o r ta n t
and tro u b le s o m e .
"E n c o u ra g e in n o v a tio n and change w i t h th e p o te n tia l to
a c h ie v e m u tu a lly d e s ire d g o a ls.
" E lim in a t e b a r r ie r s t o re fo rm .
K eys t o o v e rc o m in g b a r r ie r s t o change a re u n d e rs ta n d in g and
responding to both the stru ctura l and personal fa c to rs causing
resistance.
O pen com m unication is invaluable in breakin g the
barriers to change.
W hen im plem enting innovations the change agent
m ust rem em b er th a t changing a te a c h e r’s b e lie f system is a task
th a t is fa r m ore com plicate d, d ifficu lt, and tim e co n su m in g than
leaders exp ect (H anson, 1985).
T herefore, being know ledgeable
about change process may be both the b e st offense and the best
defen se th a t a d m in istra to rs have in m anaging ed u ca tio n a l change.
41
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
The r e v ie w o f th e lit e r a t u r e has s u g g e s te d a d iffe r e n c e i n
levels of resistance to change in sacred and secu lar societies.
The
purpose of this study w as to disco ver and analyze the
im p le m e n ta tio n of the A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tiv e , to id e n tify
re la tio n s h ip s betw een cha nge p rocesse s, school c u ltu re , d istrict
size, innovation success, and to describe the personal responses of
su p erin tend ents to the dem and fo r change posed by th e Initiative.
The p u rp o se w a s d e fin e d by f o u r re s e a rc h q u e s tio n s . I . W hich
change process w as being used w hen im plem enting the innovation?
2. W hat is the d is tric t's cultu re (se cular or sacred) in regard to
change?
3. W as the innovation being succe ssfully im plem ented?
4. W as th e re a d isce rnible relationship betw een the change
processe s, cu ltu re of the district, size of the d istrict, and success
of th e
im p le m e n ta tio n ?
The q u a lit a t iv e n a tu re o f th e s tu d y a llo w e d th e re s e a rc h e r to
42
analyze how superintendents have responded to the dem and for
system ic change posed by the A laska Q uality S chools Initiative, and
to assess the success of the im plem entation, in relation to the local
d is tric t’s cu ltu re and the change process em ployed.
D e scrip tio n
of P opulation
The d e f in it io n o f a r u r a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n A la s k a i s based on
its size and location.
A rural d istrict is one th a t is located off of
the S tate road system and has a population of less than 3,500
stud en ts (D ige st of E ducation S tatistics, 1997).
W ith on ly a total of
54 scho ol d is tric ts in the state of A laska, all rural d is tric ts that
m et the above crite ria w ere exam ined in this study.
T his involved a
to ta l of 37 d istricts w hich w ere divide d into th re e ca te g o rie s (very
sm all, sm all, or large) a's described in Table I on the next page.
43
T a b le 1. P ublic school d istricts and e n ro llm e n t by size of district.
D ig e st of E duca tion S ta tistics (1997).
N um ber of A laska S chool D istricts by O rg aniza tiona l C ategory
D is tric t s iz e N um b er of d is tric ts
1. v e r y s m a ll
12
I t o 3 0 0 p u p ils
2. s m a ll
14
301 t o 7 0 0 p u p ils
3. la rg e
11
70 1 t o 3 ,5 0 0 p u p ils
T o ta l
37
P e rce n t of total
32%
38%
30%
100%
The t w e lv e v e r y s m a ll d i s t r i c t s ave rag ed 1.8 in c e n tr a l o f f ic e
personnel.
The very sm all d is tric ts ’ personnel u su ally included the
su p e rin te n d e n t and a business m anager.
The fou rte en sm all districts
averaged 4.2 central office personnel w hich included a
sup e rin te n d e n t, business m anager, special ed ucation d ire c to r and a
d ire cto r of m aintenance.
of 8.1
The eleven large districts had an average
pe rso n n e l in th e ir central o ffice s w ith pe rso n n e l title s
rangin g fro m
s u p e rin te n d e n t, a s s is ta n t s u p e rin te n d e n t, d ire c to r of
curriculum , business m anager and o th e r assorted p o sitions.
S e cre tarie s and accounts payable personnel w ere not included in
the se personnel counts as these inform ation num bers w ere not
44
a va ila b le fo r all d istricts (O ffice of D ata M anagem ent, 1997).
Data
O olle ction
D ata a b o u t th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e I n i t i a t i v e w a s c o lle c te d
from each of the sup erintendents through a tele pho ne survey.
Each
question in the survey focused on only one concept and no item was
included th a t did not relate to the objectives of this study.
S uccess
of the research depended entirely on verbal com m un ica tion ; i.e., the
cla rity of the q u estion s and the ra ppo rt th a t w as e sta b lish e d
betw een the in te rvie w e r and the sup erin tend ents.
To inform the
sup erin tend ents about the telephone survey and the qu estions to be
asked, each su p e rin te n d e n t w as con tacte d through an e-m ail several
w eeks before the calls w ere made.
T his com m unication provided
each s u p e rin te n d e n t an op p o rtu n ity to prepare fo r th e interview .
45
The
In te rv ie w
A t th e o u ts e t o f th e in t e r v ie w th e re s e a rc h e r t r i e d t o s e t a
businesslike tone using a m oderate pace.
The form at fo r each phone
co n ta ct included the introduction as outlined by S alan t an d Dillm an
(1 9 9 4 ):
1.
2.
3.
4.
th e in t e r v ie w e r ’ s name;
th e p u rp o se o f th e in te r v ie w ;
a s h o r t d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s u rv e y ; and,
a c o n s e rv a tiv e t im e e s tim a te o f h o w lo n g th e in t e r v ie w
w o u ld ta k e .
The in t e r v ie w p r o to c o l began w i t h s im p le q u e s tio n s and
progressed to m ore com plex questions.
There w as a tra nsition from
one su b je ct to the next th ro u g h o u t the interview .
T h e interview w as
tape recorded fo r ease and accuracy in analyzing the data.
If a
su p e rin te n d e n t refused to be tape recorded, the re se a rch e r handw ro te the responses.
S u p e rin te n d e n ts w e re in te r v ie w e d re g a rd in g t h e i r p e rc e p tio n
of the e ffe ctive n e ss of the im ple m en tatio n of the In itia tive .
Each
su p e rin te n d e n t w as also asked q u e s tio n s about th e ir s c h o o l’s culture
46
(se cu la r ve rsu s sacred) to establish in w hich so cie ty o r culture the
su p e rin te n d e n t w as w orking.
Q uestions about the process of
im p le m e n ta tio n w ere asked to esta blish w hich ap p ro a ch (m utual
a d a p ta tio n ve rsu s fid e lity ) w as being utilized .
In q u iry w as also
m ade regarding succe ss of the im plem entation.
The S urvey P rotocol
The s u rv e y p r o to c o l w a s d e velop ed f o r t h i s s tu d y u s in g
in fo rm a tio n
d e ve lo p e d from the re vie w of lite ra tu re .
S p e cifica lly,
lite ra tu re in the areas of: (1) school cu ltu res, sacred socie ties
versus se cu la r socie ties; (2) approach to change, m utual adaptation
versus fid e lity approach to change; (3) the A laska Q u a lity S chools
In itia tive ; and (4) the e ffe ctive n e s s of im p le m e n ta tio n of the
Initiative, provided the basis fo r the protocol.
T w e n ty open ended
q u e stio n s designe d to e licit d iscu ssio n from the su p e rin te n d e n ts
w e re developed.
The s u rv e y p r o to c o l w a s p i l o t te s te d w i t h th r e e A la s k a n
47
school d is tric t su p e rin te n d e n ts not included in this study.
study w as conducted using a telephone survey protocol.
The pilot
The purpose
of this pilot te st w as to check th a t the con ten t and sequence of the
question s w ere understan dab le and logical.
The p ilo t subjects w ere
asked to indicate w hen there w as confusion or qu estion s about the
inform ation being asked.
Based on the se three conversations,
a d ju stm e n ts w ere m ade to the survey protocol.
A p a r t o f th e p i l o t t e s t w a s t o a n a ly z e th e d a ta p ro v id e d by th e
th re e su p e rin te n d e n ts.
The results of this analysis w ere review ed
and ve rifie d by a fo rm e r sup erintendent.
This sam e process was
used in the analysis and in te rpretatio n of the data co lle cte d from
the s u p e rin te n d e n ts involved in th is study.
D ata A n a ly s is
The te le p h o n e in t e r v ie w s w e re co n d u c te d d u rin g th e m o n th s o f
February and M arch, 1999.
The analysis of the data cam e from
responses to the inte rview questions.
The open-ended questions
48
produced len gthy com m ents from the superintendents.
R esponses
va rie d acco rd in g to the s p e c ific s itu a tio n of the sup e rin te n d e n t.
C o n siste n cy of d e fin itio n w as key to pla cin g d is tric ts on the
co n tinuu m fo r the areas of type of so cie ty (se cu la r/sa cre d ),
im p le m e n ta tio n
(m utua l a d a p ta tio n /fid e lity a p p ro a c h ),
and the
de gre e of su cce ssfu l im p le m e n ta tio n .
A s e t o f b e n c h m a rk w o rd s a n d /o r p h ra s e s , r e la te d t o th e
d e fin itio n s of m utual adaptation and the .fid e lity appro ach to change
and sacred or se cu la r socie ties w ere utilized to help id e n tify the
im ple m en tatio n stra teg y used and the type of so cie ty the school
served.
The benchm ark w ords and phrases w ere ide ntified from
various authors describing the change approaches. .The benchm ark
w ords or phrases used to re flect m utual adaptation stra teg ie s by the
sch o o l
d is tric t w ere :
v a r ia tio n ,
p ro c e s s w i t h a d ju s tm e n ts ,
n e g o tia tio n ,
f le x ib ilit y ,
n e w m e th o d o lo g y ,
m o d ific a tio n s ,
lo c a l f i t , and
m a n ip u la tin g (E lm o re , 1 9 7 8 ; F u lle n & P o m fre t, 1 9 7 7 ; F u lla n ,
49
1 9 9 1 ; F u lla n & M ile s , 1 9 9 2 ; H a ll & Herd, 1 9 8 7 ; Huberm an &
M ile s , 1 9 8 4 & M o rt, 1 9 5 8 ).
Likew ise, a set of benchm ark w ords or phrases th a t defined a
fid e lity approach w ere identified.
These w ords and p h ra se s were:
l i t t l e o r no change,
le a rn in g n e w b e h a v io rs ,
im p le m e n te d m o d e ls,
c re a te d o u ts id e o f s c h o o l,
o r ig in a l d e sig n ,
in te n d e d use, and
p la nne d use (E lm o re , 1 9 7 8 ; F u lle n & P o m fre t, 1 9 7 7 ; F u lla n ,
1 9 9 1 ; F u lla n & M ile s , 1 9 9 2 ; H a ll & Hord, 19 8 7 ; H uberm an &
M ile s , 1 9 8 4 & M o rt, 1 9 5 8 ).
P la c e m e n t o f a d i s t r i c t on th e f id e l it y / m u t u a l a d a p ta tio n
continuum w as based on the num ber of tim es the w ord s and phrases
w ere used by the sup erin tend ent during the interview . . A lso, the
in te n sity and fo rce of the s u p e rin te n d e n t’s voice and in fle ctio n s of
w ords a sso ciated w ith the change ap proach, provided indication of
the e xte n t th a t the im ple m en tatio n s tra te g y w as used.
The d e gre e o f m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n f o r a d i s t r i c t w a s pla ce d
along a continuum ranging from m ino r adaptation to to ta l adaptation.
T h ose d is tric ts using a fid e lity approach to im p le m e n tin g A la s k a ’s
Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive w ere placed on the co n tin u u m
indicating
50
no changes to very m inor changes in the innovation.
co n tin u u m
s tra te g y
used fo r in d ica tin g ea ch
is
T o ta l
d is tric t’s im p le m e n ta tio n
illu s tra te d .
M in o r
< 5 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 2.
In Figure 2, the
T o ta l
------------- --------------------- r - --------------------------------------------------£ >
F id elity o r m utual adaptation continuum .
A c o n tin u u m w a s used t o in d ic a te w h e re th e d i s t r i c t w a s i n
rela tion ship to sacred versus secu lar societies (See Figure 3).
The
sacred so cie tie s w ere placed on the fa r left of the continuum , w hile
se cu la r so cie tie s w ere placed along the con tinuu m fro m left to
r ig h t.
< 3 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------
Figure 3.
—
S acred or secular continuum .
The p la c e m e n t on th e m o d e l w a s d e te rm in e d by u s in g
51
benchm ark w ords or phrases fo r sacred and se cu la r societies.
The
w ords or phrases used to identify a sacred socie ty w ere:
c lo s e d ,
c lo s e d -m in d e d ,
s ta b le ,
a v o id c o n f lic t ,
no r is k ta k in g ,
r e s is ta n c e t o s ta t e a s s e s s m e n t p ro g ra m s ,
co n se n su s d e c is io n m a kin g ,
r e je c tio n o f p ro d u c t m e a su re s,
lo s s o f lo c a l c o n tr o l,
o ld w a y s a re b e tte r , and
re s is ta n c e t o th e change o f te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n fo rm s (G e tz e ls ,
L ip h a m & C a m p b e ll, 1 9 6 8 ; Iannacconne & L u tz , 1 9 7 0 ;
Lip h a m & Hoeh, 1 9 7 4 ; L u tz & M erz, 1 9 9 2 ).
S e cu la r so cie tie s w ere id e ntified by the s u p e rin te n d e n ts use of the
fo llo w in g w ord s or phrases w hen d e scribing the co m m u n itie s in
w hich th e y w orked:
c o n f lic t ,
a c c e s s ib le ,
open,
r e fo rm ,
o p e n -m in d e d ,
h ig h p re s s u re ,
c o n s ta n t f lu x ,
e m o tio n a l n e u tr a lity ,
u p - to - d a te i s p riz e d ,
m o dern i s b e tte r ; and
p o s itiv e to w a r d change (G e tz e ls , Lip ham & C a m p b e ll, 1 9 6 8 ;
Ian na cconn e & L u tz , 1 9 7 0 ; Lip h a m & Hoeh, 1 9 7 4 ; L u tz &
I
52
M e rz 1 1 9 9 2 ).
A n a ly s is o f th e use o f th e w o rd s and p h ra s e s i n th e s e tw o l i s t s
resulted in the id e n tifica tio n of the s e c u la r versus sa cre d nature of
th e scho ol d is tric t’s c o m m u n itie s .
w ere cla ssifie d as sacred or secular.
O nce id e n tifie d , th e d istricts
S ecula r so cie tie s range from
accepting som e changes to accepting every change, w h ile a sacred
socie ty w as re sistant to any change or adaptation.
When d e te rm in in g s u c c e s s fu l v e rs u s u n s u c c e s s fu l
im p le m e n ta tio n of th e A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive , a
continuum w as used to indicate the degree of success in the
d is tric t’s im p le m e n ta tio n .
U n s u c c e s s fu l
im p le m e n ta tio n
w as
reflected on the extrem e left of the design w hile succe ssful
im ple m en tatio n w as indicated on the righ t of the co n tinuu m (See
Figure 4).
The placem ent, unsuccessful versus succe ssful
im ple m en tatio n on the continuum , w as determ ined by having the
s u p e rin te n d e n ts rate th e ir d is tric t’s s u c c e s s from one to ten w ith
one being unsuccessful and ten being successful.
53
-3*--------------------------------------------- ------------------------ £»
U n s u c c e s s fu l
S u c c e s s fu l
Figure 4.
U nsuccessful o r successful continuum .
The s u c c e s s o f im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e A la s k a Q u a lity S choo ls
Initia tive by a d istrict w as indicated by degrees of success.
For
this study, a succe ssful innovation w as one th a t m et one of the tw o
fo llo w in g c rite ria ; the innovation had ach ieved the de sire d outcom es
o r be co m e enculturate d or im bedded into the practice of the school.
A d is tric t th a t had a cco m plishe d less than half of im ple m en tatio n of
the In itia tiv e w as ca te g o rize d as u n successful.
A n a lysis of R e la tio n sh ip s of Im p lem e ntatio n S tra to g io s and O iiltn m
to S uccess of Im p lem e ntatio n
To analyze the relationship of the degree of success in
im p le m e n ta tio n to the im p le m e n ta tio n stra teg y, size of the school
54
d istrict, and nature of the s c h o o l’s socie ty, a serie s of m atrices
w ere developed. ■ S pecifica lly, fo r succe ssful im p le m e n ta tio n s a 2 X
2 m a trix w as cre ated id e ntifying the nu m be r of d is tric ts using a
fid e lity approach and m utual adaptation by the type of culture (S ee
Figure 5).
A sim ila r m atrix w as developed fo r d is tric ts w ith an
un su cce ssfu l im p le m e n ta tio n e ffo rt (S ee Figure 6).
S u c c e s s fu l
F id e lit y
‘M utual A d a p ta tio n
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
S acre d
2
3
3
O
o
o
Q.
£
S e c u la r
Figure 5. S uccessful im plem entation m atrix by type of cultu re arid
change model.
55
U n s u c c e s s fu l
2
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
S acre d
"5
O
o
o
CL
S e c u la r
Change Model
Figure 6. U nsuccessful im plem entation m atrix by type of culture and
change model.
The r e la tio n s h ip o f th e degree o f s u c c e s s o f im p le m e n ta tio n t o
the im p le m e n ta tio n stra teg y, size of the school d is tric t, and nature
of the scho ols cultu re, fo r succe ssful im ple m en tatio n w as analyzed.
S p e cifica lly , fo r su cce ssfu l im p le m e n ta tio n s a 2 X 3 m a trix was
cre ated id e n tifyin g the num ber of d is tric ts using a fid e lity approach
and m utual adaptation approach by the size of the school district
56
(S ee Figure 7).
A sim ila r m atrix w as developed fo r d is tric ts with
u n su cce ssfu l im p le m e n ta tio n e ffo rt (S ee Figure 8).
S u c c e s s fu l
F id e lit y
o
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Large
'C
V)
Q
O
O
S
CO
CD
S m a ll
x:
o
CD
N
CO
V e ry
S m a ll
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Figure 7. S uccessful im plem entation m atrix by size of school
d istrict and change m odel.
57
U n s u c c e s s fu l
F id e lity .
_
O
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Large
W
Q
O
O
w
S m a ll
<u
_c
4 —"
O
d)
N
In
V e ry
S m a ll
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Change Model
Figure 8. U nsuccessful im plem entation m atrix by size of school
d istrict and change m odel.
W ith p e rm is s io n , a u d io ta p e s w e re used d u rin g th e in te r v ie w s .
The recordings w ere transcribed, verbatim .
The o p e n -e n d e d nature of
the q u estion s allow ed the researcher to analyze not o n ly specific
w ord responses to questions, but also to evaluate the
58
s u p e rin te n d e n t’s a ttitu d e s and fe e lin g s to w a rd th e In itia tive .
The
re se a rch e r listen ed to the ta p e s . and review ed the tra n s c rip ts
looking fo r factors such as tone of voice, w ord choice,
co n ve rsa tio n a l em phasis, and exam ples of actions taken to
im plem ent the change.
Based on the text and audio tapes, a
continuum w as developed th a t provided a m easure of the
s u p e rin te n d e n t’s a ttitu d e a b o u t the
im p le m e n ta tio n
of th e
Initia tive.
C a te g o rie s o f re sp o n se s de ve lo p e d r e a d ily fr o m c o m m e n ts and
ton e of co n ve rsa tio n from the su p e rin tend ents.
T he su p e rin te n d e n ts ’
responses w ere placed on a continuum of denial, anger, resignation,
acceptance, and e xcite m en t about the Initiative.
The attitu d e of the
su p erin tend ent w as placed on the continuum and com pared to the
su cce ss, cu ltu re , and im p le m e n ta tio n
s tra te g y of th e ir districts.
M atrices w ere developed in the sam e w ay as tho se previou sly
de scrib e d and re flected the re la tio n sh ip of the s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’
a ttitu d e to w a rd
th e
In itia tiv e
and
its s u c c e s s fu l
stra te g y, and cu ltu re of the school d istrict.
im p le m e n ta tio n
59
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y w a s t o a n a ly z e im p le m e n ta tio n
s tra te g ie s of the A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tiv e in A la s k a ’s rural
school d istricts.
The purpose w as subdivide d into fo u r m ajor
research questions:
1. W hich change process was being used when
im p le m e n tin g the innovatio n?
2. W hat is the d is tric t’s culture
(secular or sacred) in regard to change?
su c c e s s fu lly im plem ented?
3. W as the innovation being
4. W as th e re a d is c e rn ib le rela tion ship
betw een the cha nge processes, cu ltu re of the district, size of the
d is tric t and succe ss of the im p le m e n ta tio n ?
The q u a lit a t iv e n a tu re o f th e s tu d y a llo w e d th e re s e a rc h e r to
analyze how sup erin tend ents responded to the dem and fo r system ic
change posed by the A laska Q uality S chools Initiative, and to assess
w h e th e r succe ss of th is in itia tiv e va rie d based on d is tric t c u ltu re ,
the change process, and size of the district.
60
To a n s w e r t o th e s e q u e s tio n s , a c o m p re h e n s iv e te le p h o n e
su rve y w as con d u cte d of rural A laskan d is tric t s u p e rin te n d e n ts th a t
fa ll w ith in the d e fin itio n
of rural A la ska n
of E ducational S tatistics, 1997).
scho ol d is tric ts
(D ige st
A protocol w as de ve lo p e d to
stru ctu re the in te rvie w and the inte rview s w ere tap e recorded.
In
a d d itio n , in te rv ie w e r to o k notes du ring the inte rview .
A n a lysis of Data from the Interview s
O f th e 3 7 s u p e rin te n d e n ts w h o had an o p p o r tu n ity t o be
included in th is study, 32 w ere a ctu a lly interview ed.
O f the five
su p e rin te n d e n ts w ho w ere not interview ed, one refused to be
inte rview ed , and the o th e r fo u r w ere unavaila ble w he n calls w ere
placed.
T his re searcher attem pted to con tact each su p erin tend ent on
ten d iffe re n t days and at least tw o to three tim es each day.
The
d is tric ts of the fiv e su p e rin te n d e n ts w ho w ere not in te rvie w e d in
th is stu d y in clud ed tw o very sm all d is tric ts , one sm a ll d istrict, and
tw o large d istricts.
O f the 32 su p e rin te n d e n ts w ho w ere
61
interview ed, only one refused to be tape recorded.
Tw o of the
in te rvie w e d su p e rin te n d e n ts w ere new to the state of A laska, five
had been su p e rin tend ents in anoth er d is tric t the previou s year, and
the o th e r 25 sup e rin te n d e n ts held the sam e position the previous
ye a r.
O f th e 3 2 d i s t r i c t s w h ic h w e re s tu d ie d , 1 5 “ a d a p te d ” th e
A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls Initiative.
O f th e se 15 d is tric ts ; five w ere
large, six w ere sm all, and fo u r w ere very sm all.
O f the 17 districts
w hich “a d o p te d ” the A la ska Q ua lity S choo ls In itia tive , fo u r w ere
large, six w ere sm all, and seven w ere very sm all (See Figure 9).
17
d is tr ic t s
Fidelity
D istricts
la rg e
=
44%
s m a ll =
50%
v e ry
s m a ll =
64%
Figure 9.
in itia tiv e
15
d is tr ic t s
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Districts
la rg e
s m a ll
V e ry
s m a ll
=
=
56%
50%
=
36%
F id elity or m utual adaptation continuum of th e A laska
by size of scho ol d is tric t.
62
R e s u lts fr o m th e te le p h o n e s u rv e y in d ic a te d t h a t 1 6 s c h o o l
d istricts w ere s e c u la r and 16 w ere sacred.
The 16 s e c u la r d istricts
w ere re p re se n te d by seven large districts, five sm all d is tric ts and
fo u r ve ry sm all districts.
The 16 sacred d is tric ts co n siste d of tw o
large d istricts, seven sm all d is tric ts , and seven v e ry sm all d is tric ts
(see Figure 10).
16
d is t r ic t s
Sacred
D istricts
la rg e
=
22%
s m a ll =
58%
v e ry
s m a ll =
64%
16
d is tr ic t s
S ecular
D istricts
la rg e
=
78%
s m a ll =
42%
v e ry
s m a ll =
36%
Figure 10. S acred or secu lar culture continuum by size of school
d is t r ic t s .
S u cce ss v e rs u s la c k o f s u c c e s s w a s d e riv e d fr o m th e
inform ation w hich the sup erin tend ents gave during the s u rv e y .
This
w as based on a rating scale from one to ten with ten being the
highest.
T he re se a rch e r’s a sse ssm en t as to w h e th e r the d is tric t
63
w as successful o r unsuccessful w as also, in part, based on the
s u p e rin te n d e n t’s em phasis of voice w hen responding to the question
re garding the success of im ple m en tatio n of the A la ska Q uality
S chool Initia tive.
The definition of success is th a t the desired
outcom es o r effects have been achieved (Hanson, 1985; Hersey &
B lanchard, 1988).
This researcher used five as the dividing line
betw een success and lack of success, as w ell as the em phasis the
su p e rin te n d e n t placed on the num ber w hen being interview ed.
Three
s u p e rin te n d e n ts stated th e y w ere succe ssfu l at the rating of five in
the im p le m e n ta tio n of the In itia tive .
w ere cla ssifie d as being unsuccessful.
A ll th re e scho ol d istricts
The reason fo r this
c la s s ific a tio n w as re la ted to the d is tric ts not a c h ie v in g the desired
o u tco m e s or effects.
S even tee n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w e re id e n t if ie d as b e in g s u c c e s s fu l
in th e ir im p le m e n ta tio n of A laska Q u a lity S chools In itia tive .
Seven
of th e se w e re large districts, five sm all districts, and fiv e very
sm all d istricts.
T h e re w ere 15 u n su cce ssfu l school d istricts, of
w hich tw o w ere large d is tric ts , seven w ere sm all d is tric ts , and six
64
w ere ve ry sm all districts.
These un successful d is tric ts w ere in the
beginn ing stag es of im plem entation of the A la ska Q u a lity Schools
In itia tiv e . T he d is tric ts ’ s u p e rin te n d e n ts de fin e d th e m s e lv e s as
un successful since the A la ska Q ua lity S chools In itia tiv e should have
been im plem ented prior to this study.
In Figure 11, a breakdow n of
s u cce ssfu l ve rsu s un su cce ssfu l d is tric ts by size of scho ol district,
is presen ted .
15
d is t r ic t s
17
d is t r ic t s
--------- --— ---------------- -------------£>
U nsuccessful
D istricts
la rg e
=
22%
s m a ll =
58%
v e ry
s m a ll =
55%
Figure 11.
d i s t r ic t .
S uccessful
D istricts
la rg e
=
78%
s m a ll =
42%
v e ry
s m a ll =
45%
U nsuccessful and successful continuum by size of school
A 2 X 2 m a t r ix w a s used t o s h o w th e r e la tio n s h ip o r e f f e c t
betw een change m odels used, type of school d istrict cultu re, and
su cce ssfu l or u n su cce ssfu l im ple m en tatio n of the In itia tive .
The
65
data re fle cte d in the fo llo w in g m a trices reflect, the da ta presented
in Figures 9, 10, and 11.
S even tee n d i s t r i c t s w e re s u c c e s s fu l i n im p le m e n ta tio n o f
A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive w ith
11 of the d is tric ts using a
m utual ad a p ta tio n stra te g y (See Figure 12).
secular and seven w ere sacred.
Ten d is tric ts w ere
The greatest success in
im ple m en tatio n w as fou nd w hen a m utual a d aptation stra teg y was
used in a se cu la r socie ty
The oth er three com bina tions w ere
a p p ro xim a te ly equal, w ith tw o to fo u r d is tric ts re p re se n te d in each
S u c c e s s fu l
c e ll,
CD
3
"5
O
S e c u la r
CD
CL
2
4
F id e lity
CO
S acre d
M utual A d a p ta tio n
CO
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Change Model
Successful implementation matrix by type, of culture
versus change model.
Figure 12.
66
F ifte e n d i s t r i c t s w e re u n s u c c e s s fu l in im p le m e n tin g th e
. A laska Q ua lity S chools Initiative (See Figure 13).
S even of these
w ere sacred d istricts and used the fid e lity change m odel.
Two
sacred d istricts th a t used the m utual adaptation change model.
Of
th e six s e c u la r so c ie ty d istricts th a t w e re u n su cce ssfu l, fo u r
. d istricts used the fid e lity ap proach to change and tw o d is tric t used
a m utual adaptation approach.
U n s u c c e s s fu l
F id e lit y
2
3
3
O
S e c u la r
M utual A d a p ta tio n
4
2
o
CD
Q.
H
S acred
7
F id e lit y
2
M utual A d a p ta tio n
(
Change Model
Figure 13. Unsuccessful implementation matrix by type of culture
versus change model.
67
A 2 X 3 m a t r ix (See F ig u re 1 4 ) r e f le c t s th e r e la tio n s h ip s
betw een size of the d istrict and change m odel utilized fo r the 17
su cce ssfu l d is tric ts th a t im ple m en ted the A la ska Q u a lity S chools
In itia tive innovatio n.
T hese data are illustra ted in F igures 9, 11,
and Table 1.
S u c c e s s fu l
O
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Large
2
5
S m a ll
1
CO
b
O
O
-C
O
CO
4
O
N
CO
V e ry
S m a ll
2
3
F id e lit y
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Change Model
Figure 14.
S uccessful im ple m en tatio n m atrix by size of d istrict and
change model.
In F ig u re 14 , th e d is t r ib u t io n o f th e s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n
68
of the A la ska Q u a lity S chools In itia tiv e is presen ted , ind ica ting the
re la tio n sh ip betw een the size of d istrict, change m odel utilized and
succe ss of im p le m e n ta tio n .
S eventeen d istricts w e re succe ssful in
im ple m en ting in the A la ska Q ua lity S chools Initiative.
S even large
scho ol d is tric ts w ere su cce ssfu l, w ith tw o of th e s e d is tric ts used
the fid e lity approach to change, w he rea s the oth er fiv e large
d istricts used a m utual adaptation approach to change.
Five small
d is tric ts s u c c e s s fu lly im p le m e n te d the A la s k a Q u a lity S chools
Initia tive.
O f the se, one sm all d is tric t used the fid e lity approach
and fo u r used the m utual adaptation approach.
Five very small
d istricts w e re su cce ssfu l in im ple m en ting the in n o va tio n .
Three
d istricts used the fid e lity ap proach, w h e re a s tw o d is tric ts used the
m utual adaptation approach to change.
U n s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e A la s k a Q u a lity S choo ls
Initia tive w as found in 15 d istricts (S ee Figure 15).
Tw o large
d istricts w e re u n su cce ssfu l using th e fid e lity appro ach to change,
w he rea s no large d istrict w as unsuccessful in using the mutual
a d aptation approach.
S even sm all d is tric ts w ere u n su cce ssfu l, w ith
69
five using the fid e lity m odel of change and tw o using the mutual
a d aptation m odel.
Six very sm all d istricts w ere u n su cce ssfu l in
im p le m e n tin g th e A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive ; fo u r w ere
un successful using the fid e lity approach, and tw o w e re unsuccessful
using the m utual adaptation approach to change.
U n s u c c e s s fu l
F id e lit y
u
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Large
4—'
CO
b
O
0
1
S m a ll
O
CD
w
V e ry
S m a ll
F id e lity
M utual A d a p ta tio n
Change Model
Figure 15. Unsuccessful implementation matrix by size of school
district and change model.
70
Q u e s tio n s 3 and 4 o f th e te le p h o n e p r o to c o l (See A p p e n d ix A )
ad d re sse d the d is tric t’s im p le m e n ta tio n p la n or s tra te g y fo r the
A la s k a Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive in n ovatio n.
No v e ry sm all d istrict
sh a re d a w ritte n im p le m e n ta tio n plan, w h ile on ly th re e w ritten
p la n s by large d istricts w here s h a re d w ith th is researcher.
S u p e rin te n d e n t’s A ttitu d e
T o w a rd
th e
In itia tiv e
A
I n a d d itio n t o e l i c i t i n g in fo r m a tio n f o r t h i s s tu d y ’ s f o u r m a jo r
research qu e stio n s, the s u p e rin te n d e n t in te rvie w s y ie ld e d a w ealth
of rich data on how superintendents responded p e rs o n a lly to the
S ta te ’s dem and fo r system ic reform In th e ir school d istricts.
These
com m ents occu rre d sp o nta neo usly as part of the stru cture d
in te rvie w , w ith th e re se a rch e r a llo w in g the re sp o n d e n t la titu d e in
bringing forw ard fe e lin g s relevant to the topic.
As noted above,
in te rvie w s w ere tra n s c rib e d to fa c ilita te th e a n a lysis. The
re searcher listened to the tapes and read the tra n s c rip ts w ith an eye
fo r tone of voice, w ord choice, conversa tiona l em phasis, and
71
exam ples of actions taken to im plem ent the change as indicators of
the s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ personal response to the Q u a lity Schools
Initia tive. Such an analysis inform s this study because of the
critica l role su p e rin te n d e n ts play in im p le m e n tin g c h a n g e in th e ir
d istricts.
R egulatio ns such as the Q u a lity S chools In itia tiv e are put
in place by people, and the feelings tha t key leaders, such as
su p e rin te n d e n ts, exp e rie n ce in response to the situ a tio n influence
the outcom e.
F o r p u rp o se s o f a n a ly s is , re s p o n d e n ts w e re c a te g o riz e d on a
con tinuu m acco rdin g to th e ir d o m ina nt fe e lings.
C a te g o rie s included
fe e lin g s of denial, anger, resig na tion, acceptance, or e xcite m en t
about the Initiative.
C ategories of responses developed readily and
w ere an elaboration on the change th e o ry cited by several
sup erin tend ents, one of whom de scribed the follo w in g paradigm . "You
know change theory as well as I do.
There is alw ays a group that
resists, a group tha t is eager, and a group that needs tim e ."
The
firs t p a rt of this a n alysis w ill e la borate on the se ca te g o rie s, and
the second part w ill relate the se ca te g o rie s to the fo u r m ajor
72
research questions.
C om m ents from tw o s u p e rin te n d e n ts w ere not
included in this analysis as they w ere not taped.
O ne superintendent
refused to be tape recorded, and in conducting the inte rview with a
second su p e rin te n d e n t the tape w as not started.
D e n ia l
One s u p e rin te n d e n t appeared t o be i n d e n ia l t h a t h is d i s t r i c t
had to respond to the Q ua lity S chools Initia tive w ith m eaningful,
system ic changes.
C om ing from a ve ry sm all d is tric t th a t is
a rgua bly the m ost isolated in the State, he stated "w e really haven’t
done m uch" in response to the Initiative.
Instead, the superin tend ent
de scribe d a d istrict th a t w as focused on internal proble m s such as
"ne go tiation s and oth er stuff and (we) ha ve n ’t focu sed on those type
of things, and even our Board hasn’t set goals fo r the last few
years."
Asked about the changes he had made or planned to make, he
responded, "I d o n ’t know th a t we w ill take any drastic steps.
Let me
take th a t back, I th in k the im m ediacy of the benchm ark and the
73
qu alifying exam s are probably . . . going to force aw areness and then
cha nge ."
A tte m p tin g to ju s tify the d is tric t's lack of actio n, he
stated, "I th in k the re is som e good to w aiting in a sense that we
d o n ’t have to reinvent the w heel, w e can ju s t take th o se things . . .
I
th in k w e ’re doing OK, I d o n ’t th in k th a t w e ’ll be le ft out in the cold."
T his re se a rch e r believed th a t the su p e rin te n d e n t shed insigh t on his
m otivation in a concludin g statem ent, 'TH be glad w hen I retire next
year."
A lthough this superin tend ent m ay have taken som e
p re lim in a ry steps, such as fo rm in g a te a c h e r-d o m in a te d curriculum
com m ittee and assisting his Board in adopting the S tandards as
w ritte n , no s p e c ific progress w as reported on im p le m e n ta tio n .
T h is d i s t r i c t ap peared t o be am ong th e le a s t ad vanced in th e
S tate in im ple m en tatio n of the Q u a lity S chools In itia tiv e as a result
of the su p e rin te n d e n t’s denial of the need to take action.
Based on
the s u p e rin te n d e n t’s rem arks, th is re s e a rc h e r b e lie ve d th a t
su b s ta n tiv e im p le m e n ta tio n w ould b e left fo r the s u p e rin te n d e n t
hired a fte r th e
in c u m b e n t’s re tire m e n t, p o te n tia lly p la c in g the
school d is tric t at risk of being fa r behind o th e r d is tric ts in the.
74
S ta te
in im p le m e n ta tio n
of the
In itia tive .
Anger
A n g e r a b o u t th e Q u a lity S c h o o ls I n i t i a t i v e w a s th e
pre d o m in a n t focu s of fo u r superin tend ents.
A lthough m em bers of
th is group had taken som e steps to im ple m en t the Initiative, they
peppered nearly every response w ith negative rem arks about the
m andated change.
T hree of the fo u r sup erin tend ents characterized
th e In itia tiv e as being co u n te rp ro d u c tiv e to p reviou s, local efforts
at school reform th a t w ere perceived to be s u p e rio r to the Initiative.
c
D escrib in g his fe e lin g s, a su p e rin te n d e n t from a sm a ll d is tric t
stated, "w e w ere, one of the e xtre m e ly fru s tra te d d is tric ts because
w e w ere d e velop ing d istrict stan da rds w ay before D e p artm ent of
E ducation got on the stick, and so I feel . . . now w e are having to
drop all tha t w ork and adopt State standards.
W e’re not real happy
w ith th a t." S peaking from the v ie w p o in t of a d is tric t ch a lle ng ed
w ith
s ig n ific a n t c ro s s -c u ltu ra l issues, a s u p e rin te n d e n t fro m
a very
75
sm all d is tric t co m m en ted th a t the te a c h e r eva lu a tio n tool "m et the
d is tric t’s needs m ore appro pria tely before we m ade the - changes . . .
now the in stru m e n t is ve ry sp e cific to state sta n d a rd s, but it
d o e sn ’t h a ve a w hole lot to do w ith p e o p le ’s a b ility to get along in
the co m m u n ity."
A su p e rin te n d e n t from a large d is tric t also voiced
an g e r a b o u t the im pact of the revised te a c h e r e va lu a tio n tool, "well,
w e w e n t back to a ch e cklist evaluation fo r ten ure d te a ch e rs instead
of doing so m e th in g th a t w as re ally dire cte d to w a rd p ro fe s s io n a l
d e ve lo p m e n t."
A fourth sup erin tend ent, w ho ch a ra c te riz e d her
com m un ity as be in g progressive and w illin g to m ake changes to
sup port educatio n, fou nd th a t the Q u a lity S chools In itia tive "has not
. . . caused people here to get real excited because" it w as not
a d dre ssing the co m m u n ity’s "big gest problem , th a t w e ’ re at 212
percent capacity in a school building . . . and people are concerned
a b o u t fire sa fe ty."
The s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ a n g e r e x te n d e d t o th e m o re g lo b a l is s u e
of the S ta te ’s right to im pose change upon the district.
A
su p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all d is tric t su m m arize d his fe e lin g s by
76
saying, "To be real frank, I th in k th a t everybody thin ks th a t we are
ju s t getting layer upon layer of bureaucracy im posed on us and
losing local co n tro l . . . there is a very real danger of actually
harm ing our ed ucational product through increased bureaucracy."
A
s u p e rin te n d e n t from a ve ry sm all d is tric t qu e stio n e d the
e ffe ctive n e ss of such a highly stru ctu re d change im posed from
ou tsid e the district, saying "I d o n ’t th in k th a t th in g s w o rk w hen the y
are shoved down pe ople’s throats."
C hallenging the essence of the
Q u a lity S ch o o ls In itia tive , a s u p e rin te n d e n t from
stated, T m
a larg e d istrict
not su re th a t it’s going to have the e ffe ct th a t some
w ould like it to have, w hich is im provem ent in the scho ols tha t need
to im prove the most. I’m not sure the re is enough m eat to it.
It’s a
lot of PR."
Too m uch change im p o se d a t once, co u p le d w i t h i n a b i l i t y to
m o bilize su p p o rt from key groups of stake ho ld ers, e s p e c ia lly
com m unity m em bers, w as a them e repeated again and again.
C om m entin g on m istakes his d is tric t had m ade w ith im ple m en tatio n,
a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all school d is tric t rem arked, "...there are
77
so m any changes com ing down so quickly tha t nobody w ants anything
to do w ith them anym ore ju s t be cause it’s so ove rw he lm ing."
D e scrib in g his in a b ility to m o bilize su p p o rt from th e te a ch in g staff,
a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all d is tric t reported, "fo r the QSI, there
has probably been . . . reticence."
A superintendent from a very small
d is tric t re co u n te d se ve ra l m onths of e ffo rts to g a th e r com m un ity
com m en t fo rm s fo r use in the evaluatio n process w ith discouraging
results, "w hen I look at the am ount of tim e and e ffo rt th a t I put into
th a t . . .
I got ju s t very, very low response."
Using a m etaphor to
d e scrib e th is situ a tio n , a fo u rth s u p e rin te n d e n t fro m
a large d is tric t
com m ented th a t "....it’s a little like squeezing an e le p h a n t into a pop
bottle.
C hange . . .
in a school district?
M ost people do n’t use those
tw o w ords in the sam e sentence . . ."
F e e lin g s o f b e in g o v e rw h e lm e d w i t h change p a ire d w i t h a
sense of lack of su p p o rt in its im ple m en tatio n w ere reflected in the
lack of success the se superintendents reported.
T h ree of the fou r
s u p e rin te n d e n ts rated th e ir d is tric ts as being u n su c c e s s fu l in
im p le m e n tin g the Q u a lity S chools In itia tive .
The re la tio n sh ip
78
betw een not supporting the change and not being able to im plem ent
it w as a p p a re n t w hen one s u p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all d istrict
acknow ledged, "I ca n ’t say tha t I have had a very good experience
im plem enting changes th a t are not needed."
Tw o of the fou r
s u p e rin te n d e n ts a ckn o w le d g e d th e ir e ffo rts w ere lim ite d because
th e y saw little valu e in the Initiative.
A ccord ing to a
s u p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all district, “ ...w e feel like w e had an
intact program , and to som e extent w e have had to d isru p t it to m eet
the requirem ents.
I ca n ’t be a real ch e erle ade r about needing to
jum p through m ore hoops."
A second superin tend ent from a large
d istrict, w ho rated his d is tric t as succe ssfu l, stated th a t he w as
dealing w ith the Initia tive by m aking as few changes as possible,
"...w e ’re going to do w ha tever they tell us we have to do to stay in
com pliance, and then w e ’re going to try and not have a negative
im pact on ou r d istrict in any w ay."
C on cern s a b o u t la c k o f fu n d in g t o s u p p o rt th e Q u a lity S choo ls
In itia tiv e
category.
a ffe c te d
tw o
s u p e rin te n d e n ts
fro m
sm a ll
d is tric ts
in th is
T he im p lica tio n s of being asked to im p le m e n t system ic
79
change on a reduced budget w ere the focus of th e ir com m ents, with
one su p e rin te n d e n t sum m ing it up by saying, "ph ilosop hically, I am
opposed to the ‘do m ore with less’ m essage, w hich is w ha t I feel
th a t I am getting ."
Going further, a second su p e rin te n d e n t despaired
of being able to im ple m en t the In itia tive in this co n text, saying
"...this plan is being put on us . . . fin a n cia lly we c a n ’t m eet (it)
a n yw a y."
In c o n c lu s io n , t h i s re s e a rc h e r fo u n d a r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e
an ger and fru stra tio n expressed by this group of sup erin tend ents and
the e xte n t and effe ctive n e ss of actio ns th e y w ere ta kin g to
im ple m en t the Initiative.
Even though th e ir fe e lin g s ranged from
cynicism to despair, th e y w ere s im ila r in th e ir in a b ility to let go of
an ger as a predo m ina nt m ood and replace it w ith con crete , positive
step s to m ove the
In itia tive fo rw a rd
in th e ir d is tric t.
80
R e s ig n a tio n
T w e lv e s u p e rin te n d e n ts w e re c a te g o riz e d as b e in g "re s ig n e d "
to im ple m en tatio n of the Q ua lity S chools Initiative.
A s a group,
th e ir p redo m ina nt m ood could be ch a racte rized by lack of
enthu sia sm .
A lthou gh several s u p e rin te n d e n ts m ention ed the
p o te n tia l fo r p o s itiv e o u tc o m e s
in th e ir d is tric t fro m
th e
In itia tive ,
th e y com bined the se rem arks w ith n e g a tiv e com m ents ab out the
change.
T his m ixture of feelings caused this re searcher to place
them in an in te rm e d ia te cate go ry betw een su p e rin te n d e n ts w hose
p redo m ina nt m ood w as anger and superin tend ents w ho experienced
in c re a s in g ly p o sitive fe e lin g s tow a rd the change.
F o r in s ta n c e , a s u p e rin te n d e n t fr o m a v e r y s m a ll d i s t r i c t fo u n d
som e benefits to the program because "...w e are all on the sam e page
now as fa r as w o rkin g tow ard stan da rds across th e d is tric t" but
w en t on to say "that it has hurt our kids . . . because the teachers are
out of the classroom often to g e t this tra ining .
I feel it w ould have
been m ore successful had we done it the other w ay around— have
tea che rs tra ined before we had to plug this thing in."
A n o ther
81
su p e rin te n d e n t from a ve ry sm all d is tric t e xp resse d a s im ila r
m ixtu re of su p p o rt and criticism , "I fee l th a t it is a w o rth y
initiative, but I do feel th a t our state has gone about it in the wrong
w ay w ith not sta rtin g w ith our y o u n g e r kids and w o rkin g up, rather
than ju s t starting w ith the 9th graders and expecting m iracles . .
The th e m e o f co n c e rn a b o u t th e w a y th e S ta te w a s a p p ro a c h in g
the In itia tive w as replayed by seven of the tw elve sup erin tend ents.
"I th in k th a t in the w hole state of A laska, w e ’ve go t the cart before
the horse," a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a v e ry sm all d is tric t re iterated
criticism s a b o u t pro je ct sequence.
Focusing on the to o ls tha t
s u p e rin te n d e n ts had to im ple m en t the Initia tive, a s u p e rin te n d e n t
from a sm all district found that "DOE should take m ore of a
leadership role in som e issues th a t w ould solve a lot of problem s,
and I’ll use the one exam ple being there are not adequ ate regulations
w ritten fo r H.B. 465."
In this s u p e rin te n d e n t’s e xp erie nce, an
ab sence of adequate regulations fo r the m andated te a c h e r evaluation
(H.B. 465) had led to tea che r union arbitration and law suits when
a rb itra tio n fa ile d .
F inally, looking at the fu tu re of th e Initia tive, a
82
su p e rin te n d e n t from a very sm all d is tric t q u estion ed how it could be
su sta in e d in the fa ce of p o litica l re alities, "...w ith G o ve rn o r
K now le s’ term about to end, and w e ’ll get a new g o vern or in the next
few years, I th in k the re w ill be a qu estion in the state of how this
kind of m assive change can be sustained."
F r u s tr a tio n w i t h fu n d in g f o r th e I n i t i a t i v e w a s echoed b y f iv e
of the tw e lve sup e rin te n d e n ts in this category.
T h e ir concerns w ere
sim ila r to tho se expresse d by s u p e rin te n d e n ts w ho se predom inant
m ood w as anger.
P ortraying a school system under constant
fin a n c ia l stre ss, a s u p e rin te n d e n t from
a sm all d is tric t described
how d ifficu lt it w as "...to keep m orale and standards high w hen every
ye a r you ta lk about cutting."
The rela tion ship betw een funding and
q u a lity su rfaced again w hen a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all d istrict
com m ented, "...you ca n ’t cut funding to schools and expect
perform ance to go up."
Perhaps a superintendent from a large
d istrict sum m ed up the dilem m a best w hen he recounted how he
explained the situation to his Board, "I keep telling the board, we
have the best education w e can afford, not the best education we
83
know how to de live r."
The m ix e d s u p p o rt f o r th e I n i t i a t i v e e x p re s s e d by t h i s group o f
su p e rin te n d e n ts w as e xe m plified by the fa c t th a t o n ly fo u r of
tw e lv e
had w ritte n
im p le m e n ta tio n
plans fo r th e
In itia tiv e .
A lthou gh m ost su p e rin tend ents voiced a general idea of the direction
in w hich the y w ere heading, the y had not com m itted the project to
paper, e sta b lish e d action steps, or ta rg e te d co m p le tio n dates.
C h a ra cte rizin g th is approach, a su p e rin te n d e n t fro m a sm all d is tric t
com m ented, "...w e have a plan in term s Of w e w an t to get all of our
co n ten t stan da rds rew ritten ju s t as quickly as possible . . . but we
d id n ’t put any dates to th a t because w e find tha t if th e y are not
realistic, then w e ju s t ca n ’t w ork up to them ."
S upe rinte nde nts
w ho se d istricts had a w ritte n plan ten de d to d e scribe it as "brief" or
integrated w ith the fiv e -y e a r plan . . . (w hich) a c tu a lly does state
‘A laska C on tent S ta n d a rd s.’ "
A large district w hose plan included
"o b je ctive s fo r students, objectives fo r professio nal stan da rds . . .
tim e lin e fo r the next ye a r and a half," reported th a t is w as
developed w ith fun ding from a grant.
a
84
La ck o f c o m m u n ity in v o lv e m e n t i n th e Q u a lity S c h o o ls
In itia tive w as a n o th e r com m on concern expressed by
su p e rin te n d e n ts in this cate go ry. E ight of tw e lve s u p e rin te n d e n ts
d e s c rib e d
d iffic u ltie s
o b ta in in g
p a rtic ip a tio n
fro m
c o m m u n ity
m em bers as evidenced by low attendance at planning m eetings and a
low return rate fo r te a ch e r evaluatio n form s.
s u p e rin te n d e n ts
re p re se n tin g d is tric ts
T yp ica l rem arks from
of all size s
in clud ed ,
"...com m unity, involvem ent— it has not been the best" . . . "getting
m ore com m unity m em bers and parents involved has been a real
problem fo r us" . . . "very low input from com m unity m em be rs” . . . "as
fa r as the co m m u n ity (p a rticip a tio n ), ve ry little ."
O f th e fo u r
su p e rin te n d e n ts w ho described a process fo r o b ta in in g com m unity
invo lve m en t, th re e pointed to system s th a t w ere in pla ce prio r to
the Initia tive.
Even am ong these sup erin tend ents, com m un ity
invo lve m en t w as found to be a m ixed blessin g. A su p e rin te n d e n t
from a sm all d istrict reported the process led to delays.
"W hen you
involve the public like we do, it can be y e a r-lo n g ju s t to get a
certain goal approved tha t maybe before you could have handled ju st
85
as quick and got there much quicker . .
T alking about w orking with
a com m unity tha t had a long history of debate on school issues, a
s u p e rin te n d e n t from
a larg e d is tric t cite d the d iffic u lty of assuring
th a t dive rse groups w ere included, "...som etim es, w e w e re n ’t as
careful as we should have been to m ake sure th a t va rio u s points of
view in the co m m u n ity w ere repre sente d."
A c c o u n ta b ility f o r th e o u tc o m e s produ ced by th e d i s t r i c t s w a s
not alw ays seen as positive. Fear of being blam ed fo r stu d e n ts’
perform ance on the exit exam w as voiced by a su p e rin te n d e n t from a
sm all d is tric t because "...it w ill com e dow n to in d ivid u a l school
d is tric ts being at fa u lt w hen we s ta rt e xp e rie n cin g s tu d e n t failu re .
. . I see it as som e hard tim es for schools . . .
but a cco u n ta b ility w ise."
not only funding wise
Taking the problem one step further, a
s u p e rin te n d e n t from a ve ry sm all d is tric t predicte d th a t because of
the "high school graduation assessm ent, it’s only ju s t begun when it
com es to law suits."
How ever, fo u r su p erin tend ents expressed
sup port fo r the Initiative voicing rem arks Such as "...w e do have to
be accountable fo r teaching and student learning," and w e have to
86
"take this w hole assessm ent business seriously, and begin doing a
better job . .
\
In c o n c lu s io n , t h i s re s e a rc h e r fo u n d a r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e
m ixed fe e lin g s th e se sup e rin te n d e n ts voice d ab out th e Q uality
S chools Initia tive and the uneven nature and results of the actions
the y w ere takin g to im plem ent the program .
s u p e rin te n d e n ts
:
re p o rte d th e ir d is tric ts w ere
A full half of the
u n s u c c e s s fu l in
im ple m en ting the change.
A c c e p ta n c e
S ix s u p e rin te n d e n ts w e re c a te g o riz e d as b e in g "a c c e p tin g " o f
the Q ua lity S chools Initiative.
The predom inant m ood of m em bers of
th is ca te g o ry w as p o sitive tow a rd the innovatio n as ch a ra cte rize d
by th e ir d e scrip tio n of benefits from the change, th e ir elaboration
on actio ns taken to im plem ent program s in sup port of it, and th e ir
p o sitive sta te m e n ts re garding c o m m u n ity in v o lv e m e n t and local
su p p o rt fo r th e
In itia tive .
D espite th is m ore o p tim is tic attitude ,
87
the y balanced th e ir rem arks w ith concerns about fun ding , the
tim e lin e fo r im p le m e n ta tio n , and lack of sup port fro m the State
D e p artm ent of E ducation.
P o s itiv e c o m m e n ts fr o m s u p e rin te n d e n ts r e fle c te d th e v a lu e
of a change th a t prom oted standardization.
A su p e rin te n d e n t from a
sm all d is tric t reported th a t his scho ols had never had "a clearly
a rticu la te d or align ed curriculum . . . th is w as the firs t system ic
c u rric u la r cha nge th a t w e ’ve had in recorded h isto ry (in the district)
. . . and the Q uality S chools Initiative gave us the im petus to do so."
A su p e rin te n d e n t from a large d is tric t co m m en ted th a t the Initia tive
allow ed his sta ff to "focus on fe w e r thin gs.
I th in k it’s going to pull
us tog eth er (because) w e ’re going to be . . . focused on the same
outcom es." E choing these thoughts, a sup e rin te n d e n t from a very
sm all d is tric t fou nd th a t "teachers have alw ays fo llo w e d the
curriculum , but now (they are) . . . m ore attuned to it.
I thin k th a t’s
a p o s itiv e ."
P erhaps w h a td is tin g u is h e d t h i s c a te g o ry o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts
the m ost from tho se classified as resigned to the change w as the
88
depth and breadth of th e ir de scriptio ns regarding a ctio ns the y had
take n to im ple m en t the Initiative, as w ell as the in n o va tive nature
of m any of tho se a ctivitie s.
This o b se rva tio n w as noted fo r all six
d istricts in the category, including the one out of six w hose
s u p e rin te n d e n t rated im p le m e n ta tio n
in the d is tric t as un successful.
E xam ples of in n ovative a ctivitie s undertaken to s u p p o rt the change
included: (a) an educational sum m it w ith m ore than 80 people
involved, includ ing com m un ity leaders and parents; '(b) w orkshops
fo r p a ren t a d viso ry com m ittee s to develop th e ir skill level; (c) an
ea rly release sc h e d u le fo r students th a t allow ed fo r develop m en t of
stan da rds w ithin the existing budget; and (d) a lite ra c y program th a t
included an em phasis on outreach to fa m ilie s w ith ch ildren age birth
up to fiv e ye a rs old. In addition to th e se inn ovatio ns, all districts
de scrib e d ty p ic a l e ffo rts, such as tra in in g fo r s ta ff and curriculum
c o m m itte e s .
U n lik e m e m b e rs o f p re v io u s c a te g o rie s , a m a jo r it y o f
su p e rin te n d e n ts in th is group, four, p ra is e d the in v o lv e m e n t of th e ir
com m un itie s, and th re e enthused about the sup port th e y fe lt from
8 9
teachers and the com m unity.
The educational sum m it held in a very
sm all d is tric t w as de scrib e d as c re a tin g "tre m e n d o u s com m un ity
invo lve m en t . .
T raining fo r parent advisory com m ittee s held in a
sm all d is tric t provide d the o p p o rtu n ity fo r "s u g g e stio n s fo r 18 to 20
really solid item s th a t w e w ere able to load onto the (school
im p ro ve m e n t) m a trix."
A su p e rin te n d e n t from a large d is tric t
reported th a t "re pre sentatives of each one of the ele m en ts of the
com m unities have been w orking on our team s."
The superintendent
from a very sm all d istrict w ho used ea rly release to develop
stan da rds reported "a real united fro n t w hen this de cisio n was made
th a t this w as good fo r kids and th a t th e refore w e w ere going to
m ake it happen w ith the very lim ited resources th a t w e have."
In
eve ry instance, sup e rin te n d e n ts created a venue fo r com m un ity
p a rticip a tio n th a t drew residents into th e change p rocess in a
m e a n in g fu l w ay.
A lth o u g h th e p re d o m in a n t mood o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts i n t h is
ca te g o ry w as po sitive, an u n d e rcu rre n t of d is c o n te n t w ith support
from the D epartm ent of Education, concerns about fun ding , and the
90
tim e lin e fo r im p le m e n ta tio n rem ained.
R e ite ra tin g c o n ce rn s heard
before, a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all d is tric t re p o rte d th a t "the
biggest problem w e have, there is no real help com ing out of DOE in
term s of sending in a SW A T team or som ething to deal w ith this for
the sm all schools.
The big schools, the y got more pocket change
than G od’s got apples."
U nderstanding w hat needed to be
accom plished, an o th e r recurrent them e, w as cited as a problem by a
su p e rin te n d e n t from a very sm all district, "once again, w e are told
to do the se things.
e x p la in e d
T h e y ’re not op erationalized, th e y ’re not
w e ll."
La ck o f fu n d in g d re w c o m m e n ts fr o m th r e e s u p e rin te n d e n ts
w ho re itera ted fe e lin g s expressed by m em bers of previou s
categories. The com m on thread am ong all these rem arks w as concern
about "unfunded m andates."
d is tric t co m m e n te d ,
A su p erin tend ent from a very small
"it’s the S ta te ’s re s p o n s ib ility to fun d
education. If w e have a requirem ent th a t we rem ediate the se kids,
you have to be telling us w here the m oney is com ing fro m ," and from
a n o th e r su p e rin te n d e n t in a very sm all d istrict, 'T m v e ry fru stra te d
91
ab out the fa c t th a t fina ncing has not at all fo llo w e d ,"
A lth o u g h t h is g ro u p o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts e x p re s s e d g r e a te r
sup port fo r the Initia tive than oth er groups, only tw o of six had
w ritte n im p le m e n ta tio n plans.
H ow ever, tw o m ore w e re active ly
w orking on developing plans, one w ith sup port from a grant, and
th o se w ith o u t w ritte n
pla ns de scrib e d e ffo rts th a t in clu d e d action
steps and tim e lin es. For exam ple, a su p erin tend ent fro m a small
d is tric t w ith o u t a plan reported, "we have a cu rricu lu m plan tha t
calls fo r cu rricu lu m review of tw o m ajor top ics each year, then in
the o ff-y e a r to do authe ntic assessm ent and evaluation and tw eak it
as w e go along."
A second su p erin tend ent from a ve ry sm all district
reported th a t "we know w here we w an t to be at the end of four
years, but because w e are so dollar poor, and dependent upon the
resources of ou r personnel, and w h a te ve r grants w e can raise, we
have ta rg e t goals w e ’re w orking on, but n o t dates . . .
w e hit a real
ta rg e t this ye a r to develop w hat w as going to be in o u r portfolio."
D e s p ite th e p re se n ce o f p la n s , w r i t t e n and u n w r itte n ,
su p e rin te n d e n ts from this group voice d concerns a b o u t the tim e lin e
92
fo r im p le m e n ta tio n .
Tw o su p e rin te n d e n ts reported th a t the g reate st
m istake th e y m ade w ith im ple m en tatio n w as tryin g to m ove too fast
in order to accom m odate the S ta te ’s tim eline.
For exam ple, a
s u p e rin te n d e n t from a ve ry sm all d is tric t reported, "...w e tried to do
too much too soon w ith too little funding. M ade people tired."
V o icin g th e sam e concerns, a su p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all d istrict
stated "the im pact here has ju s t been overw helm ing and m assive and
if I had it to do over again, I’d thum b my noise and say ‘you guys just
w ait yo u r turn, w e ’ll take it one at a tim e, and it’s going to take us
five tim es as long to do w hat y o u ’re doing, or if you w an t to shove it
down our throats, com e on in and ju s t do it, you know, but give us a
hand, give us the m oney.’
I suppose the sm art thing to do would have
been not to ju m p into this w ho le h e a rte d ly."
In c o n c lu s io n , t h i s re s e a rc h e r fo u n d t h a t th e r e w a s a
re la tio n sh ip betw een the m ore a cce p tin g a ttitu d e th e s e
su p e rin te n d e n ts disp la yed and the p o s itiv e steps th e y w ere taking to
>
.
im plem ent the program .
th e ir d is tric ts
.
.
Five of six of the se sup e rin te n d e n ts rated
as being su cce ssfu l in im p le m e n tin g th e
In itia tive .
93
D esp ite th is appro ach, th e se s u p e rin te n d e n ts re p o rte d sig n ific a n t
b a rrie rs to su cce ssfu l im ple m en tatio n, such as fu n d in g , tig h t
tim e lin e s, and lack of su b sta n tia l s u p p o rt from the S tate.
E x c ite m e n t
Seven s u p e rin te n d e n ts w e re c a te g o riz e d as b e in g " e x c ite d "
a b o u t th e Q u a lity S chools Initia tive.
T h e ir p re d o m in a n t attitude
to w a rd the innovatio n w as very positive, m aking the m sim ila r to the
group of su p erin tend ents categorized as "accepting" of the change.
M oving fu rth e r along the. continuum , m em bers of this group
d istin g u ish e d th e m se lve s by em p h a sizin g the b e n e fits o f stra te g ic
planning, com m unity and board involvem ent, and the value, of a
fo rm a l im p le m e n ta tio n
plan w h ile v o ic in g fe w e r c o m p la in ts about
:
.
' v
fa cto rs such as funding, the tim e lin e, and support fro m the
D epartm ent of E ducation.
Also, tw o had succe ssfully engaged the
D epartm ent of E ducation in helping them im plem ent th e change.
F iv e o f seven s u p e rin te n d e n ts re p o rte d t h a t t h e i r d i s t r i c t s had
co n d u cte d s tra te g ic p la nnin g th a t led to s ig n ific a n t s yste m ic
change.
For exam ple, a su p erin tend ent from a large d istrict reported
using a "m odel fo r strategic planning . . .
we cam e up w ith our
d istrict goals and strategies . . . then w e w ent to each of our 15
sites and held a s ite -b a s e d stra teg ic planning session.
sites now have th e ir own school im provem ent plan."
All of the
D escribing the
results of the stra te g ic planning process, a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a
ve ry sm all d is tric t reported "...w e ’ve done so m uch d ra m a tic reform .
It’s not been piecem eal.
W e d id n ’t th in k tha t we could ju s t change
in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s , o r ju s t te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n ,
o r ju s t
a sse ssm e n t strategies, or ju s t Board policy. W e fe lt like w e had to ■
d o w hole thing.
O therw ise, w e w ere trying to run the Indy 500 in a
M odel A Ford."
A superin tend ent from a large d istrict enthused about
stra te g ic planning, saying "Of the stra te g ic plan th a t w e adopted in
1994 . . . 95 percent or more of w hat w e said . . . has been done.
It’s
been am azing to w atch. I’m an ab solute advocate of stra teg ic
planning . . . "
C o m m u n ity in v o lv e m e n t w a s a ke y in g re d ie n t i n th e s t r a t e g ic
95
planning process.
G etting input from the w idest a rra y of
sta ke h o ld e rs w as the aim of tw o sup e rin te n d e n ts (ve ry sm all and
large d istricts) w ho chose the A laska O nw ard to E xcellen ce process
because it "really pushes com m unity involvem ent . . . everybody in
the co m m u n ity— stud en ts, staff, c o m m u n ity m em bers, parents, and
everybody.
There are som e of our villages tha t have had huge
tu rn o u ts at ou r m e etings."
A n o th e r su p e rin te n d e n t fro m a large
d istrict focu sed on involving "...every single parent. W e did an overall
ge neric (plan), then w e sent it out to schools, (w here it w as)
m odified after m eeting w ith parents and teachers . . .
a tre m e n d o u s am ount of public pa rticip a tio n ."
so w e have had
The su p e rin te n d e n t of
a large d is tric t w ho se initial planning process to o k pla ce six years
ago reported th a t "m ore than half of the people involved w ith the
annual review (of our plan) are com m un ity m em bers."
Four o f th e f i v e s u p e rin te n d e n ts re p o rte d t h a t s t r a t e g ic
p la nnin g e ffo rts began w ith th e ir arriva l in the d is tric t at the
charge of the Board. In three instances, stra teg ic planning began
w ell before the Q ua lity S chools In itia tive program w as announced,
96
and in .all five cases sup port from the Board w as integral.
S trategic
p la nnin g w as in itia te d in response to p roble m s w ith ed ucational
outcom es in the district.
For exam ple, a su p e rin te n d e n t from a very
sm all d istrict reported th a t "...w hen I cam e on board, the Board said
‘w e d o n ’t know w hat is w rong, but w hen our kids leave these schools
th e y ’re not being succe ssful in college, th e y ’re not being successful
in tra n sitio n in g into the w orld of w ork.
S om ething has got to be
d iffe re n t.’ So, based on th a t w e started to ide ntify w h a t w as not
w orking, and be tter w ays to do it."
A sup erin tend ent in a large
d is tric t echoed th e se com m ents, "I th in k the d is tric t w as ripe fo r
(change).
T hey had gone through a period of several years of very
fla t plateau . ; . the Board w as concerned about it, the com m unities
w ere concerned, our graduates w ere going now here."
A second
s u p e rin te n d e n t from a large d is tric t reported th a t "...th e Board hired
me because the y liked the idea of stra teg ic planning and they knew
tha t I knew how to do tha t . . . we had crises com ing out of our ears
and the Board ch a ir said stra teg ic planning w as im p o rta n t before the
mill closed . . . now it’s essential."
As noted above, sup port from the
97
Board w as cited as a key ingredient to the success of innovations in
the district.
A dding to the com m ents above, a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a
large d istrict noted th a t he a ttributed his success in m aking changes
to "to to ta l 100 p e rcen t visio n a ry q u a lity B oard."
)
U n lik e p re v io u s g ro u p s, s ix o f seven s u p e rin te n d e n ts in t h is
ca te g o ry reported th a t th e y had an im plem entation plan fo r the
Initia tive, and the seventh su p e rin te n d e n t noted th a t he w as w orking
on one.
A n o th e r distinction betw een this group and previous ones
w as the use of co n su lta n ts to help w ith im p le m e n ta tio n ; th e ir
presen ce w as th o u g h t critica l to success.
T h re e s u p e rin te n d e n ts v o ic e d s tro n g s u p p o rt f o r a c c o u n ta b ility
fo r ed u ca tio n a l outcom es, w hile at th e sam e tim e re fle ctin g on the
resistance com ing from oth er su p e rin tend ents in the state. Noted a
s u p e rin te n d e n t fro m a large d istrict, "I belie ve in a cco u n ta b ility,
and I’m glad th a t it’s here.
I th in k th a t w e should not resist it, we
should com e on board because it w ill im prove the ed ucational
system of the state."
C om paring education to o th e r se cto rs that
m easure q u a lity, a s u p e rin te n d e n t from a sm all d is tric t stated "I
98
know th e re are som e su p erin tend ents th a t are re s is ta n t to it, but
I’m not.
else."
To me, standards make sense. W e have them fo r everything
Sum m ing up the feelings of this group, a sup erin tend ent from
a large d is tric t stated “th a t this is the best thin g th a t eve r
happened to us. It’s our opportunity to save ourselves."
U n lik e p re v io u s g ro u p s, s u p e rin te n d e n ts in t h i s c a te g o ry v o ic e d
fe w co m p la in ts. O nly one s u p e rin te n d e n t (from a larg e district)
talked ab out funding, saying sim ply, "I w ish tha t I had been funded
b e tte r."
A second su p e rin te n d e n t (large d is tric t) re ite ra te d
co m p la in ts heard from o th e r su p e rin te n d e n ts ab out th e qualifying
exam . "I th in k th a t it’s setting up kids fo r failu re.
I th in k tha t the
effort to n o t prepare schools, not being able to tell them w hat was
going to be tested on the benchm ark tests and the graduation test is
ba sically saying ‘w e d o n ’t w ant you to know w hat is on the test, and
w e ’ll see how m any of yo u r kids fa il.’
" C oncerns a b o u t tim eline
cam e up only on ce from a sup erin tend ent in a large d is tric t, "...when
I look at everything tha t (m y staff) are trying to do all at once . . .
feel th e y are a bit overw helm ed because they are tryin g to do so
I
99
much so quickly . .
In c o n c lu s io n , t h i s re s e a rc h e r fo u n d t h a t th e r e w a s a
re la tio n sh ip betw een the e xcite m e n t ab out the Q u a lity S chools
In itia tive exp e rie n ce d by su p e rin te n d e n ts in this c a te g o ry and
com prehensive, planned approach the y w ere takin g to its
im ple m en tatio n.
Five of seven su p erin tend ents rated the m selve s as
su cce ssfu l in im p le m e n tin g the In itia tive . O f the tw o unsuccessful
su p e rin te n d e n ts, both w ere in the process of im p le m e n tin g steps to
m ove the d istrict forw ard.
There w as a relative absence of focus on
b a rriers to succe ssfu l im ple m en tatio n.
Instead, m em be rs of th is
group discu ssed com m un ity invo lve m en t and school reform
a cco m p lish m e n ts w ith pride, fo cu sin g on the valu e of a c c o u n ta b ility
in the ed u ca tio n a l system .
S upe rinte nde nt R eactions and the Four M ajor RmRAArnh Q ufistinns
S u p e rin te n d e n t re a c tio n s t o th e Q u a lity S c h o o ls I n i t i a t i v e
w ere plo tted on continuum s sim ila r to tho se used to analyze the fou r
m ajor re search question s.
Of the 32 d istricts inte rview ed , 30 are
included in this analysis based on the a v a ila b ility of tra n s c rip ts and
tap e record ed co n ve rsa tio n s.
R e s u lts fr o m th e a n a ly s is o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a c tio n s to th e
Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive d e m o n stra te d th a t am ong the
15 fid e lity
appro ach d istricts, re action s w ere as fo llo w s: d e n ia l-o n e
s u p e rin te n d e n t,
a n g e r-tw o
su p e rin te n d e n ts ,
re s ig n a tio n -e ig h t
su p e rin te n d e n ts, a c c e p ta n c e -tw o s u p e rin te n d e n ts , and e x c ite m e n ttw o su p e rin te n d e n ts.
A m ong the 15 m utual ad a p ta tio n districts,
s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a ctio n s w ere as fo llo w s : d e n ia l-z e ro
s u p e rin te n d e n t,
a n g e r-tw o
su p e rin te n d e n ts ,
re s ig n a tio n -fo u r
su p e rin te n d e n ts, a c c e p ta n c e -fo u r su p e rin te n d e n ts, and e x c ite m e n tfive su p e rin te n d e n ts(S e e Figure 16).
101
15
d is tr ic t s
15
d is tr ic t s
F id e lit y D is t r ic t s
M u tu a l A d a p ta tio n D is t r ic t s
denial - 1 00% (1 )
anger= 50% ( 2 )
resignation = 66 .6 % ( 8 )
acceptance = 3 3 .3 % ( 2 )
excitement = 2 9 % ( 2 )
Figure 16.
a d a p ta tio n .
denial = 0% ( 0 )
anger= 50% ( 2 )
resignation = 33 .3 % ( 4 )
acceptance = 66 .6 % ( 4 )
excitement = 71 % ( 5 )
S u p e rin te n d e n t reactions by fid e lity or m utual
R e su K s fr o m th e a n a ly s is o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a c tio n t o th e
Q u a lity S chools In itia tive dem on strated th a t am ong th e 14 sacred
d is tric ts
re a ctio n s w e re as fo llo w s : d e n ia l-o n e s u p e rin te n d e n t,
a n g e r-th re e
su p e rin te n d e n ts ,
re s ig n a tio n -s ix s u p e rin te n d e n ts ,
a c c e p ta n c e -fo u r su p e rin te n d e n ts, and e x c ite m e n t-z e ro
su p e rin te n d e n ts.
A m ong the 16 s e c u la r d istricts re action s w ere as
fo llo w s: d e n ia l-n o su p e rin te n d e n t, a n g e r-o n e su p e rin te n d e n t,
re s ig n a tio n -s ix
su p e rin te n d e n ts ,
a c c e p ta n c e -tw o
s u p e rin te n d e n ts ,
and e x c ite m e n t-s e v e n superin tend ents (See Figure 17).
102
14
d is tr ic t s
16
d is tr ic t s
<3-
F ig u re 17.
S a cre d D is t r ic t s
S e c u la r D is t r ic t s
denial = 1 00% (1 )
anger = 7 5 % ( 3 )
resignation = 5 0 % ( 6 )
acceptance = 6 6 .6 % ( 4 )
excitement = 0 % ( 0 )
denial = 0% ( 0 )
anger = 2 5 % (1 )
resignation = 5 0 % ( 6 )
acceptance = 3 3 .3 % ( 2 )
excitement = 1 0 0 % ( 7 )
S u p e rin te n d e n t re a c tio n s by s a c re d o r s e c u la r d is t r ic t s .
R e s u lts fr o m th e a n a ly s is o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a c tio n t o th e
Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive d e m on strated th a t am ong the 13
u n su cce ssfu l d is tric ts , s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a ctio n s w e re as fo llo w s:
d e n ia l-o n e su p e rin te n d e n t, a n g e r-th re e s u p e rin te n d e n ts , re s ig n a tio n six su p e rin te n d e n ts, a c c e p ta n c e -o n e sup e rin te n d e n t, and
e x c ite m e n t-tw o su p e rin te n d e n ts.
A m on g the 17 su c c e s s fu l d is tric ts
s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re action s w ere as fo llo w s : d e n ia l-n o
s u p e rin te n d e n t, a n g e r-o n e s u p e rin te n d e n t, re s ig n a tio n -s ix
s u p e rin te n d e n ts, a c c e p ta n c e -fiv e s u p e rin te n d e n ts , and e x c ite m e n tfive su p e rin te n d e n ts (See Figure 18).
103
17
d is tr ic t s
13
d is tr ic t s
U n s u c c e s s fu l D is t r ic t s
S u c c e s s fu l D is t r ic t s
denial = 1 00% (1 )
anger = 7 5 % ( 3 )
resignation = 5 0 % ( 6 )
. acceptance = 1 7 % (1 )
excitment = 2 9 % ( 2 )
Figure 18.
d is t r ic t s .
denial = 0% ( 0 )
anger = 25% (1 )
resignation = 5 0 % ( 6 )
acceptance = 8 3 % ( 5 )
excitement = 71 % ( 5 )
S u p e rin te n d e n t reactions by unsuccessful o r successful
R e s u lts fr o m th e a n a ly s is o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a c tio n t o th e
Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive dem on strated th a t am ong th e 11 very
sm a ll d is tric ts , s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a ctio n s w ere as fo llo w s : d e n ia lone su p e rin te n d e n t, a n g e r-o n e s u p e rin te n d e n t, re s ig n a tio n -fo u r
su p e rin te n d e n ts, a c c e p ta n c e -th re e su p e rin te n d e n ts, and e x c ite m e n tone su p e rin te n d e n ts.
A m ong the 12 sm all d istricts s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’
re action s w ere as fo llo w s: d e n ia l-n o s u p e rin te n d e n t, a n g e r-tw o
s u p e rin te n d e n ts ,
re s ig n a tio n -s ix
s u p e rin te n d e n ts ,
a c c e p ta n c e -tw o
su p erin tend ents, and e x c ite m e n t-o n e superin tend ent.
A m ong the
nine larg e d is tric ts s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ re a ctio n s w ere as fo llo w s:
d e n ia l-n o
s u p e rin te n d e n t,
anger-1
s u p e rin te n d e n t,
re s ig n a tio n -2
.104
s u p e rin te n d e n ts , acce pta nce-1
s u p e rin te n d e n t, and e x c ite m e n t-5
su p e rin te n d e n ts (See Figure 19).
11
12
d is t r ic t s
d i s t r ic t s
d is t r ic t s
£> •
V e ry S m a ll D is t r ic t s
S m a ll D is t r ic t s
La rge D is t r ic t s
denial = 100% ( 1 )
anger = 2 5 % (1 )
resignation = 33.3% (4)
acceptance = 50% (3)
excitement = 1 4 % (1 )
denial = 0% ( 0 )
anger = 5 0 % ( 2 )
resignation = 50% (6)
acceptance = 33.3% (2)
excitement = 1 4% (1 )
denial = 0 % ( 0 )
anger= 2 5 % ( I.)
resignation = 16.6% (2)
acceptance = 16.6% (I)
excitement = 7 2 % ( 5 )
Figure 19.
d is t r ic t s .
S u pe rinte nde nt reactions by very sm all, sm all, and large
In th e n e x t c h a p te r, th e r e s u lts a re s u m m a riz e d and
con clusion s developed.
The cha pte r ends w ith recom m endations for
fu rth e r research and re com m endations to the S tate of A laska.
105
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y w a s t o a n a ly z e th e im p le m e n ta tio n
stra te g ie s of th e A la ska Q ua lity S choo ls In itia tive in rural A laskan
school d istricts.
The purpose w as subdivide d into fo u r m ajor
research questions.
1. W hich change process was being used when
im p le m e n tin g the innovatio n?
2. W hat is the d is tric t’s culture
(secular or sacred) in regard to change?
s u cce ssfu lly im ple m en ted ?
3. W as the innovation being
4. W as th e re a d is c e rn ib le relationship
betw een the c h a n g e processes, cu ltu re of the district, size of the
d is tric t, and su cce ss of the im p le m e n ta tio n ?
The q u a lit a t iv e n a tu re o f th e s tu d y a llo w e d th e re s e a rc h e r t o
analyze how superintendents have responded to the dem and for
system ic change posed by the A laska Q ua lity S chools Initiative, and
to a sse ss w h e th e r the success of th is in itia tive va rie d in relation to
d is tric t c u ltu re , the ch a n g e process, and the s ize of th e district.
106
S um m ary of Findings
\
Im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e A la s k a Q u a lity S choo l I n i t i a t i v e in 3 2
rural A laskan school d istricts w as the focus of this study.
O f those
32 districts, 15 used a m utual adaptation approach to change and 17
used the fid e lity approach.
A m ong the latter, fo u r w ere large
d istricts, six w ere sm all d istric ts , and seven w ere v e ry sm all
districts.
O f the d istricts w hich used a m utual ad a p ta tio n approach
to change, five w ere large, six w ere sm all, and fo u r w ere very sm all.
S ix te e n o f th e 3 2 d i s t r i c t s w e re c la s s if ie d as s a c re d
d is tric ts , w ith tw o
ve ry sm all d istricts.
large d istric ts , seven
sm all d is tric ts , and seven
T he 16 d is tric ts c la s s ifie d as s e c u la r included
seven la rg e d istricts, five sm all d is tric ts , and fo u r v e ry sm all
d is t r ic t s .
O f th e 3 2 d i s t r ic t s , 1 7 w e re s u c c e s s fu l and 1 5 w e re
u n su cce ssfu l in im p le m e n tin g the A la s k a Q u a lity S ch o o ls Initiative.
A m ong the succe ssfu l d istricts, seven w ere large, fiv e w ere sm all,
and five w ere very sm all.
Of the 15 unsuccessful districts, tw o
107
w ere large, seven w ere sm all, and six w ere very sm all.
The
un su cce ssfu l d istricts w ere in the b e ginn ing stage of
im p le m e n ta tio n
of the A la ska Q u a lity S chools In itia tiv e .
O f th e 1 7 s u c c e s s fu l d is t r ic t s , 1 0 d i s t r i c t s w e r e id e n t if ie d as
se cu la r and seven w ere identified as sacred and six of these
d istricts used the fid e lity approach to change and 11 used the
m utual a d aptation approach.
T h ere w ere 15 un su cce ssfu l d istricts.
S ix of th e se w ere secular; fo u r used the fid e lity approach, and tw o
used the m utual adaptation approach.
The rem aining nine districts
(u nsucce ssful) w ere sacred; seven used the fid e lity approach,
w hereas tw o used the m utual adaptation approach to change.
I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t a r e la tio n s h ip e x is ts b e tw e e n th e s iz e o f
the d istrict and the change model used w hen an alyzed in relation to
the succe ss of the im ple m en tatio n.
seven w e re large d istricts.
O f the 17 s u cce ssfu l districts,
Tw o of th e se d istricts used the fid e lity
approach to change, and the other five used the m utual adaptation
appro ach.
A m ong the five succe ssful sm all d is tric ts , one district
used the fid e lity approach and fo u r d istricts used the m utual
108
adaptation approach to change.
T here w ere five v e ry sm all districts,
three of w hich used the fid e lity approach and tw o used a mutual
a d a p ta tio n .
The t w o la rg e u n s u c c e s s fu l d i s t r i c t s used th e f i d e l i t y
approach to ch a nge .
Seven sm all d istricts w ere unsuccessful, w ith
fiv e
the fid e lity a p p ro a ch ,
d is tric ts u tiliz in g
m utual adaptation approach.
and tw o
u tiliz in g the
O f the six un successful ve ry small
d istricts, fo u r used the fid e lity approach and tw o used the m utual
adaptation approach to change.
Taped in t e r v ie w s and t r a n s c r ip t s fr o m th e in t e r v ie w s o f 3 0 o f
the 32 su p e rin te n d e n ts w ere studied to assess the su p e rin te n d e n ts ’
pre d o m in a n t reactions to the dem and fo r system ic cha nge created by
the A la ska Q ua lity S chools Initia tive. O f tho se 30 su p erin tend ents,
one w as categorized as being in denial regarding the change, four
w ere angry, 12 w ere resigned, six w ere accepting, and seven,
excited about the change.
A m ong th e s u p e rin te n d e n ts w h o s e d i s t r i c t s used th e f i d e l i t y
approach to change, one superin tend ent w as in denial regarding the
T0 9
change, tw o w ere angry, eight w ere resigned, tw o w e re accepting,
and tw o w ere excited about the change.
For tho se d istricts that
used the m utual adaptation approach to change, no sup erintendents
w ere ca te go rized as being in denial, tw o w ere angry, fo u r were
resigned, fo u r w ere accepting, an d five w ere excited ab o u t the
change.
F o r s u p e rin te n d e n ts w h o s e d i s t r i c t s w e re s a c re d s o c ie tie s ,
one w as in denial regarding the change, three w ere angry, six were
resigned, fo u r w ere accepting, and none w ere excited about the
change. A m ong the su p e rin tend ents w hose d istricts w e re secular
societies, none w ere categorized as being in. denial, one w as angry,
six w ere resigned, tw o w ere accepting, and seven w ere excited
about the change.
In d i s t r i c t s t h a t w e re u n s u c c e s s fu l i n im p le m e n tin g th e
change, one superin tend ent was in denial regarding th e change, three
w ere angry, six w ere resigned, one w as accepting, and tw o were
excited about the change.
Am ong the superintendents w hose
d istricts w ere succe ssful in im ple m en ting th e change, n o n e w ere
110
categorized as being in denial; one w as angry, six w ere resigned,
five w ere accepting, and five w ere e x c ite d about the change.
A m on g th e s u p e rin te n d e n ts w h o s e d i s t r i c t s w e r e v e r y s m a ll,
one w as in denial regarding the change, one w as angry, fo u r were
resigned, three w ere accepting, and one w as excited ab out the
change.
In d is tric ts th a t w ere sm all, no s u p e rin te n d e n ts w ere
ca te go rized as being In denial, tw o w ere angry, six w ere resigned,
tw o w ere accepting, and one w as excited about the change.
Am ong
the sup erin tend ents, w ho se d istricts w ere large, none w ere
cate go rized as being in denial, one w as angry, tw o w ere resigned,
one w as accepting, and five excited about the change.
C o n c lu s io n s
The A la s k a Q u a lity S ch o o ls I n i t i a t i v e w a s a p o l it ic a l l y
m otivated reform from the O ffice of the C o m m issio n e r of E ducation
th a t started in 1994 w ith the C ontent S tandards fo r S tudents.
Each
rural A laskan school d istrict had to acce pt the sta n d a rd s or develop
th e ir own set of stan da rds w hich inco rpo rate d the S ta te ’s standards
The A laskan rural school districts w ere given a cho ice in how to
proceed w ith the C ontent S tandards: th e y could ad opt the standards
ve rb a tim
(fid e lity ap p ro a ch ), or m ake s ig n ific a n t a d a p ta tio n s
(m utual adaptation s approach).
O ne issue w hich the C om m issioner
of E ducation did co n sid e r w as the im portance of the cu ltu re of the
school districts, i.e. sacred or s e cu la r societies.
An understanding
of th e se tw o typ e s of cu ltu re s is c ritic a l to s u c c e s s fu lly
e n culturating change brought about by an innovation into an
o rg a n iz a tio n .
W as th e r e a p a tte r n o f th e s u c c e s s o f im p le m e n ta tio n o f
A la s k a ’s Q u a lity S chools Initia tive as related to the sacre d versus
se cu la r n a tu re of the d istrict and the m ode of im ple m en tatio n,
fid e lity versus m utual adaptation?
To answ er the ab ove question a
breakdow n of the cen tral research q u estion into in d ivid u a l
co m p o n e n ts fo rm e d the a n cilla ry research qu estions.
W as th e r e a p a tte r n i n th e s u c c e s s o f th e im p le m e n ta tio n in
se cu la r or sacred cultu res?
S chool d istricts in s e c u la r cultures had
the best success w hen a mutual adaptation approach w as used.
The
con clu sio n to be draw n from this is th a t s e cu la r d is tric ts using the
m utual adaptation approach to innovation have a g re a te r chance of
succe ss than do se cu la r d istricts using the fid e lity appro ach to
change.
S acred districts had a roughly equal ch a n ce of success using
e ith e r fid e lity or m utual adaptation approach to change.
Do th e s a c re d s o c ie tie s s h o w a p a tte r n i n w h ic h th e y a re m o re
likely to change if the fid e lity approach is used o r if the m utual
adaptation approach is used?
The m utual adaptation approach to
change offers a gre a te r chance of success fo r sacred societies than
does the fid e lity approach to change.
The reason th a t the fide lity
approach to change is ineffective w as ch a racte rized by a
s u p e rin te n d e n t w ho de scribe d the process as having ve ry little
co m m u n ity in vo lve m e n t and very little su p p o rt from te a ch e rs who
needed to be convinced tha t this w as not ju st a n oth er passing fad.
N e ith e r sacred no r se cu la r cultu res using the fid e lity approach w ere
v e ry
su cce ssfu l.
113
D id s e c u la r s o c ie tie s s h o w a p a tte r n i n w h ic h change w a s m o re
likely to be succe ssful if the m utual adaptation appro ach was used
or if the fid e lity approach w as used?
T his re se a rch e r concluded
se cu la r d istricts using the m utual adaptation approach to change
have a gre a te r chance of success than w hen using the fide lity
approach to change.
I s a la rg e d i s t r i c t m o re o r le s s li k e l y t o change s u c c e s s fu lly
using a fid e lity or a m utual adaptation approach to change?
Large
d istricts w ere m ore succe ssful using a m utual a d a p ta tio n approach
to change but w hen the se d istricts used the fid e lity approach, they
had a g re a te r chance of failure.
The s m a ll d i s t r i c t s w h ic h used m u tu a l a d a p ta tio n a ch ie ve d
su cce ssfu l im p le m e n ta tio n m ore tha n th e sm all d is tric ts w hich used
the fid e lity approach to change.
The sm all d istricts w hich used
fid e lity approach to change w ere m ore a p t to be unsuccessful than
succe ssfu l in im p le m e n tin g change.
Im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e f i d e l i t y appro ach t o change produced th e
g re a te st nu m b e r of fa ilu re s in ve ry sm all districts.
T h e re fo re , this
114
re se a rch e r conclude d th a t even though the fid e lity approach to
change is the m ost successful stra te g y fo r innovation in these
situa tions, it also has the greate st fa ilu re rate.
M anagem ent of
change in ve ry sm all d istricts m ay be m ore d iffic u lt tha n in o th e r
d istricts because of the co m p le xity of a s u p e rin te n d e n t’s job.
As
one sm all school sup e rin te n d e n t stated, “change is like squeezing an
e le p h a n t into a. pop bottle in this d is tric t.”
A re la rg e d i s t r i c t s m o re li k e l y t o be s e c u la r in t h e i r approach
to change?
The larger the district, the m ore s e cu la r th e y becom e,
and con verse ly, the s m a lle r the district, the m ore sacre d the y w ere
like ly to be.
S m a lle r d is tric ts w ere m ore likely to use the fid e lity
approach w h ile larg er d istricts used a m utual a d aptation approach to
change.
Therefore, this researcher concluded th a t the larg er the
district, the m ore se cu la r it becom es and the m ore ap t it w as to use
a m utual adaptation approach to change.
tru e in this study.
The converse also holds
The sm a lle r the district, the m ore sacred the
d istrict becom es and the m ore apt it w as to use the fid e lity
approach to change.
Therefore, th is researcher conclude d tha t the
115
la rg e r the d is tric t w as, the m ore succe ssfu l it w as lik e ly to be
im p le m e n tin g the A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls
d is tric ts w e re a little
In itia tiv e w h ile sm all
less su cc e s s fu l, and ve ry sm a ll d is tric ts
w ere, fo r the m ost part, unsuccessful.
W as th e r e a p a tte r n o f r e la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n s a c re d and
s e c u la r d is tric ts , fid e lity and m utual a d a p ta tio n
and. the success of im plem entation?
c h a n g e stra teg ie s,
The results of th is study p o in t
to a pattern of large d istricts being secular, choosing the mutual
adaptation approach to Change, and im plem enting change
su cce ssfu lly.
A n o th e r pattern w as th a t very sm all d is tric ts w ere
sacred, choose the fid e lity approach to change, and o fte n failed to
s u c c e s s fu lly im p le m e n t the in n o va tio n .
F urther, sm a ll d is tric ts
tend to be m ore sacred than secular and are more likely to use the
fid e lity appro ach to change.
W h a t a t t it u d e s to w a r d change w e re p re d o m in a te am ong
su p e rin te n d e n ts?
The a ttitude s disp la yed by s u p e rin te n d e n ts from
ne gative to positive form ed a b e ll-s h a p e d curve, skew ed tow ard a
positive response to the change.
The Conclusion to be drawn; is that
116
on ly a m in o rity of su p e rin te n d e n ts d isp la ye d a p re d o m in a n tly
negative attitu d e tow a rd the m andate fo r change, and th a t a
m ajo rity w ere e ith e r resigned to the need fo r change or exhibited a
p o s itiv e
a ttitu d e
to w a rd
it.
I s th e r e a p a tte r n i n A la s k a n r u r a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t
s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’ a ttitu d e s to w a rd ch a n g e and the fa c to rs fid e lity or
m utual adaptation approach to change, se cu la r o r sacred culture,
success or lack of success in im plem entation, and the size of
d is tric ts ?
S u p e rin te n d e n ts
d is p la y in g
p o s itiv e a ttitu d e s
tow ard
change (acceptance, excitem ent) w ere m ore likely to choose a
m utual a d aptation approach than a fid e lity approach.
The conclusion
to be draw n is th a t there is a rela tion ship betw een the mutual
ad a p ta tio n appro ach, w hich diffe rs from the fid e lity appro ach in the
"degree th a t p a rticip a n ts affect the form atio n of the a d optio n," and
the p o sitive a ttitu d e s disp la yed by su p e rin te n d e n ts c h o o sin g tha t
approach.
C onversely, this researcher concluded th a t the re is a
re la tio n sh ip betw een the fid e lity approach to change in w hich
innovatio ns are adopted, not adapted, and fee lings of resignation
117
(m ixture of po sitive and negative fe e lings) about the change.
In A la s k a n r u r a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w i t h s e c u la r s o c ie tie s ,
s u p e rin te n d e n ts d isp la ye d p o sitive a ttitu d e s to w a rd th e change
m ore often than th o se w orkin g in d is tric ts w ith sa cre d societies.
S u p e rin te n d e n ts w o rkin g
in d is tric ts w ith
sacred
s o c ie tie s
disp la yed negative a ttitude s tow a rd the change m ore often than
th o se w o rkin g
in d is tric ts w ith s e c u la r so cie tie s.
T h is indicates
th a t th e re is a re la tio n sh ip betw een the factors in a s e cu la r society
th a t m ake it less resistant to change and the m ore po sitive
a ttitu d e s d isp la ye d by s u p e rin te n d e n ts w orkin g in th a t en viro n m e n t
w ho are faced w ith the need fo r system ic change.
C onversely, it
appears th a t a re la tion ship existed betw een the fo rce s in a sacred
so cie ty th a t resist c h a n g e and the negative a ttitude s tow a rd change
disp la yed by su p e rin te n d e n ts w o rkin g in th a t en viro n m e n t.
S u p e rin te n d e n ts w h o ra te d t h e i r d i s t r i c t s as s u c c e s s fu l i n
im p le m e n tin g the cha n g e disp la yed p o sitive a ttitu d e s to w a rd the
change m ore often than those w ho rated th e ir d istricts as being
u n su cce ssfu l.
The la tte r group rated th e ir d istricts as unsuccessful
118
in im p le m e n tin g the change and disp la yed negative attitu d e s tow ard
the change m ore often than in the fo rm e r group.
T he conclusion to
be draw n is th a t the re is a rela tion ship betw een the
s u p e rin te n d e n t’s p re d o m in a n t a ttitu d e to w a rd the ch a nge , e ith e r
p o sitive or negative, and the degree of success of the change.
S u p e rin te n d e n ts re s ig n e d t o th e change w e re d ra w n p r im a r ily
from very sm all and sm all d istric ts .
This leads to the conclusion
th a t the re is a re la tio n sh ip betw een the con dition s in both very
sm all and sm all d istricts and the p re d o m in a n t a ttitu d e of
su p e rin te n d e n ts in th o se districts.
T h is attitude is one of mixed
em otion s tow a rd the change.
A re th e r e c o n s is te n t th e m e s t h a t cam e f o r w a r d d u rin g th e
inte rview s th a t should be considered w hen designin g a statew ide
change of such m agnitude?
The issues of adequate funding, support
from the D epartm ent of E ducation, and the tim e lin e fo r
im plem enting the Q ua lity Schools Initia tive cam e up again and again
during the su p e rin te n d e n t interview s.
The absence of sup port from
the D ep artm ent of E ducation w as a n o th e r p ro m in e n t them e,
119
e sp e cia lly in term s of helping the sm a lle s t and m ost vuln era ble
schools. S p e cific con cern s included u n cle a r re g u la tio n s, la c k o f
e xp lana tion or guidan ce on how to im ple m en t non-operation atized
m andates and lack of connection to existing program s th a t were
deem ed s u p e rio r to the Initia tive. S everal s u p e rin te n d e n ts indicated
th e y w ere u n w illin g to com m it to any p a rtic u la r ta rg e t dates
because of the difficu lty of m eeting them .
The question these
fin d in g s raise w as w h e th e r su p e rin te n d e n ts, e s p e c ia lly tho se in very
sm all a n d sm all districts, w ill be able to m arshal th e resources,
d e te rm in a tio n , an d c re a tiv ity to o ve rcom e the se b a rrie rs on behalf
of th e ir stu d e n ts and com m un itie s,
120
S um m ary of Conclu.sions
The f o llo w in g l i s t p ro v id e s a c o n c is e s u m m a ry o f th e s tu d y
c o n c lu s io n s .
°
S e cu la r d istricts w ere m ore succe ssful w hen th e y used m utual
a d a p ta tio n .
°
S acred d istricts did not change or adapt easily, if at all.
°
The larg er the district, the more succe ssfu l it m ay be, by using
the m utual a d aptation approach to im ple m en tatio n.
°
M utual adaptation w as a more successful approach to change than
the fid e lity a p p ro a ch to im p le m e n ta tio n ,
°
The la rg e r a d istrict, the m ore s e cu la r it’s c u ltu re , and,
co n ve rse ly, the sm a lle r the d istrict, th e m ore sacred it’s culture.
°
O nly a m ino rity of sup e rin te n d e n ts disp la yed a pred o m in a n tly
negative attitu d e tow a rd the m andate fo r change,
and a m ajority
w ere e ith e r resigned to the need fo r change or exh ibited a
p o s itiv e
°
a ttitu d e
to w a rd
it.
T h ere w as a rela tion ship betw een the m utual a d aptation approach
and the p o sitive attitu d e s disp la yed by su p e rin te n d e n ts choosing
121
th a t approach.
°
T here w as a re la tion ship betw een the fid e lity appro ach to change
and fe e lin g s of resignation about the change.
°
T h ere w as a rela tion ship betw een a se cu la r so cie ty and positive
attitu d e s am ong su p e rin te n d e n ts fa ce d w ith the need fo r
syste m ic change.
°
There w as a relationship betw een a sacred socie ty and negative
a ttitu d e s to w a rd change am ong s u p e rin te n d e n ts w o rk in g in tha t
e n v iro n m e n t.
°
T h ere w as a relationship, betw een the s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’
p re d o m in a n t a ttitu d e tow a rd the change, e ith e r p o s itiv e or
negative, and the success of the change.
°
T h ere w as a re la tio n sh ip b e tw een ve ry sm all and sm all districts
an d fee lings of being resigned to the change on the p a rt of the
s u p e rin te n d e n ts .
°
T h ere w as a re la tio n sh ip betw een large d istricts and the
e x tre m e ly p o sitive a ttitu d e s of s u p e rin te n d e n ts in th o s e
d is t r ic t s .
122
.
Funding, lack of sup port from the D epartm ent of E ducation, and
. the tim e lin e im posed fo r the change all c o n stitu te d real and
s ig n ific a n t b a rrie rs to the succe ss of im p le m e n ta tio n .
.
R ecom m endations fo r F urther R esoarch
Due t o th e n a rro w t im e fr a m e o f t h i s s tu d y , f u r t h e r s tu d y
needs to be con ducted to understand the full im pact of A la ska ’s
Q u a lity S chool Initia tive.
The A la ska Q u a lity S chool Initia tive is
ju s t sta rtin g to re sult in changes in th e S ta te ’s e d u ca tio n a l system .
A la ska w ill sta rt to feel the full im pa ct of the re ch a nge s in the next
tw o to th re e years.
Le gislative action to reduce school funding
w h ile at the sam e tim e dem anding im ple m en tatio n of the Initiative
has put a stress on the im plem entation process as w ell in rural
scho ols and com m unities.
F u rth e r i t is re com m ended t h a t re s e a rc h be c o n d u c te d on th e
im pact of change processes w hen state laws, regula tions, and rules
require the im ple m en tatio n of new program s and e xp ecta tions.
In
123
A laska, d istricts had to com ply or run the risk of being taken over by
the A la s k a ’s D ep artm ent of E ducation.
The lo s s o f lo c a l c o n tr o l I s a n o th e r is s u e ra is e d by m a n d a te d
program s th a t needs to be studied.
A s one large d is tric t
s u p e rin te n d e n t stated, “the S tate D ep artm ent of E ducation needs to
stand up and be counted.
They need to w ork w ith the m ost fragile
and lea st ca p able d istricts ,by b u ild in g b rid g e s to the m w ith team s
and m o n e y.”
A n o th e r sm all rural d is tric t s u p e rin te n d e n t voiced
concern th a t this top down change com es from ou r presen t
leadership, the C om m issioner and the G overnor.
W hat happens when
th e y lea ve office ?
A m a jo r th e m e ru n n in g th ro u g h m o s t s u p e rin te n d e n ts ’
responses w as a concern fo r a d equ ate funding to m eet the Alaska
Q ua lity S choo ls Initia tive.
T hey voice d concern th a t th is reform is
about teaching, and th a t the State D epartm ent of E ducation has to
take the leadership role in m aking sure th a t the A la s k a Q uality
S chool In itia tive w orks fo r all d istricts.
T h is re search needs to be
repeated on an ongoing basis until all schools have com pleted the
124
im p le m e n ta tio n
p ro ce ss.
R e co m m en da tions fo r A ction
The f i r s t a c tio n re c o m m e n d a tio n i s t h a t A la s k a ’ s S ta te
D e p artm ent of E ducation help m ove the d istricts to actio n w ithin a
tim e fra m e th a t protects stud en t outcom es on the high school
q u a lify in g exa m s w h ile p re se rvin g the d is tric t’s local co n tro l of
e le m en tary and secondary education.
A seco nd re c o m m e n d a tio n i s f o r th e D e p a rtm e n t o f E duca tion
to help tho se superin tend ents m ove beyond th e ir an g e r to
c o n s tru c tiv e
a ctio n
w ith in
a tim e fra m e th a t p ro te c ts th e
d is tric ts ’
a b ility to su cce ed w ith im ple m en tatio n of the Q u a lity S chools
I n it ia t iv e .
The t h ir d a c tio n re c o m m e n d a tio n i s th a t, as h ig h s c h o o l
qualifying exam s approach, the A laska D epartm ent of E ducation m ust
help a cce lera te the m om entum fo r change in these d istricts,
The
focu s needs to be tigh ten ed tow ard m easurable, a c h ie va b le results
125
th a t w ill lead to co m p lia n ce w ith the Q u a lity S ch o o ls Initia tive.
The f i n a l a c tio n re c o m m e n d a tio n i s t h a t th e A la s k a S ta te
D epartm ent of E ducation m ust have g reate r sup port am ong
sup erin tend ents in the face of very real issues.
The D epartm ent of
E ducation m ust hold inservices fo r su p erin tend ents to face the above
issues and gain sup port or fa c ilita te the tra in in g of new
sup e rin te n d e n ts.
The angry, in-denial, and o b e d ie n t,s u p e rin te n d e n ts
m ust be brought to a point of acceptance and e xcite m en t about the
Q u a lity
S ch o o ls
In itia tiv e .
126
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APPENDICES
139
APPENDIX A
T e leph one P rotocol
;i
:
140
H e llo , (s u p e rin te n d e n t’s nam e).
I am T e r r y B e n tle y , S u p e rin te n d e n t o f th e Nenana S choo l
D istrict here in A laska.
I know th a t you, as a school adm inistrator,
have a busy schedule, but I w ould like to im pose on yo u r tim e for a
few m inutes to ask you som e questions.
I am w o r k in g on a s tu d y re la te d t o th e change s tr a te g ie s being
used in A laska.
in ou r d istricts.
As you know, change alw ays seem s to be occurring
It is im po rta nt th a t educators d e velop som e
un derstanding of the change strategies being used in ou r schools and
how the A la ska Q u a lity S chools In itia tive is being im plem ented.
.
A re you c o m fo r ta b le w it h m y a s k in g you a f e w q u e s tio n s
pertain ing to change an d the Q ua lity S chools Initia tive in your
district?
T his co n versa tion w ill be tap ed recorded so th a t I can
understand and not m ake any errors fo r the purpose of this study.
By
the w ay, you can be assured of an onym ity regarding yo u r responses.
I w ill use only pseudonym s in w riting up the results.
May I p ro ce e d ?
141
Q u e stio n s:
1. .
In th e p ro c e s s o f im p le m e n tin g th e A la s k a Q u a lity S ch o o ls
In itia tive in yo u r d istrict, has th e re been s ig n ific a n t ch a n g e to the
original plan supplied by the A laska D epartm ent of E ducation?
a. Did y o u r d i s t r i c t change th e f o r m a t t h a t th e s t a t e fu rn is h e d
fo r te a c h e r e va luatio n, or did yo u r d is tric t use the fo rm a t style as
suggested by the state?
b. Does th e e v lu a tio n p ro c e s s n o w m e e t th e d i s t r i c t needs?
c. D id y o u r d i s t r i c t change o r a d o p t th e C o n te n t S ta n d a rd s f o r
A laska S tudents, if you d id change by adding or rew ritting, how much
did you change the standards from one to ten in the am ount of change
w ith ten being high am ount of change?
d. Does th e c o n te n t s ta n d a rd s r e la te t o y o u r d i s t r i c t s ta n d a rd s
or goals?
If not how do they not m eet you r d is tric t’s goals or
142
o b je c tiv e s ?
e. P le a se d e s c rib e th e m o s t im p o r ta n t changes t h a t have been
made.
2.
W h a t do you b e lie v e i s unique a b o u t y o u r d i s t r i c t o r c o m m u n ity
th a t prom o ted the m o dificatio ns, if any, to the o rig in a l plan?
3.
Does y o u r d i s t r i c t have an o v e r a ll p la n o r s tr a te g y f o r
im p le m e n tin g th e A la s k a Q u a lity S ch o o ls
4.
I s th e im p le m e n ta tio n p la n o r s tr a te g y f o r y o u r d i s t r i c t
w ritten up?
5.
In itia tive ?
W ould you send a copy to me?
P le a se d e s c rib e th e n a tu re o r a m o u n t o f th e p a r tic ip a tio n by
te a ch e rs and co m m u n ity m em bers in de veloping th e d is tric t’s A laska
Q u a lity
6.
S ch o o ls
In itia tiv e
im p le m e n ta tio n
plan.
O v e ra ll, h o w s u c c e s s fu l do you p e rc e iv e th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f
143
A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls In itia tive to be in y o u r d is tric t at the
p re s e n t tim e ?
7.
Do you f e e l t h a t th e d i s t r i c t has m ade any m is ta k e s in th e
im p le m e n ta tio n
p ro ce ss of A la s k a Q u a lity S choo ls
In itia tiv e ?
a. I f so, w h a t w e re th e y ?
8.
In th e p a s t, w h a t has been y o u r e x p e rie n c e i n im p le m e n tin g
ch a n g e s in y o u r d istrict?
a.
I s th e r e g e n e r a lly re s is ta n c e o r openness t o change fr o m
th e te a c h in g
sta ff?
b. I s th e r e g e n e r a lly re s is ta n c e o r openness t o change fr o m
c la s s if ie d s t a f f ?
9.
W ith th e c o m m u n ity i n m in d , w o u ld you sa y i t i s e a s y o r
d iffic u lt to m ake cha nge s?
144
10.
Do you have an y o th e r th o u g h ts o r c o m m e n ts re g a rd in g
im p le m e n ta tio n
of the A la ska Q u a lity S choo ls
In itia tiv e ?
W ould you lik e a co p y o f th e e x e c u tiv e s u m m a ry o f th e r e s u lts ?
y e s no.
T h a n k you a g a in fo r y o u r t im e and e f f o r t in h e lp in g me
co m p le te th e q u e stio n n a ire .
Good Bye.
APPENDIX B
A la s k a Q u a lity S ch o o ls
In itia tiv e
146
A la s k a
Q u a lity S ch o o ls
In itia tiv e
High S tu d e n t and A c a d e m ic S ta n d a rd s and P e rfo rm a n c e
* S c h o o l d i s t r i c t s d e v e lo p and a d o p t s ta n d a rd s and
a s s e s s m e n ts
* S t a t e s u p p o rts d i s t r i c t s by d e v e lo p in g
- c o n t e n t s ta n d a rd s i n te n c o re s u b je c t are a s
- s t u d e n t b e n c h m a rk s and p e rfo rm a n c e s ta n d a rd s
f o r b a s ic s k i l l s
- c u r r ic u lu m fr a m e w o r k s
* S t a t e s u p p o rts s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s th ro u g h s ta te w id e
a s s e s s m e n ts o f s ta n d a rd s
- C a lif o r n ia A c h ie v e m e n t T e s t
- D ir e c t w r i t i n g a s s e s s m e n t
- N a tio n a l A s s e s s m e n t o f E d u c a tio n a l P ro g re s s
Q u a lity P ro fe s s io n a l S ta n d a rd s
* S ta n d a rd s -b a s e d lic e n s u re
- M e e t s ta t e s ta n d a rd s f o r i n i t i a l p re p a ra tio n
147
- P r o fe s s io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t f o r c o n tin u in g lic e n s u re
- N a tio n a l bo ard c e r t if ie d
* U n iv e r s it y p re p a ra tio n becom es s ta n d a rd based
* P e rfo rm a n c e -b a s e c l e v a lu a tio n a t d i s t r i c t le v e l
F a m ily , S ch o o l and C o m m u n ity N e tw o rk
"R e s e a rc h -b a s e d f a m ily , s c h o o l and c o m m u n ity
p a rtn e rs h ip s
" C o lla b o r a tio n am ong e d u c a tio n o rg a n iz a tio n s and p a re n t
o rg a n iz a tio n s
" F a c i l it a t i n g s tu d e n t t r a n s it io n s th ro u g h o u t t h e i r
s c h o o lin g
"B u s in e s s , agency, c o m m u n ity p a rtn e rs h ip s
S ch o o l E x c e lle n c e S ta n d a rd s
" S t a t e s c h o o l a c c r e d ita tio n
- S t a t e s ta n d a rd s f o r S u c c e s s fu l s c h o o ls
-S c h o o l p r o f ilin g p ro c e s s
- N o r th w e s t A s s o c ia tio n o f S c h o o ls and C o lle g e s
p a rtn e rs h ip
148
-D is tin g u is h e d s c h o o l re c o g n itio n
^ N e tw o r k o f d is tin g u is h e d s c h o o ls and e d u c a to rs t o
p ro v id e te c h n ic a l a s s is ta n c e f o r s c h o o l
im p ro v e m e n t (H o llo w a y , 1 9 9 7 ).
I