Selected instructional strategies, learner outcome, and attitudes of adult learners in a mandatory
education setting
by Barbara Ann White
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education
Montana State University
© Copyright by Barbara Ann White (1988)
Abstract:
The primary purpose of the study was an investigation of the teaching-learning transaction by
determining the effect of selected instructional strategies on learning outcome of adults enrolled in a
legislatively mandated pesticide recertification program. Attitudes and selected personal descriptors
which might affect learning outcome were also examined.
The population for the study was 654 private pesticide applicators applying for relicensing. Ranging in
age from 16 to 83, the pesticide applicators represented District V of the Montana Pesticide
Recertification Program, encompassing 11 counties.
The recertification program was comprised of a six-hour block of instruction which included seven
criteria deemed necessary in order to be licensed to purchase and apply restricted-use compounds. The
fifth criteria, Pesticide Safety, served as the subject matter content for the development of the
instructional strategies identified as lecture, representing a pedagogical methodology, and small group
discussion, representing an andragogical methodology. Upon conclusion of the safety instruction,
participants were asked to complete three data collection instruments, which included a measure of
learning outcome, an attitudinal scale, and a general information questionnaire ascertaining personal
descriptors.
Sixty-seven percent of the participants would have participated voluntarily had the program not been
legislatively mandated; 45% indicated their agreement in favor of a legislatively mandated program.
Ninety-four percent of the participants were favorable to the strategy they received while 80%
indicated their prior experience did not eliminate the need for the safety information. Significant
differences were found to exist for the independent variable of instructional strategy, with mean scores
on learning outcome higher for the group receiving the lecture strategy. The group having completed an
education level of 13 to 16 years demonstrated a significantly higher score on learning outcome. In
addition, learning outcome was significantly related to the two attitude variables. Attitude toward
instructional strategy received accounted for 58% of the variance in learning outcome.
Service providers of one-time, mandated educational activities need to consider the learning
environment, attitudes of the learner, and personal descriptors, especially age and level of education,
when selecting instructional strategies. Experience of the learner should also be considered as an
important variable. SELECTED INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES, LEARNER
OUTCOME, AND ATTITUDES OF ADULT LEARNERS
IN A MANDATORY EDUCATION SETTING
by
Barbara Ann White
A th e sis submitted in p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t
o f the requirements fo r the degree
of
Doctor o f Education
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
©
COPYRIGHT
by
Barbara Ann White
1988
Al I Rights Reserved
UJ 5~ S' * 2 -
ii
APPROVAL
o f a th e sis submitted by
Barbara Ann White
This th e sis has been read by each member o f the th e s is committee
and has been found to be s a tis fa c to ry regarding content, English
usage, form at, c ita tio n s , b ib lio g ra p h ic s ty le , and consistency, and is
ready fo r submission to the College o f Graduate Studies.
D a te /
Z
Z
Chairperson, Graduate Compfittee
Approved fo r the Major Department
Head, Major Department
Approved fo r the College o f Graduate Studies
Date
G ra d u a te Deem
m
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION. TO USE
In presenting th is th e sis in p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t o f the re q u ire ­
ments fo r a doctoral degree a t Montana State U n iv e rs ity ,
the L ib ra ry sh a ll make i t
L ib ra ry .
I agree th a t
a v a ila b le to borrowers under ru le s o f the
I fu r th e r agree, th a t copying o f th is th e s is is allow able only
fo r s c h o la rly purposes, co n siste n t w ith " f a i r use" as prescribed in the
U.S. Copyright Law.
Requests fo r extensive copying or reproduction o f
th is th e sis should be re fe rre d to U n iv e rs ity M icro film s In te rn a tio n a l,
300 North Zeeb Road,; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, to whom I have granted
"th e
e x c lu s iv e
d is s e rta tio n
in
r ig h t
to
reproduce
and from m ic ro film
d is tr ib u te by a b stra ct in any fo rm a t."
Signaturesj^C
Date
&
/
/
/
_________
and d is t r ib u t e
and the
r ig h t
to
copies o f the
reproduce and
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The a u th o r
wishes
to
express
sin ce re
g ra titu d e
to
Dr.
E ric
Strohmeyer, c h a ir o f her graduate committee, whose continual support,
guidance, and sense o f humor provided a c a ta ly s t fo r the completion o f
the doctoral degree.
A ppreciation is also extended to the members o f
the
Ralph B rocke tt,
com m ittee,
D r.
Dr.
Dianne Peters,
Dr.
Connie.
D illo n , Dr. G lo ria Gregg, and Dr. Donald P ie rre , fo r th e ir continued
encouragement.
The author also extends appreciation to the members o f
the Montana State U n iv e rs ity Extension Service fo r th e ir w illin g n e s s to
a s s is t
in
the
a p p lic a to r s
process.
study,
in
a d d itio n
who v o lu n t a r ily
to
the Montana p riv a te
p a r tic ip a te d
in
the
p e s tic id e
data c o lle c tio n
The researcher also g r a te fu lly acknowledges the support o f
the Montana State U n iv e rs ity Center fo r A dult Learning Research, funded
by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, in p ro vid in g fin a n c ia l, equipment, and
personnel support throughout the d is s e rta tio n process.
A note o f special appre ciation is extended to my husband, Robert,
and to my c h ild re n , J e n n ife r, B rian, and Jason, w ith o u t whose constant
support and encouragement th is goal could not have been accomplished.
To my parents, a p pre ciation is extended fo r th e ir constant f a it h .
is to the memory o f my fa th e r th a t th is document is dedicated.
It
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
APPROVAL........................................................
ii
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE........ .........................................................
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................... ......................................................
. -Jv
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................
LIST OF TABLES..................................................
v
ix
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................
x ii
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................
x iii
CHAPTER
1.
I
Background.........................................
Statement o f the Problem..............
S ig n ifica n ce o f the Study............
General Questions to Be Answered...................
General Procedures...........................................
L im ita tio n s and D e lim ita tio n s .................................................
D e fin itio n o f Terms...............
Il
12
13
14
REVIEW OF LITERATURE...^.................................................................
20
Providers o f A dult Education...................................................
A dult Education and the Rural Learner.........................
The Rural Scene in the United S tate s..............................
The ru ra l lea rne r in an a g ric u ltu re s e ttin g ........ .
Cooperative Extension S e rvice ...........................................
C h a ra c te ris tic s o f the Cooperative Extension
S ervice.........................
Program development........ .................................................
Montana State U n iv e rs ity Extension S e rvice....................
Montana P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Program....................
Mandatory Education and the A d u lt Learner..........................
Mandatory A dult Education.............................
C re d e n tia lin g .................
Licensure...........................
20
24
24
25
27
r-4 I O
2.
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................
27
29
30
31
35
38
40
41
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS— C o n tin u e d
Page
Mandatory Continuing Education.........................................
A ttitu d e s Toward Mandatory Continuing
Education (MCE).................................................................
R ationale in favo r o f MCE.............................................
R ationale against MCE.....................................................
Professional and occupational a tt it u d e ....................
. Andragogy and Pedagogy: Methodologies fo r
In s tr u c tio n ...........................
P hilosophical O rig in s ......................................................... ]
E volution o f andragogical o r ie n ta tio n ......................
Andragogy as a Teaching-Learning T ransaction..............
In s tru c tio n a l Design and the A d u lt Learner........................
Learning Theory and In s tru c tio n a l Design......................
Learning th e o ry .................................................................
In s tru c tio n a l design.......................................................
Systems design...................................................................
S election o f In s tru c tio n a l Method....................................
In s tru c tio n a l S tra te g ie s .....................................................
Lecture s tra te g y ................................................
Group discu ssio n ...............................................................
Small group discu ssio n ...................................................
Case stud y...............................
Research Findings Regarding Lecture and
Discussion S tra te g ie s .....................................................
A ttitu d e s and In s tru c tio n a l S tra te g ie s ..........................
3.
PROCEDURES............................................................................................
P opulation..............! ......................................................................
Research Design.............................................................................
Quasi-experimental Design...................................................
Equivalence o f groups.....................................................
P o s t-te s t on ly, non-equivalent m u ltip le group design.................................................................
Extraneous v a ria b le s .......................................................
Data C o lle c tio n Procedure............ ............................................
A u th o riza tio n and I n i t i a l Contact................................... '
V ariables and In stru m e n ta tio n .......... .......................................
Dependent V a ria b le .................................................................
V a lid it y .........................................
R e lia b ilit y .........................................................................
Format...................................................................................
Independent V a ria b le s .........................................................
In s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y ................................................. *
A ttitu d e v a r ia b le s .........................................................
43
45
45
46
47
57
62
63
64
70
71
71
75
78
81
85
87
89
91
93
95
101
103
103
105
105
105
106
106
107
107
Ill
Ill
Ill
112
112
113
113
113
TABLE OF CONTENTS— C o n tin u e d
Page
Demographic v a r ia b le s ...............
S ta tis tic a l H ypotheses..,.................................................
Data A n a ly s is ...... ..........................................................
4.
FINDINGS AND ANALYSES.......................................................................
D e scrip tive Findings.......................................
Demographic In fo rm a tio n .......................................................
General Questions to Be Answered........................................
Research Question #1..............................................
Research Question # 2 .....................................................
S ta tis tic a l Hypotheses...............................................................
Hypotheses.................................................................................
Hypothesis I .......................................
Hypothesis 2...................................
Hypothesis 3 .....................
Hypothesis 4.......................................................................
Hypothesis 5.................................................
Hypothesis 6.......................................................................
Hypothesis 7.............
Hypothesis 8 ..................................................
Hypothesis 9.................
Hypothesis 1 0 ............. V.............................. .....................
Hypothesis 11...................................
Hypothesis 12...........
Hypothesis 1 3 . . . . ....................................................
5.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..................................
115
115
118
119
119
119 .
123
123
124
127
127
127
128
129
129
130
130
131
131
133
133
134
137
138
140
C onclusions............. ..................................................................
Recommendations.............................................................................
Recommendations fo r Future Research.........................
Recommendations fo r P ra c tic e .............................................
140
149
149
152
REFERENCES CITED..............................................................................................
155
APPENDICES
A.
CORRESPONDENCE WITH COUNTY EXTENSION PERSONNEL......................
169
B.
MAP OF PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATIONPROGRAM BY
DISTRICT................ ..................... •..................................................... .
174
PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION; QUESTIONS:
.176
C.
SAFETY..........................
v iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS—Continued
■ Page
D.
E.
ATTITUDE TOWARD MANDATORY PESTICIDE EDUCATION/
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY SCALE (AMPE-ISS)...................................
179
GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE (GIQ)...................................
182
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
Page
Categories as an organizing framework fo r
overview o f a d u lt education o rg a n iz a tio n s ............................
22
P esticide a p p lic a to r re q u a lific a tio n
schedule by county s i t e .................................................................
109
3.
Breakdown by county o f population number................................
109
4.
Frequencies and percentages fo r demographic
c h a ra c te ris tic s o f 654 p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs .
D is t r ic t V, Montana...................
120
Contingency ta b le showing re la tio n s h ip
between in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and age.......... .........................
121
2.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Contingency ta b le showing re la tio n s h ip
between in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and level o f
education completed...................................................
Contingency ta b le showing re la tio n s h ip
between in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and years
in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program................................
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r response to the question:
I f the p e s tic id e education program had NOT
been mandated by Montana law, would you have
attended a program o f th is type v o lu n ta r ily ? ..-.......................
1
122
123
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r response to the question:
Do you th in k a p e s tic id e education program
such as you are p a rtic ip a tin g in should be
le g is la tiv e ly mandated?.............................................................
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r response to questions
regarding the appropriateness o f stra teg y
received (le c tu re or small group discussion)
124
125
X
• LIST OF TABLES— C o n tin u e d
Table
Page
11.
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r response, to questions
regarding ro le played by experience..................................
12.
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r response to questions
regarding use o f supportive m a te ria ls .......... .....................
13.
Means and standard deviation s fo r dependent
v a ria b le o f lea rn in g outcome by tre atm e nt........................ . . .
127
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and a ttitu d e toward'
mandatory p e s tic id e education and main
e ffe c ts among le ve ls o f independent v a r ia b le s ...............
128
Two-way ANOVA
in s tru c tio n a l
in s tru c tio n a l
e ffe c ts among
determ ining in te ra c tio n between
stra te g y and a ttitu d e toward
stra te g y received and main
le v e ls o f independent v a ria b le s ................ . . .
129
Mean scores fo r main e ffe c t o f a ttitu d e
toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y re ceived.............................. . . .
130
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and age and main
e ffe c ts among le v e ls o f independent v a ria b le s ................ . . .
131
14.
. 15.
16.
17.
18.
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and le ve l o f education
completed and main e ffe c ts among le ve ls o f
independent v a r iab les........ .................................................. .
19.
Mean scores fo r main e ffe c t o f le ve l o f
education completed......................................................... ........
20.
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and years in the
p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program and main
e ffe c ts among le ve ls o f independent v a ria b le s ................ . . .
21.
C o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts between the dependent
and independent va ria b le s plus in te r-c o rre la tio n s
between independent v a ria b le s ...............................................
134
xi
LIST OF TABLES—Continued
Table
22.
Page
Stepwise m u ltip le regression fo r e n try o f s ix
independent v a ria b le s ................................................. ...................
139
xi i
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Page
Conceptual framework fo r mandatory, a d u lt
education w ith emphasis onc re d e n tia lin g ...............................
37
Systems design approach fo r developing
in s tr u c tio n .......................
82
Communication p a tte rn represented by
small group d is c u s s io n ,...................................................
93
Communication p a tte rn represented by
form alized teaching method o f le c tu re ......................................
93
Map o f p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program
by d i s t r i c t . .................................................
175
xiii
ABSTRACT
The prim ary purpose o f the study was an in v e s tig a tio n o f the
te a ch in g -le a rn in g tra n sa ctio n by determ ining the e ffe c t o f selected
in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s on lea rn in g outcome o f a d u lts e n ro lle d in a
le g is la tiv e ly mandated p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
A ttitu d e s
and selected personal d e scrip to rs which might a ffe c t le a rning outcome
were also examined.
The population fo r the study was 654 p riv a te p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs
applying fo r re lic e n s in g .
Ranging in age from 16 to 83, the p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to rs represented D is t r ic t V o f the Montana P e sticid e R e c e r tifi­
ca tio n Program, encompassing 11 counties.
The r e c e r tific a tio n program was comprised o f a s ix -h o u r block o f
in s tru c tio n which included seven c r it e r ia deemed necessary in order to
be licensed to purchase and apply re s tric te d -u s e compounds. The f i f t h
c r it e r ia , P e sticide S afety, served as the subject m atter content fo r
the development o f the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s id e n tifie d as le c tu re ,
representing a pedagogical methodology, and small group discussion,
re p re s e n tin g an andragogical methodology.
Upon conclusion o f the
s a fe ty in s tr u c tio n , p a rtic ip a n ts were asked to complete three data
c o lle c tio n instrum ents, which included a measure o f le a rn in g outcome,
an a ttitu d in a l scale, and a general inform ation questionnaire ascer­
ta in in g personal d e s c rip to rs .
S ixty-seven percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts would have p a rtic ip a te d
v o lu n t a r ily had th e program not been le g is la tiv e ly mandated; 45%
in d ica te d th e ir agreement in favor o f a le g is la tiv e ly mandated program.
N in e ty -fo u r percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts were favorable to the stra te g y
th e y re c e iv e d w h ile 80% ind ica ted th e ir p r io r experience did not
e lim in a te the need fo r the sa fe ty in fo rm a tio n . S ig n ific a n t diffe re n ce s
were found to e x is t fo r the independent v a ria b le o f in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y , w ith mean scores on le a rn in g outcome higher fo r the group
re c e iv in g th e le c tu r e s tr a te g y .
The group having completed an
education leve l o f 13 to 16 years demonstrated a s ig n if ic a n tly higher
score on lea rn in g outcome. In a d d itio n , learning outcome was s i g n if i ­
c a n tly r e la te d to th e two a t t it u d e v a r ia b le s .
A ttitu d e toward
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received accounted fo r 58% o f the variance in
lea rn in g outcome.
S e rvice providers o f one-tim e, mandated educational a c t iv it ie s
need to consider the lea rn in g environment, a ttitu d e s o f the le a rn e r,
and personal d e s c rip to rs , e s p e c ia lly age and level o f education, when
s e le c tin g in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s .
Experience o f the learner should
also be considered as an im portant v a ria b le .
I
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background
Subtle but s ig n ific a n t changes in the sequence o f major tr a n s i­
tio n s in people's liv e s are responsible fo r the increasing numbers o f
adults
B ric k e ll
engaged in
some form o f
(1980) c ite
reasons to I earn.
life
le a rn in g
experience.
Aslanian
and
changes — past, present, and fu tu re — as
Cross (1981) id e n tifie s the e ffe c ts o f technology,
social and economic changes, p o lit ic a l developments, and the increasing
amount o f a v a ila b le info rm a tion as impetus fo r adults to seek out and
p a rtic ip a te in le a rn in g o p p o rtu n itie s o f a ll types.
A s p e c ific issue
o f concern o rig in a tin g from social and p o lit ic a l pressures, id e n tifie d
as m andatory
e d u c a tio n ,
c e r t i f i e d - li c e n s i n g ,
s h o rt-te rm
a n d /o r
le g is la t iv e ly
has
r e c e r tific a tio n ,
o n e -tim e
mandated
r e c e r tific a tio n ,
in s ta n c e s ,
e xa m in a tio n
fo r
such
p r io r
a v a r ie t y
th e
of
need
fo r
a c t iv it ie s .
program s,
re q u ire
to
the
and continuing
e d u c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n a l
a p p lic a to r
accommodate
in flu e n c e d
such
p a r t ic ip a t io n
issuance o f
e x is tin g
lic e n s in g ,
education
Furthermore,
as
and,
p e s tic id e
in
a lic e n s e .
needs,
v ia
some
To
organizations
fo s te rin g the education o f adults are considered to be providers o f
formal and nonformal educational a c t iv it ie s
system o f le a rn in g resources.
as w ell as managers o f a
2
Numerous organizations p ro vid in g education fo r ad ults re a liz e th a t
very few a d u lt education e n terp rises in the United States are indepen­
dent.
Rather,
subordinate to ,
program o ffe rin g s
are u s u a lly a p a rt o f,
some la rg e r e n te rp ris e .
and often
The a d u lt education programs
o ffe re d a t the county leve l by the Montana State U n iv e rs ity Extension
Service,
federal
fo r
example,
p a rtne rship
behavior,
are an in te g ra l
w ith
e va lu a tio n ,
p a rt o f a county,
expectations
at
a ll
and a c c o u n ta b ility .
le v e ls
s ta te ,
fo r changes
In more s p e c ific
and
in
terms,
education is the prim ary mission o f the Cooperative Extension Service
(CES).
of
As stated in Extension in the 'SO's (United States Department
A g ric u ltu re /N a tio n a l
A ssociation
of
State
U n iv e rs itie s
and Land
Grant Colleges [USDA/NASULGC], 1983, p. 2 ), the mission is "to improve
a g ric u ltu re
and strengthen American fa m ilie s
and communities through
the dissem ination and a p p lic a tio n o f research-generated knowledge and
leadership techniques."
as an educational
To ca rry out th is m ission, the CES is designed
resource fo r the people o f the United States fo r
extending research re s u lts and advances in technology.
CES plan o f a ctio n
is
an aggressive
inform ation
C r itic a l to the
and communications
program, targeted toward s p e c ific needs and concerns, in c lu d in g :
(1)
The improvement o f the in te rn a l and external v i s i b i l i t y
o f the agency and it s educational programs, and
(2)
The org a n iza tio n serving as a c a ta ly s t and focal p o in t
fo r the development and adoption o f new communication
te c h n o lo g ie s
and a lte r n a tiv e s
methods (USDA/NASULGC, 1983).
to
serve
as d e liv e ry
3
Of c r i t i c a l concern to the Extension Service is th a t a ll partners
in the system seek to enhance the educational mission o f the organiza­
tio n by implementing "appropriate s tra te g ie s bnd technologies w it h 'tiiose
partners
in
the
system in clu d in g
educators o f a d u lts .
In d iv id u a ls
dealing w ith a d u lt populations are, th e re fo re , confronted w ith the need
fo r a decision-m aking process designed to :
a t the county le v e l,
(a) id e n tify program need
(b) develop program in s tru c tio n to meet th a t need
a t both the county and s ta te le v e ls , and (c) implement evaluation and
a c c o u n ta b ility a t county, s ta te , and federal le v e ls .
W ithin the Cooperative Extension Service o rg a n iza tio n a l s tru c tu re ,
i t is the a d u lt educator's re s p o n s ib ility to design and/or develop the
lea rn in g experience in a manner th a t is appropriate fo r acq uiring the
needed
in fo rm a tio n ,
knowledge,
or
s k ills .
Personnel,
however,
faced w ith a dilemma not uncommon to many educators o f a d u lts :
being unprepared
m eeting
a d u lt
e v a lu a tio n
fo r
designing
I e a rn e r
of
th e
le a rn in g
ta r g e t
a u dien ce,
th a t o f
experiences appropriate
needs' and o b je c tiv e s .
Therefore,
educational
need,
are
fo r
ca re fu l
purpose o f
le a rning experience, sub ject-m atte r content, and le a rn in g is c r i t i c a l .
In a d d itio n , c h a ra c te ris tic s id e n tify in g diverse le a rn e r p a rtic ip a tio n
such as mandatory attendance,
a c tiv ity ,
p o lit ic a l
one-time
in v o lv e m e n t,
or
exposure to
p re v io u s
the educational
experience
provide
pressure fo r the a d u lt educator to develop s tra te g ie s and methodologies
appropriate fo r meeting lea rne r needs.
It
o rg a n iz a tio n s
e d u ca tio n
a ttitu d e s
as
p ro v id e rs
of
a d u lt
is
im portant,
then,
c o n s id e r
th a t
lea rne r
toward the lea rning environment, m o tiva tin g fa c to rs toward
p a r tic ip a tio n ,
and
p e rs o n a l
d e s c rip to rs
such
as
the
c u r re n t
4
developm ental
s ta g e ,
e d u c a tio n
le v e l,
and
life s ty le
commitment.
Awareness o f such fa c to rs may c o n trib u te s ig n ific a n tly to the d e cisio n ­
making
process
by
educators
as they design,
develop,
manage,
and
implement in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s fo r the a d u lt le a rn e r.
In a d d itio n to I earner d iv e r s ity , considerations a llo w in g fo r the
effe ctive n e ss o f the te a ch in g -le a rn in g tra n s a c tio n are also o f concern
to
th e
e d u ca to r
assumptions
of
of
the
a d u lts .
An understanding
andragogical
and pedagogical
of
the
conceptual
models o f
lea rn in g
suggest th a t the a d u lt educator must be cognizant o f the p a rt each
model plays in the o v e ra ll educative process.
Special a tte n tio n must
be d ire c te d toward the i n i t i a l assumption underlying both andragogy and
pedagogy:
Andragogy is a normal aspect o f the process o f m aturation
fo r a person to move from dependency toward increasing
s e lf-d ire c te d n e s s , a t d iffe r e n t rates and in d iffe r e n t
dimensions o f l i f e (Knowles, 1980, p.. 43).
In comparison, Knowles also describes the i n i t i a l
assumption re le va n t
to pedagogy as fo llo w s :
The ro le o f the lea rne r is , by d e fin itio n , a dependent
one.
The teacher is expected by socie ty to take f u l l
re s p o n s ib ility fo r determ ining what is to be learned,
when i t is to be learned, and i f i t has been learned
(Knowles, 1980, p. 43).
T r a d itio n a lly , the fu n ctio n o f the teacher or educator has been to
teach and the stu d e n t's ro le has been a r e la tiv e ly passive one.
The
approach, believed to re s u lt in a degree o f p a s s iv ity by the student,
is
in c o n f lic t w ith the humanistic philosophy imparted in andragogy,
whereby the
teacher takes
on the
ro le o f
fa c ilita to r ,
te c h n ic ia n .
5
resource person, c o -in q u ire r, or c a ta ly s t, ra th e r than an expert in the
dissem ination o f info rm a tion (Knowles, 1980).
The implementation o f andragogy, as an in s tru c tio n a l methodology,
in to the a d u lt education process suggests th a t i t
is im portant fo r the
educator to remember th a t each group o f learners is unique and th a t
each
in d iv id u a l
in
the
group
is
unique.
A procedure or
stra te g y
s u ita b le fo r one group o f learners may be in a p p ro p ria te fo r another
group.
Educators o f ad ults must be s e n s itiv e to the fa c t th a t they are
working w ith a wide v a rie ty o f people, th a t s tra te g ie s are im portant,
and th a t the appropriate se le c tio n and use o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s
can mean th e
d iffe r e n c e
education th a t:
between
in e ffe c tiv e
a d u lt
(a) a c tiv e ly involves the le a rn e r,
education
and
(b) stim ulates the
lea rne r to seek more knowledge, and (c) achieves the s p e c ific goals fo r
which the stra te g y was designed.
Research re la te d
to the design and d e liv e ry o f in s tru c tio n
e s ta b lis h e d ,a know!edge-base
in v e s tig a tio n
of
Gagne1, 1977).
v a rio u s
th a t
in s t r u c t io n a l
p ra ctice s
"The in s tru c tio n a l
in t e r r e la t e d
components
p ro v id e s
in s tr u c tio n a l
Media,
w ith
system is
fu n c tio n in g
th e
id e n tifie d
d e c is io n
as
re g a rd in g
toward
(Gage & B e rlin e r,
system is
purpose" '(Hannum & B riggs, 1982, p. 9 ).
movement
has
the
1979;
viewed as composed o f
together
to
achieve a
A s p e c ific component o f the
In s tru c tio n a l
how the
S trategies
in s tru c tio n
w ill
and
be
conducted based upon evidence re la te d to the e ffe ctive n e ss o f various
methods and media.
in s t r u c t io n a l
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s
Emphasis is placed upon the s e le c tio n and use o f
s tr a te g ie s
of
the
a p p ro p ria te
I e a rn e rs ,
to
the
le a rn in g
tasks
w ith in
the
c o n s tra in ts
of
and
the
6
s itu a tio n ,
s tra te g y
:
re in fo rc in g the idea th a t there is
fo r
a ll
in s tr u c tio n . .
Rather,
no one best medium or
decisions
re le va n t to
the
se le c tio n o f the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y should be based upon considera­
tio n o f the nature o f the o b je c tiv e to be met, c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the
s tu d e n ts ,
and
stra te g y fo r
e m p iric a l
evidence
the type o f le a rning
about the
e ffe ctive n e ss
of
the
involved and the type o f student
(Cronbach & Snow, 1977).
Statement o f the Problem
The prim ary purpose o f the study was to in v e s tig a te the teaching­
lea rn in g tra n sa ctio n
t io n a l
s tr a te g ie s
by determ ining the e ffe c t o f selected
on
le a rn in g
outcome o f
a d u lts
in s tru c ­
e n ro lle d
le g is la tiv e ly mandated p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
in
a
Secondary to
the major purpose was the in v e s tig a tio n o f fa c to rs which might a ffe c t
le a rn in g
outcome,
s p e c ific a lly ,
a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e
education, a ttitu d e toward the in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received, and the
personal d e scrip to rs o f age, leve l o f education completed, and year in
r e c e r tific a tio n program.
Given the d iv e r s ity o f a d u lt le a rn e rs, the conceptual framework o f
andragogy and pedagogy characterized as methods o f in s tr u c tio n , and the
nature o f a le g is la tiv e ly
mandated p e s tic id e
education program,
problem o f th is study was th re e -fo ld :
(I)
To determine i f a d iffe re n c e e x is ts in le a rn in g outcome
between two groups o f p a rtic ip a n ts re ce ivin g educational
in fo rm a tion by le c tu re o r small group discussion w hile
both are e n ro lle d in a le g is la tiv e ly mandated program.
the
7
(2)
To determine
if
and person al
c o m p le te d ,
in te r a c t
the independent varia bles o f a ttitu d e
d e s c rip to rs
and years
w ith
in
(age,
of
education
r e c e r tific a tio n
program)
in s t r u c t io n a l
le v e l
s tra te g y
re c e iv e d
on
lea rn in g outcome.
(3)
To determine i f
a re la tio n s h ip e x is ts between learning
outcome and:
(a)
in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y ;
(b)
a ttitu d e toward mandatory p e s tic id e education;
(c)
a t t it u d e
toward
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
received;
and
(d)
the personal d e scrip to rs o f age, level o f education
completed, and years in p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n
program.
S ig n ifica n ce o f the Study
Findings from the study c o n trib u te to several broad educational
areas.
The f i r s t fo u r c o n trib u tio n s are re le van t to the knowledge-base
in the f ie ld
o f a d u lt education, w hile the la s t three re la te to the
p ra c tic e o f educating a d u lts .
The f i r s t c o n trib u tio n is the stre n g th ­
ening o f the assumptions underlying pedagogy and andragogy as models o f
lea rning appropriate fo r both c h ild re n and a d u lts .
U n til
p a rt o f the 1980‘ s,
in
a d u lt
e d u c a tio n
a large p a rt o f the lite r a tu r e
advocated the
s e le c tio n
the e a rly
the f ie ld
o f one s p e c ific
model
of
of
assumptions, coined "andragogy," to be used as th& conceptual framework
fo r teaching a d u lts .
The model advocated a c o lla b o ra tiv e , f a c i l i t a t i v e
8
mode o f in s tru c tio n .
lit e r a t u r e ,
The a lte rn a tiv e , presented as a dichotomy in the
was pedagogy,
a teacher-centered
approach t r a d it io n a lly
used as a methodology fo r teaching c h ild re n .
However,
in the la te
1970's, Knowles recanted andragogy's exclusive a p p lic a tio n fo r a d u lts ,
suggesting th a t the implementation o f andragogy and pedagogy should be
c o n te x tu a lly determined.
In 1980, viewing andragogy as one in s tru c ­
tio n a l methodology, Knowles redefines the implementation o f the model,
suggesting th a t andragogy is :
. . . simply another model o f assumptions about learners
to be used alongside the pedagogical model o f assump­
t io n s , th e re b y p ro v id in g two a lte rn a tiv e models fo r
te s t in g o u t the assum ptions as to th e ir ' f i t ' w ith
p a rtic u la r s itu a tio n s (1980, p. 43).
Lindsay
(1984)
suggests th a t there are s im ila r it ie s
and diffe re n ce s
between pedagogical and andragogical p ra c tic e and th a t recommendations
also e x is t w ith in andragogical p ra c tic e which, upon te s tin g , w ill need
m o d ific a tio n
if
th e r e fo r e ,
to
s tr a te g ie s
and
not
abandonment.
explore
in d ic a to rs
" r e p e r to ir e s "
teachers o f ad ults use.
to
these
know how these
A d d itio n a l
— of
fu rth e r,
thought
to
as w ell
is
needed,
determine what
as action
—
Lindsay (1984, p. 5) suggests, "We s t i l l need
s tra te g ie s
and re p e rto ire s
lea rne r m o tivation and c a p a b ilitie s ,
examination o f in s tru c tio n a l
p e rs p e c tiv e s
in te ra c t w ith
a d u lt
in terms o f both achievement and
s a tis fa c tio n w ith the lea rning experience."
pedagogical
research
In the present study, the
s tra te g ie s representing andragogical
c o n trib u te
to
the
s u b s ta n tia tio n
of
and
the
i*
statement posed by Knowles re le van t to the f i t
le a rn in g
s it u a t io n .
The fin d in g s
help
in
o f the model to the
the
c la r ify in g
of
the
appropriateness o f an in s tru c tio n a l method by a d u lt educators, based on
9
an understanding o f the ru ra l a d u lt le a rn e r, the context in which the
lea rning takes place, the le a rning environment, and the a ttitu d e toward
the in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received. .
Since
I e a rn e r's
few re c e h t stud ies have d ire cte d e ffo r ts to the ru ra l
'
i
educational needs or th e ir focus on lea rn in g a c t iv it ie s
(McCannon, 1983), a sdcond c o n trib u tio n o f the study is the a d d itio n o f
demographic
C u rr e n tly ,
lim ite d
and
a t t it u d i n a l
designers
by a dearth
of
of
ru ra l
data
re le v a n t
to
the
ru ra l
postsecondary education
info rm a tion about ru ra l
lea rne r.
programs
a d u lts '
are
educational
in te re s ts , c h a ra c te ris tic s , m o tiva tio n s, and p a rtic ip a tio n pa tte rn s, as
little
a tte n tio n has been paid to the educational needs o f ru ra l adults
beyond the emphasis on i l l i t e r a c y in the 1970‘ s (Treadway, 1984).
a d d itio n ,
Dubin
(1972)
has c ite d a 35-year
info rm a tion
gap in
In
the
understanding o f le a rn in g by a d u lts , lea rning th a t occurs between the
ages o f 30 and 65.
The present study co n trib u te s needed data re le van t
to lo c a tio n o f residence, a c c e s s ib ility o f educational o ffe rin g s , age,
and yea rs
a d d itio n a l
of
form al
e d u c a tio n .
These data can help
to
provide
info rm a tion fo r e s ta b lis h in g a p r o file o f the ru ra l learner
in a mandatory educational s e ttin g .
A th ir d c o n trib u tio n is found in the a d d itio n o f data relevant to
ru ra l
I e a rne r
education.
a t t it u d e s
toward
e d u c a tio n ,
s p e c ific a lly
mandatory
Adolph and Whaley '(1967, p. 152) suggest:
An in d iv id u a l's favorable or unfavorable a ttitu d e s toward
the idea o f a d u lt education may in p a rt aid him in making
decisions to support or re je c t a d u lt education programs.
I t is o f in te re s t then fo r professional a d u lt educators
to in v e s tig a te the a ttitu d e s toward a d u lt education o f
various socia l groupings as p a r tia l in d ic a tio n o f support
fo r a d u lt education programs.
10
With, minimal
go ve rn in g
research
p o lic ie s ,
th e
in to
the area o f mandatory education and
fin d in g s
o f t h e ' study c o n trib u te
decision-making process by the governing agency,
the a d u lt educator.
to
the
a d m in is tra tio n ,
and
This study is the f i r s t attempt in the h is to ry o f
the le g is la tiv e ly mandated Montana P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Program to
asce rtain p riv a te a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e toward the mandated program.
a d d itio n ,
In
info rm a tion can be provided to the Montana le g is la tu re fo r
use in id e n tify in g the fu tu re need, a ttitu d e , and success o f le g is la ­
t iv e ly mandated programs.
A fo u r th
id e n t if ie d
b e n e f it
the
stu d y
as the Montana State
a d m in is tra to r s
methods,
of
and
are
to
s k ills
order
to
U n iv e rs ity
add d o lla rs
in
is
to
fo r
th e
service
Extension
developing
provide
p ro vid e r,
Service.
If
new techniques,
a meaningful
educational
experience, research is c o n tin u a lly needed to id e n tify those in s tru c ­
tio n a l
s tr a te g ie s
s it u a t io n .
Data
which
from
are
the
most
a p p ro p ria te
present
e ffe ctive n e ss o f selected in s tru c tio n a l
outcome,
as
w e ll
as
study
fo r
id e n tify
the
in d ice s
s tra te g ie s v is -a - v is
a t t it u d e s , tow ard
the
in s tru c tio n a l
le a rn in g
of
the
learning
stra teg y
received.
A fifth
tio n a l
c o n trib u tio n o f the study re la te s to the area o f in s tru c ­
development, w ith s p e c ific a tte n tio n to using a systems design
model fo r the design o f the educational a c t iv it y .
model
provides
the o p p o rtu n ity
to
The use o f a systems
in v e s tig a te the te a ch in g -le a rn in g
tra n sa ctio n by observing the effe ctive n e ss o f the. model
based on an
id e n tifie d sequence o f s t e p s '( i. e . , id e n tific a tio n o f goal; o b je c tiv e s ,
lea rne r c h a ra c te ris tic s ,
and so on).
T r a d itio n a lly ,
in s tru c tio n has
11
been designed based on subject m atter content or te s t
items to
be
adm inistered, ra th e r than on an id e n tifie d educational goal and stated
o b je c tiv e s .
Also, a continued, c r itic is m in the in s tru c tio n a l develop­
ment lite r a tu r e re la te s to the lack o f em pirical research in v e s tig a tin g
the e ffe ctive n e ss o f e x is tin g in s tru c tio n a l models as compared w ith the
often p ra ctice d mode o f simply i n i t i a t in g
a new model.
This study's
implementation o f an e x is tin g systems model adds to e x is tin g data.
General Questions to Be Answered
Given a le g is la tiv e ly mandated p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program,
th is
study sought to answer seven major questions.
questions is
The order o f the
based on the presentation o f the fin d in g s ,
as noted in
Chapter 4.
(1 ) . What is
the a ttitu d e o f ru ra l a d u lt learners toward a
le g is la tiv e ly mandated educational program?(2)
What is the a ttitu d e o f ru ra l a d u lt learners toward the
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received?
(3)
Do the va ria b le s o f a ttitu d e and personal
(age,
le v e l
of
e d u c a tio n
r e c e r tific a tio n
in te r a c t
w ith
program)
le a rn in g
com pleted,
of
the
ru ra l
d e scripto rs
and years
a d u lt
in
I earner
outcome
and
in s t r u c t io n a l
s tra te g y
implemented make a
. stra te g y implemented?
■■
(4)
■■
Does
th e
in s t r u c t io n a l
d iffe re n c e in lea rn in g outcome o f p a rtic ip a n ts ?
(5T
Do re la tio n s h ip s e x is t between the lea rning outcome o f
a d u lt s
e n r o lle d
in
a m andatory
program
and
the
12
in d e p e n d e n t, v a r ia b le s ' o f
in s t r u c t io n a l
s tr a te g y ,
a ttitu d e s o f the p a rtic ip a n ts , and personal de scrip to rs
o f the learner?
( 6)
Do in t e r - e o r r e l a tio n ( s )
v a r ia b le s
of
e x is t
among the
in s t r u c t io n a l " s tra te g y ,
independent
a ttitu d e ,
and
personal descriptors?
(7)
What
is
th e
r e la t iv e
c o n tr ib u tio n
of
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y , a ttitu d e , and the personal d e scrip to rs to the
variance in the dependent v a ria b le o f lea rn in g outcome?
General Procedures
The researcher made c o n ta c t.w ith the Associate D ire c to r fo r the
Montana S ta te
U n iv e r s ity
Extension S ervice,
seeking
permission
to
conduct the study w ith the assistance o f the Montana county extension
a g e n ts /'
Upon re ce ivin g
approval.,
names o f county agent personnel,
designated as providers o f the 1987 D is t r ic t V p e s tic id e r e c e r t if ic a ­
tio n program, were obtained.
the
researcher's
presented
d u rin g
request
th e
An inform al discussion o f the study and
fo r 'assistance
D is tr ic t
from county personnel
V p e s tic id e
r e c e r tific a tio n
were
agent
tra in in g session in December 1986. ■ In a d d itio n , a te n ta tiv e schedule
o f counties
p ro vid in g p e s tic id e
r e c e r tific a tio n
programs during 1987
was obtained.
Formal contact by the researcher w ith personnel from each o f the
counties p ro vid in g r e c e r tific a tio n programs was made by le t t e r during
January
1987
(Appendix
A) /
Im plem entation
of
the
in s tru c tio n a l
program, id e n tifie d as p e s tic id e s a fe ty , was included in each o f the
13
six-h o u r p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n programs held during the months o f
February, March, and A p ril o f 1987.
The data needed fo r the study were
c o lle c te d upon completion o f the p o rtio n o f the in s tru c tio n a l program
re le van t to p e s tic id e s a fe ty.
Lim itation's and D e lim ita tio n s
L im ita tio n s
of
the
study,
id e n tifie d
as the
p a rtic u la r number or fa c to r, and d e lim ita tio n s o f
the
s e ttin g
of
lim it s ,
are
lis te d
numbered items one through fo u r;
below.
r e s tr ic tio n
County s ite s
The lim ita tio n s include
the d e lim ita tio n s
include
numbered
involved in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n
program d e liv e ry were assigned a selected in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y
small
by the
researcher,
group discussion,
p a r t ic ip a n t s
w ith
county f a c i l i t i e s
id e n tifie d
as le c tu re or
as compared to p roviding
a s tra te g y
o f choice.
the
A vailab le
re s tric te d the number o f small groups
th a t could be accommodated in the small group discussion
form at.
(2)
A ll
subjects
comprising the
population
were asked to
p a rtic ip a te v o lu n ta r ily in the study; some subjects may
have chosen not to p a rtic ip a te , thus lim itin g the use o f
the e n tire population applying fo r r e c e r tific a tio n .
(3)
An instrum ent fo r measuring lea rn in g outcome s p e c ific ­
a lly , re le va n t to the P esticide Safety c r it e r ia was not
a v a ila b le .
a
the study, noted as
items fiv e and s ix .
(1)
to
The researcher was, th e re fo re ,
lim ite d to
14
questions measuring le a rning outcome extracted from the
o r ig in a l
Montana
P riv a te
A p p lic a to r
R e c e rtific a tio n
Examination.
(4)
Although
consistency
in
format and content was b u ilt
in to the in s tru c tio n a l design and in s tru c tio n a l stra teg y
using a systems design model, p e rs o n a lity c h a ra c te ris ­
t ic s o f the in d iv id u a ls d e liv e rin g and p a rtic ip a tin g in
the dissem ination process may have va rie d .
(5)
The study has as i t s only focus the p e s tic id e r e c e r ti­
fic a tio n program in D is t r ic t V o f the s ta te o f Montana.
(6)
The stu d y
was
d e lim ite d
to
o n ly
those
a p p lic a to rs
applying fo r re lice n su re in Montana during the months o f
February, March, and A p ril o f 1987. .
D e fin itio n o f Terms
For the purpose o f th is study, the fo llo w in g terms are defined
(1)
A dult Education — A set o f organized a c t iv it ie s c a rrie d
on by a wide v a rie ty o f in s titu tio n s fo r the accomplish­
ment o f s p e c ific educational o b je c tiv e s .
[ I t is ] a process th a t is used by adults fo r th e ir
s e lf development, both alone and w ith o th e rs, and
i t is used by in s titu tio n s o f a ll kinds fo r the
g ro w th and development o f t h e ir em ployees,
members, and c lie n t s .
I t "is ah educational
process th a t is often used in combination w ith
p ro d u c tio n processe s, p o l i t i c a l processes, or
service processes (Knowles, 1980, p. 25).
(2)
Andragogy
id e n t if y in g
--
A model
th e
of
concept
assumptions
of
the
about
le a rn e r
learners
as a s e lf
15
d ire c tin g one, the ro le of- the le a rn e r's experience as
cum ulative, readiness to learn based on a need to learn,
and an o r ie n ta tio n
a p p lic a tio n .
to
lea rn in g
as one o f
immediate
Andragogy represents a body o f theory and
p ra c tic e on which s e lf-d ire c te d learning is based.
(3)
A ttitu d e
Toward
In s tru c tio n a l
q u e s tio n n a ire
M a n d a to ry
S trategy Scale
designed
to
P e s t ic id e
(AMPE-ISS)
id e n tify ,
E d u c a tio n -
— An 11-item
by L ik e rt
scale
form at, a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e toward a mandatory p e s tic id e
. e d u ca tio n
program
stra te g y received.
and a ttitu d e
toward
in s tru c tio n a l
Questions numbered 3 and 10 were
designed to id e n tify a ttitu d e toward mandatory p e s tic id e
education.
and
Questions numbered I ,
11 were
designed
to
2, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8, 9,
id e n tify
a t t it u d e
toward
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received.
(4)
Case Study Format — A v a ria tio n o f small group discus­
sion ; a lea rn in g discussion beginning w ith consideration
of
a s p e c if ic
members
problem
or
"case"
exchange p e rc e p tio n s ,
about which
id e a s ,
and
group
possible,
so lu tio n s ( B r ilh a r t, 1982).
(5)
C e rtifie d A p p lic a to r — Id e n tifie s any in d iv id u a l who is
licensed and c e r tifie d or issued a special-use perm it to '
use or supervise the use o f any re s tric te d -u s e p e s tic id e
covered by h is /h e r c e r t if ic a t io n
o f 1986).
(Montana P esticide Act
16
(6)
Continuing Education — Formalized lea rning experiences
or sequences designed to enlarge the knowledge or s k ills
- o f p r a c titio n e rs .
These experiences
"tend to be more
s p e c ific , o f g e nerally sh o rte r d u ra tio n , and may re s u lt
in c e r tific a te s o f completion or s p e c ia liz a tio n , but not
in formal degrees" (R izzuto, 1982, p. 38).
(7)
Cooperative Extension Service — A system which i l l u s ­
tra te s a way in which s o c ie ty , through the national and
sta te
governments,
has established
re la tio n s h ip s
w ith
the in te re s ts o f in d iv id u a ls in local communities.
The
national a g ric u ltu ra l extension system represents one o f
the la rg e s t n o n p ro fit a d u lt education organizations in
the
U n ite d
S ta te s ,
w ith
the
education
o f America's
fa m ilie s i t s prim ary m ission.
(8)
General
In fo rm a tio n
Q u e s tio n n a ire
--
O p e ra tio n a lly
defined as an instrum ent designed to secure d e s c rip tiv e
in f o r m a t io n
in c lu d in g :
about
p r iv a t e
p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r s
age, le v e l. o f -education completed, years in
r e c e r tific a tio n program, years in county residence, and
a p p lic a to r s ta tu s.
(9)
In s tru c tio n a l Design — The e n tire process o f analysis
o f le a rning
needs, and goals and the development o f a
d e liv e ry system to meet the needs; includes development
of. in s tru c tio n a l
m a teria ls
and a c t iv it ie s ,
and try o u t
and re v is io n o f a ll in s tru c tio n a l and lea rne r assessment
a c t iv it ie s
(B riggs, 1977).
17
(10)
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy — A teaching method; a ve h icle
or
te c h n iq u e
d e s c rib e d
fo r
in s tr u c to r - s tu d e n t
by fo u r
cate go ries:
communication,
in s tru c to r-c e n te re d ,
in te ra c tiv e , in d iv id u a liz e d , and e x p e rie n tia l (Weston &
Cranton, 1986).
(11)
Lecture —
class"
"A discourse given before an audience or
(Penrose,
oral
and formal
w ith
th e
1981, p.
in
"a c a r e fu lly prepared
presentation by a q u a lifie d
purpose being
info rm a tion
12);
a d ire c t
the
presentation
and lo g ic a l
speaker"
of
manner
factual
(Cooper,
1982, p. 39).
(12) , Licensure — Defined by Bratton and Hildebrand (1980,
p. 22) as:
. . .
a mandatory legal requirement fo r c e rta in
professions in order to p ro te c t the. p u b lic from
incompetent p r a c titio n e rs .
Licensing procedures
are established or implemented by a p o lit ic a l
governing body th a t prescribes p ra c tic e w ith o u t a
Iice n se .
The re c ip ie n t o f the c re d e n tia l is the in d iv id u a l, not
a program.
(13) . Mandatory
A d u lt
mandated by:
law s,
(b)
membership,
E ducation
—
E ducation
which
is
(a) d ire c t re g u la tio n in s ta te I i censure
in d ir e c t
re g u la tio n
through
employment requirements,
c e r tific a te s ,
and
(R o c k h ill, 1983).
(c )
in fo rm a l
professional
and specialized
s o c ia l
s a n c tio n s
18
(14)
M andatory
C o n tin u in g
r e lic e n s u r e
or
p ro fe s s io n a l
r e c e r tific a tio n
and tra d e
considered^ to
general
Education
be more
professional
— The adoption
requirements
a s s o c ia tio n s
im p o rta n t
by many
(Long,
fo r
of
1983);
e s ta b lis h in g
standards th a t w ill
p ro te c t the
h e a lth , sa fe ty , and w elfare o f the p u b lic .
(15)
Montana P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Program — An educa­
tio n a l
program
based
on
th e
Federal
In s e c tic id e ,
I
■
F u n g icid e
and ■R odenticide
Congress in
1972,
Act o f
re q u irin g
1947,
amended by
licensu re o f a p p lic a to rs
who use re s tric te d -u s e p e s tic id e s .
(16)
Pedagogy — A model o f assumptions about learners iden­
t if y in g the concept o f the lea rne r as a dependent one,
th e
r o le
of
th e
le a rn e r's
experience
as. o f
little
. worth, readiness to learn- organized in to a standardized
c u rric u lu m ,
centered.
and o r ie n t a t io n
to
I earn
as
su b je c t-
Pedagogy , represents the body o f theory and
p ra c tic e on which te a ch e r-d ire cte d learning is based.
(17)
P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Exam; Safety (PRES) -'- Opera­
tio n a lly
d e fin e d
as .a 2 0 -ite m ,
re le va n t to the c r it e r ia
fie d
forced-choice
te s t
o f P esticide S afety, id e n ti­
as P ro te ctive C lothing and P ro te ctive Equipment.
The t e s t
is
designed to
measure the
knowledge-base
deemed necessary by the Environmental P rote ction Agency
and the Montana P esticide Task Force in the safe use o f
re s tric te d -u s e compounds.
19
(18)
P r a c tic a l
fa c ts
Knowledge — The possession
and the
s p e c if ic
a b i li t y
problems
to
use them in
and s itu a tio n s
o f p e rtin e n t
dealing
w ith
(Montana P esticide
Act o f 1986).
(19)
P riva te A p p lic a to r (Farm/Ranch A p p lic a to r) — A farmer
or rancher who applies or supervises the a p p lic a tio n of
re s tric te d p e s tic id e (s ) fo r the production o f a g ric u l­
tu ra l commodities on p ro p e rty owned or rented or as an
exchange o f services on another p riv a te
p rope rty.
a p p lic a to r's
P riva te a p p lic a to rs must be relicensed every
fiv e years by acq uiring a d d itio n a l hours o f tra in in g or
by w ritte n examination.
(20)
Rural — A residence, on a farm, in open countryside, or
in areas o f fewer than 2500 re sid e n ts; also includes
in d iv id u a ls
liv in g
in
areas o f
extended c it ie s
w ith
p o p u la tio n density o f less than 1000 persons per square
m ile (CRESS-NOTES, 1983/1984).
(21)
Small
Group Discussion
— A small
group o f
persons
ta lk in g to each other fa c e -to -fa c e in order to achieve
a goal,
such as increased understanding or a s o lu tio n
. to a shared problem ( B r ilh a r t, 1982). .
(22)
System - -
"An
in te g ra te d
plan
,
o f operation
o f a ll
components (sub-systems), o f a system, designed to solve
a problem o r meet a need" (B riggs, 1977, p. 6 ).
T
i
i
20
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The prim ary purpose o f th is
study was the in v e s tig a tio n o f the
te a ch in g -le a rn in g tra n sa ctio n follow ed by the determ ination o f fa c to rs
which might a ffe c t le a rning outcome in a mandatory s e ttin g .
The review
o f lite r a tu r e chapter includes fo u r major areas ce n tra l to the purpose
o f the study:
(a) an overview o f service providers o f a d u lt education,
w ith s p e c ific a tte n tio n to the national Cooperative Extension Service;
(b) mandatory or compulsory a d u lt education w ith
toward governmental
a tte n tio n
d ire cted
and/or le g is la tiv e ly mandated lic e n s in g programs;
(c) assumptions underlying conceptual models o f le a rn in g , id e n tifie d as
andragogy and pedagogy, w ith
emphasis d ire cte d toward the models as
methods o f in s tr u c tio n ; and (d) in s tru c tio n a l design lite r a tu r e as i t
re la te s
to
the te a ch in g -le a rn in g ' tra n s a c tio n .
Special
a tte n tio n
is
d ire cte d toward systems design and the. selected in s tru c tio n a l s tra te ­
gies o f le c tu re and small group discussion.
Providers o f A dult Education
While the co m p a ra b ility o f fig u re s
regarding
numbers o f adults
p a r tic ip a tin g .in lea rn in g a c t iv it ie s d iffe r s from survey to survey, the
fa c t th a t the United States is becoming a nation o f ad ults is apparent.
Cross (1981) suggests th a t by the year 2000> the la rg e s t age group w ill
be 30 to 44 years old w ith a r is in g curve fo r adults 45 to 64 years o f
I
21
age.
For those
v a rie ty
of
e ffo rts
a d u lts ,
form ats,
to
in c re a s e ,
le a rning
process
as noted by .Tough
a c q u ire
can be defined by a
(1971),
knowledge or a s k i l l .
Darkenwald
conducted by the
the
and M erriam
Educational
(1982)
in c lu d in g
d e lib e ra te
As an example o f the
c ite
a n a tio n a l
survey
Testing Service which suggests th a t in
1972, one out o f every three adults
between the ages o f 18 and 60
p a rtic ip a te d in some form o f a d u lt education, in c lu d in g s e lf-e d u c a tio n .
Research re le va n t to p a rtic ip a tio n suggests th a t a d u lt education
is the most ra p id ly growing segment in a ll education, increasing by 17%
between 1978 and 1981 (Cross & McCartan, 1984).
fo r
Education S ta tis tic s
(1982)
estimates
The National Center
th a t in
1981,
21 m illio n
adults p a rtic ip a te d in some organized educational a c t iv it y , w ith nearly
s ix m illio n , or 28%, liv in g in ru ra l areas.
o f adults
The increase in the number
in the population accounts fo r nearly h a lf o f the growth,
w hile the. remaining h a lf is a ttrib u te d to the increased need and desire
o f adults to Team.
stemming
from
occupational
The need fo r life lo n g learning was id e n tifie d as
te c h n o lo g ic a l
and
s o c ia l
changes
obsolescence and the needs o f special
In s t it u t io n s
id e n tifie d
as
bu siness
and
p ro fe s s io n a l
o r g a n iz a t io n s ; = governm ental
organizations
provided
46% o f a l l
courses
in
a d d itio n
in te re s t groups.
in d u s tr y ,
agencies,
taken
to
la b o r
and
and community
by adults
in
1981
(Cross & McCartan, 1984).
Darkenwald
and Merriam
(1982)
describe
environments
of
a d u lt
le a rning and education w ith p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to in s titu tio n s
organizations p ro vid in g educational o p p o rtu n itie s fo r adults..
and
Types o f
lea rning environments are described as h ig h ly inform al to h ig h ly formal
22
w ith
th e
c o n n o ta tio n
system atic,
of
and sustained
in fo rm a lity
le a rning
representing
a c t iv it y
planned, or d ire cte d by an o rg a n iza tio n "
used by the authors
(p.
th a t
152).
"any purposeful,
is
not
sponsored,
Four categories
as an organizing framework fo r the overview o f
a d u lt education organizations are noted in Table I .
Table I .
Categories as an organizing framework fo r overview o f a d u lt
education org a n iza tio n s.
Agency Type
Categories
Educational
P ublic school a d u lt education
Community college
Four-year colleges and u n iv e rs itie s
Cooperative Extension Service
Non-Educational
Business and in d u s try
Government agencies
Armed forces
Unions
C orrectional in s titu tio n s
H ospitals
Trade associations
Chambers o f Commerce
Quasi-Educational
C u ltu ra l organizations
Community organizations
Occupational organizations
Independent Organizations
Community-based agencies
P ro p rie ta ry schools
External degree agencies
Also im portant to the f ie ld o f a d u lt education are those organiza­
tio n s n u rtu rin g and g iv in g d ire c tio n ,
in a d d itio n to the d e fin in g o f
the a d u lt educator ro le based on the organ ization al c lim a te .
za tio n o f organizations
from the a c t iv it ie s .
C ategori­
has been considered based upon who b e n e fits
One example o rig in a te s
from Blau and S c o tt's
23
(1962) cm bono typology which y ie ld s .a m odified version o f categories
p e rtin e n t to the d is tin c tiv e c lie n te le s in a d u lt education, in c lu d in g :
(a)
general
p u b lic
v o lu n te e rs );
Darkenwald
typology,
(c)
or some p o rtio n
members;
and Merriam
and
(d)
(1982)
o f it ';
(b)
c lie n ts ,
note the
employees
p a tie n ts ,
crudeness
of
or
(in c lu d in g
customers.
the m odified
but id e n tify the value o f such categories in the way they
correspond to major types o f p ro vid e r organizations ( e .g ., schools and
colleges, business and in d u s try , professional associations.).
o f both a d u lt education theory and p ra c tic e ,
As a p a rt
knowledge o f c lie n te le
categories provides an avenue fo r the id e n tific a tio n o f c h a ra c te ris ­
t ic s , which can u ltim a te ly play a ro le in d e fin in g goals and methods o f
a d u lt education, as w ell as the re s u ltin g program development process.
A problem
th a t
organizations
w ill
between formal
cen tere d
does e x is t,
fa ll
in to
and inform al
approaches,
and
education become confusing.
suggest the
education o f
p o s s ib ility
adults
as an example,
is
th a t many a d u lt
more than one category.
education,
t r a in in g
or
education
D is tin c tio n s
teacher-centered or le a rn e rp e rfo rm a n ce -o rie n te d
a d u lt
However, Knowles (1964) and Houle (1969)
o f a broad c la s s ific a tio n
playing
w ith in the o rg a n iza tio n .
however,
a prim ary,
secondary,
schema, w ith
or sole
the
fu n ctio n
The national Cooperative Extension Service,
serves as an educational
o rg a n iza tio n ,
w ith it s
sole
mission the dissem ination o f research-based educational inform ation to
the general p u b lic , w ith s p e c ific a tte n tio n to the broad program areas
o f a g ric u ltu re ,
home economics, community development, and youth.
discussion, o f the ru ra l
A
learner and the Cooperative Extension Service
24
fo llo w s
since the lea rne r category and organ ization play a c r i t i c a l
ro le in the context o f the cu rre n t study.
A dult Education and the Rural Learner
The Rural Scene in the United States
The geographic ru ra l areas in the United States are engaged in a
process
o f change.
Although, d is tin g u is h a b le
by a d ire c t
economic
dependence on resources o f the land, an immediate re la tio n s h ip between
the
social
and the
s q u a re .m ile ,
natural
environment,
and the presence o f
changes are apparent.
low population density per
sm all,
c lo s e ly
k n it
communities,
The continental, countryside contains more than
16,000 towns o f 15,000 or less population where more than 70 m illio n
people liv e
(McCannon, 1985).
However, Treadway (1984) suggests th a t
fewer than two m illio n o f the. 22 m illio n ru ra l people who are g a in fu lly
employed labor in a g ric u ltu re , fo re s try , or fis h e rie s .
Dominant demographic and economic conditions are associated w ith
being r u r a l.
Barker (1985) characterizes the ru ra l United States by an
a g ric u ltu re tr a d itio n ,
sparse popula tion,
and is o la tio n .
Also noted
are communities being long distances from goods and service s, c u ltu r ­
a lly homogeneous, and having minimal p u b lic tra n s p o rta tio n .
u su a lly fewer c u ltu ra l
o p p o r tu n ity
to
a ttra c tio n s ,
a ttra c t
fed era l
There are
lim ite d p u b lic service s, and less
and s ta te
funding
fo r
educational
programming.
The urban to
c u lt u r a l
fe d e ra l
ru ra l
arid economic
government
of
m ig ra tio n ,
fa c to rs ,
has
in
a d d itio n
increased
t h e . educational
to
the
needs o f
the d iv e rs ity
of
awareness by the
the
ru ra l
a d u lt,
25
in c lu d in g
a concern
Unemployment,
fo r
advances
e d u c a tio n a l
in
technology,
e q u ity
fo r
ru ra l
r e c e r tific a tio n
c itiz e n s .
requirements,
career changes, and the c o n tin u a lly growing knowledge base prevalent in
a changing so cie ty provide a very real need fo r ru ra l a d u lt learners to
continue th e ir education.
The
ru ra l
le a rn e r
in
an a g ric u ltu re
s e ttin g .
In
1974,
the
National Advisory Council on A dult Education suggested th a t the outlook
fo r the occupational group id e n tifie d as "a g ric u ltu re " was d e c lin in g .
S p e c if ic a lly ,
it
was noted th a t
farm work as an occupation would
decline by 48% between 1972 and 1985.
These fig u re s su b stan tiate the
projected decrease in a g ric u ltu re as an occupation from 37.5% in 1900
to 3.6% in 1973.
However, the mechanization o f a g ric u ltu re , improve­
ments in communications and tra n s p o rta tio n systems, in d u s tr ia liz a tio n ,
and the
grow ing
demand f o r
research
development,
s c ie n t if ic
and
technical experience, and ecological development have changed the face
of
the
fa rm e r
and
ra n c h e r.
Rural
a d u lts
are th e re fo re
tu rn in g
in c re a s in g ly to educational providers as a means o f accommodating fo r
needed change in th e ir liv e s . ,
Added
to
the
noted
s o c ie ta l
changes and expectations
consideration o f m o tivation behind the need fo r le a rn in g .
id e n t if ie s
le a r n in g :
a d u lt
learners
g o a l-o rie n te d
as having
w ith
three
types
of
the.
Houle (1961)
o rie n ta tio n
an emphasis on accomplishing
c le a r-c u t o b je c tiv e s ; a c tiv ity - o r ie n te d ,
is
to
f a ir ly
id e n tifie d as in d iv id u a ls who
take p a rt fo r reasons other than content; and le a rn in g -o rie n te d , those
who seek knowledge fo r i t s own sake.
Other researchers (Cross, 1981;
26
Knowles,
1980)
suggest th a t ad ults enter lea rning s itu a tio n s w ith a
p a rtic u la r focus in order to meet an immediate need.
Recent is o la te d studies in the lite r a tu r e propose the notion th a t
in the past, ru ra l a d u lt learners, have selected le a rning a c t iv it ie s fo r
reasons o f personal development ra th e r than fo r vocational advancement.
Again, however, w ith the increased need fo r c e r t if ic a t io n and lic e n s ­
ing, mandated continuing education requirements have been on the ris e
fo r
v a rio u s
o c c u p a tio n s ,
suggests
th a t m o tiva tio n
needs.
The
r e s u lta n t
in c lu d in g
to
pursue
c o n tin u in g
a g ric u ltu re .
lea rning
education
is
Treadway
driven
(1984)
by r e a l - l i f e
and tra in in g
a fte r
a
person's f i r s t formal round o f le a rn in g , th e re fo re , is takin g place at
more and more ju n cture s in a person's life tim e .
Residents
(1984)
of
ru ra l
as being o ld e r,
communities
are also
described
having fewer years o f formal
by Treadway
education,
and
having a tendency to be more a lik e than are people in large c it ie s .
With the number o f farm ers/ranchers d e c lin in g , the farm population is
l e f t w ith a h ig h ly skewed age d is tr ib u tio n .
Persons over the age o f 45
are th e re fo re a s te a d ily increasing p o rtio n o f the t o t a l.
The median
age o f farm operators in the United States rose from 43 years in 1920
to 50 in 1960 (Hathaway, 1965).
age fa c to r o f ru ra l
Treadway (1984) fu r th e r emphasizes the
adults by noting th a t in non-m etropolitan areas,
38% o f the population is over 44 years o f age.
Another fa c to r re le va n t to a d e s c rip tio n o f ru ra l learners is the
le v e l
of
education
completed.
The occupational
schooling medians,
presented by the National Advisory Council on A dult Education (1974),
in d ica te s the median years o f schooling completed fo r farm occupations
27
was 10.7 years in
1973.
Those employed in farm occupations w ith 12
years o f schooling o r more comprised ju s t over 40% o f the to ta l number
employed in a g ric u ltu re .
The National Center fo r Education S ta tis tic s
(1982) reported th a t in 1981 nearly s ix m illio n a d u lts , p a rtic ip a tin g
in some form o f a d u lt education, were from the ru ra l United States.
Cooperative Extension Service
In
th e
e a r ly
re la tio n s h ip
1 8 0 0 's ,
designed
on the p a rt o f the federal
education were enacted.
of
a c ts
le a rn in g
fo r
th e
to
fu rth e r
e s ta b lis h
a
government to the cause o f
The impetus th a t followed to e s ta b lis h centers
n o n -p ro fe s s io n a l
classes
co n trib u te d
to
the
enactment o f the M o r r ill Land-Grant Act o f 1862, p ro vid in g the m a jo rity
of
s ta te s
w ith
p o te n tia l
le g is la tio n
fo r
lan d-g ran t
in s titu tio n s .
Expansion o f the le g is la tio n continued w ith the Hatch Experiment Act o f
1887,
follow ed by oth er le g is la tio n
adding resources fo r teaching.
supplementing the Hatch Act and
Subsequent le g is la tio n ,
id e n tifie d as
the Smith-Lever A ct, became the legal basis fo r the national coopera­
tiv e extension system "and provided the most massive program o f a d u lt
education the world has ever seen" (Burlingame & B e ll, 1984, p. 34).
C h a ra c te ris tic s o f the Cooperative Extension S e rvice .
a c te r is tic s
o f the Cooperative
The char­
Extension Service are defined by the
re p o rt o f the j o i n t United States Department o f A g ric u ltu re /N a tio n a l
A s s o c ia tio n
of
S ta te
U n iv e r s itie s
and Land-Grant Colleges
(USDA-
NASULGC) Extension Committee on Cooperative Extension (1968) as:
( I)
It
is
educational
in program content and methodology,
not re g u la to ry o r fin a n c ia l;
thus,
is a d m in is tra tiv e ly
28
attached d ir e c tly to the p u b lic u n iv e rs ity system and is
a major p a rt o f i t ,
ra th e r than being attached d ir e c tly
to s ta te government.
(2)
It
p ro v id e s
in fo rm a l,
n o n -c re d it education
conducted
p rim a rily beyond the formal classroom, and fo r a ll ages.
(3)
It
helps people solve problems and take advantage o f
o p p o rtu n itie s through education.
(4)
It
features the o b je c tiv e presentation and analysis o f
fa ctu a l
info rm a tion
themselves.
,
flo w
It
is
fo r decision-making by the people
t y p ic a lly
research-based w ith fre e
o f communication among research,
re s id e n t
te a c h in g
fun ction s
extension,
o f the. s ta te
and
u n iv e rs ity
system, and also w ith the resources o f the United States
Department o f A g ric u ltu re and other agencies, p u b lic and
p riv a te .
(5)
I t fu n c tio n s
through
loca l
o ffic e s ,
which
are semi-
autonomous u n its accessible to and subject to influ ence
by loca l re sid e n ts.
(6)
I t in v o lv e s
c o o p e ra tiv e
sharing o f fin a n c ia l
but
not
n e c e s s a rily equal
support among fe d e ra l,
s ta te , and
county or loca l le v e ls .
(7)
I t re q u ire s
c o o p e ra tiv e
but
not
n e c e s s a rily equal
sharing o f program development among fe d e ra l, s ta te , and
county or loca l le v e ls .
(8)
I t is p r a c tic a l, problem-centered, and situ a tio n -b a se d .
E xten sio n
e d u c a tio n
s ta rts
w ith
h e lp in g
people to
29
id e n tify , and understand th e ir needs and problems and to
use new technology or in fo rm a tion in so lvin g them.
(9)
The
fu n d in g
and a d m in is tra tiv e
re la tio n s h ip s
program s
at
e d u c a tio n a l
p u rp o s e s ,
yet
d ire c te d
s e rv in g
s p e c ific
broad
lo c a l
permit
n a tio n a l
needs
w ith
p r io r it ie s determined lo c a lly .
(10)
I t 'is
a professional fu n c tio n s ta ffe d by colleg e tra in e d
personnel s p e c ific a lly q u a lifie d fo r th e ir p o s itio n s .
Program development.
Program development w ith in the Cooperative
Extension Service is designed as a process o f planning, implementing,
and e v a lu a tin g
an educational
e ffo rt
and consists
of
a series
of
d e lib e ra te , th o ug htful considerations th a t lead to a prepared and w e llexecuted plan o f.a c tio n .
Prawl, Medlin , and Gross (1984) id e n tify fo u r
basic po ints which serve as a guide in the program development process,
in c lu d in g :
(a) expressed needs o f people, (b) analysis o f environment
and other con dition s
(d) a d m in is tr a tiv e
o f so c ie ty ,
response
to
(c)
emerging research re s u lts ,
recommendations
and pressures
and
of
Cooperative Extension support groups.
H is to r ic a lly , the Cooperative Extension Service has been organized
in to fo u r major program areas:
(b)
home econom ics,
resource development.
(c)
(a) a g ric u ltu re and natural resources,
4-H youth
development,
and
(d)
community
With regard to a g ric u ltu ra l and natural resource
programs, the Extension Service and it s personnel extend in to a v a rie ty
o f a g ric u ltu re
farm ers'
areas ranging from conducting experimental
and ranchers'
t r i a ls
on
fie ld s to in te rp re tin g fa c ts on p u b lic p o lic y
issues a ffe c tin g a g ric u ltu re .
Reviewing program p r io r it ie s has become
30
an e sse ntial component o f the program development process w ith the need
fo r
b e tte r
c o o p e ra tio n
and co o rdin ation
w ith
other
United States
Department o f A g ric u ltu re agencies and agribusiness concerns e s s e n tia l.
Montana State U n iv e rs ity Extension Service
In 1893, when the A g ric u ltu ra l
College was e sta blishe d, Montana
was ju s t beginning to consider i t s e l f an a g ric u ltu ra l s ta te .
Although
enrollm ent in the fo u r-ye a r academic program in a g ric u ltu re was low, a
b ris k demand soon appeared fo r sho rt courses o f a p ra c tic a l
The Experiment S ta tio n a c t iv it ie s ,
of
ru ra l
Montana,
w ith
nature.
th e re fo re , f i t the immediate needs
re search
on
the
many untouched problems
co n fro n tin g a g ric u ltu re considered a ne cessity.
To a s s is t in answering
questions from both the Farmer's In s t it u te p a rtic ip a n ts and those not
in
a tte n d a n ce ,
Personnel,
the
fin d in g
Experiment S ta tio n
began to
publish
b u lle tin s .
themselves immersed in extension work, co n stan tly
looked fo r organizations which could a s s is t in the educational e ffo r ts .
With continued growth, in c lu d in g special a g ric u ltu ra l tr a in s , dry farm
experiments, and the development o f a series o f Dry Farming Congresses,
the demands fo r extension a c t iv it ie s
years
of
continued
educational
work,
increased.
the
A fte r
a number o f
1913 Montana
Assembly approved a Department o f A g ric u ltu ra l
L e g is la tiv e
Extension at Montana
State College, w ith the o rgan ization o f an extension d iv is io n la rg e ly a
m atter o f tu rn in g over the resources th a t had been provided fo r the
already fu n c tio n in g Farmers' In s t it u te O ffic e and changing the name to
E xtension
S e rv ic e .
W ith
th e
establishm ent o f
the
Department o f
A g ric u ltu ra l Extension and the continued p a rtic ip a tio n by the counties,
/
31
Montana was in an appropriate p o s itio n to take f u l l
advantage o f the
national assistance le g is la te d by the Congress o f the United States in
1914.
Montana P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Program
Extension education can play a v it a l
implementation o f a g ric u ltu ra l
p o lic y .
ro le
in the form ation and
The task o f the a g ric u ltu ra l
policymakers is described by Maunder (1972, p. 8) as:
. . . to determine the d ire c tio n o f growth o f a g ric u l­
tu re , to set goals fo r development, to devise means o f
achieving these goals, to evaluate progress p e rio d ic ­
a lly and to re vise goals and programs when necessary.
I t is u su a lly necessary also fo r policymakers to devise
le g is la t io n re q u ire d fo r the implementation o f the
p o lic ie s which have been adopted.
A g r ic u lt u r a l
p o lic y
is
form ulated
by government o f f ic ia ls
touches upon the in te re s ts o f a ll segments o f the p o pula tion.
the execution o f p o lic y
begins w ith
and
However,
changes in the a ttitu d e s
and a
re d ire c tio n o f a ctio n by the masses o f prim ary producers, the farmers
and
ranchers.
change
w ill
Without
o c c u r.
cooperation
T h e re fo re ,
of
the p o pula tion,
a p p ro p ria te ly
very
little
conducted extension
programs can serve as a lin e o f two-way communication between p o lic y ­
makers and the people o f the s ta te .
Questions re le va n t to the needs o f
ru ra l people, the e ffe c t a given p o lic y w ill
w e lfa re, how ru ra l people w ill
react to a p a rtic u la r p o lic y , and what
adjustments must be made to f i t
lo ca l
s itu a tio n s
through the a g ric u ltu ra l extension concept.
A d m in is tra tiv e
mented ,by th e
Rules o f
1986,
have upon the c lie n te le
answerable
The Montana P esticides Act
co o p e ra tive ly
Montana State. U n iv e rs ity
are a ll
adm inistered and im ple­
Extension
Service
and the
32
Montana Department o f A g ric u ltu re ,
played by a g ric u ltu ra l
stands as an example o f the roles
extension and a le g is la tiv e policym aking body.
The re s u ltin g educational program, o ffe re d by the Extension Service, is
an example o f a le g is la tiv e ly mandated educational program formulated
by a p o lit ic a l governing body and o ffe re d by a n o n -p ro fit, educational
agency based in a land-g ran t system.
P rio r to the m id-60's,
cid e s
s ta te involvement w ith the use o f p e s ti­
was handled by the Montana Department o f H ealth.
In
1966,
le g is la to rs began a dialogue re le van t to .th e passage o f a law comprised
of
se ve ra l
ele m en ts,
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs .
in c lu d in g
a procedure
fo r
the
lic e n s in g
of
Although defeated in le g is la tiv e committee in
1968, a special committee w ith in the le g is la tiv e council was created to
study the p o te n tia l
fo r
the development o f a p e s tic id e
components o f the law were defined to :
law.
Basic
(a) revise the process fo r the
re g is tra tio n o f products; (b) create a lic e n s in g program fo r commercial
and government
a p p lic a to rs ,
in c lu d in g
operators
th a t
worked under
a p p lic a to rs ; and (c). create a lic e n s in g program fo r dealers, w ith both
areas (a p p lic a to rs and dealers) having to take an exam to q u a lify .
In
the law, the committee also in d ica te d th a t standards could be estab­
lis h e d
fo r
a p p lic a to r s
to
m a in ta in
some s o rt o f
q u a lific a tio n s ;
however, th is was only fo r commercial and government a p p lic a to rs .
terms
of
p r iv a te
ranchers,
the
compound
and,
compound to
'■
passed in
p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to rs ,
id e n tifie d
law empowered the Department o f Health
by
so doing,
required
meet some s o rt o f
any a p p lic a to r
q u a lific a tio n .
as
to
farmers
In
and
r e s t r ic t
handling
The le g is la tio n
a
th a t
was
■
1970, based on a c tiv e communication between the a g ric u ltu re
33
community and. le g is la to r s representing environmental concerns (Gingery,
1987).
The fin a l version o f the law was based on the American A ssociation
o f P esticide Control “ model b i l l " in a d d itio n to s ta te laws from across
the s ta te s .
le g is la to rs
N egotiation between the a g ric u ltu re le g is la to rs and the
representing environmental
groups wanting the
law.
"What is lic e n s in g ? "
in te re s ts were held, w ith both
Emphasis was placed on the questions o f:
"Why should there be an exam?" and "What type o f
exam would be appropriate?" (Gingery, 1987).
The need fo r in d iv id u a ls
to have greate r knowledge was assumed, w ith a d d itio n a l
support from
a g ric u ltu re le g is la to rs who f e l t very s tro n g ly th a t fo r commercial and
governmental
a p p lic a to rs ,
w ith in
the discussions,
would
be
s tru c tu re d ,
advanced education was needed.
the to p ic o f how the educational
other than
the agencies
to
However,
inform ation
be involved,
was
missing (Gingery, 1987).
In the o rig in a l
retained a ll
le g is la tiv e
the re g is tra tio n
proposal,
aspects;
the Department o f Health
the Department o f A g ric u ltu re
was responsible fo r the lic e n s in g fu n c tio n s .
When the b i l l was f in a lly
passed, the Department o f A g ric u ltu re was assigned the re s p o n s ib ility
o f both the re g is tra tio n and the lic e n s in g functions (Gingery, 1987).
During the f i r s t year, 1971, the lic e n s in g program was developed
fo r both commercial
Congress
passed, th e
Rodenticide Act
and government a p p lic a to rs .
amended
Federal
At the
In s e c tic id e ,
(FIFRA), which required c e r t if ic a t io n
same tim e,
Fungicide
and
o f a p p lic a to rs
handling re s tric te d -u s e p e s tic id e s . . P rio r to th a t p o in t in tim e, the
law was s t r i c t l y a re g is tra tio n law w ith no lic e n s in g or c e r tific a tio n
34
in v o lv e d .
The o n ly
education o ffe re d
was th a t
norm ally provided
through county extension agents and a few o f the agencies th a t wanted
to be involved in the educational aspect.
In the m id-70's,
when the Environmental
passed ru le s on c e r t if ic a t io n
P rote ction Agency (EPA)
fo r commercial, governmental, and farm/
ranch a p p lic a to rs , plans fo r p riv a te a p p lic a to r c e r t if ic a t io n came in to
being.
"Montana was e ith e r the f i r s t or second s ta te to submit it s
approved c e r t if ic a t io n program to EPA" (Gingery, 1987).
The plan was
approved and u ltim a te ly developed co o p e ra tive ly between the Department,
o f A g ric u ltu re and the Montana State U n iv e rs ity Extension Service.
The
e d u c a tio n a l
use
program
r e s tr ic te d - u s e
However,
b a s ic a lly
compounds to
because
a poor
re q u ire d
be c e r t if ie d
mechanism
fo r
people
w a n tin g
to
by exam or by tra in in g .
m a in ta in in g
q u a lific a tio n
e xiste d , re presentatives from the lic e n s in g agency and the educational
p rovide r began a series o f meetings in the e a rly 8 0 's.
These meetings
culminated in a new system fo r c e r tify in g a p p lic a to rs ■(Gingery, 1987).
Not o n ly
was
th e
process
o f c e r t if ic a t io n
reviewed,
but th e .
question o f how q u a lity , was to be maintained was also considered.
process in 1984 was considered to be one o f q u a lity ;
le g is la t o r s
disagreed w ith
re s u lte d
a re d u c tio n
in
a p p lic a to r s .
the program and in
in
As a re s u lt,
the
the
tra in in g
The
however, a few
1985,
requirements
m o d ifica tio n s
fo r
Department o f A g ric u ltu re
p riv a te
and the
Extension Service again met and a lte re d the system to meet le g is la tiv e
requirements.
For r e c e r tific a tio n , an a p p lic a to r needed to attend s ix
hours o f tra in in g every fiv e years as compared to the 1984 system o f
35
mandatory attendance at three tra in in g programs in fiv e years (Gingery,
1987).
The process
involved
in
the issuance o f a license
is based on
several steps.
I n i t i a l l y , a q u a lific a tio n sheet or document is sent to
the
P esticide
Extension
Department
re q u a lify in g
of
A g r ic u lt u r e
in
system.
the
d is tr ic t
is
then
to
the
names o f people th a t
are
(Montana is
Based upon th a t l is t in g ,
d ir e c t ly
to
those
in d iv id u a ls
returned
composed o f fiv e
the Department sends
th a t
have been in
the
The a p p lic a tio n (s) are then returned w ith the lic e n s in g fee.
The c re d e n tia l,
Department.
county
which
b e a rin g
a p a rtic u la r
p e s tic id e d i s t r ic t s ) .
a p p lic a tio n s
S p e c ia lis t,
id e n tifie d
as a c e r t if ic a t e ,
is
then
issued by the
For people who are not q u a lifie d , a l i s t is sent to the
agent who then
has the
re s p o n s ib ility
of
contacting
those
a p p lic a to rs and in d ic a tin g the months in which r e c e r tific a tio n tra in in g
w ill be provided.
Upon completion o f the r e c e r tific a tio n program, the
county agent signs
p a r tic ip a tio n
in
the
the
a p p lic a tio n
program.
form to
The license
in d ic a te
is
then
attendance and
issued by the
Department o f A g ric u ltu re upon re c e ip t o f the agent's l i s t .
Mandatory Education and the A dult Learner
H is to r ic a lly ,
a d u lt education has been considered to be la rg e ly
vo lu n ta ry , and compulsory a d u lt education a re pulsive idea.
Forcing in d iv id u a ls to fu r th e r th e ir education . . .
somewhat concealed in promotion considerations which
re q u ire advanced degrees or c e r tific a tio n . . .
is
a n tith e tic a l to the ide als which the e a rly American
a d u lt education movement cherished (Day, 1980, p. 5).
36
The concern is e ith e r fo r the in d iv id u a l
is ,
then
th e
in d iv id u a l's
r ig h t
to
learner or i t
a v a rie ty
of
is not; i f
q u a lity
it
lea rning
o p p o rtu n itie s — programs, networks, in s titu tio n s — and e s p e c ia lly to
accept or re je c t any or a ll
(Day,
1980).
However,
o f these o p p o rtu n itie s must be respected
the
n o tio n
th a t
some o f
the educational
a c t iv it ie s w ith in the life lo n g .le a r n in g process may also be the re s u lt
\
o f any number o f so cie ta l
apparent.
Providing
pressures on the lea rne r is becoming more
a basis
fo r
the ofte n
c o n tro v e rs ia l
issue o f
mandatory a d u lt education, compulsory a d u lt education, or forced a d u lt
le a rn in g
is
th e
p ro fe s s io n a l
pressure
a ris in g
a s s o c ia tio n s ,
and
from consumer p ro te c tio n
lic e n s in g
boards
accommodate fo r s o cie ta l and occupational change.
in
groups,
an e f f o r t
to
Although the purpose
o f the fo llo w in g lite r a tu r e review is ,not to debate the pros and cons
o f mandatory education,
a b r ie f discussion is
appropriate since the
context o f the present study is set w ith in the realm o f a le g is la tiv e ly
mandated educational program.
With the existence o f a v a rie ty o f in te rp re ta tio n s re le van t to the
components
conceptual
of
m andatory
education,
of
researcher
has provided
a
framework from which the lite r a tu r e review fo r the present
study is s tru ctu re d (Figure I ) .
areas
the
lic e n s u re
and th e
S p e c ific a tte n tio n is d ire cte d to the
process
of
re lice n su re
v ia mandatory
c o n tin u in g : education w ith in the context o f a governmentalIy mandated
educational s e ttin g .
V
C r itic a l to an understanding o f "mandatory" a d u lt education is an
in te rp re ta tio n o f the context in which the term mandatory is used (th a t
is , the a d u lt education environment)',
as the concept represents, a wide
37
MANDATORY
ADULT
EDUCAT ION
PROFESSIONAL
CERTIFICATION
CERTIFICATION
(Mandatory license
mechanism re g u la t­
ed by s ta t e govern­
ment, but voluntary
in nature o f selec­
tio n )
(V oluntary regula­
tio n by professional
(Mandatory legal
requirement adminis
association or org­
a n iz a tio n )
tered by p o l i t i c a l
body)
T
Mandatory
R e c e r t i f ic a t i o n
LICENSURE
t
T
R e c e r t if Ic a t io n
Relicensure
rS
I *~1
Mandatory
Continuing
Mandatory
Professional
Education
Continuing
Mandatory
Continuing
Education
R e c e rtification
Education
Figure I .
Conceptual framework fo r mandatory adult education
w ith emphasis on c r e d e n tia ling.
range o f meanings.
the
N a tio n a l
Center
In the pre lim in a ry data re port on p a r tic ip a tio n ,
fo r
Education
S t a t is t ic s
(1980)
defines
adult
education as c on sisting o f courses and other a c t i v i t i e s , organized by a
teacher or sponsoring agency, and taken by persons beyond compulsory
school age.
In i t s more technical meaning,
Knowles (1980) describes
adult education as a set o f organized a c t i v i t i e s c a rrie d on by a wide
.3 8
v a rie ty of. in s titu tio n s fo r the accomplishment o f s p e c ific educational
o b je c tiv e s .
Complementary to the notion o f a d u lt education as a set o f
organized, a c t iv it ie s , Knowles (1980, p. 25) fu rth e r s ta te s :
A dult education is a process th a t is used by ad ults fo r
th e ir s e lf development, both alone and w ith o th e rs, and
i t is used by in s titu tio n s o f a ll kinds fo r the growth
and developm ent o f t h e i r em ployees, members, and
c lie n ts .
I t is an educational process th a t is often
used in combination w ith production processes, p o l i t i ­
cal processes, or service processes.
A more recent d e fin itio n
o rig in a te s
from Darkenwald and Merriam
(1982) s ta tin g th a t a d u lt education is a process whereby persons, whose
m ajor
s o c ia l
s y s te m a tic
ro le s
and
are
s u s ta in e d
c h a ra c te ris tic
le a rn in g
of
a d u lt
a c t iv it ie s
s ta tu s ,
fo r
undertake
the purpose o f
b rin g in g about changes in knowledge, a ttitu d e s , values, or s k i l l s .
key fa c to r in the above d e fin itio n s ,
The
and others o f a s im ila r nature,
however, is the assumption th a t a d u lt education is vo lu n ta ry and th a t
adults p a rtic ip a te in lea rn in g a c t iv it ie s o f th e ir own v o lit io n .
Mandatory A dult Education
The conclusions o f the A dult Education Association o f the United
States
o f America Task Force Report on V oluntary
Learning
(Heaney,
1980, p. 3) challenges the concept o f compulsory a d u lt education as
"incom patible w ith the ide als o f socia l democracy and fu rth e rs t o t a l i ­
ta ria n ,
m o n o lith ic
tendencies
in
our
s o c ie ty ."
R ockhill
(1983,
p.
I l l ) , p ro vid in g an overview o f the issue o f mandated education, s ta te s :
The extension o f education to be mandated over the
e n t i r e . l i f e span o f the in d iv id u a l may be one o f the
most s ig n ific a n t social developments o f our time w ith
ra m ific a tio n s analogous to the common school movement,
compulsory secondary school attendance, and the advent
o f mass higher education in the post World War I I era.
39
I n t e r p r e t a t io n
of
th e
term
"mandatory education"
involves
v a rie ty o f meanings and uses w ith in numerous educational contexts.
p o p u la r
g e n e r a liz a tio n
o ccu patio ns
are becoming
c ite d
in
the
sociology
"p ro fe s s io n a liz e d "
lite r a tu r e
w ith
the
is
label
a
A
th a t
lo o se ly
applied to increasing s p e c ia liz a tio n and tr a n s fe r a b ility o f s k i l l s , as
noted in the process o f lic e n s in g , or c e r t if ic a t io n
(W ilensky, 1964).
The. ra tio n a le underlying compulsory or mandatory education is compe­
tence, a very much re la te d notion to obsolescence, w ith shared concerns
fo r keeping up w ith or m aintaining some evolving standards.
(1978,
p.
215)
suggests
th a t
"th e
major ju s t if ic a t io n
Shimberg
fo r
s ta te
re g u la tio n o f an occupation is . t o p ro te c t the p u b lic from those who are
u n f it to p ra c tic e ."
The concept o f mandatory education appears to extend beyond the
de sire .b y so cie ty to provide the p u b lic w ith w e ll- q u a lifie d , up-to-date
p ro fe s s io n a l
service s.
The m a jo rity
mandatory a d u lt education is
th ro u g h
lic e n s u re
la w s .
o f national
data
re le van t
to
lim ite d to examples o f s ta te re g u la tio n
An example
mandatory education was noted
in
o f the
a te le v is e d
c u rre n t
emphasis o f
in te rv ie w
in v o lv in g
a
dialogue between representatives o f a national te le v is io n network and a
re p re senta tive o f the F lo rid a State L e g isla tu re and the F lo rid a Parks
and Recreation Department
(Bumble,
1987).
The proposed le g is la tio n
would re q u ire any a d u lt applying fo r a license to operate a recrea­
tio n a l, motor-powered boat to attend a one-day educational program on
boating sa fe ty .
p a r tic ip a tio n
To re lic e n s e , a p plican ts would be required to continue
in
the educational
mandated by the s ta te .
programs
at
re g u la r
in te rv a ls ,
as
40
A s im ila r
requirement
is
seen in
the
Environmental
P rotection
Agency mandate re le va n t to the purchase and a p p lic a tio n o f re s tr ic te d use p e s tic id e
compounds
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs .
by
c o m m e rcia l,
governm ental,
or p riv a te
In the s ta te o f Montana, fo r example, p riv a te
p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs are le g is la tiv e ly mandated to attend s ix hours o f
e d u c a tio n a l
program m ing,
re lice n se
and le g a lly
p e s tic id e
chem icals.
w ith in
a fiv e -y e a r
period ,
in
order to
be able to purchase and apply re s tric te d -u s e
Although mandated o r ig in a lly
by the
federal
Environmental P rote ction Agency, the Montana sta te le g is la tu re enacted
a more s p e c ific law w ith the in te n tio n o f p roviding continued compe­
tence in the use o f dangerous a g ric u ltu re compounds (Montana P esticide
Act o f 1986).
C re d e n tia lin g .
Compounding the nature o f mandatory education are
the numerous processes id e n tifie d as a "means to an end."
D ic tio n a r y
of
th e
cre d e n tia l as ".
a u t h o r it y .
b e a re r's
.
. . .
id e n t i t y
English
Language
(Hawks,
1982,
p.
The C o llin s
351)
defines
. something th a t e n title s a person to confidence,
a le t t e r
or
or c e r t if ic a t e
competence."
g iv in g
Bratton
evidence o f the
and Hildebrand
(1980)
suggest th a t a c le a re r d is tin c tio n could be made between the creden­
t ia l! ' ng processes i f three fa c to rs are reviewed:
(a) the re c ip ie n t o f
the c re d e n tia l, (b) the c e r tify in g body, and (c) the degree o f volunteerism required fo r each.
need
to
education,
d is tin g u is h
id e n tifie d
G a lb ra ith and G ille y
between the processes
as a c c re d ita tio n ,
(1985) purport the
used in
mandatory a d u lt
lic e n s u re , and c e r t if ic a t io n .
While each attempts to regulate the measurement o f competencies, the
methodology, p o pula tion,
and purposes o f re g u la tio n d i f f e r .
Bratton
I
'4 1
and Hildebrand
(1980,
p.
22)
provide the fo llo w in g
d e fin itio n s
and
d is tin c tio n s between the terms: 1
a) A c c re d ita tio n is the process whereby an agency or
a s s o c ia tio n gra n ts p u b lic re c o g n itio n to a school,
co lle g e , u n iv e rs ity , or s p e cia lize d study program th a t
meets c e r ta in predetermined q u a lific a tio n s or stan­
dards.
b) Licensure is a mandatory legal requirement fo r
c e r ta in professions in order to p ro te c t the p u b lic
from incompetent p r a c titio n e rs .
Licensing - procedures
are g e n e ra lly established or implemented by a p o lit ic a l
g o ve rn in g body th a t p ro s c rib e s p ra c tic e w ith o u t a
lice n se .
c) C e r tific a tio n is the process by which a pro fe s­
sional org a n iza tio n or an independent external agency
recognizes the competence o f in d iv id u a l p ra c titio n e rs .
The d ire c tio n o f the present study is
governmentalIy le g is la te d
toward the in v e s tig a tio n o f a
lic e n s in g program.
S p e c ific comments re la ­
tiv e to lic e n s in g lite r a tu r e fo llo w in the paragraphs below.
Licensure.
"S ociety expects th a t p ra c titio n e rs o f a ll d is c ip lin e s
should be p ro fe s s io n a l, and competent" (G a lbra ith & G ille y , 1986, p. I ) .
A v a rie ty o f mechanisms e x is t fo r id e n tify in g and determ ining compe­
tence, one o f which is lic e n s in g .
G a lb ra ith (1987, p. 15) defines the
process o f lice n su re as "the c re d e n tia ling o f in d iv id u a ls by a p o l i t i ­
cal
body which is mandatory i f
p ro fe s s io n ."
the in d iv id u a l
is to p ra c tic e in the
Friedman (1962, p. 145) defines lic e n s in g as re q u irin g :
. . . some demonstration o f competence. . . . and any­
one who does not have a lice n se is not authorized to
p ra c tic e and is subject to a fin e or a j a i l sentence i f
he does engage in p ra c tic e .
Gross
(1978)
s u g g e s ts t h a t
lic e n s in g
is
used i n
r e f e r b o th t o t h e a rra n g e m e n t w hereby p r a c t i c e i s
. to
a ll
c o lla b o ra tio n
between
a
s ta te
and
a
th e l i t e r a t u r e
to
r e s t r i c t e d as w e ll
as
p ro fe s s io n ,
in c lu d in g
42
re g is tra tio n and t i t l e
c e r tific a tio n s .
The re c ip ie n t o f the license is
the in d iv id u a l and not the program.
A license
is
a c re d e n tia l, respected by s o c ie ty ,
those so endorsed have demonstrated competencies
in
assuming th a t
s p e c ific
areas.
The process and procedures associated w ith lice n su re in vo lve questions
o f e th ic s , q u a lity o f se rvice , types o f standards, and p ric e o f service
by
c o n tro l
occupations.
of
su p p ly
fo r
both
p ro fe s s io n a l
I t appears to be the p u b lic 's b e lie f th a t the possession
o f a license by a p r a c titio n e r is
checked
te s ts
the
and non-professional
a p p lic a n t's
evidence th a t a s ta te agency has
q u a lific a tio n s
to ensure th a t the in d iv id u a l
and adm inistered
is f u l l y
competent.
appropriate
It
is also
believed th a t lic e n s in g boards m onitor th e ir licensees to ensure th a t
they have maintained th e ir competence and are s t i l l
fit
to p ra c tic e .
In a d d itio n , the continued question o f competence, suggesting a c e rta in
leve l
o f tra in in g
and achievement re le va n t to a p a r tic u la r level
of
s k i l l , continues in the fo re fro n t o f the licensu re discussion.
Spector and Frederick
(1952)
suggest three major trends in the
20th century regarding the lic e n s in g process:
include an even greater number o f occupations,
lic e n s in g to go from t i t l e
c e r tific a tio n s
(a)
(b)
fo r lic e n s in g to
fo r the type o f
to compulsory lic e n s in g o f
p ra c tic e , and (c) fo r the ra is in g and tig h te n in g o f standards.
Moore
(1961) suggests th a t the existence o f lic e n s in g laws in d ica te s a s h if t
o f opinion in the la s t century from the notion th a t people know what is
best fo r themselves to the notion th a t socie ty is the best judge.
re tro s p e c t,
Goode (I960)
In
suggests th a t the pressure fo r lic e n s in g is
43
greate st
fo r
occupations
th a t
deal
w ith c lie n ts
as in d iv id u a ls
and
where competence cannot be e a s ily demonstrated.
Mandatory Continuing Education
S tu a rt
(1975)
defines
continuin g
education
as encompassing a ll
those le a rn in g a c t iv it ie s th a t occur a fte r an in d iv id u a l has completed
h is /h e r
basic
education.
" Rizzuto
(1982)
provides
a more s p e c ific
d e fin itio n o f continuin g education as form alized le a rn in g experiences
or sequences designed to enlarge the knowledge o r s k ills
tio n e rs .
Continuing education o p p o rtu n itie s and experiences "tend to
be more s p e c ific ,
c e r tific a te s
degrees"
o f p r a c ti­
of
(1982,
o f g e nerally sh o rte r d u ra tio n ,
co m p le tio n
p.
38).
or
s p e c ia liz a tio n ,
The American Hospital
landmark statement o f 1979,
and may re s u lt
but not
in
A ssociatio n,
in
formal
in
it s
suggests th a t continuing education is
a
planned series o f a c t iv it ie s th a t enables an in d iv id u a l to acquire the
s k i l l s , knowledge, and behavior needed to meet cu rre n t job requirements
or to remedy id e n tifie d d e fic ie n c ie s .
The need fo r continuing le a rning in order to remain curren t in
p ra c tic e
re s u lte d
is w idely recognized.
in
in cre a se d
A tte n tio n to r a p id ity o f change has
o p p o rtu n itie s
fo r
adults
to
continue
th e ir
education, both w ith in the employment s e ttin g and through external jo b re la te d programs.
education is
lic e n s e ,
th e
Edwards and Green (1983)
a required co n d itio n fo r the renewal
renewal
of
a s p e c ia lty
membership in a professional a s s o c ia tio n .
w ith in
suggest th a t continuing
both the professional
o f a professional,
c e r t if ic a t io n ,
and continued
However, the growing concern
and non-professional
occupations is the
44
issue o f mandatory continuing education (MCE).
As a re s u lt, continuing
education requirements are re ce ivin g a tte n tio n in three areas, as noted
by
E gelston
(1 9 7 4 ):
(a)
e s ta b lis h m e n t
of
v o lu n ta ry
continuing
education re co g n itio n programs developed by professional association s,
(b)
developm ent
of
s e lf-a s s e s s m e n t
professional a sso cia tio n s,
exa m in a tio n s
managed through
(c) m o d ific a tio n o f lic e n s in g laws to make
continuing education a requirement fo r re -re g is tra tio n or re lic e n s u re .
How s ta te
p ro fe s s io n a l
e d u c a tio n ,
however,
and o c c u p a tio n a l
c r itic a lly
groups
in flu e n c e s
view
w hether
c o n tin u in g
or
not
s ta te
lic e n s in g boards develop mandatory continuing education requirements.
Cunningham and Hawking (1980, p. 13) define mandatory continuing
e d u ca tio n
as
"e d u c a tio n
which
is
required
o f an a d u lt
to
e ith e r
m aintain c e r t if ic a t io n or licensu re in a vocational p u rs u it or to meet/
avoid requirements fo r a special reward/punishment."
suggests th a t education is mandated by:
lic e n s u r e
la w s ;
(b)
i n d ir e c t
R ockhill
(1983)
(a) d ire c t re g u la tio n in s ta te
re g u la tio n
th ro u g h
p ro fe s s io n a l
membership, employment requirements, and spe cialized c e r tific a te s ; and
(c) inform al
social
sanctions.
Regulatory o f f ic ia ls
and le g is la to rs ,
as an example, have considered ways to ensure th a t licensees are not
only i n i t i a l l y competent, but th a t they m aintain th e ir competence.
o p tio n
in v o lv e s
re q u irin g
a ll
c o n v in c in g
licensees
to
th e
s ta te
show they
le g is la tu r e
to
have engaged in
pass a law
some minimum
amount o f continuing education as a co n d itio n o f lice n se renewal.
question, as noted by R ockhill
th e
o fte n
co n co m ita n t
One
At
(1983), is whether lice n su re laws, and
m andatory
c o n tin u in g
e d u c a tio n ,
e x is t
in
45
p ro te c tio n o f the p u b lic 's in te re s t o r in order to p ro te c t s e lf-s e rv in g
in te re s ts o f occupational groups.
A ttitu d e s Toward Mandatory Continuing
Education (MCE)
Apps
(1980)
e d u ca tio n :
(a)
suggests two reasons why states mandate continuing
Society
is
experiencing
a knowledge explosion
and
p rofessio nals must be forced to keep abreast o f re le va n t developments,
and (b) consumers are in s is tin g on competent and caring p ro fe s s io n a ls .
Statements
p u rp o rtin g
e d u ca tio n
in c lu d e
c o n tin u e d
competence,
acceptable to
a ra tio n a le
in
favor o f mandatory continuing
such comments as:
and
professional
(b)
(a)
MCE is
groups,
MCE is
an assurance o f
promoted as an a lte rn a tiv e
fo r e s ta llin g
demands fo r p e rio d ic
examination fo r re lice n su re or r e c e r tific a tio n or fo r a system o f peer
review.
Lisman and O hliger (1978) suggest the trend toward mandatory
c o n tin u in g
e d u c a tio n
education is
e s p e c ia lly
evident
in
those
a mandatory co n d itio n o f re lic e n s in g ,
form o f continuing
sta te s .
is
education was. required
More re c e n tly ,
P h illip s
fie ld s
c itin g
where
th a t some
fo r 14 professions
in
45
(in Jaschik, 1986) noted a to ta l o f
some 40 states in which 16 professions mandate continuing education fo r
re lic e n s u re .
such
as
In a d d itio n ,
p o lic e
o f f ic e r s ,
many lo c a l,
s ta te ,
f ir e f ig h t e r s ,
agents are required to e n ro ll
and federal
employees
and a g ric u ltu ra l
extension
in continuing education o ffe rin g s , w ith
s im ila r pressures on a rc h ite c ts and members o f the c le rg y .
Rationale in fa vo r o f MCE.
fa v o r
of
mandatory continuing
(a) MCE is
an
assurance
of
Statements p u rp o rtin g a ra tio n a le in
education
continued
include
comments such as:
competence;
and
(b)
MCE is
46
promoted
as
an
f o r e s t a ll i n g
a lt e r n a t iv e
demands
fo r
a c c e p ta b le
p e r io d ic
to
p ro fe s s io n a l
examination
r e c e r tific a tio n or fo r a system o f peer review.
fa v o r
o f mandatory continuing
education
is
fo r
groups,
re lice n su re
or
The main argument in
th a t
professionals
must
continue t h e ir education in order to remain cu rre n t in th e ir f ie ld .
Underlying
concern
the
r e la t iv e
p re ssu re
from
governmental
argument about professional
to
th e
professional
p u b lic
In
response to
the
a s s o c ia tio n s
and
p ro fe s s io n a l
re g u la to ry agencies have taken steps
fo r
re q u irin g
the
competence.
s e c to r,
tio n e rs in m aintaining competence.
(1 9 7 9 ),
obsolescence is
example,
continuing
suggests
education
to
a s s is t p r a c ti­
The American H ospital Association
th a t
le g is la tu r e s
as a co n d itio n
fo r
enact
s ta tu te s
license
renewal.
Rizzuto (1982, p. 38) provides an example in a statement re le van t to
mandatory continuing education "in the f ie ld o f nursing:
Inherent in the mandatory continuin g education laws are
the assumptions th a t ,knowledge gained w ill be applied
in the p ro fe s s io n a l's p ra c tic e and th a t the amount o f
educational time required fo r re lice n su re is s u ffic ie n t
to prevent outdated or incompetent p ra c tic e .
Rationale against MCE.
O hliger (1981, p. 5) suggests, "Not only
is there no evidence th a t MCE guarantees worthw hile le a rn in g , but there
is
a growing
awareness th a t,
indeed,
it
undermines
it."
This
is
c le a rly a statement in .o p p o s itio n to the value o f mandatory continuing
education.
In response to the need fo r mandatory continuin g education,
as demonstrated' by p u b lic pressure, O hliger suggests th a t the recent
th ru s t represents p rim a rily the spread o f the in d u s tria l model in i t s
dying days from workers in fa c to rie s who could not escape MCE to pro­
fessio nals who u n til re c e n tly were the imposers, not the imposed-upon.
47
The view
th a t
mandatory
against incompetence is
p. 44)
who s ta te
co n tin u in g
education
is
a safeguard
also discounted by Edwards and Green (1983,
th a t
"there
is
little
evidence
th a t
suggests
any
c le a r re la tio n s h ip between p a rtic ip a tio n in continuing education as i t
now e x is ts and continuing professional competence."
11)
suggests the necessity
in
S tu a rt (1975, p.
keeping p ra c tic e re le va n t and fu tu re -
o rie n te d , but provides an added caution re la tiv e to mandated education:
Educational theory t e l l s us c le a rly th a t ad ults learn
best when o b je ctive s are re le va n t to needs. In t r in s ic
m o tivation is more productive than e x tr in s ic m otiva­
tio n ; th e re fo re , the person seeking education to meet
legal requirements may be less s e le c tiv e in m a terial to
be I earned and less involved in the lea rning process.
P ro fe s s io n a l
re fe re n c e
forced.
to
and o c c u p a tio n a l
nursing
Buckner
lite r a tu r e ,
(1974)
concurs,
a tt it u d e .
stresses
th a t
Cooper
le a rning
(1973),
in
cannot be
suggesting the greate st danger o f
mandatory continuing education is th a t i t may focus on the in d iv id u a l
needs
of
the
le a rn e r
ra th e r
assessment by the le a rn e r.
than
encourage
a process
of
s e lf -
Kotzan and Jowdy (1970), c itin g the work o f
Yamamto, Thomas, and Karus, provide the fo llo w in g :
P e rc e p tio n s should n o t be ign ore d by c u rric u lu m
planners since meaningful ness, and, hence, the m otiva­
t io n f o r le a r n in g , w i l l la r g e ly depend upon the
psychological s ig n ific a n c e and in te re s t each subject
m atter holds in the stu d e n t's mind (p. 21).
Examples o f a ttitu d e s toward the concept o f mandatory continuing
education are found in a wide range o f professional and occupational
lit e r a t u r e bases, a su b sta n tia l c o n trib u tio n being made by the health
fie ld s ,
s p e c ific a lly nursing.
W hitis (1972) surveyed a random sample
\
of
300 re g iste re d
nurses
regarding
th e ir
a ttitu d e
toward mandatory
48
co n tin u in g
education;
83
%
of
those
responding
education should be on a vo lu n ta ry basis.
fe lt
Mattson
th a t
continuing
(1974), using a
random, sample o f 150 nurses, found 68.4% to be in favo r o f volu ntary
continuing education, w hile 23.7% were in favor o f mandatory continuing
e d u ca tio n .
A s ig n ific a n t
educational
re la tio n s h ip
was found to
e x is t
between
le ve l o f respondents and th e ir support o f a vo lu n ta ry or
mandatory approach to continuing education.
Those respondents holding
bachelor's or m aster's degrees supported the v o lu n ta ry approach less
fre q u e n tly than those in d iv id u a ls holding a diploma or an associate
degree.
h ig h e r
In other words, the study suggests th a t in d iv id u a ls w ith a
le v e l
of
education
were more favorable
toward a volu ntary
continuing education program.
■ The purpose o f . a study by M ille r
determine
a ttitu d e s
Illin o is
co n ce rn in g
m u ltip le -c h o ic e
and opinions
m andatory
questionnaire
and Rea (1977)
o f a group o f
c o n tin u in g
was d is trib u te d
education.
to
w ith in 50 m iles o f a large northern I l l i n o i s c it y .
was observed.
in d ica te d
nurses
was also to
in
northern
A 25-item , .
30 nurses
re s id in g
A 100% re tu rn ra te
Of the respondents (80% o f them holding diplomas), 70%
th a t mandatory education was a step forward fo r nursing,
w hile 23% disagreed and 6% were undecided.
A to ta l
of
229 questionnaires
were d is trib u te d
P o lit (1978) w ith a 50% re tu rn ra te .
by Larocco and
An analysis o f the L ik e rt items
ind ica ted th a t the large m a jo rity o f respondents were h ig h ly supportive
o f continuing
education,
although
a ttitu d e s
toward MCE were not as
favo rab le. . There was a tendency fo r younger nurses and less e x p e ri­
enced nurses to be more favorable toward continuing education and more
49
lik e ly
to
fa v o r
m andatory
c o n tin u in g
education.
The la t t e r
was
e s p e c ia lly tru e fo r the two younger age groups (20-25 and 26-35), who
c o n s is te n tly demonstrated more p o s itiv e a ttitu d e s than the o ld e r groups
(ages 36-45, 46-55, and 56 and o ld e r ) .
Higher le v e ls o f education were
also associated w ith more favorable a ttitu d e s toward MCE.
With regard
to length o f experience, there was a marked tendency fo r nurses w ith
I
r e la tiv e ly few years o f experience to have a more favorable opinion o f
mandatory continuing education.
years
or
le s s
A ttitu d e scores o f the group w ith fiv e
experience d iffe re d
s ig n ific a n tly
from the a ttitu d e
scores o f the other two groups, id e n tifie d as having 6-15 years and 16
yea rs
or
more
e x p e rie n c e .
W ith
regard
to
s ig n ific a n t
p re d ic to r
v a ria b le s , age and number o f years, o f experience were found to have the
strongest re la tio n s h ip to a ttitu d e s toward MCE.
Mathews and Schumacher (1979) found th a t 48% o f the 150 respon­
dents
s tr o n g ly
education
c re d its
should be required by sta te law fo r nursing I i censure renewal.
Schoen
(1979)
agreed or agreed th a t
continuing
found 40 o f 58 nurses e n ro lle d in a community college health
e d u ca tio n
c la s s
r e q u ir in g
c o n tin u in g
p ra c tic e nursing.
a p p ro vin g
or
education
s tr o n g ly
ap p ro vin g
as a c o n d itio n
fo r
of
le g is la tio n
re lice n su re
to
Peay (1979) conducted a survey o f 1200. re g iste re d
nurses licensed in Utah. . Seventy-seven percent in d ic a te d they thought
mandatory continuin g educatio n. fo r re lice n su re would become a r e a lit y
w ith in the next fiv e years; 56% said they would be in favo r o f MCE.
Schoen (1982), from a study population o f 95,191 re g iste re d nurses
lic e n s e d
w ith
the
s ta te
of
Illin o is ,
drew a random sample o f 395
subjects fo r the purpose o f in v e s tig a tin g the issue o f volu ntary and
50
mandatory continuing
s u b je cts'
a ttitu d e s
r e lic e n s u r e ,
education.
A L ik e rt
scale was used to
assess
toward continuing education as a requirement fo r
w ith
ju s t
p o s itiv e d ire c tio n .
over
50*. o f the
responses
representing
a
The researcher found no s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip
between age and a ttitu d e .
One f in a l
study
re le van t
to
nursing was conducted by Arneson
(1985), who in ve stig a te d the a ttitu d e s o f Iowa nurses toward mandatory
continuing education and the re la tio n s h ip s among a ttitu d e s , educational
le v e l, and length o f professional experience.
Using an a ttitu d e scale
o f 15 statements on a n in e -p o in t L ik e rt scale, the researcher drew a
random sample o f 1000 subjects from a population o f 21,910 re g iste re d
n u rse s.
Of th e
returned.
1000
questionnaires,
673 usable
instruments
were
Regarding a ttitu d e toward MCE, 73% held e ith e r a favorable
o r s tro n g ly favorable a ttitu d e .
Supportive w ritte n statements endorsed
the importance o f mandatory continuing education.
d is tin c tio n ,
Arneson makes one
however, in the in te rp re ta tio n o f the data.
The nurses
p a rtic ip a tin g in the study were experiencing the r e a lit ie s o f mandatory
continuing education, in co n tra s t to many o f the previous studies where
MCE was tre a te d as a p o s s ib ility .
Nineteen percent o f the respondents
demonstrated a more neutral a ttitu d e and 7% were unfavorable, resenting
the
id e a
of
being
coerced
in t o
p a r tic ip a tin g .
Of the personal
c h a ra c te ris tic s in v e s tig a te d , a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip was found to
e x is t between nurses' a ttitu d e s and th e ir educational le v e l.
a ttitu d e s
toward MCE were more fre q u e n tly
associated
w ith
Favorable
advanced
le v e ls o f educational p repa ratio n; th a t is , the nurses holding e ith e r
51
baccalaureate or higher degrees tended to have more p o s itiv e a ttitu d e s
than those holding e ith e r diplomas or associate degrees.
Viewing mandatory continuing education from a d iffe r e n t perspec­
tiv e , other members o f the a llie d health f ie ld , id e n tifie d as hospital
a d m in istra to rs,
belie ve continuing education is
should be made mandatory.
so im portant th a t i t
To determine the e ffe c t o f MCE on level o f
performance o f h o sp ita l a d m in is tra to rs , a s t r a t if ie d
706 h o sp ita ls was drawn.
a to ta l
random sample o f
A sample o f a d m inistra tors was selected w ith
o f 1733 respondents.
The fin d in g s o f the study (Boissoneau,
1979) in d ica te d the fo llo w in g :
(1)
F o rty -e ig h t percent o f the ad m in istra to rs reported th a t
the impact o f MCE would re s u lt in a "moderated increase
in
e ffe c tiv e n e s s ";
27% in d ica te d "no change in e ffe c -
. tiv e n e s s ."
(2),
In
regard to
respondents
years
of
in d ic a te d
experience,
nearly
a p re fe re n c e
"moderate increase in e ffe c tiv e n e s s ."
fo r
50% o f the
the
choice
Level o f educa­
tio n was not a fa c to r o f d iffe re n c e ; both ad m in istra to rs
graduating from a program in the f ie ld and those who did
not suggested MCE would have the impact o f a "moderate
increase in e ffe c tiv e n e s s ."
(3)
Age was not a fa c to r.
In reviewing the MCE lit e r a t u r e ,
the a ttitu d e
by a v a rie ty
of
states has been th a t the enforcement approach holds fo r th the l i k e l i ­
hood th a t at le a s t some unsafe or m a rg in a lly safe p ra c titio n e rs would
be id e n tifie d ,
exposed to rem ediation, or deprived o f th e ir license s.
52
Iowa was the f i r s t
sional
engineers
s ta te to mandate continuing education fo r pro fe s­
and land surveyors.
The Report o f the Regulatory
Force fo r C a lifo r n ia , although p ro vid in g implementation fo r a c o n tin ­
uing education program, has suggested th a t there is in fa c t no evidence
th a t
the C a lifo rn ia
requirement
fo r
pharmacists
has any bearing on
p u b lic he a lth , s a fe ty , or w elfare (Shimberg, 1978).
A s im ila r comment
was made w ith respect to the Dental Board.
The a ttitu d e
o f professio nals
in
the area o f C e rtifie d
P ublic
Accounting (CPA) has also been demonstrated throughout the h is to ry o f
the professio n.
Future p ro je c tio n s by the year 2000 (Schlosser, Lee, &
Rabito , 1987) includ e:
(1)
Al I American In s titu te o f C e rtifie d P ublic Accountants
(AICPA)
members
w ill
be required
to
p a rtic ip a te
in •
continuing education programs.
(2)
The national
curriculum w ill
be the foundation fo r a ll
acceptable 'CPE programs approved fo r required continuing
professional education.
(3)
CPE programs w ill
e d u c a tio n a l
be less instructor-dependent and the
te c h n o lo g y
of
d e liv e r y
w ill
be v a s tly
-
improved.
* (4)
Mandated programs o f CPE w ill
s io n 's peer review process.
*
W ith in th e span o f ye a rs s in c e
be p a rt o f the profes­
the ,inception
of
compulsory
education fo r c e r t if ie d p u b lic ’ accountants, a v a rie ty o f a ttitu d e s and
procedures have been id e n tifie d ,
le v e ls
of
a c c e p ta b le
For example, a 1970 re p o rt suggested
c o n tin u in g
education
fo r
the
s ta te
of
Iowa
53
(Lembke, Smith, & T id w e ll, 1970).
In order to s a tis fy the requirements
o f compulsory continuin g education,
formal educational
experience was
required, defined as an experience composed o f a predetermined subject
and format a v a ila b le to a group o f persons at a scheduled time w ith a
q u a lifie d leader in charge.
However, in 1972, the question rele van t to
formal programs was brought fo r th , w ith changes in the d e fin itio n o f
"fo rm a l" ' and a change in the level o f acceptable education; th a t is ,
"The committee has concluded th a t .as a general ru le those who engage in
extensive s e lf-s tu d y also p a rtic ip a te in formal programs o f education"
(Beamer, 1972, p. 34).
In 1971,
a survey o f the American In s titu te
o f CPA's c o u n c il,
sta te s o c ie tie s , and the State Board o f Accountancy was conducted w ith
170 respondents re tu rn in g the survey instrum ent.
N inety percent agreed
th a t the profession should adopt a requirement fo r continuing education
(Beamer, 1972, p. 35).
continuing education
In reviewing the a lte rn a tiv e s fo r imposing the
requirem ent,; s ta te regula tions or sta tutes were
recommended w ith respondents to the survey demonstrating an 80% ra te in
favo r o f sta te re g u la tio n .
■In 1972, Brenner and Strawser reported fin d in g s from a survey o f
379 CPA's
selected
at
random from the membership o f
the American
In s t it u te o f CPA's.
I n i t i a l l y , 1000 in d iv id u a ls were contacted by mail
w ith
fo r the survey instrum ent o f 37.9%.
a re tu rn
ra te
percent o f the respondents
th e ir professio n.
in d ica te d they were in
When asked i f
S ix ty - fiv e
fa vo r o f MCE fo r
some type o f continuin g
education
should be a. co n d itio n precedent to re -re g is tra tio n or renewal o f perm it
54
to p ra c tic e , 53% reported th a t such a requirement should be a co n d itio n
fo r v a lid a tio n .
In 1985, the membership o f the AICPA was asked to take a fresh
look a t standards fo r professional
conduct due to leadership concern
about p u b lic confidence and d e fic ie n c ie s in performance and compliance.
At issue was the question,
"What should be the nature and scope o f
education fo r accountants?" (E llyson, Nelson, & MacNei 11 , 1985, p. 9 5 ).,
As a re s u lt, one o f the fo u r broad areas fo r which recommendations were
made was the establishm ent o f AICPA membership requirements fo r both
co n tin u in g
professional
education
and basic
education
to
enter
the
professio n.
Studies conducted over the years by o rg a n iza tio n s,
such as the
Commission on A u d ito rs ' R e s p o n s ib ilitie s and the Federation o f Schools
o f Accountancy,
v a lid a te d the
I n s t it u t e 's
support o f the concept o f
mandatory continuing professional education.
Such v a lid a tio n culm in­
ated in the 1984 Model Public Accountancy B i l l , a p o lic y which embodied
an e d u c a tio n a l
e xp e rie n ce
fo r
CPA's.
Support
fo r
the mandatory
requirement was noted in one p o ll taken in 1984, in d ic a tin g th a t 65% o f
Texas CPA's in p u b lic p ra c tic e supported a fiv e -y e a r education re q u ire ­
ment.
In F lo rid a , ju s t a few months p r io r to the Texas in q u iry , a p o ll
was taken in d ic a tin g th a t 70%.o f the s ta te so cie ty members supported
'
the le g is la tio n mandating continuing education (E llyson et a l ., 1985).
Support was also noted in other s ta te s , in c lu d in g C a lifo rn ia , I l l i n o i s ,
New York, and Utah.
The American
In s t it u te
o f CPA's believes
there
is
a need to
improve the q u a lity o f p ra c tic e through greater adherence to standards.
55
However, i t is thought the professio n, not government, should do th is .
The goal
is to improve a ll q u a lity o f p ra c tic e .
That is seen as the
advantage o f using a s e lf-re g u la to ry approach in the p riv a te sector
compared to being subject to governmental review by re g u la to ry agencies
(C o llin s & McRae, 1987).
As noted e a r lie r , one o f the two bases fo r c re d e n tia ling in the
U n ite d
S ta te s
c e r t if ic a t io n
was
c r e d e n t ia lin g
w ith
models
o f teacher
continuin g to serve as lic e n s in g mechanisms.
fo r c e r t if ic a t io n ,
fundamental
te a c h e r
as defined by the AACTE Task fo rc e ,
observations.
F ir s t,
in
The case
include three
those cases where incompetent
p ra c tic e in an occupation may lead to harm or in ju r y , the s ta te has the
r ig h t
and
th e
o b lig a tio n
to
determ ine
whether
competent to p ra c tic e before the in d iv id u a l
second
b a sis
fo r
c e r tific a tio n
teaching process; th a t is ,
re la te s
an in d iv id u a l
is allowed to do so.
to
the
com plexity o f
is
A
the
no c e r t if ic a t io n examination or short-term
performance evaluation can f u l l y assess the fin a l
set o f competencies
required fo r teaching.
In a d d itio n , a c e rta in amount o f education and
t r a in in g
in
is
re q u ire d
order
to
perform complex tasks,
and the
education and tra in in g program should contain m u ltip le o p p o rtu n itie s
fo r assessment o f the f u l l
c e r t if ic a t io n
is
b u i lt
set o f competencies.
upon the
re c o g n itio n
A th ir d
by some o f
basis fo r
a body o f
research evidence in d ic a tin g th a t in d iv id u a ls who are f u l l y c e r tifie d
are more e ffe c tiv e teachers and more s a tis fie d employees than those who
are not f u l l y c e r t if ie d .
However, the la t t e r basis is one o f a h ig h ly
co n tro ve rsia l nature and much discussion both pro and con is present in
the teaching education lite r a tu r e .
In
1986,
a
s u rv e y
s tu d y
of
s ta te
d ir e c to r s
of
c e r t if ic a t io n was conducted to obtain opinions regarding:
lis h m e n t
of
a N a tio n a l
Board
of
Standards
te a c h e rs ,
(b)
a u t h o r it y
an cl ju r is d ic t io n
Standards,
(c)
use o f a tw o - c e rtific a te
fo r
te a c h e r
(a) estab­
c e r t if ic a t io n
o f a National
system fo r
of
Board o f
the issuance o f
in s tru c tio n a l lice n se s, and (d) past and proposed changes in lic e n s in g
laws and procedures
(Hunt, 1987.).
To access d ire c to rs '
opinions,
a
questionnaire was mailed to d ire c to rs o f teacher c e r t if ic a t io n in June,
1986,
in the 50 states and the D is t r ic t o f Columbia.
Two follo w -up
questionnaires were mailed in August and September, 1986, w ith a 78%
re tu rn .
(1)
Findings included the fo llo w in g :
Establishment o f a National Board o f Standards governing
c e r t if ic a t io n was not favored by 52.5% o f the d ire c to rs .
(2)
It
was in d ica te d
by 85% o f ,the d ire c to rs
th a t
state
f
teacher c e r t if ic a t io n
■■
should not be subordinate to
a
National Board.
(3)
A tw o - c e r tific a te
lice n se s,
w ith
system fo r issuance o f in s tru c tio n a l
one c e r t if ic a t e
re fe rre d
to
as e n try -
leve l te a ch e r's c e r t if ic a t e , was favored by 77.5% o f the
d ire c to rs .
(4)
D ire cto rs recommended changes in teacher lic e n s in g laws
and procedures.
(5)
T h irte e n
fiv e
states
years
reported
previous,
issuing
fewer
licenses
than
14 states reported issuing more,
and 11 states reported issu in g about the same number.
i.
57
D ire c to rs
d id
not
appear to
be re s is ta n t
to
change,
in c lu d in g
recommendation to e s ta b lis h performance-based c e r t if ic a t io n .
recommendation was to. become more fle x ib le
among the states
and increase
a
A second
re c ip ro c ity
in terms o f lic e n s in g teachers, a d m in is tra to rs ,
and
the school personnel.
Andragogy and Pedagogy:
Methodologies fo r In s tru c tio n
In the e a rly 1970's, Dubin and Okun (1973, p. 3) suggested th a t
"no s in g le le a rn in g theory is a p p lica b le in a ll educational s e ttin g s ."
Andrews (1981, p. 11) continues w ith statements re le va n t to the design
o f educational programs:
. Educational programs are not designed fo r a d u lts . They
are designed p rim a rily by in s tru c to rs who use what they
have I earned (or more lik e ly have experienced) about
teaching c h ild re n , adolescents, or college students.
B u tle r (1985) suggests th a t educators have long needed a comprehensive,
generalizable model o f the te a ch in g -le a rn in g process th a t would serve
as a p ra c tic a l guide in making decisions about the in s tru c tio n a l design
o f c u r ric u la .
terms
of
c h ild r e n
e d u c a tio n a l
(pedagogy),
pedagogical
a pproach
s o c ie ty .
v o c a tio n a l
th e o ry , as i t
but
may be
applies
In p u t
d is p la c e m e n t ,
'and economic
system s
no
is
th e
of
pace
new
the
at
w h ich
m o b ility ,
l o n g e r e x te n d s
in s tru c tio n
a p p ly in g
of
these
Compounding the problem o f
k n ow led g e,
p o p u la tio n
to
in a p p r o p r ia te ly
processes to a d u lt le a rn e rs.
in s tru c tio n a l
w ith in
Lindsay (1984) notes th a t educators are knowledgeable in
change
has
te c h n o lo g ic a l
and change
over g e n e ra tio n s .
ta k e n
p la c e
in n o v a tio n ,
in
p o litic a l
The r e s u l t
58 fo r the le a rn e r, c h ild or a d u lt, is the fa c t th a t knowledge gained at
any one p o in t in time is la rg e ly obsolete w ith in a span o f a few years.
In an attempt to understand the a d u lt lea rne r and the lea rning
environment,
a v a rie ty
of
research
endeavors
have been undertaken.
D e scrip tive case studies and survey designs focused on the in te rn a l
processes
Houle's
a d u lt
of
a d u lt
(1961)
le a rn in g
du rin g
the
1950's
and e a rly
1960's.
typology suggesting the existence o f three groups o f
le a rn e rs,
id e n tifie d
le a rn in g -o rie n te d ,
as g o a l-o rie n te d ,
set a precedent
fo r
a c tiv ity - o rie n te d ,
a d u lt m o tiva tio n a l
and
stu d ie s.
Rogers (1969) challenged the tr a d itio n a l schooling model, asserting the
th e o ry
of
s tu d e n t-c e n te re d
educatio n,
follow ed
by Tough's
in v e s tig a tio n in to the area o f natural lea rning c a p a b ility .
(1971)
Early in
the 1970's, Knowles introduced in to his w ritin g the term "andragogy,"
defined as "the a r t and science o f helping adults le a rn ," in co n tra st
to the term "pedagogy,"
c h ild re n le a r n ."
defined as "the a r t and science o f helping
Yonge (1985, p .,1 6 0 ), however, r e s tr ic ts the context
o f andragogy to "those s itu a tio n s where an a d u lt (or a d u lts) a s s is ts
and accompanies
.
.
.
another a d u lt
(a d u lts ).
. . . "
C r itic a l
d iffe re n ce s between s itu a tio n s id e n tifie d as andragogical or pedagogi­
c a l, as noted by Yonge (1985) in clu d e :
pedagogical
a d u lt;
(a) A s itu a tio n id e n tifie d as
always involves an a d u lt a s s is tin g a c h ild
to become an
(b) the s tru c tu re o f the re la tio n s h ip between the p a rtic ip a n ts ,
which includes t r u s t , understanding, and a u th o rity , must e x is t between
a d u lt
and
c h ild
in
a pedagogical
s itu a tio n
w ith
more emphasis on
a u th o rity ; and (c) there are d iffe re n c e s in the nature and p o s itio n o f
the a d u lt and the c h ild w ith in a s o c ie ta l context.
Knowles (1972), in
59
a continued e f f o r t to id e n tify s p e c ific elements the educator o f adults
would want to
include w ith in
the
in s tru c tio n a l
development process,
suggested the fo llo w in g :
(1)
E sta b lish in g a clim ate conducive to le a rn in g , ■
(2)
Creating a mechanism fo r mutual planning,
(3)
Diagnosing the needs fo r le a rn in g ,
(4)
Formulating program o b je c tiv e s th a t w ill
s a tis fy these
needs,
(5)
Designing a p a tte rn o f le a rning experiences,
(6)
C onducting
these
le a rn in g
experiences
w ith
s u ita b le
techniques and m a te ria ls , and
(7)
E v a lu a tin g
th e
le a rn in g
outcomes
and
re d ia g n o sin g
le a rn in g needs.
Andragogy is .an unusual and d is tin c tiv e term, a ttra c tin g a tte n tio n
from any number o f a d u lt educators, in a d d itio n to in d iv id u a ls outside
the f ie ld .
As a r e s u lt,
the review o f the underlying assumptions o f
andragogy and published c r itic is m o f the model became an in te g ra l p a rt
o f the a d u lt education
1980's.
Houle
(1972)
lite r a tu r e
during the la te
1970's and e a rly
perceived andragogy as a technique o r set o f
techniques, w hile McKenzie (1977) suggested the notion o f andragogy as
the
ba sis
fo r
in v e s tig a tin g
a philo sop hical
p o s itio n .
suggested the consideration o f andragogy as a p o lit ic a l r e a lit y .
E lias
the
need to
w h ile
continued
(1979)
q u e stio n e d
theory,
(1978)
Carlson
(1979)
andragogy as a. le a rn in g
Knowles
consider d iffe re n ce s
in
ch ild re n as ju s t if ic a t io n fo r a varie d educational approach.
adults
and
60
At
the
onset o f
1980,
b e tte r from pedagogical
Knowles acknowledged th a t
approaches under c e rta in circumstances,
viewing andragogy more as a technique than a theory.
pedagogy were
p ro v id e d
th e
viewed
b a sis
adults
as
fo r
poles
each
on a continuum.
end o f
the
learn
thus
Andragogy and
Four assumptions
continuum ,
representing
andragogy and pedagogy, as stated below:
(1)
Andragogy is a normal aspect o f the process o f matura­
tio n f o r a person to move from dependency toward
increasing s e lf-d ire c te d n e s s , a t d iffe r e n t rates 'and in
d iffe r e n t dimensions o f l i f e .
(2)
As people grow and develop they accumulate an increasing
re s e rv o ir o f experience, w ith more meaning attached to
learnings gained by experience as compared to learnings
acquired p a ssively.
(3)
People become ready to learn when they experience a need
to learn in order to cope more s a tis fy in g ly w ith re a ll i f e tasks or problems.
(4)
Learners view educatio n as a process o f developing
increased competence to .a c h ie v e th e ir f u l l p o te n tia l in
l i f e .(Knowles, 1980, p.,43)-.
These assumptions, recognized as being p a rt o f the lit e r a t u r e o f a d u lt
education,
le d
to
developmental
im p o rta n t
psychology,
d iffe re n c e s
and humanistic psychology,
between the
educational
designs
have
fo r
c h ild re n and a d u lts , as noted in the c o n tra s tin g assumptions re la tiv e
to pedagogy:
(1)
The ro le o f the learner is , by d e fin itio n , a dependent
one.
The teacher is expected by socie ty to take f u ll
re s p o n s ib ility fo r determ ining what is to be Iearnedi
when i t is to be learned, and i f i t has been learned.
(2)
The experience learners b rin g to a lea rning s itu a tio n is
o f l i t t l e w orth; a cco rdin gly, the primary techniques in
e d u c a tio n are tr a n s m itta l te c h n iq u e s ' — le c tu r e ,
assigned readings, audio-visu al presentations.
\
61
(3)
People are ready to . learn whatever so cie ty says they
ought to le a rn , provided the pressures on them ( lik e
fe a r o f fa ilu r e ) are great enough.
Learning should be
organized in to a f a i r l y standardized curriculum , w ith a
uniform , step-by-step progression fo r a ll lea rne rs.
(4)
Learners see e d u c a tio n as a process o f a c q u irin g
su b ject-m atte r content, most o f which they understand
w ill be useful only a t a la te r time in l i f e .
People are
s u b je c t-c e n te re d in t h e i r o r ie n t a t io n to le a rn in g
(Knowles, 1980, p. 43).
Based on these premises, the fo llo w in g conclusions were id e n tifie d
re le va n t to the appropriate methodologies to be implemented in a d u lt
education:
(1)
A dult education should be learner-centered.
(2)
The teacher should
fu n c tio n
as f a c i l i t a t o r
ra th e r than as a conveyor and eva luato r.
and guide
R e s p o n s ib ility
fo r the le a rn in g re sts w ith the learner ra th e r than w ith
the teacher or p rovide r o f the educational experience.
Despite the v a rie ty o f
andragogy,
researchers
in
in te rp re ta tio n s
the
la te
1970's
regarding the basis
and e a rly
1980's
e ffo r ts to d e fin e , o p e ra tio n a liz e , and evaluate the concept.
fo r
began
Research
in the area o f educational o rie n ta tio n , as measured on an andragogical/
pedagogical
and th a t
scale,
educational
in s titu tio n a l
fin d in g s
suggested th a t andragogy could be o p e ra tio n a lize d
o rie n ta tio n
s e t t in g ,
might vary by gender,
and d is c ip lin e
helped to provide an em pirical
andragogy
in
developm ent.
in v e s tig a tio n s
lig h t
o f educational
Research
in to
(Davenport,
base fo r
o rie n ta tio n
and dialogue regarding p h ilo sop hical
1984).
These
the discussion o f
program planning
s tu d e n t
department,
and curriculum
follow ed
as did
o rie n ta tio n s ,
an
62
area
c o n tr ib u tin g
h e a v ily
to
th e
andragogi cal-pedagogical
debate
re le va n t to in s tru c tio n a l methodologies.
P hilosophical O rigins
.Beder
(1985,
p.
14)
notes,
"The issue o f how ad ults
should be
educated is ce n tra l to the p ro fe s s io n ," and fu rth e r suggests th a t the
predominant view o f andragogy is derived from progressive and humanist
philosophy.
E lia s and Merriam (1980) s ta te th a t the progressive model
purports the te a ch e r-le a rn e r re la tio n s h ip as re cip ro ca l w ith experien­
tia l
le a rn in g emphasized.
than the
content.
The process o f lea rning is stressed ra th e r
A d e s c rip tio n
o f the
humanist view point places
greate r emphasis on the lea rn in g process as compared to the teaching
exchange.
The teacher serves as f a c i l i t a t o r o f the process ra th e r than
* •
I
as a dissem inator o f knowledge.
In c o n tra s t,
s u p p o rtin g
th e
They id e n tify
E lias and M e rriam (1980) also note the lite r a tu r e
lib e r a l
lib e r a l
and b e h a v io ris t p h ilo sop hical
education as an embodiment o f the teacher as
subject m atter expert charged, w ith tra n s m ittin g
neophyte le a rn e rs.
o rie n ta tio n s .
h is /h e r expertise to
The b e h a v io ris t philosophy, although d iffe r e n t in
many respects, shares s im ila r it ie s in th a t the educator "engineers" the
lea rning experience by m anipulation o f the le a rning environment, and
provides
reinforcem ent which,
learn what the educator desires.
in
tu rn ,
may encourage the learner to
Both p o s itio n s , lib e r a l and behavior­
i s t , are teacher-centered w ith the re s p o n s ib ility fo r lea rn in g w ith the
teacher and the educational system.
o f the term pedagogy.
Both p o s itio n s aire re pre senta tive
I
63.
E volution o f andragogical o r ie n ta tio n .
The questions o f .teacher
versus learner-centeredness, locus o f re s p o n s ib ility fo r le a rn in g , and
whether the teacher should fu n c tio n as expert/conveyor o r f a c i l i t a t o r
have
become a dominant component in
a p p ro p ria te
fo r
p h ilo s o p h ic a l
m e ta p h ysica l
model w ith
a d u lt
I earners.
o r ie n t a t io n s ,
o r ie n t a t io n s .
the discussion
W ithin
Knowles
Here,
the organismic model. .
the
lite r a tu r e
(1978)
he c o n tra s te d
ism! c model
a p e rs p e c tiv e
v ie w in g
kind.
(1977)
McKenzie
to
b a s ic
the mechanistic
denotes
a
w hile the organ­
th e
u ltim a te ly fre e and c r e a tiv e ... Knowles (1974) i n i t i a l l y
deeming i t
two
The mechanistic model
perspective o f humankind,
organismic model
re la te d
review ed
d e te rm in is tic -in te ra c tiv e
re p re s e n ts
o f methodology
in d iv id u a l
as
selected the
a more accurate re pre senta tion o f human­
suggested e x is te n tia lis m
was a t the base o f
Knowles' theory, w ith the ce n tra l concern o f needs and goals s tro n g ly
associated w ith a main te n e t o f e x is te n tia lis m , namely, the sovereign
freedom o f the in d iv id u a l.
By -addressing the issue in what McKenzie
(1977, p. 225) c a lls a phenomenological ta c t, Knowles viewed andragogy
as fo llo w s :
As a person matures he experiences a change in s e lfconcept from a co n d itio n o f dependency to a co n d itio n
o f se lf-d ire cte d n e 'ss , he accumulates a re s e rv o ir o f
experience and becomes a resource fo r le a rn in g , his
readiness to learn is ordinated toward developmental
ta s k s and s o c ia l r o le s , and h is tim e perspective
changes from one o f postponed a p p lic a tio n o f knowledge
to immediacy o f a p p lic a tio n .
The la t t e r phenomenon
in c lin e s th e a d u lt to problem-centered ra th e r than
subject-centered le a rn in g .
In a ffirm in g the Maslowian concept o f s e lf- a c tu a liz a tio n , Knowles
■
(1974) fu rth e r grounded andragoby in the philo sop hical o rie n ta tio n o f
64
humanism, m anifest by aspects o f s u b je c tiv e tr u th and the c e n tr a lity o f
the in d iv id u a !-in -th e -w o rld .
He fu rth e r stated th a t as a p r a c titio n e r
o f andragogy, the a d u lt educator must consider th a t human beings are
e s s e n tia lly good and capable o f s e lf-d ire c te d le a rn in g .
the educator is
The task o f
not to d ire c t or m otivate, but to f a c i l i t a t e .
With
regard to p rin c ip le s o f teaching, diverse competencies o f f a c ilit a t io n
are urged, based on the c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the a d u lt le a rn e r.
Andragogy as a Teaching-Learning
Transaction
Boyer
goals,
(1984)
provides
an overview o f the
need to
re a lig n
the
assumptions, and pra ctice s o f education whenever and wherever
le a rning is to occur.
d ire c t pedagogical
The author fu r th e r acknowledges the in c lu s io n o f
approaches in
some instances,
but id e n tifie s
the
firm b e lie f th a t the theory o f freedom in s e lf-d ire c te d in q u iry is the
most appropriate design in many environments fo r most ages.
The long­
standing commitment to humanistic id e a ls , in a d d itio n to the recogni­
tio n o f an existence o f an "organism ic" s e lf th a t is present at b ir t h ,
suggests
an
in te rw e b
p h ilo s o p h y .
thoughts
need
is
fo r
program
statem ents
by Knowles
directedness
th e
. The
of
(1980)
in
by
design
Boyer
a h u m a n is tic
la te r
which the assumption in v o lv in g
s e lf -
f i t . of
(1984)
on
the
considered along w ith ,
a p p ro p ria te
based
re in fo rc e
ra th e r than in opposition to ,
m ethodologies
to
the
le a rn in g
environment.
Truskie (1981) incorporated the "organism ic" model in to management
development tr a in in g ,
encouraging the design o f educational
based on the diverse needs and in te re s ts o f in d iv id u a ls .
programs
The concept
65
emphasizes
an a ttitu d e
toward
the
student,
encourages
d iv e r s ity
of
in d iv id u a l o p p o rtu n ity , and stresses the ro le o f tra in in g as the source
of
developm ent.
tr a d itio n a l
r e it e r a t i n g
M a n ife s ta tio n s
stu d y
th e
and
e x te rn a l
of
t h i s : tre n d ,
degree
purpose o f education
in
in c lu d in g
program s,
have
d e s c rip tiv e
terms
evolved
as the
continuous development o f the in d iv id u a l throughout the life s p a n .
model
represents
a person as an organized e n tity
n.bn-
The
whose parts
gain
meaning and fu n c tio n from the whole in which they are in te g ra te d .
The
organismic model provides an avenue, fo r in d iv id u a liz in g the process o f
lea rning to be more c lo s e ly a llie d
b ilitie s
of
th e
w ith the fun ction s
p r a c t i t i o n e r , , re c o g n iz in g
and responsi­
in d iv id u a l
needs and
encouraging the lea rne r to be p ro a ctive in seeking appropriate learning
o p p o rtu n itie s .
In a d d itio n , the model provides f l e x i b i l i t y p e rm ittin g
the lea rne r to be self-paced and s e le c tiv e in id e n tify in g methods o f
in s tru c tio n compatible w ith the le a rn e r's s ty le .
E arly-on, Knowles (1974) delineated the organismic model as a more
a c c u ra te
re p re s e n ta tio n
lea rn in g as the h o lis t ic
fo r
p e rce ivin g ,
knowing,
of
the
in d iv id u a l,
a model
which depicts
development o f the in d iv id u a l's c a p a b ilitie s
th in k in g ,
fe e lin g ,
v a lu in g ,
and doing,
in
order to cope more c o n fid e n tly /w ith l i f e .
This d e fin itio n o f lea rning requires th a t we educators
s h i f t th e focus • o f our a tte n tio n from tra n s m ittin g
c o n te n t to h e lp in g le a rn e rs develop the s k i l l s o f
in q u iry , and p roviding environments th a t are ric h in
th e resources needed fo r various kinds o f in q u iry
(Knowles, 1974, p. 302).
Knudson (1980), in v e s tig a tin g the andragogical/pedagogical issue,
chose
a d if f e r e n t
approach to
educational
programming fo r
a d u lts ,
66
r e f e r r in g
to
an a lte rn a tiv e
developm ent o f
th e
whole
d iffe re n ce s and s im ila r it ie s
human beings.
not. kind ;
as
"humanogogy."
human b e in g ,
S tressing
the
humanogogy represents
the
between ad ults and c h ild re n as le a rning
Humanogogy approaches lea rning as a m atter o f degree,
adults
are not d iffe r e n t
d iffe r e n t in degree.
a d u lt
model
educators
in
kind from c h ild re n ,
but only
The p o in t suggested by Knudson1s model is th a t
need to
examine c r i t i c a l l y
approaches and keep in mind th a t human l i f e
th e ir
te a ch in g -le a rn in g
is a process which cannot
.be adequately described in terms o f " e ith e r /o r " approaches.
. A s im ila r
model
proposed
by
Rinke
(1982),
termed
" h o lis t ic
education," focuses on the whole te a ch in g -le a rn in g s itu a tio n and varie s
the te a ch in g -le a rn in g stra te g y to meet the needs o f the le a rn e r,
the
teacher, and the s itu a tio n in an e f f o r t to a tta in educational outcomes
which are greate r than the sum o f the p a rts .
both the
teacher and the
te a c h in g -le a rn in g
s ty le
lea rne r b rin g
preferences,
c e rta in
and other
constructs to every te a ch in g -le a rn in g encounter.
.is
fu lly
c o g n iz a n t
of
the
The inference is th a t
s itu a tio n a l
p e rs o n a lity
tr a its ,
s o cia l-p sych o !O gicalx
The h o lis t ic educator
varia bles
which a ffe c t
te a ch in g -le a rn in g process and va rie s the approach a cco rdin gly.
v a r ia b le s
knowledge,
in c lu d e
en viro n m e n t,
in fo rm a tio n
tim e ,
and/or s k i l l s
and m o tiv a tio n a l
to
be tra n s m itte d ;
the
Such
fa c to r s ;
budgeting
c o n s tra in ts ; equipment c a p a b ilitie s ; and any other fa c to rs which might
impinge on the educational process.
In p ra c tic e , a h o lis t ic educator
might fo llo w a pedagogical model a t one time and a t another time act as
a f a c i l i t a t o r observing andragogical p rin c ip le s .
o f the two may occur.
I f appro pria te, a mix
67
H o lis tic education, as in te rp re te d by Rinke (1982), is dedicated
to a s s is tin g learners to reach th e ir own unique p o te n tia l and empha­
sizes the promotion o f lea rning as a life lo n g process.
The h o lis t ic
model incorporates several key concepts, in c lu d in g :
(1)
Recognition th a t
lea rning needs o f adults vary exten­
s iv e ly ;
(2)
Acknowledgement th a t o v e ra ll
a d u lt,
depending
in h e re n t
mental
on environmental
a b ilit ie s ,
may be located
development o f an
circumstances
and
anywhere along a
continuum;
(3)
Recognition th a t learners do not have to progress to the
extreme r ig h t o f the continuum to reach p o te n tia l;
(4)
The hypothesis th a t s k ills or competencies to be learned
by ad ults may be viewed as h ie ra rc h ic a l and overlapping
in nature;
(5)
A b e lie f th a t there is nothing permanent except change;
th e re fo re ,
as adults move along a le a rn in g continuum,
they also move along a continuum o f change.
Beder
(1985),
however,
contends
th a t
the controversy over the
s e le ctio n o f an appropriate te a ch in g -le a rn in g tra n s a c tio n
o n ly
o f p h ilo so p h ica l
a d u lt education r e a lly
o rie n ta tio n ,
is .
If,.', in
but o f confusion
fa c t,
is not one
regarding what
the issue revolves around
con sideration o f the process o f educating a d u lts , two im portant fa c to rs
must be considered, in c lu d in g the c la s s ific a tio n o f a d u lt lea rning and
the s tru c tu re o f knowledge sought by the lea rne r.
68
A v a rie ty o f c la s s ific a tio n s o f a d u lt lea rning have been id e n ti­
fie d in the lit e r a t u r e ,
in c lu d in g education which occurs in a natural
or unplanned s e ttin g and th a t d e live red through lea rn in g org a n iza tio n s.
Tough (1971) in it ia t e d the use o f the term " s e lf- p la n n e d /s e lf- in itia te d
le a rn in g "
in
educational
c o n tr a s t
agencies.
to
those
A th ir d
le a rn in g
from e ffo r ts
planned by
element has been added by B ro o k fie ld
(1984) defined as e x p e rie n tia l le a rn in g in a d d itio n to the natural and
formal s e ttin g .
B ra d fo rd
(1958)
p r e v io u s ly
r e ite r a te d
the
importance o f the
te a ch in g -le a rn in g tra n sa ctio n by s ta tin g two basic assumptions.
the
te a ch in g -le a rn in g
teacher,
le a rn e r,
tio n s h ip s .
process
is
a human tra n s a c tio n
F ir s t,
in v o lv in g
the
and lea rning group in a set o f dynamic in te r r e la ­
Teachers
and learners
engage in
a complex process
of
e xp lo ra tio n and diagnosis o f needs fo r and resistances to lea rning and
change, o f experim entation. and fa c t- fin d in g ,
fo r,th e
u t iliz a t io n
in d iv id u a l.
of
le a rn in g
■
o f te s tin g and planning
and change in
the
life
o f the
The second assumption states th a t the ta rg e t o f education
is change and growth in the in d iv id u a l and h is /h e r behavior, and thus
in h is /h e r w orld.
These two assumptions lay a basis fo r a re-exam ination
o f a te a c h in g -le a rn in g theory. They in d ic a te the need
to combine teaching procedures and understandings o f
the m o tiv a tio n a l, emotional and c o g n itiv e c h a ra c te ris - .
t i c s o f th e te a ch e r and I earners, w ith s k i l l s o f
working w ith learners and le a rn in g group in c re a tin g
c o n d itio n s fo r lea rning and change (Bradford, 1958,
p. 135).
A d d itio n a l
in c lu d e :
(a)
d e s c rip to rs
id e n tifie d
of
th e
p ro v id e rs
v a rie d
of
c la s s ific a t io n
e d u c a tio n ;
(b)
systems
goals
of
69
educational experience such as whether knowledge, s k i l l s , or a ttitu d e s
are to be acquired;
(c)
id e n tific a tio n
and meeting o f needs o f the
le a rn e r; and (d) c la s s ific a tio n based on who w ill b e n e fit.
The question,
a p p ro p ria te
unanswered.
however, o f what teaching behavior o r stra te g y is
under what
circu m sta n ce
is ,
at
b e s t,
confusing
and
To address th is issue, Beder (1985) suggests a c la s s ific a ­
tio n system based on the s tru c tu re o f knowledge sought, id e n tifie d as
formal/segmented
segmented
knowledge and problem -oriented
knowledge
re p re s e n ts
an in te g ra te d ,
knowledge.
Formal/
cum ulative
body o f
knowledge th a t begins w ith basic p rin c ip le s and culminates in complex
and o fte n a b stra ct p rin c ip le s . . In order fo r the in d iv id u a l to master
the higher order p rin c ip le s ,
the le a rn e r must master the basics.
In
a d d itio n , the meaning o f higher order p rin c ip le s is known only to the
teacher who is charged w ith the dispensation o f knowledge.
the formal
knowledge c la s s ific a tio n , the body o f content is segmented
in to u n its which b u ild on each o th e r.
o f knowledge leads to eventual
body
of
To organize
knowledge;
in
fa ilu r e a t mastering the whole o f the
order to
a sce rtain
becomes the fu n c tio n o f the teacher.
lea rne r begins w ith
the
F a ilu re to master i n i t i a l u n its
the mastery,
evaluation
In the educational process, the
id e n tific a tio n
o f a task
to
be performed.
Learning o b je ctive s are set fo r each s k i l l and a s e q u e n tia lly ordered
in s tru c tio n a l program re s u lts .
This approach p a ra lle ls the b e h a v io ris t
philosophy in which "le a rn in g by o b je c tiv e " is the key element.
'In c o n tra s t, the problem -oriented knowledge p e rta in s to d is t in c t
in fo rm a tion or s k i l l s an in d iv id u a l needs to learn in order to solve or
cope w ith a problem posed by the environment or l i f e
s itu a tio n .
The
70
p ro b le m -o rie n te d
knowledge
is
in te g ra te d
w ith
experience
it s e lf ;
learners themselves are accountable in problem -oriented le a rn in g .
h ig h ly
in d iv id u a liz e d
approaches
c h a ra c te ris tic
education are th e re fo re warranted.
of
The
teacher-centered
However, the teaching is ap p ro p ri­
a te ly learner-centered and non-evaluative.
A large p o rtio n o f a d u lt
le a rn in g f a l l s in to the realm o f problem -oriented knowledge w ith d ire c t
im p lic a tio n to se lf-p la n n e d , s e lf - in it ia t e d le a rn in g .
le a rn in g
d e riv e d
in it ia t e d by l i f e
from
a need to
perform
life
Examples include
ro le s
and lea rning
changes which comprise some 80% o f a d u lt le a rn in g ,
according to Aslanian and B ric k e ll (1980).
In s tru c tio n a l Design and
the A dult Learner
What is needed is a dynamic general stra te g y enabling
learners to. se le ct at any moment the p a rtic u la r ta c tic
. th a t is optim al fo r th e ir unique co n fig u ra tio n s o f
aptitudes a t th a t moment in tim e. . . . They must have
a wide v a rie ty o f ta c tic s a v a ila b le to them but not so
many th a t th e y are overwhelmed by th e number o f
choices. They must be provided a procedure fo r adapt­
ing slow ly to th is dynamic in s tru c tio n a l environment
s in c e a l l th e ir previous experience has been fix e d
treatm ents which have been administered to them and
over which they have had l i t t l e or no con trol ( M e r r ill,
1975, p. 219).
Numerous
tre n d s
and
issue s
re p re s e n tin g
paradoxes
faced by
educators o f adults suggest an increasing need fo r both c re d it and non­
c r e d it
educational
a c t iv it ie s
and wider adoption o f
schemes fo r c e r tify in g lea rning (Long, 1983).
n o n tra d itio n a l
An a c t iv it y th a t s ta rts
at b ir th and can be expected to continue fo r a life tim e , lea rning can
be accidental
c e n te rs ,
and c o in c id e n ta l..
fa c ilitie s
However, in classrooms and tra in in g
and personnel,
representing
education,
business,
71
in d u s tr y ,
and government
a re
employed
education o p p o rtu n itie s and a c t iv it ie s .
o p p o rtu n ity is to prepare a ll
so cie ty in which they liv e .
to
p ro v id e
learners
w ith
The design o f th a t education
students to work and p a rtic ip a te in the
The view im plying the need fo r a dynamic
q u a lity w ith in the educator/1 earner re la tio n s h ip , e s p e c ia lly regarding
the involvement o f the lea rne rs, is c r i t i c a l .
Mahan and Bollman (1968)
contend th a t i t is p re c is e ly a t th is p o in t th a t the educational process
may f a i l ,
not in the content competencies o f the educator nor in the
lea rn in g a b ilit ie s or m o tiva tio n o f the le a rn e r, but in the r e la tio n ­
ship between the two.
In th is sense,
. . . education is defined as 'any lea rn in g process'
re s u ltin g in a change o f behavior on the p a rt o f the.
le a rn e r. Process means the dynamic in te ra c tio n between
the educator and the lea rne r (Mahan & Bol I man, 1968,
p. 101).
Learning Theory and In s tru c tio n a l: Design
Learning th e o ry .
s tu d y
of
th e
Romiszowski
promotion o f
The in te rp re ta tio n
fa c to r s
(1981)
in t e r p r e t s
le a rn in g
based, on th e o rie s
in flu e n c in g
in
of
th e
in d iv id u a ls ,
le a rn in g . .
In
o f in s tru c tio n
le a rn in g
by
purpose o f
w ith
a
w hatever
means.
in s tru c tio n
as the
th e orie s
reviewing
involves
of
research
in s tru c tio n
studies
of
le a rn in g , Gagne' (1970) notes three questions r e la tiv e to in s tru c tio n :
(1)
How should the lea rning task be presented?
(2)
What kinds
of
a c t iv it ie s
on the p a rt o f the student
should be required or encouraged?
(3)
What p ro v is io n
fu tu re use?
must, be made to
ensure re te n tio n
and
72
Current th e o re tic a l view points on lea rning and in s tru c tio n provide
c l a r it y to an area o f constant change.
Romiszowski (1981), in a review
o f le a rning th e o rie s , notes the b e h a v io ris t p o s itio n , as exem plified by
Skinner, is based on a d e fin itio n o f lea rning as an observable change
in behavior, not caused by physical m aturation or growth.
The s tru c tu re o f in te rn a l th in k in g and le a rn in g pro­
cesses is co n sid e re d irre le v a n t to the process o f
in s tr u c tio n , which is, seen as the s tru c tu rin g o f the
environment in such a way as to maximize the p ro b a b il­
i t y o f the desired new behavior being learned (p. 166).
The process
is
in s tr u c to r :
(a)
based on the
arranges
the
p r in c ip le
of
reinforcem ent where the
stim u lu s,
(b)
observes the le a rn e r's
response, and (c) re in fo rce s desired responses and w ithholds re in fo rc e ­
ment i f responses are not desired.
Romiszowski
(1981) continues w ith the neo-b eha viorist view point,
suggested by Gagne', which purports c e rta in c h a ra c te ris tic s remaining
throughout a decade o f gradual change and e v o lu tio n .
d is tin g u is h
Gagne'
from s t r i c t
b e h a v io ris ts
Two points which
include the b e lie f in
a
v a rie ty o f types o f le a rn in g , w ith each type associated w ith s p e c ific
s tra te g ie s o f in s tru c tio n ,
and an in te re s t in the fu n c tio n in g o f the
in te rn a l mental processes which govern le a rn in g .
le a rn in g ,
id e n tifie d by Gagne'
Eight, categories o f
(1985), suggest a hie rarch y proceeding
from very simple co n d itio n in g -ty p e le a rn in g to complex lea rn in g such as
p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
re q u is ite
to
In
a d d itio n /
higher le v e ls .
lower
le v e ls
of
The e ig h t categories
learning, are pre­
in clu d e :
signal
le a rn in g , stim ulus-response, chaining, verbal chaining, d is c rim in a tio n
le a rn in g , concept le a rn in g , ru le le a rn in g , and problem -solving.
73
Romiszowski
(1981)
a ls o
review s
the
co g n itive /d e ve lo p m e n ta l
view point exem plified by Piaget and Bruner, proponents o f the discovery
approach as i t
re la te s
to
in flu e n ce on in s tru c tio n a l
d is c o v e ry
movement,
in s tr u c tio n .
th in k in g ,
arguing
Ausubel
(1968),
a powerful
was noted in oppositio n to the
th a t much in s tru c tio n ,
p a r tic u la r ly
at
higher le v e ls o f education, is su c c e s s fu lly performed by the process o f
exp osition leading to meaningful reception le a rn in g .
The learning task
does not invo lve independent discovery on the p a rt o f the le a rn e r; the
e n tire content o f what is to be learned is presented to the lea rne r in
fin a l form.
The approach is in c o n tra s t to discovery lea rn in g in which
the p rin c ip a l content o f what is to be learned is not given but must be
discovered by the lea rne r before he/she can incorporate i t m eaningfully
in to h is /h e r c o g n itiv e s tru c tu re .
The cybernetic
■
view point places emphasis on problem-solving; and
ru le -fo llo w in g a c t iv it ie s as compared to low er-leve l types o f le a rn in g .
The premise underlying the model, based on work w ith old e r students,
s ta te s .th a t i t
is impossible to solve an in te lle c tu a l problem w itho ut
c a r ry in g
s p e c ific
out
I
in te lle c tu a l
operations
Rule le a rning is not considered complete u n til
( Romiszowski,
1981).
the lea rne r can apply
the ru le c o rre c tly and on the appropriate occasions.
S im ila r itie s are
noted between Gagne'! and Landa in th a t Gagne1 is much more concerned
I
w ith the teaching o f the rules or in t e lle c t s k ills th a t are re le van t to
-; ■
•
■
p a r t ic u la r in s tr u c tio n a l domains,.
“ For Gagne', the o b je ctive s o f
!
in s t r u c t io n are in t e l le c t u a l s k i l l s or c a p a b ilitie s th a t can be
s p e c ifie d in operational terms, can be task analyzed, and then can be
taught" ( Romiszowski,; 1981, p. 177).
y
74
As
an
suggests
a lt e r n a t iv e
th a t
th e
to
r e p e t it io n
or
p ra c tic e ,
most dependable co n d itio n
fo r
Gagne1 (1970)
the
assurance o f
le a rning is p r io r le a rn in g o f p re re q u is ite c a p a b ilitie s , often c a lle d
"s p e c ific readiness o r enabling co n d itio n s" fo r le a rn in g .
fo r the design o f in s tru c tio n
s p e c ific
a tte n tio n
to
three
learned p re re q u is ite s k i l l s ,
m astered,
and
(c)
Im p lica tio n s
can be derived from Gagne's work w ith
fa c to rs :
(a)
c o lle c tio n
o f pre vio u sly
(b) the set o f p re re q u is ite s k ills not y e t
consideration
of
p e rio d ic
and spaced reviews
in
comparison to a d d itio n a l p ra c tic e .
An act o f le a rn in g requires the presence o f a v a rie ty o f in te rn a l
states
B rig g s
th a t
have p re vio u sly
(1974)
s tra te g ie s .
as
in fo r m a tio n ,
Factual
communicated
to
been learned,
th e
id e n tifie d
in te lle c tu a l
s k ills ,
by Gagne1 and
and c o g n itiv e
info rm a tion can occur in three ways.
I e a rne r
in
a form
th a t
remains
I t can be
accessible,
p re vio u s ly learned, or by process o f re trie v a l from previous learning
and storage.
In te lle c tu a l
s k ills must be re c a lle d by the learner in
order fo r lea rn in g to occur, w ith previous lea rning more e ffe c tiv e fo r
re c a ll than fo r immediate new le a rn in g .
S trategies o f attending to a
complex s tim u la tio n , o f s e le c tin g and coding parts o f the stim ulus, o f
solving problems, and o f re trie v in g what has been learned are dependent
on
"s e l f-management"
c a p a b ilit ie s
of
the
I earner,
supported by s tim u la tio n provided by the teacher.
exp e rie n ce
in
le a r n in g ,
w ith
As the learner gains
dependence on in te rn a liz e d
s tra te g ie s
heightened w ith the lea rne r becoming more o f a " s e lf- le a r n e r ."
s k ills
and a ttitu d e s
are also
lea rning
is
Motor
considered a p a rt o f the v a rie ty
of
in te rn a l le a rn in g events, w ith the la t t e r representing the " a ffe c tiv e "
75
domain.
"The e ffe c t o f
an a ttitu d e
is
to
am plify an in d iv id u a l's
p o s itiv e o r negative reactions to a person, or th in g ,
or s itu a tio n "
(Gagne1 & Briggs, 1974, p. 25).
In v e s tig a tio n in to the le a rning emphases in in s tru c tio n suggests
th a t concentrating in s tru c tio n on any one type o f c a p a b ility alone, or
any two in combination, is in s u ffic ie n t.
M u ltip le aims fo r in s tru c tio n
must be considered w ith the human lea rne r a tta in in g several v a rie tie s
o f lea rn in g c a p a b ilitie s .
Romiszowski (1981) suggests th a t there is no
one theory o f in s tru c tio n appropriate fo r a ll lea rn in g s itu a tio n s .
The
suggestion is made, however, th a t both nature
(h e re d ity ) and nurture
(e x p e rie n c e )
le a rn in g
a d d itio n ,
p la y
im p o rta n t
some thin gs
p a rts
(bare fa c ts )
in
the
process.
are best learned by ro te ,
In
w hile
other thin gs (concepts) are b e tte r learned in some meaningful con text.
One may have a v a rie ty o f d iffe r e n t aims (o b je c tiv e s ) fo r teaching a
to p ic
and
these
may re quire
a v a rie ty
o f d iffe r e n t
in s tru c tio n a l
methods and techniques.
I n s t r u c t io n a l
design
design.
as a decision-making
in s tru c tio n a l
.
method is
'
assumptions
process
(1983)
defines
in s tru c tio n a l
by which the most appropriate
selected to teach a given o b je c tiv e under a
p a rtic u la r set o f co n d itio n s.
b a sic
Reigeluth
underlying
Gagne’ and Briggs
the
in s tru c tio n a l
(1974) suggest fo u r
development process:
(1)
In s tru c tio n a l planning must be fo r the in d iv id u a l.
(2)
In s tru c tio n a l design has phases th a t are both immediate
and long-range.
(3)
S ystem a tically designed in s tru c tio n
in d iv id u a l human development.
can g re a tly a ffe c t
76
(4)
The design o f in s tru c tio n must be based upon knowledge
t
o f how human beings learn in a d d itio n to f u l l y account­
ing fo r le a rn in g conditions th a t need to be established.
Designers o f
in s tru c tio n ,
however, o fte n . fin d . themsel ves caught
between ,two fa c to rs over which they have l i t t l e
c o n tr o l.
F ir s t is the
content, which is u s u a lly predetermined by general o b je c tiv e s .
Second
is the lea rne r who brings to the lea rn in g s itu a tio n a set o f a ttitu d e s ,
fe e lin g s , p r io r experiences, and knowledge which the educator accepts
as a given.
develop ,
In a d d itio n , in s tru c tio n a l designers must s e le c t, adapt,
and re fin e
a wide v a rie ty
of
in s tru c tio n a l
processes
and
products which can be placed on a continuum from tig h tly -o rg a n iz e d to
lo o s e ly -s tru c tu re d .
A key decision
the s e le c tio n
re le va n t to the in s tru c tio n a l
o f. an in s tru c tio n a l
model
th a t
is
design process is
congruent w ith
the
fo rce s, goals, and framework fo r the lea rning o f events and outcomes.
A v a r ie t y
in c lu d in g :
of
(a)
th e o r e tic a l
the
and
q u a lit a t iv e
a c tio n
lea rne r generative model,
(b)
models
e x is t ,
the in s tru c tio n a l
systems model, and (c) the learner-educator c o lla b o ra tiv e model.
Smith
(1983) defines the lea rne r generative model as a model which focuses on
the learners throughout the le a rning process.
p rim a ry
r e s p o n s ib ilit y
fo r
id e n t i f y i n g ,
The learners have the
d e s ig n in g ,
implementing, and evaluating the desired le a rn in g .
d e v e lo p in g ,
In th is model, the
decision p o in ts are always based w ith in the le a rn e r's framework w ith
the designer assuming a ro le
o f p ro vid in g
stim ulus
info rm a tion
and
a c t iv it ie s fo r lea rne r e xp lo ra tio n and by adapting these inputs through
interpersonal dialogue fo r use by the le a rn e r.
77
The learner-educator c o lla b o ra tiv e model recognizes the importance
o f id e n tify in g and acknowledging the le a rning leve l
and resources o f
lea rne rs, but also recognizes th a t the knowledge and e xp ertise o f the
content s p e c ia lis t and the in s tru c tio n a l expertise o f the educator are
equally im p o rta n t.. The end product w ill be th a t learners w ill acquire
(le a rn ) knowledge and s k i l l s th a t both they and the educators consider
to be necessary (Smith, 1983, p. 100).
The
in s t r u c t io n a l
system atic,
sion al
systems
em pirically-b ased
educator as the
model
is
grounded
in
a r a tio n a l,
s tru c tu re w ith emphasis on the profes­
designer o f e ffe c tiv e
le a rn in g
experiences.
Kasworm (1983, p. 10) suggests th is model has
.. . . proved to be valuable in designing lea rning
experiences fo r adults who must demonstrate s p e c ific
knowledge and. s k ills fo r a p a rtic u la r task s e ttin g , job
requirement, or c e r t if ic a t io n standard.
Some o f
programming
p re fe re n c e
th e
fo r
fo r
elem ents
ru ra l
an
of
a d u lts
th e
model
are also
evident
and undereducated a d u lts ,
in s tr u c to r - g r o u p
form at.
It
is
in
the
showing a
considered
an
e ffe c tiv e in s tru c tio n a l design approach fo r adults who enter a lea rning
e xp e rie n ce
in s tr u c to r .
d e s ir in g
"O fte n ,
ta n g ib le fashion,
e x p lic it
th is
d ir e c t io n
model
and
f a c ilit a t e s
e x p e rtis e
le a rn in g
from
in
a ra p id ,
in co n tra st to the process-oriented lea rne r genera­
tiv e model" ( Kasworm, 1983, p.
11).
Cited as p rin c ip a l
assumptions
underlying the in s tru c tio n a l systems model are the fo llo w in g :
( I)
th e
Learning occurs throug h: in s tru c tio n based on the p r in ­
c ip le s o f c o g n itiv e psychology.
78
(2)
Program design is conducted in a system atic, sequential
series o f steps based on em pirical data c o lle c tio n .
(3)
Learning is
stru ctu re d according to d e finab le learning
outcomes th a t are o b je c tiv e , measurable, and te s ta b le .
Each event in the system is predetermined to lead to a
change in knowledge, s k i l l s , o r a ttitu d e .
(4)
Major issues focus on le a rning conditions th a t should be
established fo r desired outcomes.
(5)
Learn ing
c o n te n t
is
\
through
defined
system atic
task
a n a lysis, which provides a c la s s ific a tio n o f measurable
o b je ctive s fo r in s tru c tio n .
(6)
Learner c h a ra c te ris tic s are predetermined and screened.
Learners enter the program a fte r meeting s p e c ific pre­
program c r it e r ia ,
and they e x it the program only a fte r
exem plifying the lea rning outcomes.
(7)
The professional educator's ro le is predominantly based
on the s k ills and knowledge required fo r conducting task
a n alyses,
and
d e fin in g
sequencing
behavioral
a p p ro p ria te
o b je c tiv e s ,
le a rn in g
determ ining
s tra te g ie s
fo r
achieving le a rning outcomes, and developing appropriate
pre - and post-assessment systems.
Systems design.
systems
The systems approach o rig in a te d in the f ie ld o f
e n g in e e rin g .and was' i n i t i a l l y
e le c tro n ic ,
mechanical,
m ilita r y ,
a p p lie d
to
and space systems.
the design o f
T raining
then
became a ta rg e t fo r systems design and by the la te 1950's and e a rly
1960's,
an in te g ra l
p a rt o f education.
Approaches to
in s tru c tio n a l
79
development and d e liv e ry have been applied to the tasks o f developing
in s tru c tio n a l m a te ria ls , lea rn in g modules or u n its , in s tru c tio n a l pro­
grams, and la rg e -sca le in s tru c tio n a l systems (Hanrium & Briggs, 1982).
The term "system ," in the present context, is considered to be an
in te g ra te d
plan o f operation
o f a ll
components
(sub-systems)
system, designed to solve a problem or meet a need (B riggs, 1977).
of
a
The
planning represented by a systems approach im plies the analysis o f the
various
components o f the
coordin ation o f the to ta l
fo r
s e lf - c o r r e c t io n .
system in
a lo g ic a l
order,
e f f o r t and w ith fle x ib le
Wileman and Gambill
(1983)
w ith
careful
sequence allow ing
suggest systems
analysis deals w ith the in v e s tig a tio n o f the component events o f a task
or a process and the re la tio n s h ip o f these events to each other and to
the environment.
The
s y s te m a tic
process
of
de veloping
in s tru c tio n
is
u su a lly
present in the form o f a model, ranging from simple to complex.
steps
in
th e
process
(b) task a n a ly s is ,
(d)
design
of
( f ) continued
in clu d e :
(a)
s e le c tio n
of
Basic
an o b je c tiv e ( s ),
(c) a n a ly s is .o f tasks to allow fo r m anageability,
in s t r u c t io n a l
f ie ld
te s tin g
s t r a te g ie s ,
u n til
(e)
acceptable
fie ld
te s tin g ,
c r ite r io n
is
and
reached.
Dick and Carey (1978) suggest a systems model which provides a basis
fo r
d e s ig n ,
m odel,
p ro d u ctio n ,
in itia lly
e va lu a tio n ,
used w ith
courses
and re v is io n
at
F lo rid a
techniques.
S ta te
The
U n iv e rs ity
.
beginning in. 1968, does not represent a s im p lis tic or complex design,
but is described as a be h a vio ra lIy orie nte d model which stresses the
id e n tific a tio n o f s k ills students need to le a rn , and the c o lle c tio n o f
data from students to
re vise
in s tr u c tio n .
The authors
suggest two
80
tra d itio n s
which have co n trib u te d the most to the growth o f system­
a t ic a lly designed in s tru c tio n .
These tra d itio n s are characterized by
the humanistic approach and the behavioral science or systems approach
to
in s t r u c t io n .
themselves
genuine
to
The authors
contend th a t
be re pre senta tive
in t e r e s t
in
the
to ta l
of
the
educators
humanistic
development o f
who consider
approach have a
in d iv id u a l
c h ild re n .
Recognition o f the importance o f in d iv id u a l d iffe re n ce s and a strong
focus on the personal growth and development o f the in d iv id u a l are o f
high p r io r it y .
In essence, h u m a n istica lly orie nte d teachers believe
th a t there is no best; way to manage a yC l assroom or to
organize a le a rning experience. They belie ve there is
no s in g le form ula fo r good teaching, but ra th e r a
number o f approaches, one or more being appropriate fo r
the needs o f a p a rtic u la r student (Dick & Carey, 1978, .
p. 3 ).
Educators who p re fe r a behavioral approach to teaching view the
teacher as one responsible fo r in s tru c tio n in c u ltu ra l h e rita g e , social,
r e s p o n s ib ilitie s , and s p e c ific subject m atter.
c a r e f u lly
prepared
lesson plan,
s p e c ific educational o b je c tiv e s .
lo g ic a lly
Emphasis is placed on a
organized m a te ria l,
and
"In essence, these teachers p re fe r a
system atic approach which u t iliz e s research knowledge on the conditions
o f le a rn in g required fo r students to achieve c le a rly defined outcomes"
(Dick & Carey,
1978, p. 3 ).
in s t r u c t io n a l
approaches,
in d iv id u a l
d iffe re n ce s
Both the humanistic and the behavioral
howbyer,
and the
emphasize the
necessity
fo r
s ig n ific a n c e
p ro vid in g
of
appropriate
in s tru c tio n to the student.
The systems approach fo r designing in s tru c tio n
suggested by the
authors brings together many o f the concepts p re v io u s ly stated.
The
81
model includes e ig h t interconnected boxes w ith a major lin e in d ic a tin g
feedback from the la s t component to the e a r lie r boxes (Figure 2 ).
fin a l
step,
in s t r u c t io n
and the f i r s t
based
on
step
data
in
a repeat cycle ,
summarized
from the
is
re v is in g
various
A
the
form ative
I
.
evaluatio ns.
Summative evaluation is the culm inating evaluation o f the
e ffe ctive n e ss o f the in s tru c tio n and is
design process.
not considered a p a rt o f the
"The model described here is intended to be used at
th a t p o in t when the in s tr u c to r is "a b le to id e n tify a s p e c ific in s tru c ­
tio n a l g o a l" (Dick & Carey, 1978, p. 11).
S election o f In s tru c tio n a l Method
Approaches to in s tru c tio n a l improvement have taken many forms and
have
been
assumptions.
guided
by
a v a r ie t y
of
philo sop hical
o rie n ta tio n s
and
Some approaches have emphasized the system atic design o f
in s tru c tio n , w hile others have begun w ith the assumption th a t personnel
need tra in in g in s p e c ific teaching s k i l l s .
design
or
re d e sig n
of
courses ■as the
S t i l l others advocate the
p o in t
fo r
improvement.
In
a d d itio n , c la r if ic a t io n as to what is meant by the term "in s tru c tio n a l
(teaching) method" is a c r it ic a l, p a rt o f the review o f in s tru c tio n a l
development lite r a tu r e .
Verner and Booth
(1964)
attempted to analyze and c la s s ify
the
purposes and operations o f a d u lt education by proposing a d is tin c tio n
among methods, techniques, and devices as processes o f a d u lt education,
d e fin in g each as fo llo w s :
( I)
Method was defined as the re la tio n s h ip
the in s t it u t io n
w ith a p o te n tia l
established by
body o f p a rtic ip a n ts
Revise
Instruction
Conduct
Instructional
Analysis
Identify
Instructional
Goal(s)
Write
Performance
Objectives
Develop
CriterionReferenced
Test Items
Develop
Instructional
Strategy
Develop
and Select
Instructional
Materials
Identify
Entry Behaviors,
Characteristics
Source:
Design and
Conduct
Summative
Evaluation
Dick & Carey, 1978, p. 9.
Figure 2.
Design and
Conduct
Formative
Evaluation
Systems design approach fo r developing in s tru c tio n
OO
PO
83
fo r the purpose o f s y s te m a tic a lly d iffu s in g
knowledge
among a prescribed but not necessarily f u l l y id e n tifie d
p u b lic .
(2)
Technique
was
id e n tifie d
as the
lish e d by the in s tru c tio n a l
fa c ilita te
le a rning
re la tio n s h ip
estab­
agent (a d u lt educator) to
among a p a rtic u la r
and p re c is e ly
defined body o f p a rtic ip a n ts in a s p e c ific s itu a tio n .
(3)
Device(s) was. id e n tifie d as the mechanical
or environmental
instruments
fa c to rs used by the a d u lt educator to
augment the methods and techniques employed.
Method
d e s c rib e d
the way in
which people were, organized
fo r
in s tr u c tio n , w hile technique, described what an a d u lt educator did to
help
a d u lts
le a rn .
A p p lic a tio n
o f the c la s s ific a tio n
o f processes
suggests th a t once the method has been determined, a broad range o f
techniques and devices become a v a ila b le fo r s e le c tio n and implementa­
tio n in order to f a c i l i t a t e a v a rie ty o f types o f le a rn in g in s p e c ific
s itu a tio n s .
The emphasis
placed on method as a c la s s ific a tio n
p a ra lle ls to some degree Knowles'
o f process
(1980) reassessment o f pedagogy and
andragogy as "in s tru c tio n a l methodologies."
P hilosophical o rie n ta tio n s
of
and Merriam
a d u lt
a tt e n tio n
education,
to
p h ilo s o p h ie s
th e
as
as defined
by E lia s
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . o f
te a c h e r-c e n te re d
the
lib e r a l
compared to
the
(1980),
c a ll
and b e h a v io ris t
progressive
and
humanist o rie n ta tio n s characterized as c o lla b o ra tiv e and f a c i l i t a t i v e .
Davenport and Davenport (1985) suggest an educator adhering to the set
o f pedagogical assumptions would advocate an in s tru c tio n a l clim ate th a t
84
was fo rm a l, a u th o rity -o rie n te d , and com petitive .
The in s tru c to r would
have the re s p o n s ib ility fo r diagnosing o f needs, planning, form ulation
o f o b je c tiv e s ,
and e va lu a tio n ,
w ith the design o f the in s tru c tio n a l
process dependent upon the lo g ic
u n its .
o f the subject m atter and content
T ra d itio n a l formats would be used to tra n s m it info rm a tion from
in s tru c to r to student, w ith in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s in c lu d in g le c tu re ,
assigned readings, and canned audio-visual presentations.
The authors o ffe r an opposite approach stemming from andragogical
assum ptions,
suggesting
an in s tru c tio n a l
re s p e c tfu l, in fo rm a l, and c o lla b o ra tiv e .
clim ate
th a t
is
m utually
In s tru c to r and student would
work toward a mutual process r e la tiv e to diagnosing o f needs, planning,
fo rm ula tion o f o b je c tiv e s , and- e v a lu a tio n .
C r itic a l to the design o f
the in s tru c tio n would be the student readiness to le a rn , w ith lea rn in g
occurring from e x p e rie n tia l techniques a c tiv e ly in v o lv in g the le a rn e r.
In s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s o r techniques would include group discussion,
r o le
p la y in g ,
s k i l ! - p r a c t ic e
e x e rc is e s ,
fie ld
p r o je c ts ,
a c tio n
p ro je c ts , la b o ra to ry methods, c o n s u lta tiv e supervision, demonstration,
seminars,
in d iv id u a l
the case method,
and the c r it ic a l- in c id e n t
process.
The
responsible fo r the le a rn in g s itu a tio n , p re v io u s ly id e n ti­
fie d as the in s tr u c to r , would be more p ro p e rly viewed as a f a c i l i t a t o r
of
le a rn in g
r a th e r
than
as a dissem inator o f
in fo rm a tio n .
Both
in s tru c tio n a l methodologies — pedagogy and andragogy — represent the
system atic d iffu s io n o f knowledge by an o rg a n iz a tio n /in s titu tio n /a g e n c y
to a prescribed audience.
A lte rn a tiv e in te rp re ta tio n s regarding the term inology o f in s tru c . *
t io n a l
methods
in c lu d e
-
t
an awareness o f tr a d itio n a l
s tra te g ie s
to
85
in s tru c tio n such as le c tu re , assigned readings, and use o f textbook and
r e c ita tio n , as compared to what is termed " n o n -tra d itio n a l" techniques
such as in d iv id u a liz e d in s tru c tio n , c re d it fo r experience, performance
c o n tra c tin g , f a c i l i t a t i v e
mode o f
s e lf- tr a in in g workshops, and technology as a
s e l f - in s t r u c t i o n
( i.e .,
cable te le v is io n ,
in s tru c tio n , in te ra c tiv e computer programs).
audio cassette
Laska (1984) suggests the
existence o f fo u r basic methods of. in s tru c tio n w ith each o f the fo u r
c o n s is tin g
of
a number o f
s p e c ific
techniques.
The fo u r methods
include pre se n ta tio n , p ra c tic e , disco very, and reinforcem ent.
s tr a te g ie s
le c tu re ,
or
film ,
te ch n iq u e s
f ie ld
tr ip ,
fo r
p r e s e n ta tio n ,
or demonstration.
fo r
S p e c ific
example,
include
An a lte rn a tiv e to the
presentation method is seen in the discovery method in v o lv in g s tru c tu re
and student
involvement
in
discovery
a c t iv it ie s
w ith
the
knowledge
coming from w ith in the le a rn e r.
In s tru c tio n a l S trategie s
The se le c tio n
or
development o f
complex, y e t ofte n overlooked area.
teaching s tra te g ie s
is
a very
Dick and Carey (1978, p.
106)
suggest th a t an
. . . 'in s tr u c tio n a l s tra te g y ' describes the general
components o f a set o f in s tru c tio n a l m a te ria ls and the
procedures th a t w ill be used w ith those m a te ria ls to
e l i c i t p a r tic u la r lea rn in g outcomes from students.
Five major components comprise an in s tru c tio n a l
(a)
p r e - i n s tr u c tio n a l
a c tiv itie s ,
(b)
s tra te g y ,
in fo rm a tio n
in c lu d in g :
p re s e n ta tio n ,
(c) student p a rtic ip a tio n , (d) te s tin g , and (e) fo llo w -th ro u g h .
The term "in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y "
is
used to describe both the
teaching method and the m a te ria ls used in the teaching process, and is
86
d e fin e d
as
th e
communication.
v e h ic le
In s tru c tio n a l
at le a s t fo u r cate go ries:
(c)
or
in d iv id u a liz e d ,
fo r
in s t r u c t o r - s t u d e n t
s tra te g y can be described as comprising
(a)
in s tru c to r-c e n te re d ,
and (d) e x p e rie n tia l.
in s tru c to r-c e n te re d methods is
being p rim a rily
te c h n iq u e
le c tu re ,
(b) in te ra c tiv e ,
The most fa m ilia r o f the
characterized by the teacher
responsible fo r conveying in fo rm a tion to a group o f
students; the d ire c tio n o f communication tends to be one-way, from the
in s tru c to r
to
the
audience.
At the
lower le v e ls
o f the c o g n itiv e
domain, the goal o f the in s tru c tio n is to expose students to inform a­
tio n or concepts or values.
Students are expected to demonstrate only
th a t they have received and retained the in fo rm a tio n ; they do not have
to use i t .
Weston and Cranton (1986, p. 260) s ta te :
The le c tu re is an e f f ic ie n t and e ffe c tiv e method fo r
in s tru c tio n a t the lower le v e ls (knowledge and compre­
hension) o f the c o g n itiv e domain, p a r tic u la r ly in large
c la s s e s ; s tu d e n ts are p a s s iv e ra th e r than a c tiv e
p a rtic ip a n ts in the teaching and learning process.
In te ra c tiv e methods u t i l i z e communication among students, as w ell
as between in s tr u c to r and students,
p a r tic ip a tio n .
and are characterized by a c tiv e
Class discussion, a commonly used in te ra c tiv e method,
is p a r tic u la r ly e ffe c tiv e fo r in s tru c tio n in the upper le v e ls o f the
c o g n itiv e domain (a n a ly s is , synthesis,
o f the a ffe c tiv e domain.
are v a rie d ,
e v a lu a tio n ), and in a ll
le v e ls
When the group is la rg e r, students' in te re s ts
or when students
fe e l .more com fortable w ith
a sm aller
number o f in d iv id u a ls , discussion groups can be used in place o f class
d is c u s s io n .
"The
n a tu re
of
th is .typ e
of
le a rning
requires
th a t
students in te ra c t w ith the concepts in some way or th a t they in te ra c t
w ith other students,
the
in s tr u c to r ,
or
in a s itu a tio n
in the real
87
w o rld "
(Weston & Cranton,
in t e r a c t iv e
in s tr u c tio n a l
implemented
discussion
p ro v id e d
1986,
in to
o f the
in
th e
lea rn in g
p.
278).
s tra te g ie s
represent techniques
experiences
le c tu re
and small
paragraphs
th a t
In s tru c to r-c e n te re d
fo r
a d u lts .
and
commonly
A more d e ta ile d
group discussion techniques
fo llo w ,
since
they
represent
is
the
in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s fo r the present study.
Lecture s tra te g y .
and students
are lis te n in g "
p. 12) defines
class,
"Lecture occurs whenever a teacher is ta lk in g
e tc ."
le c tu re
Cooper
( Lowman, 1984,
as "a discourse
(1982,
p.
p.
96).
Penrose
(1981,
given before an audience or
39) defines
le c tu re as "a c a re fu lly
prepared oral and formal presentation by a q u a lifie d speaker" w ith the
purpose being the presentation o f fa c tu a l' info rm a tion in a d ire c t and
lo g ic a l
manner.
The stra te g y
is
p a r tic u la r ly
appropriate fo r
th a t
info rm a tion not re a d ily a v a ila b le elsewhere.
Although what c o n s titu te s a le c tu re appears obvious, the l i t e r a ­
tu r e
suggests
s tu d e n ts ,
v a r ia tio n s
from the
who are presumably
teacher ta lk in g
lis te n in g ,
questions on the p a rt o f the students,
to
to
teachers
a group o f
who encourage
dr ask questions themselves.
Wallen and Travers (1963, p. 481) suggest, "About the most d e fin itiv e
statement one can make about the le c tu re method is th a t during most o f
the time the in s tr u c to r is 'ta lk in g t o ' the stud en ts."
A v a rie ty o f le c tu re .ty p e s e x is t, ranging from a formal oral essay
to the
le c tu re
e x p o s ito ry
la b o ra to ry w ith v a ria tio n s
le c tu r e ,
p ro v o c a tiv e
le c tu r e ,
q u e s tio n -le c tu re , and le c tu re - re c ita tio n
in between,
le c tu r e
in c lu d in g the
dem onstration,
( Lowman, 1984).
Sweeney and
Reigeluth (1984) emphasize the v a ria tio n s o f the general le c tu re model
88
as
the
in t e r a c t iv e
le c tu r e ,
the
demonstrational
le c tu re ,
and the
in te ra c tiv e demonstration.
Advantages and disadvantages o f the
debated
fo r
yea rs
in
the
ed u ca tio n a l
le c tu re
s tra te g y have been
lite r a tu r e .
Weaver
(1980)
suggests one o f the greate st advantages is th a t le c tu re is an e x c e lle n t
ve h icle
fo r presenting human models to
a group
( i.e .,
e ffe c tiv e
in
cre a tin g in an audience a sense o f re la tio n s h ip between, the model and
the subject the model is p re se n tin g ).
That is to say,
The pre se n ta tio n o f the subject m atter by the person­
a l i t y has an a ffe c tiv e impact on the audience in th a t
i t w ill make d ire c t associations between the value o f
the in fo rm a tio n and the impressions i t has o f the
speaker (Sweeney & R eigeluth, 1984, p. 7 ).
Other advantages include the suggestion th a t le c tu re is an economical
stra te g y , is fle x ib le , and is re a d ily tra n scrib e d or recorded and can
be re-used e a s ily .
Cashin (1985, p.
2 ), however, states nine weak­
nesses o f the tr a d itio n a l le c tu re s tra te g y as:
(1)
Lectures lack feedback to the in s tru c to r about the
stu d e n t's le a rn in g .
(2)
In le c tu re s , the students are passive.
(3)
Students' a tte n tio n wanes q u ic k ly
minutes according to s tu d ie s ).
(4)
Inform ation learned in le ctu re s tends to be fo r ­
gotten q u ic k ly .
(5)
Lectures presume th a t a ll students are le a rn in g at
the same pace and leve l o f understanding.
(6)
Lectures are not w ell su ite d to higher le v e ls o f
lea rn in g such as a p p lic a tio n , a n a lysis, synthesis,
in flu e n c in g a ttitu d e s or values, developing motor
s k ills .
(7)
Lectures are not w ell su ite d to lea rning complex,
d e ta ile d , or a b s tra c t m a te ria l.
(in
( 8 ) . Lectures re q u ire an e ffe c tiv e speaker.
15 or 25
89
(9)
Gagne'
Lectures emphasize le a rn in g by lis te n in g , which is
a disadvantage fo r students who p re fe r to learn by
reading, doingi or some oth er mode.
(1977)
tr a d itio n a l
le c tu r e ,
e a r lie r
suggested the
lack - o f e ffe ctive n e ss
o f the
teaching methods, most o f which were centered around the
in
th a t
they
do not promote the
kind
of
involvement and
re s p o n s ib ility needed fo r e ffe c tiv e le a rn in g .
In regard to appropriate use o f the le c tu re s tra te g y , Sweeney and
ReigeTuth
(1984,
p.
implementation:
in s tr u c te d
at
8)
th e
same tim e ;
is
info rm a tion
urgent;
fr e q u e n tly .
fo llo w in g
times
and places
fo r
(a) when large numbers o f students must, or can be,
(c) when there
is
suggest the
(b)
when the
group
is
homogeneous;
a need to arouse in te re s t in a su b je c t;
However,
and
(e)
when info rm a tion
Osterman and Coffey
(d) when
changes ra p id ly
(1980)
or
suggest s p e c ific
s itu a tio n s where the le c tu re s tra te g y is in a p p ro p ria te , in clu d in g the
fo llo w in g :
(a) when subject m atter
is
h ig h ly a b s tra c t or complex,
(b) when long-term re te n tio n is necessary,
(c) when immediate evalua­
tio n o f in d iv id u a l understanding is require d, and (d) when in d iv id u a l
student record management is require d.
Group d iscu ssio n .
students
in to
b e lie f th a t
Rogers (1969) advocates the transform ation o f
a community o f le a rn e rs.
The premise is
based on a
students need to be assisted in becoming a c tiv e
in the
le a rning process w ith the teacher becoming a f a c i l i t a t o r o f lea rning
ra th e r than the tr a d itio n a l
dispenser o f knowledge.
Bri I ha rt (1982)
suggests the view th a t lea rn in g is much more than the a c q u is itio n o f
actual in fo rm a tion and s k i l l s .
"Learning has come to mean any change
th a t
due to
comes about in
a person
experience;
education
as the
90
s tr u c t u r in g
of
s it u a t io n s
in
which
change w i l l
be
fa c ilit a t e d "
(p. 290).
Three kinds o f circumstances are c ite d by Harnack and Test (1964)
as operating
to
b rin g
together the members o f a discussion
group,
in clu d in g casual circumstances, v o lu n ta ry a sso cia tio n , or as a re s u lt
o f some o rg a n iza tio n a l requirement.
Im plied . . .
is th a t the group's goal is to seek— in
the best in te re s ts o f the group and the circumstances—
the tr u th , the best answers, the w isest d e cisio n , or
the most p ra c tic a l course o f a ctio n a t any given p o in t
in time (P o tte r & Anderson, 1976, p. 2).
When deciding to implement group discussion, Woeste (1967) states
three im portant assumptions the a d u lt educator is making.
ed u ca to r
assumes
in d iv id u a ls w ill
th e ir
ideas,
educator
is
th a t
a clim ate w ill
e x is t
in
the
F ir s t, the
group so th a t
in te ra c t and fee l fre e to enter in to discussion, te s t
and evaluate
assuming th a t
ideas
suggested by o th e rs.
the members o f
the
Second,
discussion
the
group are
fa m ilia r w ith and understand the content to be discussed and are able
to v e rb a liz e th e ir thoughts.
T h ird , the educator is assuming th a t the
in d iv id u a ls involved have s u ff ic ie n t experience in discussion groups to
perform e ffe c tiv e ly as group members.
Discussion provides an avenue to meet a v a rie ty o f educational
o b je c tiv e s .
Lowman (1984) suggests th a t discussion is most useful to
teach the process o f le a rn in g , id e n tifie d as th in k in g .
Discussion is
also.considered to be a p a r tic u la r ly e ffe c tiv e way o f revealing lea rne r
a ttitu d e s in a d d itio n to increasing lea rne r involvement.
The technique
can also promote lea rn e r ra p p o rt, independence, and m o tiv a tio n .
91
Small group discu ssio n .
B r ilh a r t (1982, p. 4) defines small group
as:
. . .
a group o f a size such th a t members can a ll
perceive each other as in d iv id u a ls w ith awareness o f
the ro le o f each member,, who meet fa c e -to -fa c e , share
some id e n tity or common purpose, and share standards
fo r governing th e ir a c t iv it ie s as members.
Bormann (1975) suggests group discussion re fe rs to one or more meetings
o f a small group o f people who thereby communicate, fa c e -to -fa c e ,
order to
fu lfill
a common purpose and achieve a group goal.
in
The
d e fin itio n im plies several c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the technique as:
(1)
The number o f members is
small
enough fo r each to be
aware o f and have some re a ctio n to
each other
(from
three to ra re ly more than 15 members).
(2)
There is a m utually interdependent purpose so th a t the
success o f each member is contingent upon the success o f
the e n tire group in reaching th is goal.
(3)
Each person has a sense o f belonging, o f being a p a rt o f
the group.
(4)
Oral in te ra c tio n is used, in v o lv in g speech communication
v ia both verbal and nonverbal symbols.
I
(5)
A sense o f cooperation e x is ts among the members.
The value o f discussion is noted by Wagner and Arnold (1965) in
fo u r ways.
F ir s t, discussion allows fo r the a p p lic a tio n o f em pirical
thought to the processes o f group d e lib e ra tio n .
can
be more
in d iv id u a ls .
a c c u ra te ly
T h ird
is
and e f f ic ie n t ly
the
fa c t
th a t
Second, some problems
solved
by groups than by
those who share
in
decisions are u su a lly w illin g to support decisions a fterw ard.
forming
F in a lly ,
92
experience in problem -solving discussion helps to e s ta b lis h habits o f
th in k in g
and com m unication
th a t
prove
v a lu a b le
in
o th e r
human
a c t iv it ie s .
L im ita tio n s o f the stra te g y , as noted by Harnack and Fest (1964),
includ e:
( I)
Discussion consumes tim e.
(2)
Discussion technique spreads r e s p o n s ib ility fo r q u a lity
c o n trib u tio n .
(3)
Technique may be lim ite d
by diverse
and c o n flic tin g
value systems o f p a rtic ip a n ts .
(4)
D is c u s s io n
is
p o o rly
su ite d
fo r
p ro vid in g
emergency
decisions.
(5)
Discussion technique may be unable to cope w ith e ffe c ts
o f status d iffe re n ce s w ith in the group.
In a d d itio n , id e n tific a tio n and/or arrangements fo r the physical set-up
fo r small
group discussion can provide a b a rrie r in the use o f the
technique.
Upon considering
small
group discussion
method,
the
teacher takes
d e p ic ts
the
communication process
as a te a ch in g -le a rn in g
a much more subsidiary
ro le .
Figure 3
as noted by group discussion
in
co n tra st to Figure 4 which depicts communication patterns in form alized
teaching, using le c tu re as an example ( H ills , 1979, p. 58).
The major
ro le o f the educator is to make sure th a t the purpose o f the p a rtic u la r
s tra te g y
o r technique
is
fu lfille d
in
a d d itio n
student to exchange ideas and seek and/or give help.
to
encouraging the
93
I
TEACHER
STUDENT
Figure 3.
Z=-STUD ENT
Communication p a tte rn represented by small
group discussion.
T E A C H E R ------------ S=-STUD E N T
Figure 4.
Case stud y.
Communication p a tte rn represented by form al­
ized teaching method o f le c tu re .
B r ilh a r t (1982, p. 287) defines case discussion as "a
lea rn in g discussion beginning w ith consideration o f a s p e c ific problem
or 'case' about which group members exchange perceptions and ideas, as
possible s o lu tio n s ."
Cooper (1981) defines a case as a w e ll-w ritte n
d e s c rip tio n o f a serie s o f in c id e n ts or a p a rtic u la r s it u a t io n , w r it t e n
in as much d e ta il as p o ssible.
94
In conducting a case study, i t is the teacher who
lis te n s and asks questions; the students de fine the
elements, analyze the problem, propose s o lu tio n s , and
begin to gain confidence in t h e ir a b i li t y to come up
w ith answers (Gorman, 1969, p. 109).
Synonyms fo r the term include case analysis technique, case conference
discussion, and case method.
The case
stu d y
technique has a p p lic a tio n
to
a wide
range o f
problems and consists o f presenting a discussion group w ith a descrip­
tio n o f a s itu a tio n which the members are f i r s t to examine and then to
suggest procedures fo r handling (Harnack & Fest, 1964).
(1978,
p.
74)
s ta te ,
a n a ly tic a l s k i l l s . "
(1)
Dunn and Dunn
"A case study stim ulates and helps to develop ,
The format also provides the fo llo w in g :
A s tra te g y f o r developing m aterial
. s tu d e n t's frame o f reference.
w ith in
the
(2)
An approach th a t can be s tim u la tin g and meaningful
i f student id e n tific a tio n is fostered and debate
is s tru ctu re d to understand d iffe r e n t p o in ts o f
view on recognized problems and s itu a tio n s .
(3)
Safe, nonthreatening s itu a tio n s fo r students who
can e n te r the analysis w itho ut d ire c t personal
e ffe c t.
(4)
T ra in in g and developm ent in problem s o lv in g ,
a n a ly tic a l s k i l l s , a r r iv in g a t conclusions, and
planning fo r new d ire c tio n s in lea rning s itu a tio n s
and in real l i f e (Dunn & Dunn, 1978, pp. 74-75).
Format fo r case studies may be w ritte n
audio or videotaped dram atizations,
film s , psychodramas, news events,
or h is to r ic a l happenings — real or f ic t io n a l.
a sin g le event,
in c id e n t,
as very short s to rie s ,
or s itu a tio n .
The focus should be on
C r itic a l
to the success o f
th is sm all-group technique is the relevance; th a t is ,
r e la te d
to
th e
frame o f
the r e a lit y or
p o te n tia l
c r e d ib ility
reference o f the
students.
Andrews (1960, p, 215) s ta te s , "A good case is the v e h ic le
95
by which a chunk o f r e a lit y is brought in to the classroom to be worked
over by the class and in s tr u c to r ."
Research Findings Regarding Lecture
and Discussion S trategie s
The effe ctive n e ss
in s tru c tio n a l
decades.
o f le c tu re
techniques
The fo llo w in g
compared w ith
discussion or other
has been documented in
the
lite r a tu r e
fo r
statements summarize fin d in g s o f Verner and
Dickinson (1967) and other researchers re la tiv e to associated charac­
t e r is t ic s and comparative e ffe c tiv e n e s s :
(1)
P o p u la tio n s
c la sse s
in c lu d e d
conducted
'
p re -a d u lt
by
students
e d u c a tio n a l
e n ro lle d
in s t it u t io n s ,
in
and
ad ults e ith e r in classes or in other kinds o f in s tru c ­
tio n a l s itu a tio n s .
(2)
Immediate o r delayed re c a ll
o f fa ctu a l
in fo rm a tion has
been the major basis fo r measures o f le a rn in g achieved.
In a d d itio n ,
lea rn in g has also been measured by degree
o f m o d ific a tio n o f s p e c ific a ttitu d e s toward technique.
Bane
(1 9 3 1 ),
le c tu r e
and
based on a series
discu ssio n
o f experiments w ith
employing
s ix
in s tru c to rs
three co lle g e s, concluded two major p o in ts :
and
g ro u p
d is c u s s io n
are
in
(a) le c tu re
a p p ro x im a te ly
equal
in
e ffe ctive n e ss when the c r ite r io n is immediate re c a ll o f.
fa c ts ,
and (b) discussion re s u lts in. greate r re te n tio n
o f measured in fo rm a tion than does le c tu re .
(3)
C a p tive
a v a ila b le
p a r t ic ip a n t s
fo r
stu d y
com prise
and
p o p u la tio n s
e x p e rim e n ta tio n ;
r e a d ily
research
96
design w ith th is population has involved le c tu re as an
in s tru c tio n a l
technique used in
class
method and fo r
a c q u is itio n and re te n tio n o f in fo rm a tio n .
In a d d itio n ,
e ffe c t o f class size on le a rn in g has been a p o in t o f
in v e s tig a tio n w ith the m a jo rity o f studies fin d in g th a t
class size was not a s ig n ific a n t v a ria b le .
(4)
Verner and Dickinson (1967) note the 1953 work by Bloom
regarding the v a ria b le o f student response.
successful
in
Lecture was
securing a tte n tio n , but evoked p rim a rily
those thoughts which were appropriate fo r fo llo w in g and
comprehending o f in fo rm a tio n .
(5)
Form o f presentation
of
fa c tu a l
in fo rm a tion
has been
explored re le va n t to order o f m aterial presented, length
o f sentences, d i f f i c u l t y o f m a te ria l, c u ltu ra l leve l o f
s tu d e n t,
le c tu r e r ,
r e p e t it io n
o f m a te ria l,
and d e liv e ry
1963; J e r s iId ,
s ty le
v is ib le
actions
of
(H ildebrandt & Stevens,
1928; Kramer & Lewis, 1951).
Hovland,
Jam’ s, and K e lly (1953) in d ic a te th a t v a ria b le s such as
c r e d ib ility
of
the
le c tu re r,
order o f p resen tatio n,
presentation o f one side o f an issue versus presentation
o f both sides, and e m o tio n a lity o f argument are fa c to rs
in
d e te rm in in g
(1963)
the
e ffe c t
o f a le c tu re .
c ite s ,the Yale studies as in d ic a tin g
McKeachie
th a t the
gre a te st change in reported behavior occurred in those
groups to which a m inim ally fe a r-a rou sing le c tu re was
given.
97
(6)
With respect to immediate r e c a ll,
a "preponderance o f
the evidence in d ica te s the u t i l i t y
o f the le c tu re when
th e
in s t r u c t io n a l
o b je c tiv e
re c a ll o f in fo rm a tio n . . . . "
in v o lv e s
the
immediate
(Verner & D ickinson, 1967,
p. 89).
I t is evident from the work by Verner and Dickinson (1967) th a t as
e a rly as the 1930's, researchers were in v e s tig a tin g the s tra te g ie s o f
le c tu re and group discussion in lig h t o f a c q u is itio n and re te n tio n o f
in fo rm a tio n .
S to va ll
(1956, p. 10) posed the question re le van t to the
in q u iry in to e ffe ctive n e ss o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s as:
What are the comparative values o f the le c tu re and
group discussion fo r increasing students' knowledge,
improving th e ir a b i li t y to th in k c r i t i c a l l y , and as a
means o f developing more democratic a ttitu d e s ?
Ricard
(1946) concluded from a series o f experiments a t Northwestern
U n iv e r s ity
in v o lv in g
p r e - te s ts
and e n d -te s ts ,
discussion produced improved re s u lts by 17%.
la te r
th a t
"te a ch e r-le d "
A fo llo w -u p s ix months
in d ica te d the discussion sections scored 56% higher than th e ir
matched le c tu re sectio ns.
Two studies in v e s tig a tin g immediate re c a ll
fu rth e r substantiated the e a r lie r fin d in g s by Bane (1931).
and Warner
(1 9 3 6 ),
in
a stu d y
com paring
le c tu re
Gerberick
and discussion
s tra te g ie s in .th e teaching o f American Government a t the U n iv e rs ity o f
Arkansas, revealed l i t t l e
tio n .
d iffe re n c e in the a b i li t y to im part inform a­
Johnson and Smith (1953) also corroborated previous fin d in g s in
a stu d y
of
e ff e c ts
of
d iffe r e n t
types
of
leadership
in
college
classrooms, concluding th a t in terms o f immediate r e c a ll, no s i g n i f i ­
cant d iffe re n ce s in e ffe ctive n e ss o f the two methods e xiste d .
98
Palmer and Verner
and
s it u a t io n a l
le c tu re ,
cadets
(1959),
contexts,
discussion,
comprised
in v e s tig a tin g
compared three
techniques,
c o n d itio n s ,
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g ie s :
and le c tu re -d is c u s s io n .
the
130 students
A ir Force o ffic e rs
e n ro lle d
classes, ranging in age from 19 to 27.
in
a v ia tio n
and
physiology
A standardized a p titu d e te s t
was used to determine a c q u is itio n and re c a ll
o f knowledge.
Using a
p re -te s t to measure students' knowledge o f the content at the beginning
o f the course, a 50-item tru e -fa ls e te s t was constructed and adminis­
tered to the three groups.
The same te s t was adm inistered to the three
groups at the end o f the course.
On the fin a l
d iffe re n ce s existe d :among the three groups.
te s t,
no s ig n ific a n t
As an added check on the
re s u lts o f the te s t, the scores fo r the three groups were computed from
the re s u lts a tta in e d by the students on an A ir Force standardized te s t,
d e scrib e d
as
a 50-item m u ltip le -c h o ic e
te s t
designed to
students' status w ith respect to minimal content re quire d.
from th is
te s t
showed a s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e
le c tu re -d is c u s s io n
groups
in d ic a tin g
a gain
in
determine
The scores
between le c tu re
and
achievement by the
le c tu re group.
In the work by Verner and Dickinson (1967), research id e n tifie d
w ith a d u lt groups outside the in s t it u t io n a l, classroom s e ttin g has been
v a r ie d .
V a ria b le s
pre se n ta tio n ,
in v e s tig a te d
include
comparative e ffe c tiv e n e s s ,
the p a rtic ip a n t,
and a ttitu d e s
form o f
and behavior.
Numerous studies have in ve stig a te d behavior o f p a rtic ip a n ts during a
le c tu re .
With regard to
form o f pre se n ta tio n ,
studies
suggest the
i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y o f a le c tu re tends to increase as the educational leve l
o f the audience increases.
Vernon (1950) suggests th a t,
in general,
99
ve ry
little
of
a le c tu r e
can be re c a lle d
except
in
lis te n e rs w ith above average education and in te llig e n c e .
the
case o f
Goldin (1948)
and Vernon (1952) suggest th a t le a rn in g from le c tu re is re la te d to the
form al
e d u c a tio n a l
leve l
of
the p a rtic ip a n t,
arid those w ith more
education learn more from a le c tu re than those w ith le s s .
Length o f
time has also been established as an im portant fa c to r; Trenamen (1951)
suggests th a t le a rning begins to dim inish a fte r 15 minutes and a t 45
m inutes
th e
le a rn e r
acquired e a r lie r .
is
in
danger o f
Verner and Dickinson
lo s in g much o f
(1967)
the m aterial
suggest the optimum
length o f a le c tu re appears to be somewhere between 20 and 30 minutes.
The authors fu rth e r note the importance o f the meaningful ness o f the
m aterial to the lis te n e r .
Topic and subject m atter are more im portant
than the le c tu re r, w ith in te re s t g e n e ra lly greatest when the content is
only p a r t ia lly understood.
V ariables in ve stig a te d re le va n t to comparative e ffe ctive n e ss also
include comparisons between the le c tu re technique and lea rn in g devices
(e .g ., textbook, programmed te x t, teaching machine, illu s tr a te d manual,
film ,
te le v is io n ) ,
in s t r u c t io n a l
recordings,
co n clu d e :
processes
panel
e ffe c tiv e n e s s
( e .g .,
d iscu ssio n ).
"O th e r
in s tru c tio n a l
in s tru c tio n a l
i l lu s t r a t iv e
devices
w ith
devices
discussion,
a d u lts ."
techniques,
charts.,
dialogue,
te c h n iq u e s
as
graphs),
(1967,
w e ll
augment the le c tu re w ill
However,
w ith
regard
and
dram atization,
Verner and Dickinson
in s t r u c t io n a l
used to
( e .g .,
to
p.
93)
as v a rio u s
increase i t s
a lte rn a tiv e
studies in v o lv in g the comparison o f le c tu re
and discussion in a c q u is itio n o f in fo rm a tio n have shown no s ig n ific a n t
d iffe re n c e between the two techniques (Carison, 1953; H i l l , 1960).
100
Oddi
(1983),
in a continued review o f the lit e r a t u r e ,
notes the
fo llo w in g r e la tiv e to Verner and D ickinson's conclusions in th a t:
. .■ . the le c tu re method is an e ffe c tiv e approach fo r
conveying in fo rm a tion to adults i f i t is p ro p e rly used,
th a t the nature o f the le a rn in g task to be accomplished
determ ines w hether o r n o t th e le c tu r e method is '
a p pro pria te, and th a t other in s tru c tio n a l techniques
and devices should be used in conjunction w ith le c tu re
to increase i t s e ffe ctive n e ss fo r adults (p. 222).
She goes on to note th a t in the years since the review by Verner
and Dickinson,
there has been a p a u city o f research on the le c tu re
technique in the a d u lt education f i e l d .
conducted
Basic
in
diverse
Education,
concentrated
designs
in
areas
fo r
of
tre atm e nt
of
students,
and the m a jo rity
For the most p a rt,
o r quasi-experim ental
to
A dult
p re -e x is tin g
research
studies
groups.
were
w ith
Research
re le va n t to the effe ctive n e ss o f the le c tu re method,
the m a jo rity ,
c o m p le tio n
graduate
students)
a classroom s e ttin g .
encompassed experimental
in v e s tig a tio n s ,
(e .g .,
community colleg e
random assignm ent
were,
subject
The in v e s tig a tio n s noted were
a g ive n
conducted over the minimum time period
co u rse .
Most
s tu d ie s
fo r
measured c o g n itiv e
achievement w ith a v a rie ty o f instrum ents used to measure a c q u is itio n
o f knowledge.
Oddi
(1983)
concerned w ith
suggests th a t the studies under review were broadly
the
e ffe ctive n e ss
of
le c tu re
as compared w ith oth er
methods in re la tio n to a c q u is itio n o f knowledge and a ttitu d e s o f the
le a rn e r.
A study by Slaten
(1973)
in v o lv in g
72 p re -a d u lt
learners
compared le c tu re to a group la b o ra to ry discussion session w ith learners
tested fo r a p p lic a tio n and re c a ll
s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e
a b ility
fo llo w in g the course.
No
in mean, achievement scores was found; a trend
101
was
no te d ,
however,
su g g e s tin g
learners in the re c a ll o f fa c ts .
le c tu r e
was b e tte r
fo r
a s s is tin g
Rothman (1980), studying a sample o f
48 graduate students, in ve stig a te d c o g n itiv e gain by implementing the
case method/discussion technique and le c tu re .
Although m arginal, the
le c tu re technique was found to y ie ld s ig n if ic a n tly b e tte r re s u lts
in
c o g n itiv e gain.
A ttitu d e s and In s tru c tio n a l S trategies
A v a rie ty o f e ffo r ts have been made to determine the e ffic ie n c y o f
a technique in a d d itio n to determ ining the a ttitu d e toward s tra te g ie s
o f in s tru c tio n .
Palmer and Verner (1959) suggest there are innumerable
va ria b le s which can in flu e n ce the e ffic ie n c y o f a technique in c lu d in g
in s tr u c to r competence, the nature o f "the content, the experience o f the
group, and the students'
in v e s tig a te
in v e s tig a tio n
a ttitu d e s
th e
of
response to the in s tru c tio n a l
a t t it u d e
v a r ia b le ,
th re e
in s t r u c t io n a l
o f 130 A ir
Force o ffic e r s
th e
a u th o rs
c o n tin u e d
s tr a te g ie s
and cadets.
process.
To
th e ir
by a sce rtain ing
To assess student
s a tis fa c tio n w ith the three techniques studied — le c tu re , discu ssio n,'
le ctu re -d iscu ssio n — both oral
and w ritte n
c ritiq u e s
standard was designed as a measure o f course c r itiq u e ,
scales:
(a) q u a lity o f course, and (b) morale.
were used.
A
in v o lv in g two
In terms o f student
s a tis fa c tio n , the le c tu re -d is c u s s io n group ind ica ted more s a tis fa c tio n
w ith i t s
technique than did the oth er two groups, w ith s t a t is t ic a lly
s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n ce s between the le c tu re and le c tu re -d is c u s s io n on
both q u a lity and morale.
S to va ll
(1956) c ite s a study wherein e ffo r ts
were made by le c tu re to persuade a group o f in d u s tria l supervisors to
102
accept a change in work methods.
The group s p l i t sha rply, 50% opposing
the
As a re s u lt o f group discussion,,
change and 50% in
s im ila r
group
compromise.
was
S to va ll
in
fa vo r.
95% agreement
to
accept the
(1956, p. 12) fu rth e r sta te s,
change or
a
to
"The best research
which has been reported in th is area in d ica te s th a t group discussion is
d is t in c t ly
sup erio r
b e havio r."
to
le c tu re
in
changing a ttitu d e s
and a ffe c tin g
Casey and Weaver (1956) su b sta n tia te the previous conclu­
sion , based on th e ir fin d in g s e s ta b lis h in g the s u p e rio rity in a ttitu d e s
fo r
s m a ll-g ro u p
Dickinson
(1967)
discussions
as compared to
le c tu re s .
Verner and
suggest th a t conclusions are overwhelming regarding
the s u p e rio rity o f discussion in favo r o f the le c tu re in a ttitu d in a l
and behavioral
change.
some c a u tio n .
" In
comparisons
However, conclusions must be approached w ith
most cases,
between two methods o f
the
studies
c ite d
a d u lt education
.
.
.
involve
ra th e r th a n . two
in s tru c tio n a l techniques w ith in a s in g le method" (Verner & Dickinson,
1967, p. 93).
103
CHAPTER 3
PROCEDURES
The present, study was designed to examine the e ffe c ts o f in s tru c ­
tio n a l strategies., a ttitu d e s , and various personal d e scrip to rs o f a d u lt
le a rn e rs ' on
le a rn in g
outcome,
mandated educational program.
lite r a tu r e
o ffe re d
a d u lt
e d u c a tio n ,
pedagogy,
and in s tru c tio n a l
tr a n s a c tio n .
involved
r e la te d
to
a co n ceptual
design
as
it
The procedures
the
of
th e
p o p u la tio n
a le g is la tiv e ly
s tu d ie d ,
service
p ro v id e r,
model
of
andragogy and
re la te s
to
the teaching­
c h a p te r
methodology th a t was implemented in the study.
t io n
in
In the previous chapter, a review o f the
in fo rm a tio n
mandatory
le a rn in g
w h ile
re se a rch
focuses
upon the
I t includes a descrip­
d e s ig n ,
v a ria b le s
and
in stru m e n ta tio n , hypotheses, and method o f data a n a ly s is .
Population
In lin e w ith re g u la tio n s from the Federal In s e c tic id e , Fungicide,
and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA)
as amended (P ublic
Law 92-516)
and the
Montana P e sticide Act o f 1972, amended in 1983, the Montana le g is la tu re
mandated the implementation o f a statew ide p e s tic id e act fo r lic e n s in g
users
of
Montana,
choose
re s tric te d -u s e
there
to
p e s tic id e
compounds.
are over 8000 p riv a te
a p p ly
fo r
r e lic e n s u r e
p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
p e s tic id e
and
W ithin
the
s ta te
of
a p p lic a to rs who may
p a r tic ip a te
in
a mandatory
The educational program is o ffe re d
104
on a ro ta tin g
s ta te .
basis
The s ta te
is
in designated re q u a lify in g s ite s
divide d
in to
fiv e
d is t r ic t s ;
throughout the
each d i s t r ic t
is
assigned a s p e c ific year fo r p ro vid in g the r e c e r tific a tio n program.
The m a jo rity o f p riv a te p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs w ith in the s ta te are
farmers and ranchers, applying fo r re lic e n s u re in order to purchase ahd
apply re s tric te d -u s e
compounds deemed as dangerous chemicals by the
Environmental P ro te ctio n Agency.
a p p lic a to r is
The procedure follow ed by the p riv a te
to attend s ix hours o f educational
programming over a
fiv e -y e a r p e riod , w ith the educational program developed and d e live re d
by the Montana State U n iv e rs ity Extension S ervice, in conjunction w ith
the Montana Department o f A g ric u ltu re .
The population fo r the study included a ll licensed a p p lic a to rs o f
re s .tric te d -u s e
p e s tic id e s
in
th e
s ta te
of
Montana applying
rel.icensing during the months o f January through A p r il,
c o u n tie s
served
as
r e q u a lif y in g
s ite s
fo r
the
1987.
fo r
Eight
I I -county Montana
D is t r ic t V ,r e c e r tific a tio n program, as noted on the map in Appendix B.
A. to ta l
o f 654 p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs comprised the study population,
w ith an age range o f 16 to 83 years.
For reasons to be discussed in
the data c o lle c tio n procedure se c tio n , fo u r county re q u a lify in g s ite s
and s p e c ific
Thus,
the
data items
to ta l
gathered was 654.
from some o f the subjects were not usable.
number o f
in d iv id u a ls
from which
usable data were
105
>
Research Design
Quasi-experimental Design
There are many natural social s e ttin g s in which the researcher can
in tro d u c e
som ething
s im ila r
to
an e x p e rim e n ta l
design
in to
the
scheduling o f data c o lle c tio n procedures ( e .g ., the when and to whom
of
measurem ent),
even though
experimental s tim u li
fu ll
co n tro l
Wiersma (1986, p. 139) o ffe rs the
fo llo w in g d e fin itio n o f quasi-experim ental
in ta c t
a s s ig n in g
j
scheduling o f
(the when and to whom o f exposure and the a b i li t y
to randomize exposures) is la c k in g .
use. o f
over the
groups
s u b je c ts
of
at
s u b je c ts
random to
in
research as in v o lv in g "the
an experiment,
experimental
ra th e r
tre a tm e n t."
I
than
Quasi-
experimental designs re q u ire th a t the researcher be thoroughly aware o f
which s p e c ific va ria b le s the p a r tic u la r design f a ils to c o n tro l.
With
the
present study employing a quasi-experim ental design, the focus o f
the
research design section is 'd ire c te d toward procedures employed to
j
co n tro l such v a ria b le s .
Equivalence o f groups.
the c r e d ib ilit y
o f the
In the use o f two o r more in ta c t groups,
research depends on the extent to which the
groups are s im ila r on re le va n t v a ria b le s .
randomly assigned,
the presence o f
about
provides
th e
groups
Although the groups were not
im portant antecedent inform ation
an argument
fo r
group
s im ila r it y .
For
in te rn a l v a lid it y , the researcher has attempted to e s ta b lis h the degree
of
e q u iv a le n c e
va ria b le s
p re s e n t
between
groups
by
c o n s id e rin g
c h a ra c te ris tic s
th a t may be re la te d to the va ria b le s under study.
s tu d y ,
fo u r
j
of
th e
independent va ria b le s
(age,
or
In the
level
o f'
106
e d u c a tio n ,
yea rs
residence),
in a d d itio n to a p p lic a to r s ta tu s , were used as antecedent
in fo rm a tio n .
in
the
r e c e r tific a tio n
program,
years
in
county
D etailed in fo rm a tion s u b s ta n tia tin g the s im ila r it y o f the
two groups, by three o f the s ix independent v a ria b le s , is presented in
Chapter 4 (Tables 5, 6, and 7 ).
No s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s existed
between the groups on the c h a ra c te ris tic s analyzed, suggesting th a t the
groups were s im ila r even though subjects were not selected a t random.
An a d d itio n a l
fa c to r supporting the equivalence o f the population was
the previous attendance o f a ll
a p p lic a to r c e r t if ic a t io n
p a rtic ip a n ts
program,
in an i n i t i a l
p e s tic id e
re q u irin g the passage o f a w ritte n
examination monitored by the Montana Department o f A g ric u ltu re .
P o s t-te s t o n ly,
non-equivalent m u ltip le -g ro u p
design.
Wiersma
(1986) suggests th a t a quasi-experim ental design o f th is type d ic ta te s
th a t one group receives the experimental treatm ent w h ile a second group
receives a second experimental treatm ent.
group o f p riv a te
One, id e n tifie d
received
as the in s tru c tio n a l
group o f p riv a te
Two, id e n tifie d
a p p lic a to rs
a p p lic a to rs
Experimental
Treatment Number
stra te g y o f le c tu re .
received
as the in s tru c tio n a l
In the present study, one
Experimental
A second
Treatment Number
stra te g y o f small group discus­
sion, implemented by a case study approach.
Extraneous
extraneous
v a r ia b le s .
va ria b le s
In
o rd e r
to
reduce the
on the dependent v a ria b le ,
the
in flu ence
fo llo w in g
id e n tifie d as methods o f c o n tro l:
( I)
A ll a p p lic a to rs applying fo r re lic e n s in g o f r e s tr ic te d use p e s tic id e chemicals attended the s ix -h o u r r e c e r ti­
fic a tio n program in it s e n tir e ty .
of
were
107
(2)
A ll
a p p lic a t o r s
re c e iv e d
e d u c a tio n a l
in fo rm a tio n
re le va n t to the P e sticide Safety c r it e r ia by one o f two
methods, le c tu re or by small group discussion, which was
pre-assigned to re q u a lify in g s ite s by the researcher.
(3)
Al I
a p p lic a to rs
m ents
completed the data c o lle c tio n
im m e d ia te ly
fo llo w in g
th e
d e liv e r y
in s tr u ­
of
the
in s tru c tio n re le va n t to the P esticide Safety c r it e r ia .
An a d d itio n a l method used to c o n tro l fo r contam inating v a ria b le s
was
to
b u ild
p o t e n t ia lly
extraneous
varia bles
in to
the
design as
a ttr ib u te v a ria b le s , p roviding the o p p o rtu n ity to observe in te ra c tiv e
or main e ffe c ts o f the a ttr ib u te
com pleted,
ye a rs
in
va ria b le s
r e c e r tific a tio n
(age,
program)
le ve l
w ith
o f education
the
designated
independent and dependent v a ria b le s .
Data C o lle c tio n Procedure
A u th o riza tio n and I n i t i a l Contact
A u th o riza tio n - from the A cting
D ire c to r and the P esticide Spec­
i a l i s t fo r the Montana State U n iv e rs ity Extension Service was obtained
during November, 1986, enabling the researcher to proceed w ith the data
c o lle c t io n
p ro ce ss.
An
in itia l
step
was to
contact
the county
extension personnel involved in the planning and implementation o f the
1987 p e s tic id e
r e c e r tific a tio n
county agent tra in in g
session,
program.
During the
December,
1986
the in v e s tig a to r in fo rm a lly discussed
With the appropriate agents the design o f the study and the request fo r
assistance.
County personnel
from the e ig h t re q u a lify in g
s ite s
in
108
D is t r ic t V agreed to p a rtic ip a te in the study and, a t the same tim e,
provided p re lim in a ry estimates o f a p p lic a n t number by s ite .
Since the prim ary purpose o f the study was the in v e s tig a tio n o f
the e ffe c t o f selected in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s on le a rn in g outcome, i t
became necessary to assign a s p e c ific s tra te g y to each o f the p a r t ic i­
pating re q u a lific a tio n s ite s .
in itia lly
Estimated a p p lic a n t number, by s ite , was
used as the deciding fa c to r in assigning the in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y o f le c tu re o r o f small group discussion.
A lso, a key fa c to r
was the a v a ila b ilit y o f f a c i l i t i e s s u ita b le fo r the d iv is io n o f a large
group in to m u ltip le groups o f seven to ten p a rtic ip a n ts .
Based on the id e n tific a tio n o f re q u a lific a tio n s ite s and assign­
ment o f in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y ,
the next step was to
program schedule between January 15 and A p ril
provides the r e c e r tific a tio n
30,
ascertain
1987.
Table
program schedule fo r the o rig in a l
counties involved in the study.
the
2
e ig h t
While the o rig in a l number o f re q u a li­
fic a tio n s ite s was e ig h t, one county was unable to p a rtic ip a te because
o f inadequate f a c i l i t i e s
form at.
fo r accommodating the small group discussion
A second county
in it ia t e d
an e f f o r t to
provide a le c tu re
form at, but because o f personnel changes a t the la s t minute, was unable
to ca rry out the program in the necessary form at, and th e re fo re could
not be included in the study.
th e
A th ir d county had p re v io u s ly divide d
p e s tic id e , r e c e r tific a tio n , program in to
two consecutive weekly
sessions o f three hours each, which was in c o n s is te n t w ith the o rig in a l
program plan o f one six-h o u r session.
be included
in
the
study.
because the
r e c e r tific a tio n
A fo u rth
Therefore, the county could not
county could
program was held p r io r
not be included
to
the date the
109
researcher could begin the data c o lle c tio n process.
The
c o n fig u ra tio n
fo r the implementation o f the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s in p a rtic ip a tin g
counties is provided in Table 3.
Table 2.
P esticide a p p lic a to r re q u a lific a tio n schedule by county s ite .
County
Program Date
Ju d ith Basin
Big Horn
Fergus*
Yellowstone*
S tillw a te r *
Carbon*
M usselshell*
Sweet Grass
January 29, 1987
February 10, 1987
February 12, 1987
February 13, 1987
March 11, 1987
March 11, 1987
March 12, 1987
March 19, 1987
*Counties p a rtic ip a tin g in the study
Table 3.
Breakdown by county o f population number.
Lecture
Small Group Discussion
County
Number o f
A pplicants
Fergus
Yellowstone
Carbon
Musselshell
181
129
97
54
Total
461
County
Number o f
A pplicants
S tillw a te r
Musselshel I
126
67
193
As noted, one county served as the basis fo r the implementation o f
both le c tu re and small group discussion.
Musselshell County provided
an o p p o rtu n ity fo r the to ta l group to be s p l i t in to two groups ( i . e . ,
54 in the le c tu re group and 67 in the small group d iscu ssio n ).
The
HO
p a r tic ip a n ts
fa c ility
in
small
group discussion
were taken
in to
a separate
a t the same time and the other group received the le c tu re .
However,
p r io r
in fo rm a tio n ,
to
and
fo llo w in g
the p a rtic ip a n ts
th e
p re s e n ta tio n
of
the
sa fe ty
were involved in the same sequence o f
program events.
In a d d itio n to the id e n tific a tio n o f the r e c e r tific a tio n program
dates, the process fo r id e n tify in g personnel needed fo r the implementa­
tio n o f each o f the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s by county was necessary.
A fte r discussion w ith county agent personnel, the decision was made to
d e liv e r the P esticide Safety in fo rm a tion using the le c tu re s tra te g y in
the designated counties,
scheduling th is
component a t the same p o in t
during the six-h o u r program a t each s ite .
cou nty
agent
p e rs o n n e l,
im ple m en ting
Plans were also made w ith
the
small
group discussion
stra te g y , fo r the researcher to meet w ith volunteer discussion leaders.
One volu ntee r from each group o f seven to ten a p p lic a to rs was selected
to
meet
an
hour
ahead o f
the
scheduled
r e c e r tific a tio n
program.
Format, m a te ria ls , and procedures were explained to the volunteer group
leaders.
At the appropriate time in the six-ho ur program, co n sistent
w ith
tim in g
th e
leaders
of
the
began the small
case study approach.
le c tu re
s tra te g y ,
the volu ntee r discussion
group discussion stra te g y by implementing a
A discussion o f the s tra te g ie s and m ateria ls is
provided in the fo llo w in g se ctio n .
Ill
Variables and Instrum entation
Dependent V ariable
The dependent
v a r ia b le ,
id e n t if ie d
a s ,le a rn in g
outcome,
was
ascertained by selected questions from the Montana P riva te A p p lic a to r
R e c e rtific a tio n Examination.
Items re la te d to seven c r it e r ia , mandated
by the Environmental P rotection Agency (EPA) and the Montana Department
o f A g ric u ltu re
e n t ir e t y
(DOA), comprise the basis fo r the examination in
and
are
based on
by
th e
EPA and
assembled
re s tric te d -u s e compounds.
io n ,
P e s tic id e
examination.
S afety,
th e
deemed
of
lite r a tu r e
necessary
fo r
and knowledge
a p p lic a to r s
Twenty items re le van t to the f i f t h
were randomly arranged w ith in
For the present
questions were extracted
body
study,
however,
from the to ta l
its
of
c r ite r ­
the o rig in a l
the 20 forced-choice
examination and arranged in
order d u p lic a tin g the sequence o f the o rig in a l examination.
A sample
o f the te s t is found in Appendix C.
V a li d i t y .
in t e r p r e t a t io n
" V a lid ity
of
the
r e fe r s
re s u lts
of
to
th e
a te s t
a p p ro p ria te n e s s
or
in v e n to ry ,
s p e c ific to the intended use" (Wiersma, 1986, p. 290).
o f the
and i t
is
In the case o f
the Montana P riva te A p p lic a to r R e c e rtific a tio n Examination, a process
fo r the establishm ent o f content v a lid it y
representativeness o f the te s t
items w ith
s k ills ,
was
ta s k ,
or
knowledge)
(th a t is ,
e s ta b lis h in g the
respect to
in itia lly
the domain o f
used by the
subcommittee responsible fo r the design o f the te s t item s.
and applied p rin c ip le s were reworded in behavioral
w ith r e a lis t ic experiences o f the a p p lic a to rs .
Extension
The general
terms, compatible
During 1984, questions
112
were d is trib u te d
to a il. members o f the statew ide P e sticide Education
Task Force fo r evaluation re le va n t to the representativeness o f each
q u e s tio n .
c lo th in g ,
In d iv id u a ls
w ith
e x p e rtis e
in
th e . area o f te x t ile s ,
and farm sa fe ty were also included in the item evaluation
process, as were members o f the Department o f A g ric u ltu re involved in
th e
r e c e r tific a tio n
program .
Implementation
throughout the
1986
D is t r ic t IV re lic e n s in g process provided an a d d itio n a l o p p o rtu n ity fo r
the
Extension Service P esticide C oordinator to
q u e s tio n s
s u rfa c in g
as problem items
id e n tify
by a p p lic a to rs
and exclude
and committee
personnel.
1R e lia b i l i t y .
in
m easuring
Data re le van t to the consistency o f the examination
knowledge
of
p e s tic id e
use were unavailable
researcher from e ith e r o f the cooperating agencies.
to
the
Therefore, using
the Cronbach alpha form ula, the researcher ca lcu la te d the r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e ffic ie n t o f .91 fo r the 20-item instrum ent,
S a fe ty .
The
r e lia b ilit y
c o e f f ic ie n t ,
re le va n t to P esticide
a measure o f
the
in te rn a l
consistency o r homogeneity o f the te s t m a te ria l, is in d ic a tiv e o f high
in te rc o rre la tio n s
among the' items on the te s t and suggests th a t the
items are measures o f much the same a ttr ib u te .
Form at.
components.
The one-page
The
fir s t
r e c e r tific a tio n
10 q u e s tio n s
e xa m in a tio n
are tru e -fa ls e
remaining 10 questions are o f a m u ltip le -c h o ic e design.
scoring was used to ob tain the to ta l
has
items.
two
The
Computerized
number o f c o rre c t items, repre­
senting the dependent v a ria b le o f le a rn in g outcome.
113
Independent Variables
The
s ix
independent
(a) in s tru c tio n a l
e d u c a tio n ,
(d) age,
(c)
(e)
--
s tra te g y ,
a t t it u d e
le v e l
r e c e r tific a tio n
v a r ia b le s
of
(b)
a ttitu d e
tow ard
in
th e
study were:
toward mandatory p e s tic id e
in s t r u c t io n a l
education
program.
in c lu d e d
completed,
s tra te g y
and
Each o f the varia bles
is
(f)
received,
years
in
the
described in the
fo llo w in g paragraphs.
In s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y .
tional. design lite r a tu r e
was developed.
th e
groups.
of
development o f the in s tr u c tio n , noted as
the
g o a l,
and implementation
The p o in t
development
p la n
in s tr u c tio n a l
s tr a te g ie s
(Dick & Carey, 1978), the educational program
The i n i t i a l
id e n tific a tio n
e v a lu a tio n ,
Using a systems model from the in s tru c ­
was
disse m inatio n,
in
s e le c tio n
and accompanying
s e le c te d
le c tu re
the
c rite rio n -re fe re n c e d
schedule was id e n tic a l
o f d iffe r e n tia tio n
stra te g y
were
o b je c tiv e s ,
fo r
use
and small
as
w ith in
the two
in s tru c tio n a l
and implementation o f
in s tru c tio n a l
the
medium.
avenues o f
group discussion,
implemented by a case study form at.
th e
fo r
w ith
the
Two
info rm a tion
the
la t t e r
The le c tu re s tra te g y served as
Treatment Number One; the small group discussion served as Treatment
Number Two.
s ta te w id e
One o f the seven c r it e r ia mandated fo r in c lu s io n in the
r e c e r t if ic a t io n
program,
P esticide
S afety,
comprised the
a ttitu d e s
comprised two o f
subject content fo r both s tra te g ie s .
A t t it u d e
independent
v a r ia b le s .
v a r ia b le s
fo r
Selected
th e
p e s tic id e education was the f i r s t .
s tu d y .
A ttitu d e
the
toward mandatory
A fiv e -ite m L ik e rt scale was used
to assess the degree to which p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs agreed or disagreed
w ith a statement r e la t iv e to t h e ir a ttitu d e toward mandatory p e s tic id e
e d u c a tio n .
The second,
in s tr u c tio n a l
Responses
stra te g y
were
a tte n tio n to :
p e s tic id e
received,
based
on
a p p lic a to r
a ttitu d e
toward
the
was determined by nine questions.
f iv e - it e m
L ik e r t
s c a le s ,
(a) in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received,
w ith
s p e c ific
(b) importance o f
experience and previous in fo rm a tion re le va n t to p e s tic id e s a fe ty , and
(c) use o f in fo rm a tio n a l m aterials'.
Appendix D provides an example o f
the instrum ent.
The e s ta b lis h m e n t
m easuring
th e
of
c o n te n t
a t t it u d i n a l
v a r ia b le s
determ ining the face v a lid it y
te s t
items
the
fir s t
step
v a lid ity
in
fo r
th e
was approached
in s tru m e n ts
in itia lly
by
o f the questions, w ith an assembly o f
the
v a lid a tio n
process.
In d iv id u a ls
fa m ilia r w ith the Montana P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Program were asked
to review a l i s t o f questions and s e le c t those most appropriate fo r the
purpose o f id e n tify in g a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e toward mandatory p e s tic id e
e d u ca tio n
and
In d iv id u a ls
a t t it u d e
fa m ilia r w ith
tow ard
in s t r u c t io n a l
a ttitu d e
surveys
s tr a te g y
from the
f ie ld
re c e iv e d .
o f a d u lt
education were also asked to complete the same task. .
A second phase in the content v a lid a tio n process was the estab­
lishm ent o f lo g ic a l v a lid it y , which fin d s it s g reate st use in measures
o f achievement and in measures o f newly defined c h a ra c te ris tic s where
no d ire c t
c r ite r io n
(Helmsta d te r,
(a) ca re fu l
external
to
the measure i t s e l f
seems a v a ila b le
1970).
Evaluators were asked to consider two fa c to rs :
d e fin itio n
in behavioral terms o f the content area to be
115
measured, and (b) a breakdown o f the to ta l su b ject-m atte r area defined
in to categories which represent major aspects o f the content area.
Demographic
(GIQ)
v a r ia b le s .
served as. the
in fo rm a tio n .
The General
instrum ent to
• Appendix
E provides
Inform ation
obtain
the
Questionnaire
re le va n t
demographic
an example o f the questionnaire.
In te rv a l categories were used to id e n tify the in fo rm a tion re le van t to
age,
IeveT o f
e d u c a tio n
program, and years in
re q u a lify in g
s ite
com pleted,
years
in
the
residence w ith in the county.
r e c e r tific a tio n
Name and county
were also requested o f each p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r,
w ith the name o f the in d iv id u a l used only as a method o f matching the
GIO w ith the other, instrum ents o f data c o lle c tio n .
C o n fid e n tia lity was
assured v e rb a lly by the researcher a t the time o f data c o lle c tio n .
a d d itio n ,
each
d a ta
set
was
assigned a number representing
In
each
p a rtic ip a n t w ith ensuing data com pilation by numbered instrum ent ra th e r
than by name.
S ta tis tic a l Hypotheses
The s t a t is t ic a l
hypotheses were designed to answer fiv e o f the
seven research questions, as stated in Chapter I .
s ta te d
in
th e
n u ll
form .
Al I
Each hypothesis is
hypotheses were tested w ith
d ire c tio n a l a lte rn a tiv e hypotheses a t the .05 level o f confidence.
(I)
Hq
No s i g n i f i c a n t
in te ra c tio n
e x is t s
between the
independent variables of instructional strategy and
. a ttitu d e
toward mandatory pesticide education,
learning outcome.
on
non-
116
(2)
H0
No
s i g n if ic a n t
main
e ff e c ts
e x is t
among
the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e education, on
le a rning outcome.
(3)
H0
No s i g n if ic a n t
in t e r a c t io n
e x is ts
between the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received, on
le a rn in g outcome.
(4)
H0
No
s ig n if ic a n t
main, e ff e c ts
e x is t
among
the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received, on
le a rn in g outcome.
(5)
H0
No s i g n if ic a n t
in t e r a c t io n
e x is ts
between the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
age, on le a rning outcome.
(6)
H0
No
s i g n if ic a n t
main
e ff e c ts
e x is t
among
the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
age, on lea rning outcome.
(7)
H0
No. s i g n if ic a n t
in t e r a c t io n
e x is ts
between the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
leve l o f education completed, on le a rn in g outcome.
(8)
H0
No
s ig n if ic a n t
main
e ffe c ts
e x is t
among
the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
le ve l o f education completed on le a rn in g outcome.
(9)
H0
No s i g n if ic a n t
in t e r a c t io n
e x is ts
between the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
117
years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program, on
le a rn in g outcome.
(10)
Hq
No
s ig n if ic a n t
main
e ff e c ts
e x is t
among
the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and
years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program, on
le a rn in g outcome.
(.id Hq
No s i g n if ic a n t
dependent
v a r ia b le
in d e p e n d e n t
s tra te g y ,
r e la t io n s h ip
le a rn in g
v a r ia b le s
(b)
e d u c a tio n ,
of
o f:
a ttitu d e
(c )
stra te g y received,
e x is ts
between the
outcome and the
(a)
in s t r u c t io n a l
toward mandatory p e s tic id e
a t t it u d e
tow ard
(d) age,
in s t r u c t io n a l
(e) leve l
o f education
completed, and ( f) years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r t i f i ­
ca tio n program.
(12)
H
J
No s ig n ific a n t in te r - c o r r e la tio n ( s ) e x is t among the
I
in d e p e n d e n t
s tra te g y ,
v a r ia b le s
Ob) a ttitu d e
e d u c a tio n ,
(c )
stra te g y received,
o f:
(a )
in s t r u c t io n a l
toward mandatory p e s tic id e
a t t it u d e
(d) age,
tow ard
in s t r u c t io n a l
(e) le v e l o f education
completed, and ( f ) years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r t i f i ­
ca tio n program.
(13)
H■j
No s ig n ific a n t m u ltip le c o rre la tio n s
e x is t between
the dependent v a ria b le o f lea rning outcome and the
set
of
ind epe nde nt
(a) in s t r u c t io n a l
v a r ia b le s ,
s tr a te g y ,
mandatory p e s tic id e education,
(b)
id e n tifie d
a ttitu d e
as:
toward
(c) a ttitu d e toward
118
in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received,
of
e d u c a tio n
com pleted,
and
(d) age,
Cf)
Ce) level
ye a rs
in
the
p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
Data Analysis
A n a ly s is
personal
p ro v id e
of
fre q u e n cy
d e s c rip to rs
a p r o f ile
of
and percentage
the population
o f the
ru ra l
d is tr ib u tio n s
was conducted
p riv a te
p e s tic id e
in
fo r
the
order
to
a p p lic a to r.
In
a d d itio n , Chi square te s ts o f independence were conducted to determine
w hether
d iffe r e n c e s , between
person al
d e s c rip to rs
existed
in
the
popula tion.
Frequency, and
assess
a t t i tudes
mandated
percentage
of
educational
received.
th e
ru ra l
d is tr ib u tio n s
I ea rne rs
were also
toward the
program and toward the
analyzed to
le g is la tiv e ly
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
Three methods o f analysis were used to te s t the 13 n u ll
hypotheses.
Hypotheses I through 10 were tested using two-way analysis
o f variance
(ANOVA).
When a s ig n ific a n t main e ffe c t d iffe re n c e was
found and the d f equaled or exceeded two (2 ), alT possible pairw ise
comparisons were tested w ith the S cheffe1 post hoc m u ltip le comparison
te s t.
Hypotheses 11 and 12 were tested by the use o f the Pearson
product-m om ent
determ ine
c r ite r io n
equation.
th e
c o r r e la t io n
c o n tr ib u tio n
c o e ffic ie n t .
of
th e
The fin a l
independent
hypothesis
v a ria b le s
v a ria b le was tested by the use o f a m u ltip le
-
to
to
the
c o rre la tio n
119
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND ANALYSES
This
a n a ly s is
chapter presents
of
th e
the d e s c rip tiv e
da ta obtained
from the
comprising the study popula tion.
fin d in g s
and s t a t is t ic a l
654 p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to rs
The d e s c rip tiv e fin d in g s provide a
p r o f ile o f the p o pula tion, in c lu d in g data about age, leve l o f education
com pleted,
program ,
a p p lic a to r
and ye a rs
s ta tu s ,
in
yea rs
county
in
p e s tic id e
residence.
In
r e c e r tific a tio n
a d d itio n ,
data from
analyses o f selected personal d e s c rip to rs are provided, v e rify in g the
s im ila r it y o f the p o pula tion.
to
a p p lic a to r
a ttitu d e
Also included are the fin d in g s re le va n t
toward the
le g is la tiv e ly
mandated p e s tic id e
program and the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received during the educational
program.
The s t a t is t ic a l
dependent
and
h yp o th e s is
sta te m e n t
independent
and include
in
data re le va n t
th e
v a r ia b le s
the
n u ll
form,
fo llo w in g
(b)
to
are
the performance on the
presented
in fo rm a tio n :
ta b le (s )
of
by in d iv id u a l
(a)
s t a t is t ic a l
hypothesis
re s u lts ,
(c) discussion re le va n t to acceptance or re je c tio n o f the hypothesis,
and (d) in te rp re ta tio n o f re s u lts .
D e scrip tive Findings
Demographic Inform ation
As depicted in Table 4, p riv a te p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs ranged in
I
age from 16 to 83;
60% were between 31 and 55 years o f age.
The mean
120
Table 4.
Frequencies and percentages fo r demographic c h a ra c te ris tic s
o f 654 p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs , D is t r ic t V, Montana.
V ariable
Frequency*
Percent
Age:
16-17 years
18-30 years
31-55 years
56 and over
4
79
353
15Z
593
100.0
1-8 years (elementary)
1-4 years (high school)
1-4 years (co lle g e )
. .
5 years colleg e plus
31
302
246
23
5.1
50.2
40.9
3.8
Total
602
100.0
1-2 years
3-4 years
5-6 years .
7 years plus
69
55
116
306
12.6
10.1
21.3
56.0
T o ta l.
546
100.0
Commercial status
P riva te status
Other
32
543
27
5.0
90.0
5.0
Total
602
100.0
1-5 years
6-10. years
11-15 years
7
575
18
1.2
95.8
3.0
Total
600
100.0
Total
1.0
13.0
60.0
26.0
Level o f Education Completed:
Years in R e c e rtific a tio n Program:
A p p lic a to r S tatus:
Years in County Residence:
*AT1 to ta ls may not equal 654 due to m issing data.
121
age was 41.37 years.
F if t y percent o f. the a p p lic a to rs responding had
completed one to fo u r years o f high school, w hile 41% had completed one
)
to fo u r years o f co lle g e .
F if t y - s ix percent o f the respondents had
p a rtic ip a te d
N in e ty -s ix
re sid e n t
in the r e c e r tific a tio n program fo r seven years or more.
percent o f the p e s tic id e
county
responses
to
fo r
the
s ix
to
question
a p p lic a to rs
ten years.
of
a p p lic a to r
had liv e d
in
th e ir
Ninety
percent o f the 602
status
were designated
as
p riv a te p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs .
In fo rm a tio n
s u b s ta n tia tin g
th e
s im ila r it y
v a ria b le is .presented in Tables 5, 6, and 7.
th is purpose.
of
the
groups
by
Chi-square was used fo r
No s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s were found to e x is t between
the two groups,
suggesting th a t the p a rtic ip a n ts
in the groups were
(
s im ila r by c h a ra c te ris tic , even though not by random s e le c tio n .
Table 5.
Contingency ta b le showing re la tio n s h ip between in s tru c tio n a l
„ stra te g y and age.*
In s tru c tio n a l
S trategy
Age.
-
18-30
31-55
56-Plus
Total
%
54
9.17
250
42.44
102
17.32
406
68.93
Small Group
Discussion
N
%
25
4.24
103
17.49
55
9.34
183
31.07
Total
N
%
79
13.41
. 353
59.93
157
26.66
589
100.00
Lecture
N
x
*X2 = 1.753; p = .416
122
Table 6.
Contingency ta b le showing re la tio n s h ip between in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y and leve l o f education completed.*
<----------El em.
High ’
College
C ol. +
1-8 yrs
1-4 yrs
1-4 yrs
' 4 y rs +
Total
N
%
22
3.65
217
36.05
161
26.74
16
2.66
416
69.10
N
%
9
1.50
85
14.12
85
14.12
7
1.16
186
30.90
N
%
31
5.15
302
50.17
246
40.86
23
3.82
602
100.00
In s tru c tio n a l
S tra te g y .
Lecture
Small group
Discussion
Total ■
Level o f Education— ------------>
*X2 ? 2.663; p = .446
Table 7.
Contingency ta b le showing re la tio n s h ip between in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y and years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program/
Years in
<— P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Prog.— >
In s tru c tio n a l
S trategy
1-2 yrs
3-4 yrs
5-6 yrs
7 yrs +
Total
Lecture
■
%
52 .
9.52
38
6.96
71
13.00
222
40.66
383
70.15
Small group
Discussion
N
%
17
3.11
17
3.11
45
8.24
84
15.38
163
29.85
Total
N
69
12.64
55
10.07
116
21.25
N
. %
6.196; p = .102
306
56.04 .
546
100.00
123
A fin a l component included in the d e s c rip tiv e p r o f ile is the data
re le v a n t
to
e d u ca tio n a l
a p p lic a to r
a t t it u d e
program and a ttitu d e
tow ard
toward the
received during the mandated program.
t io n
re le v a n t
to
th e
a le g is la t iv e ly
re search
in s tru c tio n a l
mandated
s tra te g y
Tables 8 and 9 provide inform a­
q u e s tio n
d ire c te d
toward mandated
education, w hile Tables 10, 11, and 12 address fin d in g s from the second
re search
q u e s tio n
regarding
a ttitu d e
toward
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
received.
General Questions to Be Answered
Research
Q uestion
#1.
What is
the
a ttitu d e
of
ru ra l
a d u lt
I earners toward a le g is la tiv e ly mandated educational program?
Table 8.
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r response to the question: I f the p e s tic id e
. education program had NOT been mandated by Montana law,
would you have attended a program o f th is type v o lu n ta rily ?
A ttitu d e
S trongly agree
Agree
No opinion
Disagree
S trongly disagree
Frequency
Percent
Cumulative
Frequency
Cumulative
. Percent
12.8
55.1
16.7
13.0
2.4
76
402
501
578
592
12.8
67.9
84.6
97.6
100.00
76 .
326
99
77
.
14
.
Over 67% o f the responding p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs in d ica te d they
would have p a rtic ip a te d v o lu n ta r ily had the program not been le g is la tiv e ly
mandated.
Only
15% disagreed
p a rtic ip a tio n on a vo lu n ta ry basis.
p e s tic id e sa fe ty in fo rm a tion is
or
s tro n g ly
disagreed w ith
This suggests th a t the need fo r
im portant enough to p a rtic ip a n ts th a t
124
if
t h e . program were not
le g is la tiv e ly
mandated,
they would attend
anyway.
Table 9.
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r response to the question: Do you th in k a
p e s tic id e education program such as you are p a rtic ip a tin g
in should be le g is la tiv e ly mandated?
A ttitu d e
Frequency
S trongly agree
Agree
No opinion
Disagree.
S trongly disagree
63
200
106
155
64
Approximately 45% o f
in fa v o r
of
the
a l e g is l a t i v e l y
Cumulative
Frequency
Percent
...
10.7
34.0
18.0
26.4
10.9
.
respondents
Cumulative
Percent
63
263
369
524
588
. 10.7
44.7
62.8
89.1
100.0
in d ic a te d th e ir
mandated p e s tic id e
.
agreement
education program.
S lig h tly over 37% o f the respondents ind ica ted th e ir disagreement w ith
the concept.
Research
Q uestion
#2.
What is
the
a ttitu d e
of
ru ra l
a d u lt
learners toward the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received?
Data re le va n t to a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y
received are re la te d to three areas, id e n tifie d in Tables 10, 11, and
12 as:
(a)
appropriateness o f s tra te g y
group, d is c u s s io n ),
(b)
supportive m a te ria ls .
ro le
played
received
by experience,
(le c tu re
and
(c)
or small
use o f
Analysis o f d e s c rip tiv e data in d ica te d 94% o f
the a p p lic a to rs were favorable to. the s tra te g y they received during the
p e s tic id e program.
Eighty percent in d ica te d th e ir p r io r experience did
not e lim in a te the need fo r the sa fe ty in fo rm a tio n , w h ile 66% in d ica te d
125
th e ir, experience was s u ff ic ie n t
to answer the questions involved in
d a ily p ra c tic e .
Table 10.
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r response to questions regarding the appropri­
ateness o f stra te g y received (le c tu re or small group
d is c u s s io n ).
QUESTION I
QUESTION 4
Was the method o f
in s tru c tio n you
received o f help to
you in understanding
the inform ation?
Would you p a r tic ip a te
in another program
using the same in s tru c ­
tio n a l s tra te g y as you
received today?
QUESTION 7
Did the person pre­
sen tin g the informa­
tio n do so in a c le a r ,
concise manner a llo w ­
ing fo r questions and
in te r a c tio n from the
p a rtic ip a n ts ?
A ttitu d e
N
%
N
%
N
%
S tro n gly agree
Agree
116
451
25
8
'I
19.3
75.0
4.2
1.3
0.2
80
445
51
18
3
13.4
74.5
8.5
3.0
0.5
150
406
33
9
0
15.1
67.9
5.5
1.5
0.0
No opinion
Disagree
S tro n gly disagree
N in e ty -fo u r percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts agreed th a t the method o f
in s tru c tio n was o f help in understanding the in fo rm a tio n ; 87% in d ica te d
they would p a rtic ip a te in another program using the same stra te g y as
I
th e
one
th o u g h t
th e y
th a t
re c e iv e d .
th e
acceptable manner.
N in e ty-th re e
person
presenting
percent o f
the
the
in fo rm a tion
p a rtic ip a n ts
did
so in
an
With regard to Table 11, 80% o f the p a rtic ip a n ts
disagreed w ith the statement th a t t h e ir experience elim in ated the need
fo r in fo rm a tio n .
Ninety percent agreed th a t based on the inform ation
received, they would change th e ir behavior.
S ix ty -s ix percent agreed
th a t
answer
th e ir
e xp e rie n ce
p e s tic id e s a fe ty .
was
s u ff ic ie n t
to
questions
about
Table 12 in d ica te s th a t 91% o f the respondents would
126
Table 11.
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r response to questions regarding ro le played
by experience.
QUESTION 2
QUESTION 5
QUESTION 8
Based on the informa­
tio n received today in
the S afety p o rtio n o f
the program, w i l l you
Does your experience
w ith p e s tic id e s e litn in a te the need fo r i n f e r mation re le v a n t to the
s afe use o f chemicals?
A ttitu d e
N
%
S tro n gly agree
15
2 .5
Agree
No opinion
Disagree
75
29
1 2 .7
4 .9
347
126
5 8 .6
2 1 .3
S tro n gly d isag ree
Table 12.
change the way you p ro te c t y o u rs e lf and your
environment when using
p e s tic id e s in the
fu ture?
-
Is the experience you
b rin g to the p e s tic id e
education program s u ff i c i e n t to answer
questions about the
s afe use o f p e s t icides?
N
%
N
%
139
399
2 3 .2
6 6 .7
6 .7
5 9 .2
1 6 .1
1 5 .8
2.2
34
5.7
23
3 .8
40
352
96
94
3
0.5
13
Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r response to questions regarding use o f
supportive m a te ria ls .
QUESTION 6
QUESTION 9
QUESTION 11
Would follow up in f o r mation provided on a
re g u la r basis in the
form o f a fa c t sheet
o r a n e w s le tte r, r e Ie vant to the safe hand-
Do you th in k you w i l l
use the handout m ateria ls in the fu tu re fo r
re fe re n ce in the safe
o f help to you in the
use o f p esticid es?
fu tu re?
A ttitu d e
N
S trongly agree
Agree
No opinion
Disagree
S tro n gly d isag ree
lin g o f p e s tic id e s , be
Would you ra th e r
re c e iv e p e s tic id e
in fo rm atio n from your
p eers, tra in e d in the
necessary subject m att e r , ra th e r than from .
the Department of
A g ric u ltu re o r the
C ooperative Extension
Service?
%
N
%
N
115
1 9 .2
2 2 .5
6 6 .9
4.1
7 2 .6
5 .7
2 .0
0 .5
133
396
24
434
34
12
3
87
1 4 .9
45
15
3
7.6
2.5
0.5
174
243
58
2 9 .7
4 1 .5
9 .9
.
%
127
use the handout m a te ria ls in the fu tu re .
E ighty-nine percent were in
agreement w ith the usefulness o f follow up info rm a tion w hile 50% o f the
handout m a te ria ls in the fu tu re .
E ighty-nine percent were in agreement
w ith the usefulness o f follow up in fo rm a tion w hile 50% o f the p a r t i c i ­
pants in d ica te d they would ra th e r receive educational inform ation from
the sta te agencies ra th e r than from th e ir peers.
S ta tis tic a l Hypotheses
P roviding the basis fo r the s t a t is t ic a l analysis were 13 hypoth­
eses, as. stated in Chapter 3.
The hypotheses were designed to provide
a basis fo r te s tin g the fiv e remaining general
the study.
research questions o f
The re s u lts are presented and in te rp re te d in the fo llo w in g
se ctio n .
A ll
hypotheses were tested a t alpha = .05.
D e scrip tive
s t a t is t ic s
(means and standard d e v ia tio n s ) o f scores on the dependent
va ria b le s are provided in Table 13.
Table 13.
Means and standard d e viation s fo r dependent v a ria b le o f
le a rn in g outcome by treatm ent.
<—Treatment #1— >
<—Treatment #2— >
Lecture
Small Group Disc.
Mean
SD
15.5705
4.2244
■ Mean
14.8860
Total
SD
Mean
SD
5.3888
15.3685
4.6051
Hypotheses
H y p o th e s is
in d e p e n d e n t
I .
v a ria b le s
No
s ig n ific a n t
of
in s tru c tio n a l
in te r a c tio n
s tra te g y
m a n d a to ry p e s t i c i d e e d u c a t i o n , on l e a r n i n g outcome.
e x is ts
and
between
a ttitu d e
th e
to w a rd
128
For Hypothesis
I,
Table .14 in d ic a te s
th a t the
F-r a tio
s ig n ific a n t; th e re fo re , the n u ll hypothesis was re ta in e d .
s u b s ta n tia te d
s tra te g y
th e
assum ption
and a ttitu d e
th a t
the v a ria b le s
toward mandatory p e s tic id e
was not
The analysis
of
in s tru c tio n a l
education do not
in te ra c t on le a rn in g outcome.
Table 14.
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y and a ttitu d e toward mandatory p e s tic id e education
and main e ffe c ts among le v e ls o f independent v a ria b le s .
Sum o f
Squares
Source o f V a ria tio n
d f*
Mean
Square
F
S ig n if.
F
Two-way In te ra c tio n ;
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
a n d .A ttitu d e Toward
Mandatory P esticide
Education
1.692
2
.846
.187
.830
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
6.778
I
6.778
1.497
.222
A ttitu d e Toward Manda­
to ry P esticide Educ.
5.318
2
2.659
.587
.556
Main E ffe c ts :
C r i t i c a l Values, d f I , 589, alpha = .05, F = 3.86
C r itic a l Values, d f 2, 589, alpha = .05, F = 3.02
H ypothesis
2.
No s ig n if ic a n t
independent va ria b le s
of
in s tru c tio n a l
main e ffe c ts
stra teg y
e x is t
among the
and a ttitu d e
toward
mandatory p e s tic id e education, on le a rn in g outcome.
No s ig n ific a n t
d iffe re n c e
fo r main e ffe c ts
was found to
e x is t
among the independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e education, as noted in Table 14.
2 was th e re fo re re ta in e d .
Hypothesis
129
H ypothesis
3.
No s ig n ific a n t
independent va ria b le s
of
in te ra c tio n
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
e x is ts
between the
and a ttitu d e
toward
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received, on le a rning outcome.
The n u ll
in d ica te s
h y p o th e s is
no s ig n ific a n t
was retaine d
in te ra c tio n
fo r
Hypothesis
3;
Table 15
was found to e x is t between the
independent v a ria b le s .
Table 15.
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y and a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received
and main e ffe c ts among le v e ls o f independent v a ria b le s .
Sum o f
Squares
Source o f V a ria tio n
d f*
Mean
Square
F
S ig n if.
F
Two-way In te ra c tio n :
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
and A ttitu d e Toward
In s tru c tio n a l S tra t­
egy Received
.759
I
.759
.169
.681
5.722
I
5.722
1.276
.259
38.924
I
38.924
8.680
.003**
e x is t
among the
Main E ffe c ts :
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
A ttitu d e Toward In s tru c ­
tio n a l S trategy Rec1d
* C r itic a l Values, d f I , 598, alpha = .05, F = 3.86
* * S ig n ific a n t a t alpha = .05 1.
H ypothesis
4.
No s i g n if ic a n t
independent, va ria b le s
of
in s tru c tio n a l
main e ffe c ts
stra te g y
and a ttitu d e
toward
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received, oh le a rn in g outcome.
For Hypothesis
4,
a s ig n ific a n t
d iffe re n c e was found to
e x is t
fo r the main e ffe c t o f a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received,
as
noted
in
Table 15.
The n u ll
hypothesis
was re je cte d
and the
130
a lt e r n a t iv e
e ffe c ts
h y p o th e s is
was accepted.
s t a t in g
the
A s ig n ific a n t
existence
of
s ig n ific a n t main
d iffe re n c e was found to
e x is t
among the mean scores on le a rning outcome fo r the two le v e ls id e n tify ­
ing p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r
a ttitu d e
toward the in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
received.
These data are presented in Table 16.
Table 16.
Mean scores fo r main e ffe c t o f a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y received. .
A ttitu d e
---------------------->
S trongly
Agree
No
Opinion
S trongly
Disagree
15,97
(116)
16.61
(486)
00.00
(00)
<----------------- —
Mean
N
P a rtic ip a n ts who had stated "no op inion " regarding th e ir a ttitu d e
toward the in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y . received achieved a higher le a rning
outcome score than did p a rtic ip a n ts who ind ica ted a "s tro n g ly agree"
a ttitu d e toward the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y .
H ypothesis
5.
No s ig n ific a n t
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l
in te ra c tio n
e x is ts
between the
stra te g y and age, on le a rning
outcome.
No s i g n if ic a n t
in t e r a c t io n
was
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l
in Table 17.
to
e x is t
between the
stra te g y and age, as in d ica te d
Hypothesis 5 was re taine d as stated.
H ypothesis
6.
No s i g n if ic a n t
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l
outcome.
found
main e ffe c ts
e x is t
among the
stra te g y and age, on le a rning
131
No s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e fo r main e ffe c ts was found to e x is t fo r
the independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and age; Hypothesis
6 was also retaine d as stated.
T a b le .17.
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y and age and main e ffe c ts among le v e ls o f indepen­
dent v a ria b le s .
Sum o f
Squares
d f*
Mean
Square
. F
S ig n if.
F
56.946
2
28.474
1.279
.279
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
44.786
. I
44.7.86
2.011
.157
Age
63.567
2
31.783
1.427
.241
Source o f V a ria tio n
Two-way In te ra c tio n :
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
and Age
Main E ffe c ts :
C r i t i c a l Values, d f I , 583, alpha = .05, F = 3.86
C r itic a l Values, d f 2, 583, alpha = .05, F = 3.02
H ypothesis
7.
No s ig n ific a n t
in te ra c tio n
e x is ts
between the
independent va ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y and le ve l o f education
completed, on le a rn in g outcome.
The two-way analysis o f variance ind ica ted
th a t no s ig n ific a n t
in te ra c tio n e x is ts between the independent v a ria b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
and le ve l
o f education
completed,
as noted
in
Table 18.
e x is t
among' t h e
Therefore, Hypothesis 7 was re ta in e d .
H y p o th e s is
8.
in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b l e 's
No' s i g n i f i c a n t
o f ! in s tru c tio n a l
c o m p le te d , on l e a r n i n g outcome.
m ain
e ffe c ts
s t r a t e g y and l e v e l
o f e d u c a tio n '
i
132
S ig n ific a n t d iffe re n ce s were found to e x is t fo r Hypothesis 8 among
main, e ffe c ts fo r both o f the independent v a ria b le s , as id e n tifie d
Table
18.
a lt e r n a t iv e
T h e re fo re ,
the
n u ll
h y p o th e s is
s t a t in g
hypothesis
the
was re je c te d
existence o f
in
and the
s ig n ific a n t main
e ffe c ts was re ta in e d .
Table 18.
Two-way ANOVA determ ining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y and level o f education completed and main e ffe c ts
among le v e ls o f independent v a ria b le s .
Source o f V a ria tio n
Sum o f
Squares
d f*
Mean
Square
F
S ig n if.
F
139.407
3
46.469
2.165
.091
88.665
I
88.665
4.131
.043**
229.206
3
76.402
3.560
.014**
Two-way In te ra c tio n :
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
and Level o f Educa­
tio n Completed
Main E ffe c ts :
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
Level o f Edn. Completed
C r i t i c a l Values, d f I , 594, alpha = .05, F = 3.86
C r itic a l Values, d f 3, 594, alpha = .05, F = 2.62
* * S ig n ifle a n t a t alpha = .05
For the independent v a ria b le o f in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y , a d i f f e r ­
ence was found to e x is t in lea rning outcome between the group re ce ivin g
the le c tu re stra te g y and the group p a rtic ip a tin g
discussion.
s ig n if ic a n tly
in
the small group
The 416 p a rtic ip a n ts re c e iv in g the le c tu re stra te g y had a
higher mean score (15.57) than did the 186 a p p lic a to rs
involved in the small group discussion format (14.82).
133
For the independent v a ria b le o f leve l o f education completed, a
s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e was found to e x is t among the mean scores on
le a rn in g outcome, fo r the fo u r designated educational le v e ls , as noted
in Table 19.
Table 19.
.
Mean scores fo r main, e ffe c t o f leve l o f education completed.
<----------------------- Level o f Education Completed™ ------------------- >
Group I
Group 2
. Group 3
___________1-8 y rs .________ 9-12 y rs .
Mean
N
13.81
(31)
13-16 y rs .
14.96
(302)
S ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s ,
Group 4
17 y rs . +
15.95
(246)
15.83
(23)
using the S cheffe' post hoc procedure,
were found between the means o f Group I and Group 3, and between the
means o f Groups 2 and 3.
The mean le a rning outcome score o f Group 3
was s ig n if ic a n tly higher than those o f Groups I and 2.
H ypothesis
independent
9.
No s ig n if ic a n t . in te ra c tio n
v a r ia b le s
of
in s tru c tio n a l
e x is ts
s tra te g y
between the
and years
in
the
p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program, by lea rn in g outcome.
No s i g n if ic a n t
independent
p e s tic id e
in t e r a c t io n
v a r ia b le s
of
was
found
in s tru c tio n a l
r e c e r tific a tio n
program ,
to
e x is t
stra te g y
between the
and years
as
in d ic a te d
main
e ffe c ts
in
in
the
Table
20.
Hypothesis 9 was th e re fo re re ta in e d .
H y p o th e s is
in d e p e n d e n t
10.
v a ria b le s
No
of
s ig n ific a n t
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
e x is t
and
p e s t i c i d e r e c e r t i f i c a t i o n p ro g ra m , on l e a r n i n g outcom e.
among
years
in
th e
th e
134
For Hypothesis 10, a s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e was found to .e x is t fo r
th e
main
e ffe c t
of
in s t r u c t io n a l
hypothesis was re je c te d .
s tr a te g y ;
th e re fo re ,
the
n u ll
The 383 p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs re ce ivin g the
le c tu re stra te g y demonstrated a s ig n if ic a n tly higher mean score (15.50)
on le a rn in g outcome than did the 163 a p p lic a to rs p a rtic ip a tin g in the
small group discussion format (14.63).
x
Table 20.
Two-way ANOVA determining, in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y and years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program
and main e ffe c ts among le v e ls o f independent v a ria b le s .
Sum o f
Squares
Source o f V a ria tio n
d f*
Mean
Square
F
S ig n if.
F
3
10.236
.447
.720
Two-way In te ra c tio n :.
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
and Years in P esticide
R e c e rtific a tio n Prog.
30.709
~
Main E ffe c ts :
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
91.125
I
91.125
3.976
Years in P esticide
R e c e rtific a tio n Prog.
55.692
3
18.564
.810
.047**
.489
^ C r itic a l Values, d f I , 538, alpha = .05, F = 3.86
C r itic a l Values, d f 3, 538, alpha = .05, F = 2.62
* * S ig n ifle a n t a t alpha = .05
Hypothesis 11.
No s ig n ific a n t
re la tio n s h ip , e x is ts
between the
dependent v a ria b le o f le a rning outcome and the independent v a ria b le s
o f:
(a)
p e s tic id e
received,
in s t r u c t io n a l
e d u c a tio n ,
(d) age,
(c )
s tr a te g y ,
a t t it u d e
(b)
a t t it u d e
tow ard
toward mandatory
in s tr u c tio n a l
stra te g y
(e) leve l o f education completed, and ( f) years in
the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
,135
The product-moment c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts , presented in Table 21
re su lte d in the id e n tific a tio n o f two s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip s between
the. dependent
v a ria b le s .;
in d ic a te
p e s tic id e
outcome.
v a r ia b le
of
le a rn in g
outcome
and
th e
The n u ll hypothesis was th e re fo re re je c te d .
th a t
p e s tic id e
e d u c a tio n
a p p lic a t o r s '
c o rre la te d
a t t it u d e
p o s itiv e ly
w ith
independent
The fin d in g s
tow ard
scores
mandatory
on lea rn in g
Those w ith a more p o s itiv e a ttitu d e toward the le g is la tiv e ly
mandated p e s tic id e program tended to earn a higher score on the measure
o f lea rn in g outcome.
Table 21.
C o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts between the dependent and indepen­
dent va ria b le s plus in te r-c o rre la tio n s between independent
va ria b le s (N=654).*
V aria ble
r
Learning outcome and. in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y
-.0678
Learning outcome and age
-.0999
Learning outcome and leve l o f education
completed
Learning outcome and years' in r e c e r t i f i ­
ca tio n program
.0648
-.0814
Learning outcome and a ttitu d e toward
mandatory p e s tic id e education .
.5389**
Learning outcome and a ttitu d e toward
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received
.7648**
In s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and age
.0778
In s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and le ve l o f
education completed
.1095
In s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and years fn the
r e c e r tific a tio n program
.0115
136
Table 21—Continued.
V ariable
r
In s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e education
-.0107
In s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and a ttitu d e
toward in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received
-.0486
Age and le ve l o f education completed
.2146**
Age and years in the r e c e r tific a tio n
program
.4513**
Age and a ttitu d e toward mandatory
p e s tic id e education
-.1358
Age and a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y received
-.0851
Level o f education completed and years
in r e c e r tific a tio n program
Level o f education and a ttitu d e toward
mandatory p e s tic id e education /
.
.2409**
:
.0000 .
Level o f education completed and
a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l stra teg y.
received
:0872
A ttitu d e toward mandatory p e s tic id e
education and a ttitu d e toward in s tru c ­
tio n a l stra te g y received
.6823**
' *T w o-tailed te s t; C r itic a l Values, d f 100, r = + .195
* * S ig n ifle a n t at alpha = .05
The second fin d in g id e n tifie s
le v e l
of
p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to r
a p o s itiv e c o rre la tio n between the
a t t it u d e
toward
the
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
re c e iv e d
outcome.
Those w ith a more p o s itiv e a ttitu d e toward the in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y
received
and the performance on the measure o f
tended to
lea rn in g
earn a higher score on the measure o f
137
le a rn in g outcome.
The c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n t o f .7648 (R2 = .5849)
in d ica te d th a t 58% o f the v a r ia b ilit y in le a rning outcome scores can be
explained by knowledge o f a ttitu d e toward the in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
received.
Hypothesis 12.
No s ig n ific a n t in te r - c o r r e la tio n ( s )
the independent va ria b le s o f:
e x is t among
(a) in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y , (b) a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e education, (c) a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
received,
(d)
age,
(e)
le ve l
of
education
completed,
and
( f) years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
Four
s ig n if ic a n t
c o rre la tio n
c o e ffic ie n ts
were found to
between p a irs o f independent v a ria b le s , as noted in Table 21.
hypothesis
was re je cte d
and the a lte rn a tiv e
hypothesis
e x is t
The n u ll
s ta tin g
the
existence o f s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip s was re taine d.
The
fir s t
fin d in g
involved
a s ig n ific a n t
p o s itiv e
c o rre la tio n
between the age o f the a p p lic a to rs and the leve l o f education completed
by p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs .
a p p lic a to r age.
As the le v e l o f education increased, so did
A s im ila r fin d in g involved the s ig n ific a n t p o s itiv e
c o rre la tio n between age o f the p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs and years involved
in the p e s tic id e c e r t if ic a t io n program.
As expected, as the years in
the program increased, the age o f the p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs increased.
A th ir d
s i g n if ic a n t
c o r r e la t io n
was
found
between the
level
of
education completed and a p p lic a to r years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a ­
tio n . program.
number o f
As the
yea rs
program increased.
le v e l. o f education
o f p a rtic ip a tio n
in
the
completed
increased,
the
p e s tic id e
r e c e r tific a tio n
The fo u rth s ig n ific a n t fin d in g in d ic a te d a p o s itiv e
c o rre la tio n between p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e toward the mandatory
138
p e s tic id e education program and a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y
re c e iv e d .
Those w ith
a more p o s itiv e
a ttitu d e
toward mandatory
p e s tic id e education also tended to have a more p o s itiv e a ttitu d e toward
the in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y received.
Hypothesis 13.
No s ig n ific a n t m u ltip le c o rre la tio n e x is ts between
the dependent v a ria b le o f le a rn in g outcome and the set o f independent
v a ria b le s ,
id e n tifie d
as:
(a)
in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y ,
(b)
a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e education, (c) a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
received,
(d)
age,
(e)
le ve l
o f education
completed,
and
( f) years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
Stepwise m u ltip le regression was used to determine the order o f
e n try o f the independent va ria b le s
in the m u ltip le regression model.
The v a ria b le
entered a t Step One was a ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l
p
stra te g y received, y ie ld in g an R o f .58496. At Step Two, the v a ria b le
of
yea rs
in
in c re a s in g
th e
th e
r e c e r t if ic a t io n
R2 to
program was added to
.58852. . At Step Three,
since
the model,
none o f
the
O
remaining va ria b le s would s ig n if ic a n tly increase the R , a ll remaining
va ria b le s were entered,
.59029.
These re s u lts
a t t it u d e
tow ard
variance
in
independent va ria b le s
fo r
to
.59029,
in
an R
in d ica te d
th a t
the
in s tr u c tio n a l
le a rn in g
an
p
culm inating
s tra te g y
outcome.
fo r the f u l l
independent v a ria b le
accounts
The a d d itio n
model o f
of
fo r
the
58.4% o f
fiv e
of
the
remaining
increases the percentage o f variance accounted
in c re a s e
s t a t is t ic a l l y
s ig n ific a n t,
consequence.
Because
it
of
.00533.
W hile
th is
increase
is
does not appear to be o f any p ra c tic a l
p
<
the
R 's
at
each
step
were s t a t is t ic a lly
139
s i g n if ic a n t ,
the
n u ll
hypothesis re ta in e d .
Table 22.
hypothesis
was re je cte d
and the
a lte rn a tiv e
The data are presented in Table 22.
Stepwise m u ltip le regression fo r e n try o f s ix independent
v a ria b le s .
Step
V ariable Entered
R2
F
A ttitu d e Toward In s tr u c tio n a l'
S trategy Received
.58496
.919*
2
Years in Program
.58852
.465*
3
In s tru c tio n a l S trategy
.59029
.155*
/
I
Age
Level o f Educ. Completed
A ttitu d e Toward Mandatory
P esticide Education
^ S ig n ific a n t, a t .05 le ve l o f confidence
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose o f th is chapter is to present conclusions based on an
in te rp re ta tio n o f the fin d in g s o f the study and to make recommendations
fo r fu rth e r research and p ra c tic e .
The conclusions are drawn from an
in v e s tig a tio n o f a population o f ru ra l a d u lt le a rn e rs, p a rtic ip a tin g in
a o n e -tim e ,
le g is la tiv e ly
mandated,
educational
around the seven research questions in Chapter I ,
program.
Centered
the conclusions are
substantiated by the d e scrip tiv e .a n d s t a t is t ic a l fin d in g s o f the study.
Conclusions
( I)
Receiving up-to-date in fo rm a tion in the safe use o f p e sticid e s is
more
im p o rta n t
to
p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to rs
than
the question
of
vo lu n ta ry or mandatory p a rtic ip a tio n .
D e scrip tive data analysis in d ic a te s th a t 68% o f the 592 respond­
ents would have p a rtic ip a te d
program.
v o lu n ta r ily
in
the p e s tic id e
education
From general discussion and comments volunteered in w r itin g
by a p p lic a to rs ,
however, the major concern expressed was not one o f
being mandated to attend the program, but one o f necessity in re c e iv in g
the most up-to-date
in fo rm a tion
re s u lts
o f the present study,
t io n a l
s tu d ie s
re le va n t to p e s tic id e
s a fe ty .
The
however, concur w ith numerous occupa­
and recommendations
in d ic a tin g
p o s itiv e
p a rtic ip a n t
a ttitu d e toward vo lu n ta ry continuing education (Edwards & Green, 1983;
141
Egelsto n ,
1974;
Larocco & Pol i t ,
1978; Mathews & Schumacher,
1979;
Mattson, 1974; Whit i s , 1972).
(2)
The question o f the le g itim a c y o f mandatory p e s tic id e education is
not considered to be a p o s itiv e or a negative issue by the p a r t i­
cipants in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
The fin d in g s o f the present study in d ic a te th a t 45% o f the 588
respondents were in agreement w ith the concept o f mandated p e s tic id e
education, w h ile 37% were in disagreement w ith .th e concept, in d ic a tin g
no c le a r d is tin c tio n by p a rtic ip a n ts in fa v o r o f or against mandatory
education.
however,
(American
These fin d in g s are s im ila r to other occupational stu d ie s,
re c o g n iz in g
H o s p ita l
th e
is s u e
A s s o c ia tio n ,
o f mandatory continuin g
1979;
Arneson,
1985;
education
Brenner &
Strawser, 1972; Ellyson e t a l . , 1985; Hunt, 1987; M ille r & Rea, 1977;
Peay, 1979; Schoen, 1979).
The minimal percentage d iffe re n c e between
the two a ttitu d e s may, in fa c t, support the premise th a t the issue o f
MCE continues to be c o n tro v e rs ia l.
(3)
P e sticide
a p p lic a to rs
did
not
favo r one in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
more than the o th e r.
In the present study,
le c tu re was not considered to be a more
p re fe rre d mode o f in s tru c tio n than small group discussion.
In t o t a l,
94% o f the p a rtic ip a n ts were favorable to the s tra te g y they received.
For the. le c tu re
group,
97% responded favorably
to
the
stra teg y
comparison to 88% represented by the small group discussion.
in
A key to
the p o s itiv e response may be in the o v e ra ll design o f the in s tr u c tio n ,
since both s tra te g ie s represented the system atic d iffu s io n o f knowledge
142
fo r
immediate a p p lic a tio n .
By i n i t i a l
id e n tific a tio n
o f the task,
establishm ent o f the goals and o b je c tiv e s , c r ite r io n referenced te s t,
in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y and in s tru c tio n a l medium, the implementation o f
e ith e r in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y became sim ply a p a rt o f the process.
The
s tra te g ie s were c o n te x tu a lly determined and.provided fo r the f i t o f the
in s tru c tio n to the environmental s e ttin g .
The favorable a ttitu d e
the le c tu re
s tra te g y may also be an
example o f what Hovland, Jam's, and K elley
(1953) and Weaver (1980)
suggest
as
th e
g re a te s t
to
advantage
of
the
presentation o f a human model to a group.
in
an
audience a sense o f
re la tio n s h ip
le c tu re ;
th a t
is ,
the
In e ffe c t, one is c re a tin g
between the model
and the
subject the model is presenting.
,
The presentation o f the subject m atter by the persona l i t y has an e ffe c tiv e impact on the audience in th a t
i t w ill make d ire c t asso ciation between, the value o f
th e in fo rm a tio n and the impressions i t has o f the
speaker (Weaver, 1980, p. 7 ).
Sweeney and
R e ig e lu th
(1984)
fu rth e r
suggest
th e .le c tu r e
as an
e ffe c tiv e stra te g y when large numbers are involved, when the group is
homogeneous, when in fo rm a tion changes ra p id ly or fre q u e n tly , and when
there is a need to arouse in te re s t in a sub ject.
The fa v o r a b ility o f group discussion may be cha racterized again by
the importance o f the subject m atter content.
Wagner and Arnold (1965)
note th a t some problems can be more accurately and e f f ic ie n t ly solved
by groups and th a t those who share in forming decisions are u s u a lly
w illin g to support decisions afterw ard.
use o f a g ric u ltu ra l
d e c is io n -m a k in g
chemicals,
re g a rd in g
In the instance o f the safe
the ro le o f experience,
a p p lic a tio n
and
th e
the need fo r
immediate
use o f
143
in fo rm a tio n
s tra te g y .
may have
enhanced
th e
fa v o ra b le
a ttitu d e
toward the
B r ilh a r t (1982) suggests the s tra te g y represents a m utually
interdependent purpose w ith the success o f each member contingent upon
the success o f the e n tire group in reaching the goal.
The p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r is seeking info rm a tion and assistance in
the safe use o f p e s tic id e s .
Inform ation and sharing by the s ix o r
seven oth er group members, o fte n e x p e rie n tia lIy based, may c o n trib u te
even more to the process.
format provided
co n ce p ts,
For the p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r,,th e case study
an o p p o rtu n ity
a p p ly
p reviou s
to
deepen and extend subject m atter
experiences,
and consider a p p lic a tio n
of
subsequent le a rn in g in an area o f high p r io r it y .
(4)
Learning outcome is not dependent on p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e education or personal d e s c rip to rs such
as age o r years in the r e c e r tific a tio n program.
The. fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t demonstrated performance on the measure
o f le a rn in g outcome is not dependent on p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e
toward mandatory p e s tic id e
dependent, on age,
le v e l
education.
N either
is
le a rning
outcome
o f education
completed,
o r years
in
the
p a rtic ip a tin g
in
the group re ce ivin g
the
r e c e r tific a tio n program.
(5)
P e sticide
le c tu r e
a p p lic a to rs
s tra te g y
performed b e tte r on the measure o f
le a rn in g
outcome than the group p a rtic ip a tin g in small group discussion.
In two instances, the s t a t is t ic a l analyses in d ic a te a s ig n ific a n t
d iffe re n c e fo r the main e ffe c t o f in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y on le a rn in g
outcome. . In both analyses, the higher mean score was found fo r the
144
group re ce ivin g
the le c tu re
s tra te g y ,
in d ic a tin g .th a t le c tu re was a
more e ffe c tiv e in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y fo r use w ith ru ra l a d u lt learners
in the context o f a le g is la tiv e ly mandated educational program.
fin d in g s
s u b s ta n tia te
e a r lie r
research by Rothman
(1980),
The
Slaten
(1973), and Verner and Dickinson (1967) in the claim th a t le c tu re is
b e tte r in a s s is tin g learners in the re c a ll o f fa c ts .
re s u lts
In a d d itio n , the
lend support to the suggestion by Weston and Cranton (1986)
ch a ra c te riz in g le c tu re as an e ffe c tiv e stra te g y fo r the lower le v e ls o f
..the c o g n itiv e domain,
s tu d e n ts
fa c tu a l
to
in which the goal of. in s tru c tio n
in fo rm a tio n .
in fo rm a tio n
In
the present study,
represented
the
lower
le v e ls
is to expose
dissem ination
o f the
of
c o g n itiv e
d o m a in ,.id e n tifie d as knowledge gained and s k ills learned.
Findings which suggest th a t v a ria b le s such as the c r e d ib ilit y o f
the le c tu re r, order o f content p re se n ta tio n , e m o tio n a lity o f argument,
m eaningful ness
of
m a te r ia l,
and
use o f ,supportive m a teria ls
are
re le va n t fa c to rs in determ ining the e ffe ctive n e ss o f le c tu re , may also
be c o n trib u to rs
to
the
id e n tifie d
(.Hovland. e t
a l.,
1953;
1967).
th e
p re s e n t
In
re p re s e n tin g
both
the
d iffe re n c e
Palmer & Verner,
s tu d y ,
th e
between the s tra te g ie s
1959;
Verner & Dickinson,
c r e d ib ility
Department o f A g ric u ltu re
of
the
le c tu re r,
and the
Extension
S ervice, in combination w ith the element o f e m o tio n a lity o f the to p ic ,
may have co n trib u te d
s ig n ific a n tly
documented evidence o f physical
to the e x is tin g d iffe re n c e .
illn e s s
The
and. death through misuse o f
pesticide, chemicals may be close enough to the a p p lic a to r's personal
experience to encourage a stronger e f f o r t in responding to questions o f
..factual and immediate r e c a ll.
A lso, the p a rtic ip a n t must co n sta n tly be
145
replacing old
in fo rm a tio n w ith
new in
order to
be c u rre n t,
thereby
c a llin g a tte n tio n to the immediacy o f the a p p lic a tio n o f new inform a­
tio n .
The exposure to concise, s tru c tu re d info rm a tion a t a p o in t .in
tim e
when the a p p lic a to r
is
in
a cap tive
s itu a tio n
may,
in
fa c t,
enhance the le a rn in g outcome.
Verner and Dickinson (1967) also suggest th a t the use o f in s tru c ­
t io n a l
devices
a d u lts .
may increase
the
In the present study,
augment the
le c tu re
effe ctive n e ss
the
le c tu re
w ith
the use o f il l u s t r a t i v e m a teria ls to
may have co n trib u te d
le c tu re and, in tu rn ,
of
to
the e ffic ie n c y
o f the
the demonstrated higher mean score on lea rning
outcome.
(6)
P e sticide a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e
toward the in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y
received is p o s itiv e ly re la te d to performance on le a rn in g outcome.
With regard to the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s o f le c tu re and small
group discussion,
immediate or delayed re c a ll
o f fa c tu a l
info rm a tion
has been the basis fo r a large p o rtio n o f the research re le van t to
measurement o f le a rn in g achievement.
been
conducted
another in
in v e s tig a tin g
changing a ttitu d e s
the
In a d d itio n ,
s u p e rio rity
studies have also
o f one stra te g y
o f behavior by in d iv id u a ls .
over
Findings
from the present study in d ic a te th a t regardless o f the in s tru c tio n a l
stra te g y
implemented,
those w ith
a more p o s itiv e a ttitu d e
tended to
achieve a higher le a rn in g outcome,
(7)
Age is
p o s itiv e ly
re la te d
to
le ve l
o f education completed and
years in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program.
\
146
In the study o f a d u lt le a rn e rs,
chronological age and b io lo g ic a l age.
age is
considered in terms o f
Age, as described fo r the study
p o pula tion, is in te rp re te d in the chronological sense and, as expected,
is p o s itiv e ly re la te d w ith years o f education completed and years o f
p a rtic ip a tio n
a p p lic a to rs
in
the r e c e r tific a tio n
responding were included
lending support to
the p re d ic tio n
program.
in
S ix ty percent o f the
the age category 31 to
55,
by Cross (1981) th a t by the year
2000, the la rg e s t age group w ill be 30 to 44 years o ld , w ith a ris e in
the 45 to 64 ye a r-o ld group.
Twenty-six percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts
were 56 years o f age or o ld e r.
(8)
Years o f p a rtic ip a tio n in the p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program is
p o s itiv e ly re la te d to years o f education completed.
The p o s itiv e re la tio n s h ip between years in the p e s tic id e program
and years o f education
.2409.
This
e d u ca tio n
fin d in g
a ls o
is
v e r ifie d
by a c o rre la tio n
suggests th a t p a rtic ip a n ts
see
th e
v a lu e
in
the
w ith more years o f
r e c e r tific a tio n
demonstrate, through th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n , th a t b e lie f.
is
supported by the
fin d in g
c o e ffic ie n t o f
program and
This conclusion
th a t 68% o f the a p p lic a to rs would have
p a rtic ip a te d v o lu n ta r ily in the r e c e r tific a tio n program had i t not been
mandated.
(9)
A p p lic a to r a ttitu d e toward the in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y received is
p o s it iv e ly
r e la te d
to
a ttitu d e
toward the mandated p e s tic id e
education program.
For the population o f p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs involved in the study,
both groups demonstrated a p o s itiv e a ttitu d e toward the in s tru c tio n a l
s tra te g y . re c e iv e d .
Previous
discussions
provide . a basis
fo r
the
e ffic ie n c y o f both s tra te g ie s w ith regard to the a d u lt lea rn e r and the
•
.
n a tu re
I
of
th e
le a rn in g
environm ent.
The fin d in g s
re ite ra te
the
importance o f the f i t o f the s tra te g y to the le a rn in g environment and
to the le a rn e r, based on the s e le c tio n o f an ap propriate in s tru c tio n a l
design model.
In th is instance, c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the in s tru c tio n a l
systems ,.model allow fo r a w ell-designed and well-executed, educational
experience,
p ro vid in g
an o p p o rtu n ity . to. incorporate both pedagogical
and andragogicaT. methods, and the accompanying in s tru c tio n a l
■
gie s.
'
,
" •
.
.
A
.
V :- "
s tr a te -
■. .
The re s u lts suggest th a t e ith e r s tra te g y , le c tu re .o r. small group
discussion, is ap propriate fo r the task a t hand.
With ..respect to
a ttitu d e
to w a rd . mandatory education,
p e s tic id e
a p p lic a to rs appear to be cognizant of. the knowledge explosion c u rre n tly
being, experienced by so cie ty
and; are
fu lly
aware o f
the
continued updating about the safe use o f p e s tic id e s .
p a rtic ip a n ts
need fo r
In a d d itio n ,
appear to be aware o f the penalty by law fo r misuse o f
re s tric te d -u s e compounds, o f operating w ith o u t a lic e n s e , and o f the
lia b ility
fa c to r involved regarding use and a p p lic a tio n o f chemicals.
P esticide a p p lic a to rs ,
th e re fo re , may id e o lo g ic a lly consider the need
fo r educational in fo rm a tio n as an o p p o rtu n ity fo r "self-assessm ent," as
noted by Buckner (1974).
(10)
A t t it u d e
tow ard
im p o rta n t
c o n trib u tin g
le a rn in g outcome.
th e
in s t r u c t io n a l
v a ria b le
to
s tra te g y
the
received
c r ite r io n
is
v a ria b le
an
of
148
A ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g y was found to be p o s itiv e ly
re la te d to the dependent v a ria b le o f le a rn in g outcome, accounting fo r
58.4% o f the variance.
v a ria b le s
accounted
The a d d itio n o f the fiv e remaining independent
fo r
an increase
of
.00533,. b rin g in g
variance accounted fo r by the independent va ria b le s to
the to ta l
.59029.
The
p a rt played by the independent v a ria b le substan tiates the conclusion
th a t a ttitu d e toward the stra te g y received is an im portant v a ria b le to
consider in the design, development, and implementation o f in s tru c tio n
fo r a d u lt lea rne rs.
(11)
When th e
fa c tu a l
le a rn in g
in fo rm a tio n ,
outcome is
leve l
defined
as
immediate re c a ll
of
o f education completed serves as an
acceptable index o f performance.
A s ig n ific a n t
one to . e ig h t years
co lle g e .
fo u r years
1952).
o f high, school
o f education,
s t r a te g ie s ,
le a rn in g outcome
Longest,
school
and one to
fo u r years o f
and one to
fo u r years o f
These fin d in g s help to su b sta n tia te the p a rt played by the
. le a rn e r's , le ve l
t io n a l
o f elementary
having
A s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e was also found between p a rtic ip a n ts
having one to
co lle g e .
d iffe re n c e was found between p a rtic ip a n ts
196.4;
and
(Cashin,
the
re le v a n t to the s e le c tio n o f in s tru c ­
r e s u lta n t
1985;
Lowman, 1984;
performance on measures o f
Goldin,. 1948; Harnack & Fest,
1964;
P o tte r & Anderson, 1976; Vernon,
1950,
Education le v e l, in oth er.w o rds, can serve as an in d ic a to r o f
performance. on le a rn in g outcome when defined as immediate re c a ll
fa ctu a l in fo rm a tio n .
of
149
Recommendations
Based on the fin d in g s o f t h i s . study, the fo llo w in g recommenda­
tio n s fo r fu tu re research and p ra c tic e are made.
Recommendations, fo r Future Research
(1)
The absence o f
v a r ia b le s
of
s ig n ific a n t- in te ra c tio n
in s t r u c t io n a l
s tra te g y ,
between the
a ttitu d e s ,
independent
and personal
d e scrip to rs suggests the need fo r continued in v e s tig a tio n o f oth er
fa c to rs which might combine to in flu e n c e le a rn in g outcome.
.
fa c to r s
m ight
include
le a rn in g environment.
t io n a l
le a rn in g
s ty le ,
le a rn in g
clim ate
and/or
In a d d itio n , communication p a tte rn s , t r a d i­
and techno lo gical
s tra te g ie s
Such
I
methodologies,
as compared to
and s e lf- in s tr u c tio n a l
teacher-centered
s tra te g ie s might be
areas fo r in v e s tig a tio n .
(2)
A c r itic is m
o f s ta te government is the propensity o f le g is la tiv e
s ta tu te s ; a c r itic is m by numerous a d u lt educators is the use o f
law to
fo rce
p a rtic ip a tio n
in
lea rn in g
a c t iv it ie s .
P esticide
a p p lic a to r a ttitu d e suggests th a t a le g is la tiv e ly mandated program
may not be necessary as a p p lic a to rs are w illin g ^to p a rtic ip a te
v o lu n t a r ily
in
continuing
education
a c t iv it ie s .
In c o n tra s t,
however, the question o f le g itim a c y o f the mandatory program was
not considered to be a negative issue since ne arly h a lf o f the
respondents were in agreement w ith the concept.
in v e s tig a tio n
remains:
Should the
The question fo r
r e c e r tific a tio n
program be
le g is la tiv e ly mandated or should the decision to p a rtic ip a te be
150
l e f t to the p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r, based on v o lu n ta ry p a rtic ip a tio n
in an acceptable a lte rn a tiv e ?
(3)
Minimal
research was found in
the
lite r a tu r e
re la tin g
toward mandatory continuin g education and performance.
the
fin d in g s
from the present
study in d ic a te
re la te d to performance, a d d itio n a l
o c c u p a tio n a l
groups
to
id e n tify
a ttitu d e
Although
th a t a ttitu d e
is
research is needed from oth er
e x is tin g
a ttitu d e s
and the
re la tio n s h ip o f these a ttitu d e s to measures o f performance.
(4)
P esticide a p p lic a to rs did not express a more favorable a ttitu d e
toward one in s tru c tio n a l
co n sid e re d
to
be
as
s tra te g y over the o th e r.
e f f e c t iv e
as
sm all
Educators o f a d u lts
need to go one step
e x p lo re
o f the
v a r ia tio n s
group
fu r th e r,
teacher-centered
Lecture was
d is c u s s io n .
however,
and
and c o lla b o ra tiv e /
f a c i l i t a t i v e modes in order to accommodate fo r le a rn e r d iv e r s ity ,
o rg a n iza tio n a l
clim a te ,
fo r
the
example,
le a rn e r need, and in s tr u c to r s ty le .
decision
is
made to
If,
implement a tr a d itio n a l
s tra te g y , then a comparison o f the v a ria tio n s o f the tr a d itio n a l
le c tu re approach, feedback le c tu re , o r r e fle c tiv e le c tu re would be
o f help in id e n tify in g the most appropriate in s t r u c t io n a l s tra te g y
fo r a s p e c ific lea rn e r in a p a r tic u la r lea rning environment.
(5)
Research studies
in s tru c tio n a l
need to
s tra te g ie s
be conducted comparing the e ffe c t o f
on le a rn in g outcome, as represented by
the fo u r domains o f le a rning (Gagne1, 1977).
Lecture is id e n ti­
fie d in the present study as an e ffe c tiv e s tra te g y fo r the lower
c o g n itiv e
in fo rm a tio n .
le ve l
re p re senta tive
of
immediate
re c a ll
of
fa c tu a l
For the developer o f in s tru c tio n , however, i t would
151
be h e lp fu l to. know the effe ctive n e ss o f s tra te g ie s such as le c tu re
and
small
group discussion
in
the
higher c o g n itiv e
d is c rim in a tio n , ru le le a rn in g , and problem s o lv in g ;
le v e ls
of
The nature o f
such a recommendation requires th a t .the service provide r design
the measure o f lea rn in g outcome to be re p re senta tive o f lower and
higher c o g n itiv e
le v e ls .
In the present study, only the lower
c o g n itiv e le ve l o f knowledge gained was represented.
(6)
A lthou gh
numerous
in s t r u c t io n a l
le a rn e rs,
a d u lt
s tra te g y
A d d itio n a l
in
research
tr a d itio n a l
in d ic a te s
s e ttin g ,
needs to
toward
in s titu tio n a l
The issue o f one-tim e,
th a t fo r
th is
in s tru c tio n a l
of
may not be the case.
in v e s tig a tin g
s tra te g ie s
p re se n ts
presents
a d u lt
outside
the
s e ttin g .
education o ffe rin g s
but also
o f one
n o n -tra d itio n a l
c la s s ro o m /c o u rs e -fo r-c re d it
continuin g
parameters,
s u p e rio rity
changing a ttitu d e s
be conducted
r e c e r t i f i c a t i o n , needs
in s tr u c tio n a l
the
over another in
a ru ra l
a t t it u d e s
s p e c if ic
have c ite d
the present study
learners
le a rn e r
s tu d ie s
to meet
a d iffe r e n t
set o f
an area m inim ally
in v e s tig a te d .
(7)
For the educational
service p ro v id e r,
id e n tific a tio n o f age and
leve l o f education o f c lie n te le can be c o n trib u tin g fa c to rs in the
s e le c tio n o f ap propriate in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s .
underlying andragogy is
The assumption
th a t a d u lts are less dependent and more
s e lf-d ire c te d in regard to le a rn in g a c t iv it ie s , and c o lla b o ra tiv e /
f a c i l i t a t i v e modes o f in s tru c tio n are more appropriate (Knowles,
1974).
to
Based on the present study, however, the recommendation is
in v e s tig a te
the
a d u lt developmental
stages w ith
regard
to
152
te a c h e r - c e n te r e d
.in s tru c tio n
to
and
f a c i l i t a t i v e /c o l,I a b o ra tiv e
models
of
determine e ffe c t o f method: on le a rning outcome.
Questions fo r in v e s tig a tio n might includ e:
(a)
What are the d iffe re n c e s in perception and preference between
th e
m id d le
m a tu r ity
'
a d u lth o o d
stage
fo r
developm ental
in s tr u c tio n a l
stage
and the
s tra te g ie s
la te r
representing
pedagogical and andragogical models?
(b)
How does the o ld e r le a rn e r perceive h im /h e rs e lf lea rning most
e ffe c tiv e ly ?
(c)
Under what
What a ffe c ts the learning?
e n v iro n m e n ta l/o rg a n iz a tio n a l
clim a te
o ld e r le a rn e r process in fo rm a tion m o s t.e ffe c tiv e ly ?
make a d iffe re n c e who o ffe rs the educational
does the
Does i t
a c tiv ity ?
Is
assistance necessary from an in s tru c to r o r is the a p p lic a to r
in c lin e d toward a " s e lf- d ir e c tin g " approach?
(8)
In
considering
d ir e c te d
in
the
th e ir
assumption
regarding
le a rn in g
a c tiv itie s
in s tr u c to r -d e p e n d e n t,
e m p iric a l
ad ults
as being
s e lf -
as compared to
being
research
studies
need to
be
continued a sce rta in in g the e ffe ctive n e ss o f a lte rn a tiv e in s tru c ­
tio n a l
models.
Two such models include the
le a rn e r-g e n e ra tive
model, and the in s tru c tio n a l systems model, representing andragog­
ic a l and pedagogical methodologies.
Recommendations fo r P ractice
( I)
,
Encourage the educational service p ro v id e r to. inco rpo rate in to the
s t a f f development o p p o rtu n itie s in s e rv ic e tra in in g re le va n t to the
a d u lt
le a rn e r and the
in s tru c tio n a l
development process.
The
153
assumption th a t the personnel
w o rkin g
knowledge o f the
p ro vid in g the
a d u lt
le a rn e r, and the
development process may be somewhat lim ite d .
lite r a tu r e ,
th e
m a jo r ity
of
e d ucators
s tra te g ie s
w ith
method
stra te g y most appropriate
or
R e c o g n itio n
d iv e r s ity
of
of
which they are
in s tru c tio n
in s tru c tio n a l
As was noted in the
p r a c tic e
fa m ilia r ,
fo r
have a
methods and
as compared to
the
th e
le a rn in g
clim a te ,
a d u lt
lea rne rs
and lea rning
le a rn e r at
a f a m ilia r it y
s ty le s ,
th a t
hand.
w ith
the
a lte rn a tiv e
in s tru c tio n a l methods and s tra te g ie s , and a f a m ilia r it y w ith the
in s tru c tio n a l design process should be included as in te g ra l p a rts
o f the tra in in g sessions.
(2)
H is to r ic a lly ,
educational
th e
E xten sio n
S e rv ic e
has been a p rovide r o f
in fo rm a tion to the "knowledge g a in e d /s k ills
learned"
domaini as id e n tifie d by Gagne1.
However, due to the nature o f
th e
fa c in g ,
problem s
ru ra l
America
is
perhaps
the time
is
appropriate fo r a greate r e f f o r t to be made toward viewing program
e ffo r ts
in
a long-term mode,
w ith an emphasis toward problem­
so lvin g and a higher leve l o f in s tru c tio n a l events.
(3)
In d iv id u a ls
involved
encouraged to
in
incorporate
the
program design process
the
should be
use o f an in s tru c tio n a l
systems
model as the basis fo r the development o f the in s tru c tio n a l event.
This would help to
assure some degree o f e ffe c tiv e n e s s
in
the
design, development, management, implementation, and evaluation o f
the in s tru c tio n a l design process.
(4)
G u e u le tte
(1976)
has
suggested
encouraged in three ways:
th a t
government
c o n tro l
(a) by allow in g a d d itio n a l
is
legal and
154
fin a n c ia l
c o n tro ls
to be implemented,
(b)
by accepting support
th a t s tip u la te s co n d itio n s , and (c) by p e rm ittin g the government
to
impose more re g u la to ry
and lic e n s in g
requirements.
If
the
la t t e r is tru e , agencies review ing proposals requesting mandatory
c o n tin u in g
education
le g is la tio n
fo r
lice n su re
renewal
should
consider the fo llo w in g :
(a)
What problems have created the ju s t if ic a t io n
fo r mandatory
con tinuin g education?
(b)
Is
th e re
documented
d e fic ie n c ie s
ra th e r
evidence, th a t
than
a c tu a l
inadequacies
are
perform ance
responsible
fo r
unacceptable performance?
(c)
Are
th e re
e x is tin g
stre n g th e n e d
or
mechanisms
improved,
or
developed to solve id e n tifie d
v a lid
e xa m in a tio n s
or
methods
new approaches
problems?
a v a ila b le
fo r
th a t
can
be
th a t can be
(For example, are
th e
p ro fe ssio n a l
th a t
provide a means o f measuring competence?)
Based on the conclusions and recommendations o f the present study,
in a d d itio n to a sincere desire to a s s is t the r u r a l,
a d u lt le a r n e r ,
c o n tin u e d
th e
re s e a rc h e r
in v e s tig a tio n
.
in c re a s in g
s itu a tio n s
numbers
o f the
■ ■
of
are e n title d
fe e ls
a s tro n g
n o n -tra d itio n a l
commitment
te a ch in g -le a rn in g
to
the
tra n s a c tio n .
The
'
a d u lts
to
p a r t ic ip a t in g
in
required
le a rning
the same commitment and in te re s t by
a d u lt educators as those p a rtic ip a tin g on a vo lu n ta ry basis.
It
the
is
toward th a t commitment th a t the researcher w ill d ire c t fu tu re in v e s ti­
g a tive
endeavors,
in
order to
c o n trib u te
enhancement and improvement o f in s tr u c tio n .
to
the
lite r a tu r e in
the
155
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156
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APPENDICES
N
APPENDIX A
CORRESPONDENCE WITH COUNTY EXTENSION PERSONNEL
170
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Kellogg Project
Telephone (406) 994-5795
TO:
K irk Barnette, Big Horn County Extension O ffic e
Jim R o lle r i, Sweet Grass County Extension O ffic e
Darrel Krum, Carbon County Extension O ffic e
Charles Egan, S tillw a te r County Extension O ffic e
Ole Oiestad, Mussel s h e ll-Gol den V alley County Extension O ffic e
FROM:
Barbara A. White, KELLOGG Fellow, Doctoral Candidate
A d u lt, Community and Higher Education
Montana State U n iv e rs ity
RE:
COUNTY PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION PROGRAMS
DATE:
January 28, 1987
Recently, I had the o p p o rtu n ity to attend the P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n
Agent T ra in in g fo r D is t r ic t V held in Lewis town, a t which time I
v is it e d w ith se ve ra l o f you re g a rd in g th e use o f in s tru c tio n a l
m a teria ls in your in d iv id u a l county r e c e r tific a tio n programs, designed
s p e c ific a lly fo r the SAFETY c r it e r ia .
Each o f you th a t I v is ite d w ith
were very receptive to the idea and w illin g to work w ith me in th is
endeavor.
I have since w ritte n and re w ritte n the proposal fo r my
d is s e rta tio n study, based on the ideas I shared w ith you. The proposal
has been accepted and I am "on my way"; now, I am asking fo r your
assistance as we p re vio u sly discussed, and I would lik e to spend a few
minutes w ith you, v ia th is le t t e r , confirm ing plans fo r the study.
Before I id e n tify the area o f assistance th a t I am requesting from you,
le t me "se t the stage" re le van t to the purpose o f the study.
During my "tim e" w ith the Cooperative Extension S ervice, I was asked
repeatedly about s tra te g ie s and methods fo r improving the teachingle a rn in g process in which we are a ll involved, regardless o f the
subject m atter being taught or disseminated.
There was an attempt to
answer some o f those questions in the METHODS AND MEDIA HANDBOOK th a t
Dr. Danny Cheatham and I assembled, but I s t i l l sense the need to look
a t our in s tru c tio n a l approaches, our audience, our d e liv e ry and the
need o f the c lie n te le in order to design and d e liv e r in s tru c tio n a l
programs f u l f i l l i n g the needs o f the a d u lt le a rn e r. A lso, o f consider­
able in te re s t to me is the le a rning clim ate in which you and I d e liv e r
info rm a tion and education. The P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n Program is a
good example; i t is a program mandated by the le g is la tu re fo r the
commercial and p riv a te a p p lic a to r to attend , and i t is mandated th a t we
171
i n . the E xten sio n S e rv ic e p ro v id e th e needed educational program
re s u ltin g in the c e r t if ic a t io n o f our c lie n te le .
The question th a t
e x is ts i s :
To what extent does the mandated program a ffe c t the
le a rn in g process based on the in s tru c tio n a l stra te g y used by you, the
County Extension Agent, d e liv e rin g the program?
Based on my own personal in te re s t in the in s tru c tio n a l process, in
a d d itio n to my keen desire to continue working w ith the professionals
employed by the Montana Cooperative Extension S ervice, I have designed
my d is s e r t a t io n proposal w ith th e purpose o f in v e s tig a tin g two
in s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s , le c tu re and small group discussion, w ith in a
mandatory s e ttin g id e n tifie d as the Montana P esticide R e c e rtific a tio n
Program.
Each o f the p a rtic ip a tin g counties in D is t r ic t V w ill be
assigned one o f the two form ats, based on the estimated number o f
p a r tic ip a n ts (th e counties p ro je c tin g sm aller enrollm ents w ill be
assigned the small group discussion fo rm a t).
Your county is being
asked to a s s is t in the small group discussion form at, n e ce ssita tin g
th a t the to ta l number o f p a rtic ip a n ts be divided in to small groups o f
8-10 people. Al I m a te ria ls needed fo r p re s e n tin g /p a rtic ip a tin g in the
45 minute session on sa fe ty w ill be provided to you. YOU WILL NOT HAVE
TO PREPARE ANY INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE SAFETY CRITERIA! These
m a te ria ls in c lu d e handouts, v is u a ls , and any supportive m a teria ls
necessary fo r the small group discussion form at.
S p e c ific a lly , I am
asking fo r your assistance in the fo llo w in g manner:
(1)
Incorporate in to your planning fo r the county p e s tic id e
r e c e r tific a tio n program space con sideration allow in g fo r
p a rtic ip a n ts to d iv id e in to small groups.
(Example: I f
you expect 100 p a rtic ip a n ts , you would need space fo r
approxim ately 10 groups; i f a large fa irgro und b u ild in g
were to be used, fo r instance, a ll groups could be in
the same b u ild in g .)
The p o in t is to be able to break
in to small groups in order to implement the small group
form at.
(2)
You, as the County Agent, would serve as a f a c i l i t a t o r ,
moving among the groups, lis te n in g , p ro vid in g feedback
i f necessary, but not being an in te g ra l p a rt o f the
d is c u s s io n .
However, we do need to id e n tify some
in d iv id u a ls th a t you know are going to attend to serve
in the capacity o f a "group le a d e r." I f you estim ate 10
groups, you would need 10 "a s s is ta n ts " or group leaders.
The p o in t is th a t in small group discussion, one in d i­
vidual takes the lead in i n i t i a t in g group discussion; to
accomplish th is task, could you do the fo llo w in g :
(a)
Id e n tify p o te n tia l in d iv id u a ls in your community
who w ill be attending the r e c e r tific a tio n program.
You probably have a good idea o f whom has to be
r e c e r tifie d .
Which o f those would be w illin g to
help in small group discussion?
172
(b)
C on tact in d iv id u a ls and ask i f the y would be
w illin g to p a rtic ip a te in a "group leader r o le ."
(c)
Coordinate a meeting o f two hours where I might
meet w ith in d iv id u a ls to explain m a te ria ls , etc.
This might be the n ig h t before the r e c e r tific a tio n
program, the day before, a week before, e t c . , at
th e ir convenience.
We w ill need to have them a ll
to g e th e r, or a t le a s t same day/evening since I w ill
- need to tr a v e l to yo u r county to conduct the
meeting.
(d)
Send to me the names and addresses o f the in d iv id ­
uals you have id e n tifie d so th a t I might send them
the m a te ria ls they w ill need p r io r to our meeting.
I re a liz e th a t p re lim in a ry e s tim a te s . in d ic a te some o f you may have
s u b s ta n tia lly more than 100 p a rtic ip a n ts ; fo r example. Carbon County
might have clo se r to 190. In a case such as th a t, Darrel might plan to
d iv id e his p a rtic ip a n ts in h a lf . . . . one group would receive le c tu re
format and the other p a rtic ip a n ts break in to small groups., having a
to ta l o f approxim ately nine or ten small groups.
D a rre l, or perhaps
M e rrylee, could present the le c tu re p resen tatio n; the id e n tifie d group
leaders Wo1UId serve as " f a c ilit a t o r s " fo r the small group discussions.
You may ASSURE THE INDIVIDUALS YOU CONTACT THAT THEIR INVOLVEMENT WITH
THE SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION WILL NOT MEAN THEY WILL "TEACH" THE GROUP;
m a teria ls w ill be provided fo r them to use which in vo lve presenting
some s p e c ific questions re le va n t to a case study. The p a rtic ip a n ts in
each group w ill read a case study (an example o f an a p p lic a to r using a
fumigant and a wood p re se rv a tiv e , fo r instance) and then discuss the
ap propriate p ro te c tiv e c lo th in g and equipment based on th e ir under­
standing o f the p e s tic id e label in fo rm a tion and g u id e lin e s .
I w ill be
sending the case study, m a te ria ls , e t c . , to the id e n tifie d leaders
ahead o f our meeting, so there should be nothing threatenin g regarding
the group leader ro le . I t w ill be a discussion ra th e r than a le c tu re .
z
I re a liz e th a t i t . w ill take some time from your schedule to contact the
p o te n tia l group leaders, but your f a m ilia r it y w ith the ap plicants makes
a big d iffe re n c e in the se le c tio n o f the in d iv id u a ls .
I f you have
tro u b le id e n tify in g p o te n tia l a p p lic a to rs to serve as group leaders,
perhaps some o f your Extension Homemakers or 4-H Leaders would be
w illin g to help.
The in d iv id u a ls do not need previous experience as
such ( I w ill have met w ith them and "tra in e d " them to use procedure);
however, the u ltim a te would be to have those in d iv id u a ls attending the
r e c e r tific a tio n tra in in g serve as group leaders.
TO "MAKE THE STUDY
WORK," IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT WE BE ABLE TO COMPARE THE LECTURE APPROACH
TO A SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION FORMAT.
I DO APPRECIATE YOUR EFFORTS IN
HELPING ACCOMPLISH THIS FACET OF THE STUDY!
Regarding the dates fo r upcoming county r e c e r tific a tio n tra in in g , I
understand Big Horn County is set fo r February 25th and Sweet Grass fo r
173
p o ssib ly March 12th.
I hope th is request comes fa r enough in advance
fo r you to be a p a rt o f the study.
With only a lim ite d number o f
c o u n tie s in v o lv e d in the r e c e r tific a tio n program th is year, I am
dependent, and c e r ta in ly , indebted, to each o f you.
The Montana
Cooperative Extension Service w ill receive a ll the in fo rm a tion from the
study, as w ill each o f the p a rtic ip a tin g counties, in a format th a t
h o p e fu lly w ill be useful in .p la n n in g and d e liv e rin g programs in such a
s e ttin g in the fu tu re .
There is also the p o te n tia l fo r re p lic a tin g
th is approach in Utah and Colorado next f a l l , so you are r e a lly an
im p o rta n t p a r t o f what may be a regional p ro je c t.
I s in c e re ly
appreciate your help and cooperation and hope th a t we can "ca rry th is
o ff."
Please fe e l fre e to c o n ta c t me w ith questions, e t c . ; my
telephone number is 994-6417.
I have enclosed my business card w ith
address fo r fu tu re correspondence.
I am looking forward to hearing from you regarding your p a rtic ip a tio n
and yo u r re p re se n ta tive s.
I w ill do my best to meet your group
leaders' convenience in terms o f in d iv id u a l county tra in in g meetings.
Please le t me know as soon as you know your te n ta tiv e dates fo r county
r e c e r tific a tio n so th a t we can work out the tr a v e l/tr a in in g times. And
again, thanks fo r your he lp.
174
APPENDIX B
MAP OF PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION
PROGRAM BY DISTRICT
Pesticide R ecertification Program
Figure 5.
Map o f p e s tic id e r e c e r tific a tio n program by d i s t r ic t .
176
APPENDIX C
PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION QUESTIONS:.
SAFETY
NAME
COUNTY
PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION QUESTIONS:
SAFETY
Answer each of the questions with a T for True or an F for False;
of your choice in the blank to the left of the question.
place the letter
_____ !•
Fumigants are highly toxic to humans and require the use of specialized
protective equipment, including respirators.
_____2.
Wlien handling or applying pesticides, a hat with a fabric headband is
usually the best choice.
____ Wear a respirator during application of a structural fumigant gas and
when entering the premise before the labeled re-entry period has expired.
_____ 4.
All pesticide labels will have directions for first-aid printed on them.
_____5.
Regular soap will remove pesticide residue on the skin and clothing as
well as detergents will.
_____ 6.
Conmiercial eyewashes should not be used when pesticides have been
splashed in the eyes, as they may intensify the injury.
_____ 7.
The Montana Pesticide Act authorizes the State Department of Agriculture
to suspend or revoke the private applicator's license if the Department
has reason to believe the pesticide is being misused or misapplied.
_____8.
The pesticide label is of little or no use for giving information pertinent
to medical attention.
___ 9.
____10.
Repeated exposure to small amounts of some pesticides may cause sudden,
severe illness.
^
Pesticide contaminated clothing may be washed with the family laundry.
Multiple Choice Questions:
selection (s).
11.
Please mark the correct answer(s) by circling your
The most important factor to be considered when choosing applicator equipment
is:
a. designed for the chemical formulations you plan to use
b. least expensive
c. fits the tractor
d. pest to"be controlled.
The most important piece of protective clothing to wear when using wood
preservative is:
a.'
b.
c.
d.
clean coveralls
impermeable gloves
hard hat
goggles.
Pesticides can enter the body in which major ways:
a.
b.
c.
d.
orally
dermally
by inhalation
all of the above.
When applying fumigants, a _____________________ respirator is the best
choice to avoid severe injury or death.
a.
b.
c.
d.
positive pre-sure
supplied-aire
canister
cartridge
Steps taken when someone has been poisoned by a pesticide are as follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.
make sure victim is breathing; decontaminate him/her; seek medical help
seek medical help
seek medical help, decontaminate victim, make sure he/she is breathing
decontaminate victim; seek medical help.
"Signal words" on the labels are:
a.
b.
Danger—Poison
Warning
c.
d.
Caution
All of the above.
The first thing to do in case of accidental contamination with a chemical
wood preservative is:
:
a„
b.
c„
d.
call a physician
vigorously scrub the contaminated skin
remove contaminated clothing that is in contact with the skin
induce vomiting.
All pesticide labels carry the following statement(s):
a.
b.
c.
d.
Danger-Poison
Warning
Caution
Keep out of the reach of Children.
Pesticides can enter the body in the following way(s):
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
orally
through breathing
through wounds
through the skin
all of the above.
Factors that affect pesticide removal from clothing include:
O
a.
b.
.
.
e.
f„
rV
chemical class of pesticide
concentration of pesticide
laundering conditions
fabric weight
fiber content
all of the above.
'
179
APPENDIX D
ATTITUDE TOWARD MANDATORY PESTICIDE EDUCATION/
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY SCALE (AMPE-ISS)
180
NAME__
COUNTY
ATTITUDE TOWARD MANDATORY PESTICIDE
EDUCATION/INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY SCALE
____________ (AMPE-ISS)________________
Strongly
Agree
I.
Was the method of instruction
(LECTURE or SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION
you received of help to you in
understanding the information?
2.
Does your experience with
pesticides eliminate the need
for information relevant to
the safe use of chemicals?
3.
If the pesticide education
program had NOT been mandated
by Montana law, would you have
attended a program of this
type voluntarily?
4.
Would you participate in another
program using the same
instructional strategy (LECTURE
or SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION) as
you received today?
5.
Based on the information received
today in the SAFETY portion of
the program, will you change the
way you protect yourself and
your environment when using
pesticides in the future?
6.
Do you think, you will use the
handout materials in the future
for reference in the safe use
of pesticides?
7.
Did the person presenting the
information do so in a clear,
concise manner allowing for
questions and interaction from
the participants?
8.
Is the experience you bring to
the pesticide education program
sufficient to answer questions
about the safe use of pesticides?
No
Agree
O p in io n
f
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
181
I
cont. page 2
9.
Would followup information
provided on a regular basis
"in the form of a Fact Sheet
or a newsletter, relevant to
the safe handling of
pesticides, be of help to you
in the future?
10.
Do you think a pesticide
education program such as you
are participating in should
be legislatively mandated?
11.
Would you rather receive
pesticide education infor­
mation from your peers,
trained in the necessary
subject-matter, rather than
from the Department of
Agriculture or the Cooperative
Extension Service?
Strongly
Agree
Agree
No
Opinion
Disagree
Completion of the above requested information indicates to the researcher
that you are willing to participate in the project.
Strongly
Disagree
182
APPENDIX E
GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE (GIQ)
183
*GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE
NAME:_______________________ '
______________________
A G E ______________
LEVEL OF EDUCATION COMPLETED:
YEARS IN CERTIFICATION PROGRAM:
One-to-Eight Years Elementary^
One-to-Four Years High School^
One-to-Four Years College_____
Five Years College plus_______
One-to-Two Years_______________
Three-to-Four Years____________
Flve-to-Six Years______________
Seven Years or More
Applicator Status:
Commercial
Private
Other
Applicator_______ ; Applicator_______
Years in Residence in County:
One-to-Five Years______
Six-to-Ten Ytiars_______
Eleven-to-Fifteen Years
Do you believe a pesticide education program such
in should be legislatively mandated?
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Nd
Opinion
Disagree
as you are participating
Strongly
Disagree
If the pesticide education program had NOT been mandated by Montana law,
would you have attended voluntarily?
Strongly
Agree
Agree
No
Opinion
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
*Completion of the above requested information indicates to the researcher
that you are willing to participate in the project.
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