Baseline survey of furbearing mammals within the South Fork drainage Sun River, Montana
by Randall Guy Tweten
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Fish
and Wildlife Management
Montana State University
© Copyright by Randall Guy Tweten (1984)
Abstract:
The relative abundance, distribution and habitat use of seven species of furbearing mammals and five
additional species with fur or sport values were studied in the South Fork drainage of the Sun River, in
north central Montana, from June through August of 1982 and January through June of 1983. Species
investigated included: bobcat (Lynx rufus), Canadian lynx (Lynx canadensis), fisher (Martes pennant!),
pine marten (Martes americana), wolverine (Gulp gulo), river otter (Lutjra canadensis), beaver (Castor
canadensis),mountain lion, (Fells concolor), grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), black bear (Ursus americanus),
coyote (Canis latrans) and wolf (Canis lupus).
Small mammals were trapped at three locations during late summer 1982 to determine their availability
and relative numbers during high prey population periods. A total of 94 small mammals were captured
during 331 trap-nights resulting in a total efficiency of 28.4%. Approximately 1,207 km of transects
within the 1,036 km2 study area were traversed during the 2 field seasons. A total of 4,154 incidences
of sign were recorded from 10 landtypes within 6 subunits. Prey species (rodents, lagomorphs and
grouse) contributed >80% of all sign encountered. Coyotes contributed 16% of all sign observed. There
was was a significant positive correlation between coyotes and lagomorph signs for the different
landtypes (r=0.864, p<0.05) and subunits (r=0.991, p<0.001). Signs from carnivorous species were
positively correlated (p<0.001) with prey species for both landtypes (r=0.927 ) and subunits (r=0.990).
Other species detected, which comprised 2% of all signs, included wolves, grizzly bears, black bears
and mountain lions. Furbearer sign encountered consisted of 1 river otter, 5 lynx and 12 bobcats. Bear
tracks encountered per transect kilometer traveled were 1/45 km and 1/13.4 km for grizzly and black
bear, respectively. This number for grizzly bears is lower than reported in previous studies conducted
in the vicinity. Trapping records show 14 bobcats, 4 lynx and 3 river otters have been harvested from
the study area during the the 1977-1983 trapping seasons. Data from sign showed an apparent lack of
pine marten, wolverine and fisher within the area. Pine marten were trapped in the area as recently as in
the 1950’s. Wolverine observations have been reported from sites immediately adjacent to the study
area. BASELINE SURVEY OF FURBEARING MAMMALS WITHIN THE
SOUTH FORK DRAINAdE SUN RIVER, MONTANA
by
Randall Guy Tweten
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
of
Master of Science
in
Fish and Wildlife Management
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
April 1984
APPROVAL
of a thesis submitted by
Randall Guy Tweten
This thesis has been read by each member of the
thesis committee and has been found to be satisfactory
regarding content, English usage, format, citations,
bibliographic style, and consistency, and is ready for
submission to the College of Graduate Studies.
D a u c
Approved for the Major Department
Head, Major Department
Approved for the College of Graduate Studies
Graauace ue an
ill
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for a master's degree at Montana State
University, I agree that the Library shall make it
available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief
quotations from this thesis are allowable without special
permission, provided that accurate acknowledgement of
source is made.
Permission for extensive quotation from or
reproduction of this thesis may be granted by my major
professor, or in his absence, by the Director of Libraries
when, in the opinion of either, the proposed use of the
material is for scholarly purposes.
Any copying or use of
the material in this thesis for financial gain shall not
be allowed without my written permission.
Signature
Date
V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To the following, among others, I wish to express my
sincere appreciation for their contribution to this study:
Dr. H . D . Pic ton, who directed the study and aided in
preparation of the manuscript; Dr. L . R . Irby and Dr. R .
L . Eng, for reviewing the manuscript; Mr. J . Mitchell,
Regional Wildlife Manager, Montana Department of Fish,
Wildlife and Parks, for support and cooperation in
supplying equipment; Mr. B . Goodman, Sun River Game Range
Manager, for use of facilities and equipment; personnel of
the Augusta District, Lewis and Clark National Forest for
use of facilities; Mr. R . C . Kenck for invaluable
historical information and field assistance; Mr. M . Albers
and Mr. B . Empie for field assistance; and Mr. H . Hash,
Montana Department of Fish Wildlife and Parks,
project planning.
for initial
A special thanks, to my parents and
brothers who gave the moral support needed by any and all
beginning biologists.
This research was funded by the Montana Department
Fish Wildlife and Parks through the Allen Foundation and
the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, Montana State
University.
vi
TABLE OF COETENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES
........................................
vli
.......................................
viii
ABSTRACT ...............................................
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION ..........................................
I
STUDY AREA ............................................
'' 4
METHODS
........................................
14
RESULTS
........................................
19
Beaver ...........................................
Small Mammal Trapping ...........................
Past and Present Trapping .......................
Data From Sign ...................................
River Otter ......................................
Wolverine ........................................
Pine Marten and Fisher ..........................
Lynx, Bobcat and Mountain Lion ........
Bear ..... ,.................................
Scent Posts ............................
DISCUSSION ..................
36
Tracking Information ............................
Small Mammal Trapping ...........................
Fur Trapping .....................................
Beaver ....................................
Marten and Fisher ...............................
River Otter ................
Wolverine ........................................
Cats ......................................... . • • •
Bear ..............................................
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
19
21
23
25
31
31
32
32
33
34
......................
36
' 36
37
38
40
43
45
47
50
53
LITERATURE CITED ...........
55
APPENDIX ...............................................
63
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Fur harvest within present study area from the
1977-1978 through 1982-1983 trapping seasons ...
24
2.
Species sign per transect kilometer traveled
...
26
3.
Distribution of
sign by species by subunit ....
28
4.
Distribution of
sign by species by landtype
30
5.
Summary of bear
sign observation surveys
......
35
6.
Previously determined landtypes and landforms
used in designating general landtypes for
this study ...........*.................... ......
63
I
....
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1.
The study area with a delineation of wilderness
and p r e s e r v e b o u n d a r i e s ......................
5
2.
Major waterways within study area ................
7
3.
Monthly average weather data from Augusta
weather station for past 24 years and for
duration of field seasons .........................
9
Monthly average weather data from Gibson Dam
weather station for past 24 years and for
duration of field season ..........................
10
Specific track measurements collected from
tracks of lynx, bobcat, mountain lion, river
otter and bears ....................................
17
Summary of small mammal trapping results for
all species within three trapping-locations .....
22
Delineation of Subunits within study area
and the transects traveled ........................
29
4.
5.
6.
7.
ix
ABSTRACT
The relative abundance, distribution and habitat use
of seven species of furbearing mammals and five additional
species with fur or sport values were studied in the South
Fork drainage of the Sun River, in north central Montana,
from June through August of 1982 and January through June
of 1983.
Species investigated included: bobcat (Lynx
rufus), Canadian lynx (Lynx canadensis), fisher (Martes
pennant!), pine marten (Martes americana), wolverine (Gulp
gulo), river otter (Lutjra canadensis), beaver (Castor
canadensis),mountain lion, (Fells concolor), grizzly bear
(Ursus arctos), black bear (Ursus americanus), coyote
(Canis latrans) and wolf (Canis lupus).
Small mammals were trapped at three locations during
late summer 1982 to determine their availability and
relative numbers during high prey population periods.
A
total of 94 small mammals were captured during 331
trap-nights resulting in a total efficiency of 28.4%.
Approximately 1,207 km of transects within the 1,036 km'*
study area were traversed during the 2 field seasons.
A
total of 4,154 incidences of sign were recorded from 10
landtypes within 6 subunits.
Prey species (rodents,
lagomorphs and grouse) contributed >80% of all sign
encountered. Coyotes contributed 16% of all sign
observed.
There was was a significant positive
correlation between coyotes and lagomorph signs for the
different landtypes (r=0.864, p<0.05) and subunits
(r=0.991, p<0.001).
Signs from carnivorous species were
positively correlated (p<0.001) with prey species for both
landtypes (r=0.927) and subunits (r=0.990).
Other species
detected, which comprised 2% of all signs, included
wolves, grizzly bears, black bears and mountain lions.
Furbearer sign encountered consisted of I river otter, 5
lynx and 12 bobcats.
Bear tracks encountered per transect
kilometer traveled were 1/45 km and 1/13.4 km for grizzly
and black bear, respectively.
This number for grizzly
bears is lower than reported in previous studies conducted
in the vicinity.
Trapping records show 14 bobcats, 4 lynx
and 3 river otters have been harvested from the study area
during the the 1977-1983 trapping seasons.
Data from sign
showed an apparent lack of pine marten, wolverine and
fisher within the area.
Pine marten were trapped in the
area as recently as in the 1950’s.
Wolverine observations
have been reported from sites immediately adjacent to the
study area.
I
INTRODUCTION
Few published reports are available concerning the
furbearing mammal populations within the 6,070 square
kilometer (km^) Great Bear - Bob Marshall - Scapegoat
Wilderness tract in Western Montana.
There is a current
need for surveys in these wilderness lands because the
bobcat, Canada lynx and river otter are listed as
potentially threatened species by the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora, or CITES, Appendix II.
In addition, numerous
biologists have pointed out the need for better
qualitative and quantitative baseline information on these
and other animals (Bailey 1974, Crowe 1974,
Koehler and Hornocker 1977).
1975a,
1975b,
This study was undertaken to
fill this gap in knowledge.
The legal status of the mammals .considered in this
study varies.
Beaver (Castor canadensis), bobcat (Lynx
rufus), Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), fisher (Martes
pennanti), pine marten (Martes americana), river otter
(Lutra canadensis), and wolverine (Gulp gulp) are all
currently listed as furbearers in the Montana Statutes
(Sect.
87-2-101,
Montana Codes Annotated)., Coyotes (Canis
latrans) are classified as predators while mountain lions
2
(Fells concolor) and bears (Ur sus americanus and U.
arctos) are considered game animals in Montana.
The Office of Scientific Authority (OSA), under the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
controls both state and
federal exportation of threatened or endangered species.
Whether furs or other parts of specific species may be
exported depends upon the annual and 7-year average
population and age structure data received from individual
states.
Once the population resource is termed
"harvestable" by both the OSA and the state game agency,
exportation of species listed in Appendices of CITES may
be allowed.
If a state fails to give sufficient evidence
of "harvestable" populations (as did North Dakota for
bobcat during the 1982-1983 trapping season) the OSA
denies the state exportation rights of furs.
The
following year, with updated biological evidence, the OSA
retracted the injunction and allowed exportation during
that year (Mitchell,
R.
per s. commun.).
The South and West Fork drainages of the Sun River
were chosen as the study area because of the lack of
scientific data on furbearers east of the Continental
Divide,
funding stipulations and the minimal exploitation
of this area's furbearing mammal populations.
)
Several published studies contain distribution data
relevant to this study.
Thompson (1982) and Hoffman and
Pattie (1968) showed that the Sun River area of Montana
3
was within the historic range of the fisher as did Hawley
and Newby (1957) for marten and Hagmier (1956) for both
fisher and marten.
Results of fisher transplant
operations west of the study area were reviewed by
Weckwerth and Wright (1968) .
The general objectives of this study were to:
(I)
investigate all evidence of furbearing and predatory
mammals through a baseline survey of the area; (2)
determine possible population indices and winter habitat
use as indicated by tracks;
(3) determine prey base
species available during autumn; and (4) investigate the
status of bear populations using techniques comparable to
prior bear surveys completed within the area.
There were two field seasons for this project.
The
"summer" field season ran from June 20 through September
20, 1982.
The "winter and spring" field season extended
from January 5 through June 30, 1983.
This project was funded by contributions from the
Allen Foundation, through the Montana Department Fish,
Wildlife, and Parks (MDFWP), and the Montana Agricultural
Experiment Station, Montana State University, Bozeman.
4
STUDY AREA
Located 26 km due west of Augusta, Montana,
1,036 km
9
the
study area encompassed nearly the entire South
Fork drainage of the Sun River (Fig. I).
The boundaries
included the Continental Divide on the west; Red Butte, No
Name Gulch,
Bear Creek, and Gibson Reservoir on the north;
the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) road paralleling Beaver and
Little Willow Creeks on the east; and the Ford Creek road
from its junction with Beaver-Willow road to Double Falls
of Ford Creek then due west to the Continental Divide for
the southern boundary.
The study area lay entirely within the Lewis and
Clark National Forest except for several small, private
inholdings along the Ford-Wood Creek road and the
Beaver-Willow Creek road, and the upper end of Gibson
Reservoir.
The western third of the project area, from
the Continental Divide to the South Fork,
(808 k m ^ ) Sun River Game Preserve,
was within the
which was established
in 1913 to protect migrating Sun River elk (Picton 1960).
In the same year the USFS removed all grazing permits from
the Preserve area to favor elk.
The state of Montana does
not allow hunting within the Preserve but special permits
have been obtained in the past for the taking of mountain
lions in the area (Mitchell,
J.
per s. commun.).
RECLAM ATIO N
FLATS
MONTANA
SUN
RIVER
POINT
O
A
MARSHALL
STUDY AREA
------ BOUNDARY
GAME
------- WILDERNESS
BOUNDARY
A<r WILDERNESS
IllIimimill PRESERVE BOUNDARY
------------- ROAD
BENCHMA RK
AaaA aA^x PRESERVE
A
t r a p p in g
I
base
•
PRAIRIE REEF
AUGUSTA
24 km
5 km
WILDERNESS
Figure I. The study area with a delineation of wilderness
and Preserve boundaries.
l o c a t io n
camp
6
Unlike the 1930's and 1940's (Kenck, R . 1983 .
there are currently no extensive
Pers. commun.)
trap lines run within the
Sun River Game Preserve boundaries.
The Preserve and a
2
major portion (approximately 486 km ) of the study
area lay within the Bob Marshall or Scapegoat Wilderness
areas (Fig. I).
Wilderness status prohibits use of
motor-driven and wheeled vehicles;
thus all travel in these
areas must be by foot or horseback.
The South Fork of the Sun River originates near the
Continental Divide well, into the Scapegoat Wilderness at
an elevation of approximately 2,591 meters (m).
It flows
north for about 35.5 km where it joins the West Fork of
the South Fork at an elevation of 1,524 m.
The river
continues in a northeasterly direction for another 12.1 km
where it meets the North Fork to form Gibson reservoir
(Fig. 2) at an elevation of 1,449 m.
The reservoir,
8.8
km long, Was formed by the completion of Gibson Dam in
1929.
Prairie Reef, located midway up the West Fork, was
the highest peak in the study area with an elevation of
2,703 meters (Fig. I).
Geology of Study Area
The Sawtooth Range consists of a series of generally
parallel north-south moderate to steep, mountainous ridges
and narrow mountain valleys.
The ridges are primarily
formed from limestones and the valleys are underlain by
RECLAM ATIO N
AFLATS
DIVERSION
DAM
GIBSON
DAM
INDIAN
POINT
STUDY AREA
BOUNDARY
PRETTY,
PRAIRIE
MAJOR
WATE RCOURSE
WATERC OU RSE W ITH
BEAVER SIGN
(■ B ENCHMARK
WOOD
< LAKE
5 km
Figure 2.
Major waterways within study area
8
sandstones and shales.
The Lewis Range along the
Continental Divide consists of abrupt cliffs on the east
and precipitous slopes on the west as a result of the
Lewis overthrust forcing the Proterozoic and Paleozoic
limestones and shales over the more recent Mesozoic
sediments (Deiss 1941).
Thus,
sections of the older
limestones alternate with sections of younger shales and
sandstones.
Most of the present landforms were shaped or
altered by alpine or valley glaciers of the last
glaciation.
As a result, headwaters of most streams
emanate from cirques.
The geologic formation and
character of the area have been described by Deiss (1943)
and Mudge
(1972).
Climate
The climate, as summarized by Holdorf (1981), is
generally continental montane, with a strong maritime
influence along the Continental Divide.
During normal
winters the mountainous area is snow covered from November
through April, but snow depth varies with elevation,
topography,
and their interactions with warming downslope
chinook winds.
From January through June 1983,
temperatures were mostly above normal and precipitation
below normal for both the Augusta, 1,240 m elevation,
(Fig.
3) and Gibson Dam,
1,399 m elevation,
(Fig. 4)
■
9
o>
------
Ot
24 -Y E A R
------ F I E L D
MONTHLY
SEASON
AVERAGE
MONTHLY
AVERAGE
Figure 3. Monthly average weather data from August a
weather station for past 24 years and for duration of
field season.
PRECIPITATION (cm)
TEMPERATURE
( 0C)
10
------
2 4 -Y E A R
------- F I E L D
MONTHLY
SEASON
AVERAGE
MONTHLY
AVERAGE
Figure 4. Monthly average weather data from Gibson Dam
weather station for past 24 years and for duration of
field season.
11
recording stations.
This resulted in one of the mildest
winters on record.
Vegetation, Fauna and Landtypes
Vegetation of the region has previously been
described by Picton (1960),
(1970),
Stivers
Erickson (1972),
(1982,
Schallenberger (1966),
Frisina
(1974),
Knight
and Aune and
1983).
Big game species in the area include both
white-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule (O'.
hemionus) deer, elk (Cervus elaphus) and bighorn sheep
(Ovis canadensis).
A small number of moose (Alces alees)
have been observed near the Wood lake area (Fig. 2).
Holdorf (1981) identified and mapped landtypes for
the Lewis and Clark National Forest on the basis of
habitat type (Mueggler and Handl 1974,
Pfister et al.
1977), soil family occurrence and landform.
For the
purpose of simplification and because carnivores are not
necessarily restricted to certain habitat types, Holdorf ’s
(1981) system was modified for this study (Appendix Table
6).
I recognized ten subdivisions.
Landtypes were
categorized by visual observation and in accordance with
the Land System, Inventory of the U.S. Forest Service
(1980).
The relative percent occurrence of the different
landtypes were roughly approximated by cutting
topographical maps and weighing each category.
Percent
12
occurrences were:
(17%),
(8%),
forested slopes (44%),
ridge top (9%),
bare rock (7%),
grassland-forest
forested bench (9%),
riparian (4%),
mixed forest
open grasslands (1%)
and road (<I%).
History of the Area
Most of the study area has burned at least once
within the past 75 years.
Major fires occurred during
1910, 1919, and 1945 (U.S. Forest Service 1983).
Eighty-eight fires have occurred from 1920 to the present
in or near the wilderness complex.
Thirteen of these were
caused by man.
Major floods occurred in the years of 1964 and 1975.
The average instantaneous peak spring flow,
as measured at
Diversion Dam located approximately 6 km downstream from
Gibson Reservoir (Fig. 2), is 6,360 cubic feet per second
(cfs).
The 32,000 cfs of 1975 was topped only by the
59,700 cfs peak spring flow of 1964 (U.S. Geological
Service 1975).
These floods scoured the bottoms and
destroyed much of the plant and soil material of the banks
of most major streams and rivers within the study area.
Land Use
Since receiving wilderness protection in 1979, 1934,
and 1972, respectively,
the Great Bear - Bob Marshall -
Scapegoat Wilderness complex has experienced a steady
13
increase in use by recreationists..
Use in 1982 was
estimated at over 8,000 people and more than 12,000 horses
and pack animals (Great Falls Tribune,
1982).
Livestock grazing was not allowed within the study
area west of the South Fork.
Forest Service lands east of
the South Fork were grazed under permits.
The lands
covered under this plan have been grazed seasonally since
the late 1800's.
During this study; allotments were
grazed between July I and September 30.
Twenty-three
O
percent (236 km
) of the study area was grazed by domestic
livestock during my study.
A total of 4,191 A.U.M.s were
allowed on the 8 grazing allotments contained in the study
area.
The USFS allowed post-pole cutting and some sawlog
removal in the areas of Benchmark and Beaver-Willow roads
(Fig. I).
A timber harvest of 500,000 boardfeet is in
the planning stages for the area to the west of Sawmill
Flats located midway along Beaver-Willow road.
An addition to the present wilderness complex
directly to the east of the current Bob Marshall
Wilderness has been proposed but not approved as of 1984.
OThis area of from 90 to 14 0 km lies between Benchmark and
Gibson Reservoir.
The boundaries and exact acreage have
yet to be agreed upon.
14
METHODS
The study area was surveyed by two means during the
summer field season of 1982.
Foot and vehicle transects
were run I to 6 times during s u m m e r 1982 for a total of
431 km.
Major streams were walked to determine number,
location, and status of beaver dams.
Stream banks were
checked at this time for evidence of beaver use.
Each
beaver dam encountered during 1982 was placed in one of
six categories.
These consisted of a combination of
relative size (small, medium,
or large) and age (remains,
old yet stable, or dams with new cuttings).
Beaver dam
locations were plotted on USES maps (1/2" = I mile) to
record present
distribution.
As a measure of prey density and species composition,
small mammals were trapped at Indian Point, Pretty
Prairie,
and Reclamation Flats (Fig. 1)1
Victor brand
mouse and rat snap-traps were used for small mammal
capture.
All traps were baited with peanut butter and
oatmeal.
Each trap-location consisted of five to seven
trap-sites placed 10 to 30 meters apart, depending upon
vegetation and topographical diversity of the area.
Five
or six snap-traps were placed within each trap-site, one
of which was always a rat trap.
I
15
Winter transects were run during 1983 by truck,
snowmobile, and various methods of foot travel including
hiking,
cross-country skiing, and snowshoeing.
Transects
totaling 776 km were run during the winter-spring field
season.
Since various felid, canid and mustelid species
are known to travel on the easiest routes available which
may include both game and human trails (Pollack 1951,
Quick 1953, McCord 1974, Hall and Newsom 1978), transects
were established on existing USES trails wherever
possible.
This also facilitated travel through rough
terrain and dense vegetation and therefore maximized daily
sampling distances.
Animal signs observed on transects were identified at
the species level whenever possible.
into four categories.
Species were grouped
Group A refers to bobcat,
lynx,
mountain lion, pine marten, fisher, wolverine and river
otter.
Category B refers to black and grizzly bears,
coyote and wolf.
Group C , or the prey species,
included
red squirrel (Tamiasciuris hudsonicus), northern flying
squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus), mountain cottontail
(Sylvilagus nuttalli), snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus),
Columbian ground squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus),
chipmunks (Eutamias Sp.), bushy-tailed wood rat QTeotoma
cinerea), yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris)
and grouse (subfamily Tetraoninae).
Signs of small
mammals that could not be identified at the genus/species
16
level were also included in the prey category.
Class D
refers to those species not included in categories A, B ,
or C .
Evidence of all species included in groups A or B,
except coyotes, were recorded on data forms.
identified with the aid of Murie (1974).
Tracks were
To aid
identification, specific measurements of stride length,
pace length, and print size were recorded for tracks of
these species.
Stride length (Fig. 5) was defined as the
distance from a fixed point on one footprint to the same
point on the next print of that same foot.
Trackway
breadth and stride length can be used to indicate speed of
movement.
A narrow trackway and long stride indicate fast
movements while moderate width and stride length represent
a walking gait.
Pace length (Fig. 5) was defined as the
distance between the right and left forefoot or hindfoot.
The distance from midpoint between two consecutive
hindfoot impressions to the midpoint bet ween t wo forefoot
prints gives an approximation of the shoulder-hip-body
length (Fig. 5).
General weather data along with the snow
condition and snow depth were recorded for each field card
observation.
Locations of observations were plotted on
USFS (1/2" = I mile) maps to indicate distribution and the
UTM locations were obtained from USGS 15' quadrangle maps.
Records of track numbers, visual and audible signs of
other identifiable species were kept in a daily field
17
A:
Length
B:
Width
A
I- - - - - - - - - - - 1
C
B
C : Trackway
D : Stride
E:
I- - - 1
Breadth
Length
Pace Length
^
F : Shoulder-Hip
Body Length
S
Figure 5. Specific track measurements collected from
tracks of lynx, bobcat, mountain lion, river otter and
bears .
18
journal.
Tb eliminate observer bias, only those tracks
that crossed transects were recorded.
Grizzly bear signs were recorded according to the
.previously described technique.
This information was used
to compare present trend data with studies previously
completed in this area (Cooney 1941, reported in Marshall
1955,
Marshall 1955,
Picton,
H.
pers. commun.).
Information on black bears was also recorded to establish
baseline data for future trend analyses.
Scent posts were tested as a possible population
indicator for carnivores.
Scent posts were established
for two 24-hour periods during February 11-13, 1983 at
Indian Point by placing scent (a mixture of fish oils and
beaver castor) approximately 1-m high on three different
trees.
Stations were examined each morning after scent
placement.
19
RESULTS
Beaver
The 1982 summer field season ended prior to the
construction of beaver food caches.
Therefore,
no new
beaver food caches under construction or recently
constructed were observed in 1982.
were found.
No beaver bank dens
Watercourses were frozen over for a majority
of the winter-spring field season.
For this reason,
s
beaver dams were enumerated a.nd qualitatively grouped to
establish baseline information.
Most beaver dams were on low gradient side drainage
streams or near junctions of headwaters of the major
streams and rivers.
A total of 52 beaver dams were
observed on 7 of the 18 major water courses of the area
(Fig 2).
Twenty-two,
42.3%, were categorized as "old yet
stable" and medium size.
This type of dam classification
was usually found on slow moving.and meandering portions
of the upper reaches of Ford (n=3).
Straight (n=l), Little
Willow (n=9) and Willow (n=2) Creeks.
frequent category of dams,
The next most
"old yet stable" and large size
formed large beaver ponds and were principally found near
the middle third of Wood (n=4). Little Willow (n=5) and
Beaver (n=3) Creeks.
Ten dams were classified as "dams
20
with new cuttings", eight medium and two large in size.
These were located where creeks tended to level out and
form large meadows such as along Wood (n=2), Ford (n=l)
and Little Will o w (n=4) Creeks and on the West Fork of the
Sun River (n=3).
Only six dams were labeled "remains of
previous dams" with two in each of the size categories.
These occurred on Ford (n=2).
Little Willow (n=3) and
Willow (n=l) Creeks.
Beaver habitat along the lower South Fork, West Fork
and Beaver Creek still showed the effects of the 1964 and
197 5 floods which reduced it by channel scouring.
At water
(1940) devised a classification system for beaver habitat
on the South Fork of the Flathead River, Montana (Class I
= favorable through Class V = unfavorable) based on
available forage, room for expansion, water supply
reliability and topography favorable for dams, lodges and
food production.
After the severe flooding,
the major
rivers within the study fell into Class IV of this
classification scheme.
as:
Atwater (1940) describes Class IV
"Marginal location for beavers.
Forage made up of
less desireable types; alder, swamp birch, etc.
Topography steep and rocky;
water supply unreliable.
Support only scattered beavers."
No recent beaver
activity was found along the South Fork of the Sun River
and the lower half of Beaver Creek.
All rivers and larger
21
streams historically sustained at least small numbers of
beaver (Kenck, R . 1983.
Pers. c ommun.).
Small Mammal Trapping
Small mammal trapping (Fig. 6) completed in 1982
consisted of 25 snap-traps, set July 10-13 at Reclamation
Flats (Fig. I) resulting in 100 trap-nights, and August
26-28 at Indian Point for 75 trap-nights.
Thirty-four
snap-traps set August 31 through September 4 gave a total
of 156 trap-nights for the Pretty Prairie trapping
location.
One trap-night equalled one snap-trap, set for a
24-hour period.
A total of 94 small mammals were caught in 179 sprung
traps during 331 trap-nights.
Overall percent efficiency,
number of animals caught (n) divided by number of
trap-nights (t), was 28.4%.
Percent efficiencies at
trap-sites were 31.0%, 25.0% and 32.0% at Reclamation
Flats (n=3I , t=100), Pretty Prairie (n=39,
Indian Point (n=24,
t=156) and
t=75), respectively (Fig. 6).
Deer mice (Peromyscus manicula tus) were by far the
most numerous (60) of the species caught (63.8%).
They
were also the most prominant species in the catch at
Pretty Prairie (76.9%, n=30) and Reclamation Flats (64.5%,
n=20) but were secondary in the Indian Point catch at
41.7% (n=l0).
22
T R A P P IN G
L O C A T IO N :
RECLAMATION
PRET TY
I N D IA N
FLATS
PR AI RI E
P O IN T
NUMBER
OF
SMALL
NUMBER
OF
TRAP-NIGHTS
PERCENT
MAMMALS
CAPTURED
EFFICIENCY
Figure 6. Summary of small mammal trapping results for
all species within the three trapping-locations.
23
.
The western jumping mouse (Zapus princeps) was the
second most
frequently captured
species overall (22.3%).
This species ranked first at Indian Point (50.0%,
and second at Reclamation Flats (11.7%, n=7).
n=l2)
It was the
third most common species at Pretty Prairie (5.1%,
n=2).
Other animals captured, but in relatively low total
numbers were; red-backed voles (Clethrionomys gapperi)
(4), masked shrews (Sorex cinereus) (7) and northern
flying squirrels (2). All but one of the five small mammal
species were captured at all three trap-locations;
northern flying squirrels were captured only at Pretty
Prairih.
The low efficiencies encountered for two specific
trap-sites within the Indian Point trap-location were in
part due to red squirrels (Tamiasciuris hudsonicus), as
indicated by hair, springing the traps to obtain the bait.
Past and Present Trapping
Historical information concerning furbearers was
obtained from MDFWP and U.S. Forest Service reports.
Data
(Table I) on fur harvests from 1977 to 1983 within the
study area were acquired from annual reports (MDFWP
1978-1983).
A total of 14 bobcats, 4 lynx, ,3 river otters
and 104 beavers were trapped from 8 different drainages
within the study area during the trapping seasons of
1977-1978 through 1982-1983.
Records stating only the
24
Table I. Fur harvest within study area from the 1977-1978
through 1982-1983 trapping seasons.
Bobcat
M/F
Lynx
M/F
River Otter
M/F
Beave r
*
Drainage
Beaver Creek
3/1
Benchmark Creek
0/4
3
0/1
Bighead Creek
0/1
Ford Creek
1/2
0/1
19
Straight Creek
3
Willow Creek
1/0
Wood Creek
2/0
1/1
2/0
7
' 7/7
1/3
2/1
104
total
72
M/F Sex: male or female
*
Sex not recorded.
general trapping district for the location of the catch
were not included because of their vagueness concerning
the drainage trapped.
No pine marten, fisher or wolverine were listed as
having been harvested within the study area.
All bobcat,
lynx, river otter, beaver, marten and wolverine harvested
are required by Montana law to be tagged by a
representative of the MDFWP (MDFWP 1983).
Any fishers
trapped prior to the 1983-1984 season were to be turned
over to MDFWP because of the closed season on this animal.
Interviews with past trappers of the area indicated
that marten, beaver, coyotes and cats were the major
I
25
species trapped prior to the 1960's both within and
outside the present wilderness boundaries.
Since this
time, very little trapping pressure has occurred away
from motorized vehicle trails.
The species currently
being trapped in and around the study area include beaver
with a lesser effort placed on coyotes and cats.
Marten,
fisher and wolverine trapping is virtually non-existent
within this area.
During the 1983 field season, five
trappers were known to have trapped within the study area.
Their harvests are contained in Table I.
Data From Sign
A total of 4,154 individual signs (Table 2) from at
least 25 different species in the four categories A, B, C ,
and D were recorded.
1.3% of the total,
17.8%,
Only 52 cases of group A sign, or
were encountered.
or 739 of all events of sign.
the sign encountered with 3,354,
The B class made up
Category C dominated
or 80.8% of the total
leaving <0.1% miscellaneous species in division D.
Most
signs (89.9%) were encountered during the winter-spring
field season.
The poor tracking medium in the summer and
the disturbance of this medium by horse- and back-packing
recreationists resulted in 442 tracks counted in 1982.
Normal winter snows provide adequate tracking
surfaces in western Montana, but during the winter of
1982-1983, moisture often fell as rain or hail east of the
26
Table 2.
Species sign per transect kilometer traveled.
Species
Category
Number of Sign
Encountered
A:
I
river otter
I / 1207.0
5
lynx
.1 Z 241.4
12
bobcat
I / 100.6
34
mountain lion
I / 35,5
coyote
I / 1.8
wolf
I / 603.5
14
grizzly bear
I / 45.Ob
47
black bear
I / I 3.4 b
1561
squirrel
I / 0.7
1263
lagomorphs
I / 1.0
169
ground squirrel
I / 7.1
259
mice
I / 4.7
27
weasel
I / 44.7
49
chipmunks
I / 24.6
22
grouse
I / 54.9
12
miscellaneous
I / 100.1
B:
677
2
C:
D:
Total
Species
Track/kma
4154
^ Total kilometers traveled = 1207.0.
Total kilometers traveled = 630.4.
Continental Divide and then tended to form ice during the
night.
This left a tracking surface unsuitable for
for reading the animal activities from the previous night
,
27
A satisfactory index of abundance was not obtained
for Columbian ground squirrels, although they were quite
numerous during the summer and spring portions of the
field work.
Chipmunks were observed frequently and, from
all indications,
were abundant throughout the study area.
A classification of all sign encountered during the
two field seasons into numbers of each species per
subunit, excluding the small mammal trapping data, is
displayed in Table 3.
The majority of the sign observed
was located in the South Fork (37%), West Fork (32%),
and the Benchmark Road subunit (23%).
Boundaries of units
are shown in Figure 7.
Table 4 categorizes the observed sign into 9
landtypes. Originally,
10 landtypes were chosen but there
was no evidence of any sign encountered in the "open
bench" landtype.
sign.
In order of importance they we r e , gras siand-forest,
30%, road, 26%,
16%.
Four landtypes contained 89% of the
forested bench,
17%, and mixed forest,
The three most preferred landtypes for species
groups A, B, and C appeared to be Grassland-Forest,
Mixed-Forest and Road.
There was a significant positive correlation between
lagomorph and coyote signs for the different subunits
(y=l.86x + 1.12, r = 0.991 , p<0.001) and landtypes (y=l,29x
+ 64.22, r=0.864,
p<0.05) within the study area.
No
significant positive correlation between species group A
28
Table 3.
Distribution of sign by species by subunit'
I
SPECIES CATEGORY
II
SUBUNIT
III
IV
V
VI
I
5
I
10
2
A:
river otter
lynx
bobcat
mountain lion
6
5
4
10
6
I
.I
wolf
coyote
grizzly bear
black bear
I
183
8
33
I
257
3
6
5
I
5
23
2
3
180
29
red squirrel
northern flying
squirrel
lagomorph
Columbian ground
squirrel
mice
weasel
chipmunk
grouse
wood rat
599
616
12
46
254
32
341
2
445
I
39
383
54
80
. 53
13
9
4
36
94
3
40
12
31
12
53
57
11
12
B:
C:
6
2
D:
mink
badger
raccoon
beaver
skunk
yellow-bellied
marmot
muskrat
I
I ■
Total
1335 1529
62
128
I
2
I
I
I
I
I
965
135
4154
Subunits :
I.
II.
Ill.
IV.
V.
VI.
West Fork
South Fork
Gibson Reservoir
Beaver-Willow Creeks
Benchmark Road
Straight Creek
A RECLAM ATIO N
FLATS
i
-------------- STUDY BOUNDARY
x>.
INDIAN
\ POINT
i'
o
z—
x
i
SUBUNIT BOUNDARY
TRANSECT
SUBUNITS:
WEST FORK
; %
m
y
z<
SOUTH FORK
GIBSON
1
I
, Z f A A A A XX
A A A A A A
N
e
S
5
-I
A1
km
Figure 7.
Delineation of subunits within study area and
transects traveled.
BEA VER-W IL LO W
BENCHMARK
STRAIG HT CREEK
NS
VO
j,
30
Table 4.
Distribution of sign by species by Iandtypea .
BR
RI
7
4
% of Area:
OG
RT
1 9
Landtype
FB
FS
MF
GF
RO
0B
■44
8
17
<1
I
I
2
2
4
I
5
I
10
I
251
4
10
203
2
3
472
300
9
CATEGORY
A:
r . otter
lynx
bobcat
m t n . lion
6
5
6
B:
wolf
coyote
grizzly bear
black bear
I
62
2
I
55
7
28
12
336
101
338
I
233
8
22
159
6
8
17
6
3
6
4
101
I
I
5
C:
red squirrel
northern fly.
squirrel
lagomorph
Col. g r d . sq.
mice
weasel
chipmunk
grouse
wood rat
2
2
35
I
I
157 291
75
33
28 ' 80
10
6
7
19
7
I
2
19
D:
mink
badger
raccoon
beaver
skunk
marmot
muskrat
Total
422
53
69
11
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
17
9
35
19
720
665 1229 1090
370
0
4154
a Landtypes:
BR
RI
OG
RT
FB
=
=
=
=
=
bare rock
riparian
open-grassland
ridgetop
forested- bench
FS
MF
GF
RO
OB
=
=
=
=
=
forested -slope
mixed-forest
grassland-forest
road
open-bench
31
and the lagomorph signs occurred within the landtypes,
but
when compared within subunits, this positive relationship
did
exist (y=30.3x - 47.3, r=0.920,
p<0.01).
Signs
from
species groups A and B were positively correlated
(p<0.001) with species category C for both landtypes
(y=4.58x - 21.86,
r=0.990),
r=0.927) and subunits (y=4.71x - 46.09,
Removing the bear data from category B resulted
in a significant positive correlation between signs from
species categories A and B and those in group C for
landtypes
(y=4.58x + 78.05, r=0.842,
p<0.01)
and
subunits
(y=6.39x + 149.0, r=0.821, p<0.05) in the study area.
River Otter
River otter sign was encountered once during this
study on a road bench above Ford Creek (Fig. 2).
The
tracks indicated the lone otter was traveling towards the
creek, which was approximately 60 m below the bench, from
the sagebrush-grassland slope above the road.
The otter
trail was not followed due to the lack of tracking medium,
although a "slide" approximately 2 m long was noted.
Wolverine
No signs of wolverine were observed during the study.
However, wolverine sightings were made in areas both
directly to the north and to the south of the study by
people not involved with this project.
Approximately 5 km
32
south along the Continental Divide,
observations of a
family of three wolverines feeding on a horse carcass were
made by local hunting guides in the fall of 1982.
One
lone wolverine was spotted about 8 km to the north of the
study area in the spring of 1983 by MDFWP helicopter pilot
t
D . Goetz.
This observation also occurred along the
Continental Divide.
These sightings indicate that
wolverine were present in this general vicinity.
The
absence of signs in my surveys suggests densities were
low.
Pine Marten and Fisher
The Straight Creek transect (Fig.
7) was run with R.
Kenck, a past trapper of this area, to specifically search
for evidence of pine martens and fishers in this area of
historical marten habitat.
either species.
No sign was observed for
No sightings were reported for either
species during 1982-1983.
Lynx, Bobcat and Mountain Lion
Five incidences of lynx sign were encountered.
It is
presumed that this sign was made by one lynx since all
five incidences were along one transect (Benchmark Road),
all were recorded during the same morning,
and track
measurements were very similar for the five track sets. -
33
Bobcat signs were recorded in 5 landtypes (Table 3).
Fifty percent (6) of- these were observed in the "riparian"
landtype.
The majority of the bobcat sign was noted in
the West Fork (6) and the South Fork (4) drainages.
scat,
One
determined to be from a bobcat by back-tracking, was
collected on March 21, 1983 along the South Fork transect
subunit.
It was located approximately 1.0 m off the trail
at the base of a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menzesii).
Analysis of the contents determined the hair within the
scat to be from mule deer (Moore et al. 1974).
Al I but two of the 34 mountain lion signs recorded
were tracks.
One adult female mountain lion with a kitten
(possibly a yearling) was observed during light rain on
the morning of July 2, 1982 along the western edge of the
West Fork Licks (Fig. I).
They were along the transition
zone between a grassy slope and a spruce/aspen forested
side drainage.
Mountain lion signs tended to be
associated with known big game winter ranges at Pretty
Prairie and near the head of Gibson Reservoir.
Bear
Fourteen different grizzly and 47 black bear
occurrences of sign were recorded.
This represents 1.5%
of all animal sign encountered during this study.
four of the 61 bear signs encountered were, tracks.
All but
The
non-track signs were sightings of two grizzly bears and
34
two black bears.
A female grizzly with one cub was
observed approximately 1.5 km downstream of the South Fork
bridge.
A black bear with one cub was observed across
Gibson Reservoir from Big George Gulch.
No bear sign was
found in Straight Creek and Benchmark Road subunits.
Seventy percent of the black bear and 57% of the grizzly
bear sign observed were within the West Fork subunit.
Eighty-seven percent of all bear data collected
occurred within a landtype containing a "forested”
component.
This was especially evident during the spring
of 1983 when tracking conditions were good throughout a
majority of the study area.
Table 2 gives the
kilometer/animal sign encountered.
Tables 3 and 4 display
the distribution of black and grizzly bear signs within
each subunit and landtype, respectively.
The bear data do
not include transect kilometers traveled between January 4
and May 5, 1983, the date the first bear sign of the
spring was observed.
Bear data collected during the
present study are compared with the results of studies
conducted by Picton in 1977, Marshall in 1954 and Cooney
in 1941 in Table 5.
Scent Posts
Only weasel tracks were observed at the established
scent stations.
Therefore, no further attempts were made
to use the scent posts ,as a possible census method.
\
35
Table 5.
Summary of bear sign observation surveys.
Black
Bear
Grizzly Bear
Cooney •Marshall Picton Tweten Tweten
1941
1954
1977
1983
1983
a
a
b
b
b
Total Travel
Distance (km)
804.6
701.7
No. of Bear Sign
Observations
33
39
Km per Observation
24.5
18.0
318.6
236.6
Bear Sign Observ.
Inside SRGP
14
19
Km per Observation
Inside SRGP
22.7
12.4
486.0
Bear Sign Observ.
Outside SRGP
Km per Observ.
Outside SRGP
Travel Dist. Inside
*SRGP (km)
Travel Distance
outside SRGP
72 .I
7
630.4
630.4
14
47
10.3
45.0
13.4
I
315.8
315.8
9
39
12.
7
35.1
8.1
465.1
314.6
314.6
19
20
5
8
25.6
23.3
62.9
39.3
10.3
a Survey included portions of both Teton and Sun River
drainages.
b Survey included only South Fork Suq River drainage.
* Sun River Game Preserve
J!
36
DISCUSSION
Tracking Information
The remoteness and size of the study area and the
wide range of species for which information was sought
precluded the use of intensive techniques such as
mark-recapture or radio telemetry.
A simpler technique,
the transect-intercept method, which was less sensitive to
the local variance in food, cover, population numbers, and
weather (Linhart and Knowlton 1975), was therefore
utilized.
Most mountain trails were located on southerly
aspects which biased the sample of aspects towards those
subject to melting during mild conditions.
Snow was still
available on transects that intercepted locations where
the ambient temperatures remained cooler, such as the
forested and riparian landtypes.
As a result,
the data
collected from tracking may misrepresent the distribution
of animals and their preferred landtypes or habitats.
Small Mammal Trapping
The collections at the three different locations
during the 1982 trapping sessions do not necessarily
represent all species available, but instead reflect a
.
37
relative,abundance of those species easily caught in
snap-traps (Edwards 1952).
Although the numbers of small
mammals trapped were too low and from too small an area
to adequately represent the total small mammal population
present within each subunit trapped, they may represent a
rough index of densities within small selected areas.
The small mammal trap-sites were located toward the lower
limits (4,500-5,000 feet) of what Newby (1955) considered
to be marten habitat in the area.
The trapping results
show a pattern in rough agreement with the patterns shown
by species signs from categories A and B.
The major
difference was in Subunit III (Fig. 7) where the trap-site
was north of the reservoir and most of the subunit lay on
the south side.
Fur Trapping
All of the study area lay within the MDFWP fur
management district of Region 4.
Regulations for the
1983-1984 Montana trapping season (MDFWP 1983) allow the
taking of 3 bobcats and I lynx per
trapper
until
the
limits of 150 bobcats and 15 lynx are reached in Region 4.
One wolverine and one river otter per licensed trapper and
one mountain lion per license holder are the 1983-1984
limits for Region 4.
Beginning with the 1983-1984
trapping season, certain areas west of the Continental
Divide (but none in this study area) were opened for the
38
closely regulated trapping of fisher.
/
There are currently
no trapping limits for the number of marten or beaver per
licensed trapper within Region 4.
No comparable transect data were available but annual
population estimates (U.S. Forest Service 1932) for the
Sun River and Teton (drainage to the north of the Sun
River) Districts of the Lewis and Clark National Forest,
covering 1910 through 1932, included some of the species
investigated during this study.
Although the accuracy of
these data is questionable, the following are the
"average" annual population estimates for this time
period:
black bear 175, grizzly bear 47, coyote 604, cat
or lynx 106, mountain lion 21, wolf 13, beaver 515, marten
416, mink 285 and river otter 14.
Wolverine were not
listed in this report. * I feel that the aforementioned
population estimates are high except for the mountain
lion, beaver and possibly the river otter and mink.
There
are no current population estimates available to compare
total numbers of these species contained within these two
major drainages over time.
Beaver
Hf
The
timing
of my
as
field
an index
work
precluded
of beaver
the
cache
counts
populations
area.
Although beaver dams are not considered good
use
in the
indicators of beaver populations (Bradt 1938, Townsend
/
of
39
1953, Hay 1958), they do represent physical evidence of
beavers and may show general distribution patterns,
habitat suitability, and give some information on
population health.
The distribution of dams indicated
that the gradient of the valley floor and/or the volume of
water flow in several streams in the study area were
unsuitable for beaver dams.
Most streams with sufficient
water and a slope of 0-6% had dams.
A study in the Rocky
Mountains of Colorado (Re tzer et al. 1955) determined that
streams with 0-6% slope included 68% of all beaver
colonies and valleys with 7-12% slope had only 28% of
observed beaver colonies.
Most of the streams in and
adjacent to the study area were known to have had dams in
the past (U.S. Forest Service 1932; Kenck, R . 19 83.
Pers.
commun.) and those that escaped the effects of the 1964
and 1975 spring floods contained beaver dams at the time
of the study.
The absence of streamside vegetation along other low
gradient streams within the study area is the major
deterrant to beaver re-establishing themselves in the
area.
A seasonal food habits study of beaver on the
Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories, Canada stated that
beaver rely upon willow for sufficient energy requirements
during the summer growing season and any removal from the
community of willow can "impart a high degree of
40
instability to northern beaver populations" (Aleksiuk
1970).
The Sun River floods accomplished such a removal.
Once revegetation of this area's stream banks occur,
and if the surrounding water courses continue to support
relatively high beaver numbers, beaver should recolonize
the study area.
Beaver trappers were known to have utilized Ford,
Wood, Willow and Little Willow creeks during the
winter-spring 1983 field season.
The total numbers
taken
are assumed to be contained within data in Table 2.
Marten and Fisher
Although historically present in the area (Hagmier
1956, Hoffman a,nd Pa t tie 1968, Thompson 1982, Kenck, R . 1983
Pers . commun.), no evidence of marten or fisher was
observed during this study.
Newby (1955) considered portions of the Sun River
drainage to be marten habitat.
comm.)
1950's.
R. Kenck (19 83.
pers .
trapped marten within the study area well into the
Newby et al. (1956) reported no marten were taken
from this area in 1955 and classified the study area as
lightly trapped at that time.
Region 4 contributed 34
marten in 1950 (Newby 1952), four marten in 1951 (Newby
1954) and none in 1956 (Newby et al. 1956).
Hash (1983a)
showed that annual marten harvests for Montana are on the
upswing but are still below the ten-year average of 1,136.
I
41
I
A total of 8 marten were reported harvested within
trapping seasons 1977-1983 (Hash 1978,
1981,
1982,
1983a)
in Region 4.
The lack of current evidence of the presence of the
pine marten may be due to several factors.
The
1
historically unusual erratic precipitation pattern since
1975 may have caused depressed small mammal populations.
The small mammal trapping results suggest that there are
relatively small local populations of red-backed voles at
the three separate trapped areas in relation to other
small rodents captured (Fig. 5).
With no|prior small
i
mammal population or trend data available'; for the study
area, it is impossible to state if the present small
mammal numbers are above or below normal.
Jonkel (1959) considered small mammals to be a
potential limiting factor for marten populations.
and Mackay (1950),
et al. (1955),
Marshall (1946), Newby (1951),
Hawley (1955), Quick (1955),
Cowan
Lensink,
Weckwerth
(1957), Murie (1961) and Weckwerth and Hawley (1962) all
found Clethrionomys Sp. to be a universal and major
food of marten in various regions of North America.
Ramirez (1977) found in the Flathead River drainage
of Montana,
that red-backed voles favored mature forests.
Koehler and Hornocker (1977) in Idaho agreed by stating
both the pine marten and their major prey species,
the
red-backed vole, were predominantly found, in old-age
I
\
42
(>100 years) mesic habitat types.
In Colorado, marten are
indigenous to the englemann spruce (Picea; engelmannii/
subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) habitat type of
higher mountains (Yeager and Remington 19,56).
Marshall
i
(1951) believed marten to be associated with climax
coniferous forest communities.
j
A 10-year population cycle is displayed by pine
martens (Cowan and Mackay 1950).
marten habitat,
I
If this1area is marginal
the 1983 field season may have fallen in
the trough of this population cycle.
If so, the
population may have retreated from the study area with its
younger-aged forested habitats into the older-aged mesic
sites west of the Continental Divide.
Although fisher and marten have similar preferred
habitats (Quick 1955),
fisher consume relatively larger
sized prey animals than do the marten (Clem 1977).
The
major prey source of the fisher appears to be the
snowshoe hare (de Vos 1950).
The data obtained from this
study showed an occurrence of lagomorph sign once every
0.9 km (Table 3).
The historical near void of fisher in
this region, along with the past history of fires within
i
the study area and the lack of tracking snow during the
1983 field season all point to reasons why no sign of the
fisher were recorded even with a moderately high
lagomorph population present.
Between 1960 and 1968,
14 untagged fishers (therefore not transplanted animals)
I
I
43
were collected by trappers in the South Fork drainage of
the Flathead River west of the present study (Weckwerth
i
and Wright 1968).
These were the first recorded harvest
results of fisher in Montana since the 1920’s.
Powell and
Brander (1975) found porcupine (Erethizon-dorsatum), as
well as snowshoe hare, to be an important! food source for
the fisher of Michigan.
No porcupine sign, however, was
observed during this study.
River Otter
I
I found only one river otter sign in the study area,
indicating a low and possibly transient population.
The
low number of sign is probably an accurate assessment
since trails tend to follow streams.
The availability and
abundance of aquatic food influences frequency of otter
movement as well as total seasonal and annual distances
'
■
I
traveled (Melquist et al. 1981, Melquist and Hornocker
1983).
Melquist and Hornocker (1979) estimated on a
general basis, I otter/2-3 km of straightline distance of
waterway in north central Idaho.
Melquist and Hornocker
(1983) also found river otter to prefer valley to mountain
habitats and stream-associated habitats to that of lakes,
reservoirs and ponds with the mountain lakes and streams
utilized mainly in the fall.
One cause of low populations may have been a shortage
of open water in winter.
Most watercourses upstream from
44
Pretty Prairie (Fig. 2) froze for at least a portion of
the 1983 field season.
Montana,
froze.
Greer (1955), in northwestern
indicated that otters deserted lakes when they
The one lake existing on the project area (Wood
Lake, Fig. 2) freezes completely except for the area near
a spring on the southeast end.
This opening has
historically received regular winter use by river otter
(Kenck,
R.
per s. commun.).
Picton (per s. commun.) stated
that river otter have been frequently observed near the
South Fork-Benchmark bridge during winter.
No sign was
observed at this location or anywhere else near the lake
during my field seasons.
Another limit to otter populations may be food.
River otters,
although considered opportunistic feeders
(Erlinge 1968),
forage from the water (Melquist et al.
1981) and eat mostly fish (Toweill 1974, western Oregon;
Greer 1955, in Montana; Melquist et al. 1981, Melquist
and Hornocker 1983,
in Idaho).
Fish were not historically
found in the Sun River drainage above a waterfall at
Diversion Dam (Fig. 2) until stocking operations commenced
in the late 188O’s.
A likely assumption is that river
otter were also not present in the upper Sun River
drainage until this time.
Although fish are present.in
all rivers and major streams,
the flood scouring in 1964.
and 1975 probably reduced available fish habitat and may
have reduced otter use of the area.
The stream near the
45
single occurrence of river otter sign (Ford Creek) was
\
less scoured and eroded from high waters than the other
rivers and larger streams in the study area.
Game "estimate" records from 1910-1932' for the Teton
and Sun River Districts of the Lewis and Clark National
Forest,
listed an average of 14 river otter present in •
these two drainages, combined.
Recent harvest ,records show
a decrease in the annual number of river otter harvested
(Hash 1978,
1981,
1982,
1983a,
1983b) and point to ,
overharvest in the upper Sun River drainages as another
possible explanation for the occurrence of only one river
otter sign in this area.
Harvest records of river otter
in Montana were available only for the trapping seasons
from 1971-1972 to the present.
The annual average harvest
for Montana is just over 43 river otter,
or less than 0.3%
of the national average harvest (Office of Scientific
Authority 1983).
Species
In the overall picture,
the Endangered
Scientific Authority (1978) lists the Montana
river otter population as "stable".
Wolverine
Both areas where observations of wolverine were made
near my study area were less impacted by spring and summer
recreationists, but possibly .more so in the fall, than the
lands within the study area.
This minimum human
disturbance, as well as other desired habitat components
46
such as mature forests (Hornocker and Hash 1981) and
elevations with deep snow (van Zyll de Jong 1975), may
indicate optimum wolverine habitat was located outside my
study area.
The deficiency of wolverine sign encountered may be a
result of the lack in tracking medium,
the
under-representation of winter transects in the higher
elevational zones of the study area such as along the
Continental Divide, or just a naturally low population
density occurring in this general area.
Wolverines were believed to be near extinction in
most areas of Montana by 1920 (Newby and McDougal 1964).
In 1947, after many years of absence, wolverines were
observed east of the Continental Divide in the Sun and
Teton River drainages.
Wolverines were trapped at Ford
and Wood Creeks (Fig. 2) within the present, study
boundaries in the early 1950’s (Newby and Wright 1955) and
a radio-collared wolverine used the western end of my
study area in 1978-1979 (Hornocker and Hash 1981).
A
survey of Montana biologists.and trappers in 1961 by Newby
and McDougal (1964) reported range extension of wolverine
between 1950 and 1961.
They were previously thought to
have been restricted to the extensive mountain ranges
along the Continental Divide in northwestern Montana.
Both van Zyll de Jong (1975) and Hornocker and Hash (1981)
indicated that food availability was the major factor in
47
changes and distribution of wolverine populations.
With
this increase in numbers of wolverine sightings, Hornocker
and Hash (1981) recognized Montana as being the only
northwestern state with adequate numbers of wolverine to
constitute viable
populations.
The statewide wolverine harvest of Montana has been
declining since the 1971-197 2 trapping season with the
exception of the two peak harvest years of 1975-1976 and
1976-1977 (Hash 1983a).
Unlimited killing of this species
was allowed until 1975, when the wolverine was classified
as a predator in Montana giving it protection.
No
wolverines were harvested in Region 4 during the early to
mid-1950's (Newby 1952,
1954, Newby et al. 1956).
Only
one wolverine has been harvested within Region 4 of
Montana since the 1977-1978 trapping season (Hash 1978,
1981, 1982, 1983a).
Cats
The bobcat is the most numerous and ecologically
adaptable native North American cat species (Crowe 1975a,
Bailey 1981).
Montana averaged 1,264 bobcats harvested
annually during 1971-1983 (Hash 1981,
1983a).
This
comprises approximately 1.0% of the national harvest.
The
Endangered Species Scientific Authority (1978), now titled
Office of Scientific Authority, stated that Montana has a
"healthy"
bobcat
population.
48
I found in this study, bobcats, lynx and mountain
lions tended to avoid crossing large openings thereby
remaining in cover.
Three different occurrences of
mountain lion sign and all five of the lynx sign observed
were along roads with their general direction of travel
going parallel to the road.
Cats will often follow trails
made by animals or man and ploughed roads (McCord 1974,
Pollack 1951, Hall and Newsome 1978).
Bobcats are known to compete directly with mountain
lions (Bailey 1981) and coyotes (Robinson 1961) and will
expand their range where coyotes are controlled (Robinson
and Grand 1958).
Bobcat numbers increased in the early
1950's in the western states in response to the decreased ,
numbers of coyotes due to the widespread use of sodium
monoflouroacetate (compound 1080) (Toweill 1979).
A
decline in bobcat numbers in the mid-1960's occurred
concurrently with an increase in coyote population levels
resulting from the Presidential Order banning the
continued use of toxicants on public lands.
There has not
been any organized control of coyotes within the study
area since the 1950's.
Although the coyote and mountain
lion populations within the study area may limit the lynx
and bobcat populations, the evidence from sign does not
show any correlation between signs of these species in the
various subunits and landtypes.
A temporary ban on cat
trapping along with increased coyote trapping on the study
49
area and surrounding lands, could allow lynx and bobcat
numbers
to increase.
Evidence from sign showed no correlation between the
lagomorphs throughout the study area and any individual
cat species.
The bulk of the bobcat and lynx diets under
natural conditions throughout their range in North America
consists primarily of lagomorphs and small rodents
(McCord and Cordoza 1983).
Statewide records of Montana fur harvest show a
decline in number of lynx being harvested.
No lynx were
harvested from Region 4 in the years 1950, 1951 and 1954
(Newby 1952,
1954,
Newby et al. 1956).
Brand and Keith
(1979) stated that mortality of lynx from trapping was
density dependent in Alberta.
Montana is one of only five
states allowed to trap lynx while 37 states have current
approval for bobcat pelt exportation (Office of Scientific
Authority 1.983).
Lynx have provided an average annual
harvest in Montana of 122 for the years 1971-1983 (Hash
1981,
1983a).
On the average, a steady 20% (x=9) of
Montana's lynx harvest has been from Region 4 since the
1977-1978
trapping season (Hash 1978,
1981,
1982,
1983a).
Greer (1983) stated that mountain lions have
increased their range east of the Continental Divide.
The
same report summarized past lion harvests in Montana and
showed the 12-year average annual harvest to equal 88
individuals.
Region 4 of Montana has avdraged 9 mountain
50
lions, or about 10% of the state-wide annual harvest, for
the seasons 1971-1972 through 1982-1983.
Mountain lion feed on larger prey than do lynx and
bobcat.
The majority of lion signs tended to be
associated with known winter ranges of elk, deer and
bighorn sheep.
Minimum winter elk population numbers were
estimated at 132 for the Ford Plateau region and 30 for
the Reclamation Flats vicinity (Bucsis et al. 1982a).
The
area between West Fork Licks and Reclamation Flats
receives heavy use by elk especially in the spring and
summer.
The number of elk wintering in the Pretty Prairie
area has not been closely monitored but depending on the
severity of the winter, may range up to 100 or more.
Winter concentrations of bighorn sheep occur at three
locations within the study area.
Bucsis et al. (1982b)
determined minimal winter bighorn sheep numbers to be
approximately 100 in the Ford-Fairview Creeks area and H O
in the vicinity of Reclamation Flats.
A group of 35
bighorns, believed to be separate from the previously
mentioned groups, were observed during the winter 1983
field season between Pretty Prairie and the head of Gibson
Reservoir.
Bear
The grizzly bear was listed as a threatened species
under the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973.
The
51
Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan of 1982 (U.'S. Fish and Wildlife
Service 1982) contends that approximately 315,750 hectares
within the Lewis and Clark National Forest is occupied
grizzly bear habitat.
The study area lay entirely within
this designated grizzly bear habitat.
Although I employed the same techniques to record
all grizzly bear signs as did Cooney in 1941, Marshall in
1954 and Picton in 1977, major differences in these four
studies included the weather conditions a n d , therefore,
the tracking medium at the time of the various surveys.
In 1954 (Marshall 1955) and 1 97 7 (Pic ton, H . 1984.
commun.), tracking conditions were good.
Pers.
This may have
resulted in the relatively low number of kilometers
traveled per bear sign encountered in 1954 and 1977 (Table
5).
Weather conditions were not conducive to tracking
during 1941 (Cooney 1941 cited in Marshall 1955) and 1983
which may have resulted in a comparatively high km
traveled/bear sign (Table 5).
The studies of Cooney in 1941 and Marshall in 1954
included the Te ton River drainage along with both the
North Fork and South Fork drainages of the Sun River.
Only the South Fork drainage of the Sun...River was surveyed
during 1 977 (Pic ton, H . 1984.
Pers. commun.) and 1982^1983 .
I found one grizzly bear sign every 45 km during my
survey.
Aune and Stivers (1982,
1983) have been able to
discern four different grizzly bears using the study area;
52
one 7 1/2-year-old male, brie 3-year-old male and one
un tagged sow with her yearling.
The low density of grizzly bear sign in the present
study area may be attributed to the high influx and ever
increasing number of recreationists during the spring,
summer and fall months.
Early spring recreational use of
these wilderness areas has probably increased
substantially since 19 7 7 (Pic ton , H.' 1984.
Aune and Stivers (1983)
Per s . c ommun .) .
determined the grizzly bear
home range sizes along the northern East Front region,
located directly north of the present study area, to be
larger than those found elsewhere in northern Montana
(Servheen 1983).
Aune and Stivers (1983) hypothesized
that the densities and home range sizes of grizzlies in
their study area cannot be extrapolated for the entire
Rocky Mountain East Front because of varying land uses and
localized human intolerance of grizzlies in this region.
I found one black bear sign every 13.4 km traveled in
the study area.
No similar past data on black bears were
available for this area.
size along
Minimum black bear home range
the northern East Front determined by Aune and
Stivers (1983) are relatively larger for adult males for
both Idaho (Amstrup and Beecham 1976) and the East Boulder
River, Montana (Rosgaard and Simmons 1982) and larger than
the Idaho but smaller than the East Boulder studies for
a dult females.
53
. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The transect-intercept method using sign counts has
potential as an inexpensive index to relative density and
distribution within wilderness lands for the wild felids,
mustelids, and canids providing there is a suitable
tracking medium.
If this method is used for bears, the
timing of the survey should be standardized on the basis
of the tracking.media.
The present trapping regulations and limits do not
appear to be depleting current populations of most species
studied.
Distribution of trapping pressure is currently
uneven because of access.
This will,
with all likelihood,
persist until the attitude of trappers toward use of
wilderness lands change.
The population of river otter,
however, appears to be in need of partial or full
protection within the South Fork drainage of the Sun River
in order to establish viable breeding numbers for future
years.
A more detailed investigation regarding river
otter use of all waters above Gibson Dam may be required
to determine the limiting factor for this area's river
otter populations if low numbers continue after closing
the trapping season.
The beaver populations present in the South Fork
drainage appear to be stable even with the moderate
trapping pressure they are encountering.
The lack of
54
stream-side habitat may be the principle limiting factor
for the present beaver populations.
Although no fisher, pine marten or wolverine sign
were observed during this study, the historical presence
of these species give reason for further investigative
studies in this area.
Efforts should be concentrated on
the habitats associated with high elevational zones along
the Continental Divide and other ridges.
A comparable survey should be conducted within the
North Fork drainage of the Sun River.
To permit a
comparison between the two areas, the available tracking
medium, weather conditions, time of survey, habitats
surveyed,
and methods used must all be taken into
consideration.
55
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63
APPENDIX
Table 6. Previously determined landtypes and landforms
used in designating general landtypes for this study.
Current
Landtypes
LANDTYPES;
LANDFORMS;
I-VIII from USES (1980)
1-202
from Holdorf (1981)
OG:
24 = Glacial outwash benches.
63a = Steep valley bottoms.
RI:
13a = Glacial drift deposits.
I = Forested flood plain
CF:
71
161
171
172
Ib
Vb
Ve
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
FS:
20g
21
23a
71c
181
182
183
II
Vc
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Very steep valley slopes.
Glacial drift deposits.
Steep drift plastered trough walls.
Steep valley sideslopes.
Glacial cirque headwalls.
Very steep glacial breaks.
Very steep peaks - upper slopes.
Glacial cirque basins.
Forested, moderately dissected residual
slopes .
Vd = Forested and grassland smooth residual slopes.
VII = Forested, cool aspect break lands.
VIII = forested, warm aspect break lands.
MF:
21a
71b
Ill
IIIa
=
=
=
=
BR:
Steep glacial trough forms.
Low relief ridges and slopes.
High relief ridges and slopes.
Hilly glaciated valleys.
Grass and forested stream terraces.
Forested smooth residual slopes.
Forested and grassland smooth residual ,slopes .
Stehp., drift plastered trough walls.
Ridges and upper slopes.
Forested ground moraine. . .
Forested steep lateral moraine.
202 =. Rockland-Iimestone'..
VI = Peaks and ,alpine ridges , sparsely vegetated,
rock land. .
“
'
RT :
,
"
1
'
;
'
18 = Steep ,west facing slopes.
25 =' Drift, plastered trough, walls .,
Va = Forested high elevation ridges.
5I
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