Nutritional and functional characteristics of barley-derived distillers dried grain and milled fractions as
sausage extenders
by Marjorie Christine Levine
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Home Economics
Montana State University
© Copyright by Marjorie Christine Levine (1983)
Abstract:
Barley is being used extensively by biofuel plants in Montana. Identification of the nutritional qualities
and functional properties of distillers dried grain (DDG) derived from barley would be helpful in
determining its applicability in food products and value as a potential protein and fiber source.
DDG was milled into fine, coarse, and shorts fractions. These, along with whole DDG and a soy isolate
control, were evaluated for proximate analysis (moisture, ash, crude fiber, fat, and protein), neutral and
acid detergent fiber analysis, amino acid determination, and the functional properties protein solubility,
water-binding, and emulsification, DDG and DDG milled fractions in Polish sausage substituted at 3.5
percent levels were evaluated by organoleptic testing. Emulsion stability, color, and texture were also
evaluated.
The fine milled fraction contained almost double the protein of other milled fractions. Amino acid
analysis revealed whole and fine DDG fractions to be deficient in lysine. Protein solubility and
emulsifying activity were low in all milled fractions. The waterbinding capacity of DDG was
comparable to other meat extenders.
Sausage extended with DDG fine milled fraction was similar to the control sausage in composition,
cooking loss, and texture, but varied considerably in color.
DDG’s application in meat products is limited by lack of adequate functional properties. DDG could be
added at low replacement levels in a filler capacity, but would do little to improve texture and flavor of
meat products. Distiller dried grain does represent a potential protein and fiber source but would be
beneficial only in a product where protein solubility and other functional characteristics are not
important in consumer acceptability. NUTRITIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
BARLEY-DERIVED DISTILLERS DRIED GRAIN
AND MILLED FRACTIONS AS SAUSAGE EXTENDERS
by
M a r j o r i e C h r i s t i n e L e v in e
A t h e s i s s u b m i t te d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n ts f o r t h e d e g re e
of
M a s te r o f S c ie n c e
in
Home E conom ics
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozem an, M ontana
D ecem ber 1983
MAIN LIB.
11
c o p . <3
APPROVAL
o f a t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d by
M a r j o r i e C h r i s t i n e L e v in e
T h is t h e s i s h a s b e e n r e a d by e a c h m em ber o f t h e t h e s i s c o m m itte e
an d h a s b e e n fo u n d t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y r e g a r d i n g c o n t e n t , E n g lis h
u s a g e , f o r m a t , c i t a t i o n s , b i b l i o g r a p h i c s t y l e and c o n s i s t e n c y , and i s
r e a d y f o r s u b m i s s io n t o t h e C o lle g e o f G r a d u a te S t u d i e s .
C h a i r p e r s o>nn,/G
,/ 6 )r a d u a te C o m m itte e
D a te
A pproved f o r t h e M a jo r D e p a rtm e n t
%
I e) S 3
H ead, M a^or D e p a rtm e n t
te
A pproved f o r t h e C o lle g e o f G r a d u a te S t u d i e s
/Z-Z--TjD a te
G r a d u a te Dean
^J
ill
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In p r e s e n tin g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a m a s t e r ’s d e g r e e a t M o n tan a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , I
a g r e e t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t a v a i l a b l e t o b o r r o w e r s u n d e r
r u le s o f th e L ib ra ry .
B r i e f q u o t a t i o n s fro m t h i s t h e s i s a r e a ll o w a b l e
w i t h o u t s p e c i a l p e r m i s s i o n , p r o v id e d t h a t a c c u r a t e a c k n o w le d g m e n t o f
so u rc e i s
m ade.
P e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e q u o t a t i o n fro m o r r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s
t h e s i s may be g r a n t e d by my m a jo r p r o f e s s o r ,
o r in h is /h e r absence,
t h e D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s w hen, i n t h e o p i n i o n o f e i t h e r ,
u se o f th e m a te r ia l i s f o r s c h o la r ly p u rp o se s.
t h e p ro p o s e d
Any c o p y in g o r u s e o f
t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a llo w e d
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .
by
Iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
S i n c e r e t h a n k s i s e x te n d e d t o my g r a d u a t e a d v i s e r , Dr. R osem ary
Newman.
I w o u ld a l s o l i k e t o e x p r e s s a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r
m em bers o f my c o m m itte e , Dr. Ramona M a ro tz -B a d e n , Dr. J a c q u e ly n n
0 ’ P a l k a a n d D r. C h a r l e s M c G u ir e , a n d t o D r. P e t e r G r a s .
I a c k n o w le d g e t h e u n e n d in g s u p p o r t ,
C h r is
M ost o f a l l ,
p a t i e n c e an d l o v e o f my h u sb a n d ,
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.
2.
3 *
4.
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................
x
Need t o S tu d y D D G . . . . . ................. ....................................................
P ro b le m S t a t e m e n t . ............................... ....................... ..................
O b j e c t i v e s .......... ................................................................................................
D e f i n i t i o n a n d T e r m s .....................................................................................
L i m
i t a t i o n s . .........................
D e l i m i t a t i o n s . ....................................................................................................
A s s u m p tio n s ...................... ......................... ............... ..........................................
H y p o t h e s is .............................................................................................................
3
7
9
10
12
12
12
13
LITERATURE REVIEW................................................... ...............................................
. -Jlf
N u t r i t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . ..................... ............................................
F u n c t i o n a l P r o p e r t i e s . .............................................................. ..................
P r o t e i n S o l u b i l i t y . ..............................................
....
B in d in g .e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E m u l s i f i c a t i o n .......... ........................
DDG i n B aked G o o d s ............................................... ..................................... ....
DDG i n M eat P r o d u c t s ...................... ....................... ..............................
E m u ls ific a tio n P r o p e r tie s
in
S a u s a g e . . . . . . .................
S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . .....................
14
17
18
20
21
23
27
30
32
METHODS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
M a t e r i a l s . ...........................
N u tr itio n a l A n a ly s is . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F u n c t i o n a l P r o p e r t i e s . ........................ ........................................................
P e rfo rm a n c e i n M eat P r o d u c t s . . . . ........................ ................................
T e x tu r e E v a l u a t i o n .......................................................... ..............................
N u t r i t i o n a l E v a l u a t i o n . ..........................
O r g a n o le p t ic E v a l u a t i o n , .......................
33
3
34
35
37
37
37
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.......... ...................................................
N u t r i t i o n a l A n a l y s i s . . . ............................................... ................................
F u n c t i o n a l P r o p e r t i e s . ...................................................
C o n c l u s i o n s .....................
39
39
40
48
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS— Confcl numd
Page
REFERENCES CITED
50
APPENDIX
55
e e o e e e e e e o e e e e e e o e o o e e e e e e o e e e e e e o o e e e e e o e o e o e e d e o o c *
v ii
■
■■
'
)
Pa 6 e
T a b le
1
P o l i s h S a u s a g e F o r m u l a ti o n ..................................
2
P ro x im a te A n a ly s is o f W hole DDG and M ille d
Fr a c t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
i...
.
.
36
3
9
Amino A cid A n a l y s is o f W hple B a rn e y DDG and
F in e M il l e d F r a c t i o n . ..........................................................
41
4
F u n c t i o n a l P r o p e r t i e s o f DDG and M ille d F r a c t i o n s
42
5
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f P o l i s h S a u s a g e Made w i t h DDG
an d M il l e d F r a c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . «■« ©«. ©-. * . . . . . .
45
6
T e x tu r e A n a l y s is o f S a u s a g e E x te n d e d w i t h D D G ....
46
7
Mean S c o r e s o f T a s te P a n e l R a tin g s o f P o l i s h
•Sausage E x te n d e d w i t h DDG M il l e d F r a c t i o n s . . . •
47
A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e T a b le f o r T a s te P a n e l R a tin g s
o f DDG P o l i s h S a u s a g e . . . . . . .......... . . . . . ; » ...................
48
8
v iii
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re
I
Page
E th a n o l P r o d u c t i o n . . . . .
o o e o o o e e e e o e e e e e e e e e e e * #
A p p ro x im a te DDG and A lc o h o l Y ie ld fro m W heat
and B a r l e y . ......................................................... .............
P r o t e i n S o l u b i l i t y o f DDG and Soy C o n tr o l a s a
F u n c t io n o f P h.
Ao o e e o e e o e o o e o e e e e o e o e o e o o e o e e e
2
6
43
ix
ABSTRACT
B a r le y i s b e in g u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y by b i o f u e l p l a n t s i n M ontana.
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s and f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t ie s
o f d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n (DDG) d e r i v e d fro m b a r l e y w o u ld be h e l p f u l
i n d e te r m in in g i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n fo o d p ro d u c ts and v a lu e a s a
p o t e n t i a l p r o te i n and f i b e r so u rc e .
DDG w as m i l l e d i n t o f i n e , c o a r s e , an d s h o r t s f r a c t i o n s .
T h ese,
a lo n g w i t h w h o le DDG a n d a so y i s o l a t e c o n t r o l , w e re e v a l u a t e d f o r
p r o x im a te a n a l y s i s ( m o i s t u r e , a s h , c r u d e f i b e r , f a t , an d p r o t e i n ) ,
n e u t r a l a n d a c i d d e t e r g e n t f i b e r a n a l y s i s , a m in o a c i d d e t e r m i n a t i o n ,
a n d t h e f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s p r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y , w a t e r - b i n d i n g , and
e m u l s i f i c a t i o n . DDG a n d DDG m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s i n P o l i s h s a u s a g e ,
s u b s t i t u t e d a t 3 .5 p e r c e n t l e v e l s w e r e e v a l u a t e d by o r g a n o l e p t i c
t e s t i n g . E m u ls io n s t a b i l i t y , c o l o r , a n d t e x t u r e w e r e a l s o e v a lu a te d .
The f i n e m i l l e d f r a c t i o n c o n ta i n e d a lm o s t d o u b le t h e p r o t e i n o f
o t h e r m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s . Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d w h o le a n d f i n e
DDG f r a c t i o n s t o be d e f i c i e n t i n l y s i n e .
P r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y and
e m u l s i f y i n g a c t i v i t y w e re lo w i n a l l m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s . The w a t e r ­
b i n d in g c a p a c i t y o f DDG w as c o m p a ra b le t o o t h e r m e a t e x t e n d e r s .
S a u s a g e e x te n d e d w i t h DDG f i n e m i l l e d f r a c t i o n w as s i m i l a r t o t h e
c o n t r o l s a u s a g e i n c o m p o s i ti o n , c o o k in g l o s s , and t e x t u r e , b u t v a r i e d
c o n s id e ra b ly i n c o lo r.
DDGfS a p p l i c a t i o n i n m e a t p r o d u c t s i s l i m i t e d by l a c k o f a d e q u a te
f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s . DDG c o u ld b e a d d e d a t low r e p l a c e m e n t l e v e l s
i n a f i l l e r c a p a c i t y , b u t w o u ld do l i t t l e t o im p ro v e t e x t u r e and
f la v o r o f m eat p ro d u c ts . D i s t i l l e r d r ie d g r a in d o es r e p r e s e n t a
p o t e n t i a l p r o t e i n a n d f i b e r s o u r c e b u t w o u ld be b e n e f i c i a l o n ly i n a
p r o d u c t w h e re p r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y an d o t h e r f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e n o t im p o r ta n t i n consum er a c c e p t a b i l i t y .
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The n e e d f o r a n e c o n o m ic a l b i o f u e l i p r o c e s s h a s p ro m p te d re n e w e d
i n t e r e s t i n d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n , DDG.
DDG, t h e p r o t e i n by­
p r o d u c t r e m a in i n g a f t e r t h e a l c o h o l f e r m e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s , h a s
p o t e n t i a l b o th a s a s o u r c e o f p r o t e i n f o r hum an n u t r i t i o n and a s a
m a r k e ta b l e p r o d u c t t o h e l p d e f r a y som e o f t h e c o s t s o f t h e f e r m e n t a ­
tio n p ro ce ss.
The " s p e n t " g r a i n h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n u t i l i z e d a s a
c a t t l e f e e d s u p p le m e n t.
The a d v e n t o f t h e a lc o h o l f u e l p r o c e s s h a s
b r o u g h t a b o u t a n i n c r e a s e d n e e d t o f i n d a n a c c e p t a b l e fo o d u s e f o r
d is tille rs
d r ie d
g ra in .
C o o k in g , f e r m e n t a t i o n a n d d i s t i l l a t i o n c o m p r is e t h e t h r e e m ain
p r o c e s s e s i n a l c o h o l f u e l p r o d u c t i o n ( F ig u r e I ) .
The c o o k in g p r o c e s s
c o n v e r t s c a r b o h y d r a t e s t o f e r m e n t a b l e s u g a r s by u s e o f en zy m es.
In
t h e f e r m e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e s e s im p l e s u g a r s a r e c h a n g ed t o a lc o h o l
by s p e c i f i c y e a s t v a r i e t i e s an d y i e l d a 6 - 12 $ e t h a n o l - w a t e r m ix tu r e .
T h is e t h a n o l m i x t u r e i s n o n fla m m a b le b e c a u s e o f t h e h ig h w a t e r
c o n t e n t . T h e r e f o r e t h e e th a n o l m u st be c o n c e n t r a t e d .
A s e rie s of -
e v a p o r a t i o n a n d c o n d e n s a t io n s t e p s i s u s e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e e th a n o l
fro m t h e l e s s v o l a t i l e w a t e r .
The d i f f e r e n c e i n b o i l i n g p o i n t s o f
w a te r and a lc o h o l a llo w s f o r t h i s s e p a r a tio n .
96$ p r o o f a l c o h o l s o l u t i o n (H u n t,
1 9 8 1 ).
The e n d p r o d u c t i s a
2
96$ E th a n o l
C ooking
D rie d G r a in s
t
I
I
I
F e r m e n t a t io n --------------D i s t i l l a t i o n
-----
W et G r a in s
^
-------------
D r ie d G r a in s
W ith S o l u b le s
DDGS
S tilla g e
___ — T h in S t i l l a g e
I
T
C ondensed
S o l u b le s
I
V
C a t t l e F eed
FIGURE I :
^
—
D rie d
S o lu b le s
ETHANOL PRODUCTION (D e riv e d fro m H u n t,
1981)
3
The r e s i d u e i n t h e b o tto m o f t h e s t i l l i s a s u b s ta n c e c a l l e d
s t i l l a g e , m ade up o f 90% w a t e r and 10$ s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s .
The s t i l l a g e
i s f i l t e r e d o r c e n t r i f u g e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e w e t g r a i n fro m t h e t h i n
s tilla g e .
The w e t g r a i n c a n t h e n be d r i e d f o r e a s i e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
and s to r a g e .
The s o l u b l e s c a n be c o n d e n se d fro m t h e t h i n s t i l l a g e an d
a d d e d t o t h e d r i e d g r a i n t o fo rm d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n w i t h s o l u b l e s
( H u n t, 1 9 8 1 ) .
Need t o S tu d y t o DDG
As e t h a n o l p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s , a n en o rm o u s a m o u n t o f DDG w i l l
be p ro d u c e d .
One o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f E n e rg y ’s g o a l s w a s t o p ro d u c e
500 m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f e t h a n o l by 1981 , 2.3 b i l l i o n by 1983 , and 11.5
b i l l i o n by 2000 ( S o l a r E n e rg y R e s e a rc h I n s t i t u t e ,
1 9 8 1 ).
P r o d u c tio n o f
t h i s am o u n t o f e t h a n o l l e a v e s b e h in d a n e x t e n s i v e a m o u n t o f DDG.
A
P i l l s b u r y Company (1 9 8 0 ) e s t i m a t e i s t h a t I b u s h e l o f c o r n w i l l p ro d u c e
2.5 g a l l o n s o f e t h a n o l a n d 17 p o u n d s o f d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n o r 6.8
p o u n d s o f DDG a r e p ro d u c e d p e r g a l l o n o f e t h a n o l .
T hus, i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f I m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f e t h a n o l r e q u i r i n g 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 b u s h e ls o f
c o r n , 3 ,4 0 0 t o n s o f DDG w o u ld be p ro d u c e d .
I f t h e g o a l o f 2 .3 b i l l i o n
g a l l o n s o f e t h a n o l by 1983 i s a c h ie v e d u t i l i z i n g c o r n a s t h e s t a r t i n g
g r a i n , 7 ,3 6 0 ,0 0 0 t o n s o f DDG w o u ld be a v a i l a b l e .
W ith t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e a l c o h o l f u e l i n d u s t r y , a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y
a n d q u a n t i t y o f f e e d s t o c k s o r s t a r t i n g g r a i n s a r e b e in g u t i l i z e d i n
a lc o h o l fe rm e n ta tio n .
Some r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n done on d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d
g r a i n / b r e w e r s d r i e d g r a i n by t h e b r e w in g i n d u s t r y .
H ow ever, a s t h e
a m o u n t an d v a r i e t y o f g r a i n s u s e d i n t h e l i q u i d f u e l i n d u s t r y i n c r e a s e s
4
t h e n e e d i n c r e a s e s t o i d e n t i f y t h e p o t e n t i a l o f DDG d e r i v e d fro m
f e e d s t o c k s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d i n t h e b r e w in g p r o c e s s .
B a r le y w h ic h i s p r e s e n t l y b e in g u t i l i z e d a s a n a l c o h o l f u e l s o u r c e i n
M o n tan a,
i s one such g r a in t h a t r e q u i r e s i n v e s t ig a t io n .
A v a r i e t y o f f e e d s t o c k s a r e now b e in g u t i l i z e d i n a l c o h o l
p ro d u c tio n .
C orn c o n s t i t u t e s t h e l a r g e s t p o t e n t i a l f e e d s t o c k s u p p ly
( S o l a r E n e rg y R e s e a rc h I n s t i t u t e ,
1 9 8 1 ),. b u t o t h e r g r a i n s a r e b e in g
i n v e s t i g a t e d t o d e te r m i n e t h e a l c o h o l and b y - p r o d u c t y i e l d and t h e i r
e c o n o m ic v a l u e .
The a t t r i b u t e s o f h a r d i n e s s and a d a p t a b i l i t y t o w id e
v a r i a t i o n s i n s o i l and c l i m a t e , g e n e t i c m a n i p u l a b i l i t y a n d i t 's w id e
v a r i a t i o n i n n u t r i t i o n a l c o m p o s itio n ( T r u s c o t t ,
1980) i n c r e a s e
b a r l e y 's p o t e n t i a l f o r b e c o m in g a n i m p o r t a n t f e r m e n t a t i o n f e e d s t o c k
e s p e c i a l l y i n c l i m a t e s t o o c o o l t o grow c o rn .
A lc o h o l y i e l d v a r i e s w i t h t h e f e e d s t o c k u t i l i z e d i n i t s
p ro d u c tio n .
C orn a n d w h e a t h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t y i e l d s o f 2.5 an d 2.4
g a llo n s o f e th a n o l p e r b u sh e l r e s p e c ti v e ly ,
g a llo n s /b u s h e l.
w h i l e b a r l e y y i e l d s 2.1
When f i g u r e d on a g a l l o n p e r a c r e b a s i s ,
f a r t h e m o st p r o d u c t i v e , y i e l d i n g 228 g a l l o n s / a c r e .
c o r n i s by
B a r le y y i e l d s 92
g a l l o n s / a c r e a n d w h e a t 74 g a l l o n s / a c r e ( S o l a r E n e rg y R e s e a rc h
I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 8 1 ).
G r a in c o s t i s o n e o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e c h o ic e o f
fe e d s to c k .
S i g n i f i c a n t p r i c e f l u c t u a t i o n s o c c u r s e a s o n a l l y an d on a
y e a r l y b a s i s due t o s u p p ly and dem and and g o v e rn m e n t p o l i c i e s .
The
a v e r a g e p r i c e p a id t o f a r m e r s b e tw e e n 1963-1977 w as $ 2 . 6 9 / b u s h e l f o r
c o r n , $ 2 .3 5 /b u s h e l f o r b a r l e y , and $ 3 .4 6 /b u s h e l f o r w h e a t.
The lo w e r
f e e d s t o c k c o s t o f b a r l e y w o u ld m ake e t h a n o l p r o d u c t i o n fro m b a r l e y l e s s
5
e x p e n s iv e t h a n w h e a t ( $ 1 .2 4 / g a l l o n v e r s u s $ l» 36 / g a l l o n ) ,
b u t m ore
c o s t l y t h a n c o r n a t $ l . l 4 / g a l l o n ( S o l a r E n e rg y R e s e a rc h I n s t i t u t e ,
1981 ) .
B y - p r o d u c t o r DDG v a lu e s h o u ld a l s o be c o n s id e r e d i n c h o ic e o f
f e e d s t o c k a s DDG c a n r e p r e s e n t a n a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f in c o m e .
The
am o u n t o f b y - p r o d u c t p ro d u c e d i s d e te r m i n e d m a in ly by t h e c o m p o s itio n
o f th e fe e d s to c k .
F i g u r e 2 sh o w s t h e a p p r o x im a te c o m p o s i ti o n s o f w h e a t
a n d b a r l e y an d sh o w s how t h e a p p r o x im a te y i e l d o f DDG may be
c a lc u la te d .
The g r e a t e r am o u n t o f b y - p r o d u c t p ro d u c e d fro m b a r l e y
f e e d s t o c k m akes i t e v e n m o re i m p o r t a n t t h a t a m a r k e ta b l e p r o d u c t be
fo u n d f o r DDG.
The c o n v e r s i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s t o l i q u i d f u e l i s a n
e x p e n s iv e p r o c e s s , i n f l u e n c e d by t h e y i e l d o f a lc o h o l a n d b y - p r o d u c t
an d t h e c o s t o f f e e d s t o c k and p r o c e s s i n g .
U n le s s t h e b y - p r o d u c t c a n
b e e f f e c t i v e l y u t i l i z e d i n m a r k e ta b l e f o o d s , t h e p r o c e s s i s i n e f f i c i e n t
a n d u n e c o n o m ic a l.
D e p a rtm e n t o f E n e rg y f i g u r e s e s t i m a t e a n e t
p r o d u c t i o n c o s t o f e t h a n o l o f $1.29 p e r g a l l o n w h ic h i n c l u d e s $ 1.01 f o r
raw m a t e r i a l s ,
$.45 f o r o p e r a t i n g c o s t s ,
$.15 f o r f i x e d c o s t s and
t a x e s , a n d m in u s t h e $.35 o b t a i n e d fro m s a l e o f s t i l l a g e f o r c a t t l e
feed .
A llo w in g $.33 f o r d e a l e r m a r g in a n d $.08 f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,
g a s o h o l w o u ld h a v e t o be s o l d a t $1.70 p e r g a l l o n t o b r e a k e v e n ( S o l a r
E n e rg y R e s e a rc h I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 8 1 ).
H ow ever, i f m ore m oney c o u ld be
o b t a i n e d fro m s a l e o f t h e b y - p r o d u c t , e t h a n o l p r o d u c t i o n w o u ld be much
m o re c o m p e t i t i v e .
A t t h e m o m e n t, DDG i s s o l d a t $ .0 7 p e r p o u n d a n d
u t i l i z e d m a in ly f o r c a t t l e f e e d .
I f i t c o u ld be s o ld a t th e c u r r e n t
6
WHEAT
BARLEY
60% S t a r c h
50$ S t a r c h
10$ M o is tu r e
10$ M o is tu r e
"14$ P r o t e i n
T 14$ P r o t e i n
L 26$ O th e r
I 16$ O th e r
^40
► 30 P a r t s S o l i d s
30.
.9
y ie ld s
33$ DDGs
14« P r o t e i n
33.3$ DDGs =
42«
P ro te in
32 P ounds o f W heat Y ie ld s
4.8 G a llo n s E th a n o l
F ig u re 2:
P a r ts S o lid s
M
.9
y i e l d s 44.44$ DDGs
14« P r o t e i n
44.44$ DDGs
=
31.4«
P ro te in
32 P ounds o f B a r le y Y i e ld s
4 G a llo n s E th a n o l
A p p ro x im a te DDG and A lc o h o l Y ie ld fro m W heat
a n d B a r l e y (G ra s , 1982)
7
p ric e
f o r o th e r p ro te in
c o n c e n tra te s
so d iu m c a s e i n a t e a t $ l/p o u n d ,
f o r h u m an c o n s u m p t i o n ,
i« e .
p ro m in e D (s o y p r o t e i n ) a t $ .6 0 /p o u n d ,
o r T o r u t e i n ( y e a s t ) a t $ .4 2 /p o u n d ( S c h e l l e r a n d M ohr, 1 9 7 6 ),
th e
p r o f i t m a r g in c o u ld be i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . ,
P ro b le m S t a te m e n t
D i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n (DDG), t h e p r o t e i n b y - p r o d u c t fro m
a l c o h o l f e r m e n t a t i o n , h a s n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s w h ic h c o u ld m ake i t a
v a l u a b l e p r o d u c t f o r hum an c o n s u m p tio n .
W ith t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e
a l c o h o l f u e l i n d u s t r y , a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y and q u a n t i t y o f DDG i s b e in g
p ro d u c e d .
DDG r e p r e s e n t s a p o t e n t i a l p r o t e i n and f i b e r s o u r c e
f o r hum an f o o d .
B e s id e s n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y , f u n c tio n a l p r o p e r tie s a re
i m p o r t a n t i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e fo o d s y s te m s f o r DDG
in c o rp o ra tio n .
E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w o u ld h e lp
i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t o f d e n a t u r a t i o n and i n p r e d i c t i n g
a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n fo o d p ro d u c ts .
The o b j e c t i v e o f s u c h a n e v a l u a t i o n
w o u ld be t o f i n d a p r o d u c t w h e re t h e n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s c o u ld be
u t i l i z e d a n d w h e re t h e f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s w o u ld b e a d e q u a te t o
p ro d u c e a n a c c e p t a b l e p r o d u c t.
DDG c o n t a i n a p p r o x i m a t e ly 27-37% p r o t e i n and 13-16% f i b e r ,
d e p e n d in g on t h e f e e d s t o c k u s e d i n t h e a lc o h o l f e r m e n t a t i o n p ro c e ss*
At p r e s e n t , DDG i s u s e d m a in ly a s a l o w - c o s t a n im a l f e e d s u p p le m e n t.
S e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n done t o e x a m in e p o s s i b l e hum an fo o d u s e s o f
DDG.
M ost o f t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e u t i l i z e d b r e w e r? s p e n t g r a i n d e r i v e d
fro m c o r n a n d w h e a t.
The a d v e n t o f t h e b i o f u e l i n d u s t r y ,
e n c o u ra g e d t h e u s e o f o t h e r c e r e a l g r a i n s a s a f e e d s t o c k .
h o w e v e r, h a s
B a r le y i s
8
one g r a i n t h a t i s b e in g u s e d m ore e x t e n s i v e l y .
As e a c h g r a i n v a r i e s i n
s t r u c t u r e an d c o m p o s i ti o n , n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y and p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c s w i l l v a ry a c c o rd in g ly .
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e n u t r i t i o n a l
q u a l i t y and f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f e a c h ty p e i s n e c e s s a r y t o e v a l u a t e
t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i n a f o o d s y s te m .
DDG h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o b a k e d g o o d s a t
l e v e l s up t o 15$ f l o u r r e p l a c e m e n t.
e x h ib ite d
p ro d u c ts
p o o r f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s d e m o n s t r a t e d by lo w
v o lu m e a n d t e x t u r e c h a n g e s .
P ro d u c ts
At h ig h e r s u b s t i t u t i o n s ,
u tiliz in g
C o lo r a n d f l a v o r a l s o n e e d e d im p ro v e m e n t.
DDG a t
h ig h e r
le v e ls
w o u ld
re q u ire
fu rth e r
p ro c e s s in g a n d /o r a d d itiv e s .
DDG m ig h t be u t i l i z e d i n o t h e r fo o d s y s te m s su c h a s c o m m in u ted
m eat p ro d u c ts .
M i l l i n g DDG i n t o m ore u n ifo r m p a r t i c l e - s i z e d f r a c t i o n s
w as s u g g e s te d by F i n l e y and H anam oto (1980) t o h e lp o p t i m i z e u t i l i z a ­
t io n i n s p e c i f i c p ro d u c ts .
The h ig h p r o t e i n f r a c t i o n a f t e r m i l l i n g
w as p r e d i c t e d t o h a v e b e t t e r a p p l i c a t i o n i n e x tr u d e d o r f a b r i c a t e d
fo o d s.
An a c c e p t a b l e m e a t e x t e n d e r fro m b r e w e r s s p e n t g r a i n p r e s s
w a t e r h a s b e e n p ro d u c e d w hen e x tr u d e d w i t h o t h e r c e r e a l g r a i n s ( F in l e y
e t a l„
1 9 7 6 ).
S a u s a g e s w i t h 1$ b r e w e r s s p e n t g r a i n s u b s t i t u t i o n w e re
r a t e d a l m o s t e q u a l t o c o n t r o l s a u s a g e s i n a s tu d y by K o i v u r in t a e t a l .
(1 9 8 0 ).
I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f DDG a t h ig h l e v e l s i n m e a t p r o d u c t s s t i l l
r e p r e s e n t s a p ro b le m .
The c h a l l e n g e o f f i n d i n g a hum an f o o d p r o d u c t f o r DDG u t i l i z a t i o n
r e q u i r e s a t w o - f o l d a p p ro a c h .
F irs t,
n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s and
f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s n e e d t o be a n a ly z e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i c ty p e o f DDG
b e in g p ro d u c e d , a s ty p e o f f e e d s t o c k a n d p r o c e s s i n g m eth o d a f f e c t b o th
9
t h e n u t r i t i o n a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f DDGe
T hen, a
p r o d u c t n e e d s t o be i d e n t i f i e d w h e re t h e n u t r i t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l o f DDG
can be r e a liz e d w ith in th e bounds o f f u n c tio n a l adequacy.
The
o b j e c t i v e o f s u c h a s tu d y w o u ld be t o f i n d a n o r g a n o l e p t i c a l l y
a p p e a l i n g p r o d u c t w h ic h c o u ld be p ro d u c e d w i t h a m inim um am o u n t o f
a d d i t i o n a l p ro c e s s in g .
O b je c tiv e s
The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s tu d y w e r e a s f o l l o w s :
1.
To a s s e s s t h e n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y o f DDG and DDG m i l l e d
f r a c t i o n s fro m a l c o h o l p r o d u c t i o n fro m b a r l e y by s e l e c t e d
a n a ly s e s .
a.
To m e a s u re t h e p r o x im a te c o m p o s i ti o n o f DDG and DDG m i l l e d
f r a c t i o n s u t i l i z i n g AOAC t e c h n i q u e s .
fib e r,
M o is tu r e , a s h , c ru d e
a c i d and n e u t r a l d e t e r g e n t f i b e r , f a t , and p r o t e i n w i l l
be a n a ly z e d .
b.
2.
To d e te r m i n e t o t a l a m in o a c i d c o m p o s itio n .
To i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f b a r le y . DDG and DDG
m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s a s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r u s e a s a m e a t e x te n d e r .
eu
To d e te r m i n e e x t e n t o f d e n a t u r e t i o n a n d am o u n t o f s o l u b l e
p r o t e i n i n b a r l e y DDG and DDG m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s by m e a s u r in g
s o lu b le n itr o g e n .
b.
To d e te r m i n e e m u l s i f y i n g c a p a c i t y a n d e m u l s i f y i n g s t a b i l i t y o f
b a r l e y DDG a n d m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s ,
o.
To a s s e s s w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y o f b a r l e y DDG an d DDG
m ille d
fra c tio n s .
10
d.
To d e t e r m i n e how d i f f e r e n t m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s o f b a r l e y DDG
w i l l p e r f o r m a s a m e a t e x t e n d e r i n s a u s a g e by o r g a n o l e p t i c
e v a lu a tio n o f te s t,s a u s a g e s .
D e f i n i t i o n o f Term s
1.
B in d e r — m e a t e x t e n d e r t h a t b in d s w a t e r and a c t s a s . a n e m u l s i f i e r .
( P r i c e and S c h w e i g e r t ,
2.
1971).
B in d in g — a b i l i t y o f p r o t e i n t o b in d and a b s o r b o t h e r fo o d
c o m p o n e n ts and h o ld them t o g e t h e r i n s o l i d ,
s ta te
3-
s e m i-s o lid ,
o r flu id
( K i n s e l l a , 19 7 6 ).
B re w e rs s p e n t g r a i n (BSG)— t h e s o l i d r e s i d u e l e f t a f t e r f i l t e r i n g
t h e b r e w in g m ash c o n s i s t i n g o f h u sk , b r a n a n d em b ry o r e s i d u e s o f
m a l t k e r n e l and c o r n b r a n i f c o r n g r i t s u s e d a s a d j u n c t .
sp e n t g ra in
m ay i n c l u d e
y east
s e p a ra te s a f t e r w o rt b o ilin g
and tr u b ,
th e
B re w e rs
c o a g u lu m
w h ic h
( P r e n t i c e and D 'A p p o lo n ia ,
1 9 7 7 ).
4.
B r e w e r s d r i e d g r a i n (BDG)— b r e w e r s s p e n t g r a i n w h ic h h a v e b e e n
d r i e d by c o n v e y e r o r drum d r i e r ( P r e n t i c e an d D’A p p o lo n ia ,
5.
C o m m in u tio n — t h e c u t t i n g o f m e a t i n t o s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s ( P r i c e and
S c h w e ig e r t,
6.
1977).
1971).
D i s t i l l e r ’s d r i e d g r a i n (DDG)--- g r a i n fro m w h ic h a l c o h o l h a s b e e n
rem o v ed a f t e r f e r m e n t a t i o n (O ckerm ah, 1978);
S ee a l s o b r e w e r s
d r ie d g ra in .
7.
D i s t i l l e r s p r o te in c o n c e n tra te
(d p c )— p r o t e i n p r o d u c t s o b t a i n e d by
e x t r a c t i n g p r o t e i n fro m d i s t i l l e r ' s
d r i e d g r a i n (K e n d ric k ,
1976).
11
8.
E m u ls io n c a p a c i t y (EC)— t h e am o u n t o f o i l t h a t c a n b e e m u l s i f i e d
o r h e l d i n s o l u t i o n by p r o t e i n b e f o r e p h a s e i n v e r s i o n o r c o l l a p s e
o f e m u ls io n ( K i n s e l l a ,
9.
1 9 7 5 ).
E m u ls io n s t a b i l i t y (ES)— t h e a b i l i t y o f a p r o t e i n t o fo rm an
e m u ls io n t h a t r e m a in s u n c h a n g ed f o r a p a r t i c u l a r d u r a t i o n u n d e r
s p e c ific
10.
c o n d itio n s
(K in s e lla ,
E x te n d e r — an y i n g r e d i e n t ,
1 9 7 6 ).
o th e r th a n s a l t o r w a te r,
t h a t i s added
t o m e a t i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y t o c o n t r i b u t e m a t e r i a l l y t o b u lk
a n d c o m p o s itio n ( P r i c e a n d S c h w e i g e r t ,
11.
1971).
F e e d s to c k — c e r e a l g r a i n o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l . u s e d a s a s u b s t r a t e f o r
a l c o h o l f u e l p r o d u c t i o n ( S o l a r E n e rg y R e s e a rc h I n s i t i t u t e ,
12.
1981).
F i l l e r — s t a r c h y p r o d u c t a d d in g b u l k an d s o m e tim e s w a t e r b in d in g
a b i l i t y t o m eat p ro d u c ts b u t n o t e m u ls if ic a tio n p r o p e r t ie s (P ric e
and S c h w e ig e rt,
13.
1 9 7 1 ).
F u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t y — any c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a s u b s t a n c e ,
n u tr itio n a l ones, th a t a f f e c ts i t s
b e s id e s
u t i l i z a t i o n an d . d e te r m i n e s i t s
o v e r a l l p e r f o r m a n c e i n f o o d s d u r in g m a n u f a c tu r in g , p r o c e s s i n g ,
s to ra g e ,
14.
a n d c o n s u m p tio n ( K i n s e l l a ,
O r g a n o l e p t i c — A t e s t o f a fo o d p r o d u c t e v a l u a t e d by a s e n s e
p e rc e p tio n ( f e e lin g ,
15.
19 7 6 ).
s ig h t,
s m e ll,
o r t a s t e ) (O ckerm an,
1978).
P r o t e i n S o l u b i l i t y — p r o p o r t i o n o f n i t r o g e n c a p a b le o f p a s s i n g
in to
s o lu tio n
(K in s e lla ,
1976).
12
L im ita tio n s
L ack o f t e s t i n g e q u ip m e n t an d c o s t o f c o m m e rc ia l t e s t s h av e
l i m i t e d t h i s s tu d y t o t h e s e l e c t e d a n a l y s e s .
l i m i t e d t o tw o s a m p le s o f DDG.
Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s w as
P r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y and e m u l s i f i c a t i o n
t e s t s w e re p e rf o r m e d by m e th o d s a p p r o p r i a t e t o a v a i l a b l e l a b o r a t o r y
e q u ip m e n t.
S a u s a g e ty p e and q u a n t i t y w e re a d a p te d t o f i t a v a i l a b l e
fa c ilitie s .
D e lim ita tio n s
T h is s tu d y w as d e l i m i t e d t o t h e t y p e o f d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n
b e in g p ro d u c e d i n t h e s t a t e o f M o n tan a.
B a r le y DDG w h ic h h a s b e e n
drum d r i e d w i l l be u t i l i z e d a s t h i s i s t h e ty p e c u r r e n t l y p ro d u c e d by
s u rro u n d in g a lc o h o l p la n ts .
I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f d i s t i l l e r ’s d r i e d g r a i n s i n t o m e a t p r o d u c t s i s
d e l i m i t e d t o 3,5% by t h e U n ite d S t a t e s D e p a rtm e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e ’s
r e g u l a t i o n s on M e a ts and M eat P r o d u c ts .
A s s u m p tio n s
1.
E th a n o l p r o d u c t i o n fro m e th a n o l f e r m e n t a t i o n o f b a r l e y w i l l .
i n c r e a s e w i t h g r e a t e r e n e rg y dem ands an d im p ro v e d te c h n o lo g y so
t h a t a g r e a t q u a n t i t y o f DDG w i l l b e a v a i l a b l e f o r fo o d .
2.
The demand f o r new p r o t e i n fo rm s w i l l grow a s l i v i n g
s t a n d a r d s i n c r e a s e and a s r e s o u r c e s becom e m ore l i m i t e d .
3.
V e g e ta b le f o r m s o f p r o t e i n w i l l g a i n m ore a c c e p t a n c e i n f o r t i f i e d ,
e x te n d e d a n d e x tr u d e d fo o d p r o d u c t s .
13
4.
The u t i l i z a t i o n o f w a s t e m a t e r i a l s fro m a lc o h o l p r o d u c t i o n p l a n t s
w i l l h a v e m o re a d v a n ta g e s t h a n s t a r t i n g w i t h ra w , u n p r o c e s s e d
m a te ria ls .
H y p o th e s is
I t w as h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n fro m b a r l e y w o u ld
p o s s e s s a d e q u a te n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s t o m ake them a v a l u a b l e a d d i t i o n
t o hum an f o o d s y s te m s .
I t w as h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n and m i l l e d
f r a c t i o n s w o u ld d i s p l a y f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s t h a t w o u ld m ake them
s u i t a b l e f o r in c o r p o r a tio n i n t o m eat p ro d u c ts .
I t w as h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n a n d m i l l e d
f r a c t i o n s fro m b a r l e y w o u ld p e rf o r m a d e q u a t e ly a s a n e m u l s i f i e r i n a
b a s ic sa u sa g e fo rm u la tio n .
14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e o f t h i s s e c t i o n w as t o p r e s e n t a n o v e rv ie w o f
lite ra tu re
c o n c e r n in g n u t r i t i o n a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
d i s t i l l e r 's
d r i e d g r a i n and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o fo o d s y s te m s .
The
l i t e r a t u r e s e l e c t e d f o r r e v ie w w i l l p r o v id e b a c k g ro u n d i n f o r m a t i o n i n
th e s e a re a s :
(I) n u tr itio n a l c h a r a c te r is tic s ,
c h a ra c te ris tic s ,
tio n ,
(3 ) p r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y ,
( 6 ) DDG i n b ak ed g o o d s ,
(2) f u n c tio n a l
(4 ) b i n d in g ,
(5 ) e m u l s i f i c a ­
and ( 7 ) DDG i n m e a t p r o d u c t s .
N u tr itio n a l C h a ra o te ris tin a
D i s t i l l e r ' s d r i e d g r a i n c o n t a i n e s s e n t i a l l y t h r e e c o m p o n e n ts :
n o n -s o lu b le p r o te in ,
a f i b e r co m p o n e n t, a n d c e r e a l o i l s .
a
The e x a c t
c o m p o s itio n o f DDG d e p e n d s on t h e m a l t an d a d j u n c t s u t i l i z e d by t h e
b r e w e r i n t h e m ash.
The p r o x im a te a n a l y s i s o f t h e s p e n t g r a i n i s 2 7 -
37% p r o t e i n , 13 - 16 % c r u d e f i b e r , 4-5% a s h , 6 - 7 % f a t ,
31-45% .
c a r b o h y d r a te d e p e n d in g t h e s t a r t i n g g r a i n ( S t i l e s a n d H e b e r t,
DDG's m a in c o n t r i b u t i o n t o f o o d s i s
19 7 7 ).
t o i n c r e a s e p r o t e i n c o n te n t .
Two m e th o d s h a v e b e e n u t i l i z e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e p r o t e i n c o n t e n t —
e i t h e r a m e c h a n ic a l m eth o d o f c e n t r i f u g a l s e p a r a t i o n a n d / o r s c r e e n i n g
o r a c h e m ic a l m eth o d u s i n g a l k a l i n e e x t r a c t i o n .
A bout tw o t h i r d s o f
t h e p r o t e i n p r e s e n t i n " s p e n t g r a i n " may be i s o l a t e d by t h e p u r e l y
15
m e c h a n ic a l m e th o d s o f s t i r r i n g , p r e s s i n g ,
( L o n c in a n d S c h o r n ic k ,
s e ttlin g ,
and c e n tr if u g in g
1977)«
B r e w e r 's p r o t e i n r a n g e s i n s i z e fro m 1 /4 m ic r o n t o 100 m ic r o n s
w i t h g r e a t e r t h a n 50% o f t h e p r o t e i n s m a l l e r t h a n 8 m ic r o n s ( S t i l e s and
H e b e r t,
1 9 7 7 ).
B e in g m uch s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s t h a n t h e c e l l u l o s e f i b e r ,
t h e p r o t e i n may be s e p a r a t e d by a s c r e e n i n g c e n t r i f u g e .
T o w n sle y
(1979) fo u n d f r a c t i o n a t i o n o f s p e n t g r a i n c o u ld be a c h ie v e d w i t h o u t
e x p e n s iv e p r e l i m i n a r y d r y in g .
C h e m ic a l i s o l a t i o n o f p r o t e i n may be done by a n a l k a l i n e
e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e d u r e u t i l i z i n g c a u s t i c s o d a (K e n d ric k , 1975) o r am m onia
( S c h e l l e r and M ohr, 1 9 7 6 ).
A fte r c e n tr if u g in g th e a lk a lin e s o lu tio n ,
p r o t e i n i s p r e c i p i t a t e d by e i t h e r a c e t i c ,
a c id .
s u lfu ric ,
o r h y d ro c h lo ric
W et s o l i d s y i e l d e d 1.5 t o 3 t i m e s m ore DDG p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e
th a n th e d rie d g ra in .
The g r e a t e s t am o u n t o f p r o t e i n w as e x t r a c t e d
fro m c o r n a t 8 0 - 9 0 ° C a n d w i t h s o n ! c a t i o n , w h i l e w h e a t p r o t e i n
e x t r a c t i o n w as g r e a t e s t a t 2 3 ° C w i t h o u t s o n ! c a t i o n (K e n d ric k ,
1975).
The p e r c e n ta g e o f p r o t e i n r e c o v e r e d w as 54,0% f o r c o r n a n d 36.4% f o r
.
w h e a t.
P r o t e i n q u a l i t y may b e a f f e c t e d by t h e p r o c e s s i n g DDG h a s
u n d e rg o n e .
P ro te in e f f ic ie n c y r a t i o s
(PER), f e e d e f f i c i e n c y r a t i o s an d
g r o s s d i g e s t i b i l i t i e s o f w h e a t an d c o r n and t h e i r p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e s
fro m DDG w e re m e a s u re d by K e n d ric k (1 9 7 5 ).
The PER o f t h e d i s t i l l e r s
d r i e d g r a i n p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e s w e re l o w e r t h a n t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e
w h o le g r a i n , b u t w e re s t i l l a d e q u a te .
D i g e s t i b i l i t i e s and fe e d
e f f i c i e n c y r a t i o s w ere s l i g h t l y h ig h e r th a n t h e i r s t a r t i n g g r a in .
Low p r o t e i n q u a l i t y w a s fo u n d by R a n h o tfa e t a l .
(1 9 8 2 ).
16
Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s show ed DDG had a a m in o a c id p r o f i l e s i m i l a r
t o t h e i r .s t a r t i n g g r a i n
( S a tte rle e e t a l.,
1976).
Even w i t h t h e i r
h i g h e r a m in o a c i d l e v e l s , DDG p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e s w e re d e f i c i e n t i n
l y s i n e and c o r n d i s t i l l e r s
p r o te in c o n c e n tra te in try p to p h a n .
S e v e r a l s t u d i e s h av e show n t h a t t h e p r o t e i n c o n t e n t o f fo o d s may
be e n h a n c e d by t h e a d d i t i o n o f d i s t i l l e r ' s d r i e d g r a i n .
P r o d u c ts
u t i l i z i n g H0% DDG h a v e 74% m ore n i t r o g e n t h a n 100% w h e a t f l o u r
p ro d u c ts ( P re n tic e e t a l . ,
1978).
By s u b s t i t u t i n g j u s t . 15% o f DDG i n
b ak ed p r o d u c t s , w h ic h i s a m ore a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l , n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f
f l o u r h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d by 27 % ( P r e n t i c e e t a l . ,
19 7 8 ).
P re n tic e
and D 'A p p o lo n ia (1 9 7 7 ), s u b s t i t u t e d 15% DDG i n f l o u r and i n c r e a s e d
p r o t e i n by 15 %.
A n o th e r m a r k e ta b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f fo o d p r o d u c t s c o n t a i n i n g
DDG i s t h e b e n e f i t d e r i v e d fro m a h i g h e r f i b e r c o n te n t .
B re a d s and
'
•
‘
■
c e r e a l s w i t h ad d ed f i b e r a r e b e c o m in g i n c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r s i n c e
d i e t a r y f i b e r m ig h t h a v e a r o l e i n p r e v e n t i o n o f c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s
such a s d i v e r t i c u l o s i s ,
v a ric o s e v e in s ,
c o lo n c a n c e r , h e m o r r h o id s , a r t e r i o s c l e r o s i s ,
and a p p e n d i c i t i s ( B u r k i t t an d T r o w e il,
19 7 5 ).
A
p r o d u c t w i t h 40% DDG e x h i b i t s a t e n - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n c ru d e f i b e r
(P re n tic e e t a l .,
1 9 7 8 ).
P r e n t i c e a n d D 'A p p o lo n ia (1977) c o n c lu d e d
t h a t a m inim um o f 10 % r e p l a c e m e n t o f w h e a t f l o u r w ould be n e c e s s a r y
t o a c h ie v e f i b e r i n c r e a s e s r e l a t i v e t o 30% w h o le w h e a t b r e a d .
At
t h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n l e v e l , c ru d e f i b e r and a c i d d e t e r g e n t f i b e r w e re
a p p r o x i m a t e ly d o u b le d .
P r e n t i c e (1978) i n c r e a s e d t h e f i b e r i n
m u f f in s by r e p l a c i n g up t o 15% o f f l o u r w i t h b r e w e r s s p e n t g r a i n .
17
S a tte rle e e t a l.
th a n in so y i s o l a t e s .
(1976) fo u n d m i n e r a l l e v e l s i n DDG w e re lo w e r
When co m p ared t o s o y i s o l a t e s , c o r n and w h e a t
d i s t i l l e r p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e s w e re l o w e r i n c a lc iu m , m ag n esiu m ,
z i n c , and m an g a n e se.
I r o n c o n t e n t s w e re s i m i l a r .
W heat h ad m ore
c o p p e r t h a n c o rn o r s o y a n d l e a d l e v e l s w e re low i n a l l t h r e e .
A m ounts o f p o t a s s i u m , m ag n e siu m , p h o s p h o ro u s , z i n c , c o p p e r , i r o n ,
c h ro m iu m , t h i a m i n , r i b o f l a v i n , and n i a c i n w e re fo u n d t o be c o m p a ra b le
t o t h e b r a n f r a c t i o n o f g r a i n s (R a n h o tra e t a l . ,
1982 ).
F u n c tio n a l P r o p e r tie s
A s u b s ta n c e m u st h a v e a d e q u a te f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s t o be o f
v a lu e i n fo o d s y s te m s i n a d d i t i o n t o n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y .
F u n c tio n a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f p r o t e i n s a r e t h e i n t r i n s i c p h y s io c h e m ic a l
.
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h a f f e c t t h e b e h a v io r o f p r o t e i n i n fo o d s y s te m s
d u r in g p r o c e s s in g ,, s t o r a g e and p r e p a r a t i o n .
F a c t o r s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e
t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e t h e c o m p o s i ti o n and c o n f o r m a tio n o f t h e
p ro te in s ,
i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r c o m p o n e n ts (H2 O, i o n s ,
c a r b o h y d r a te , and f l a v o r s ) ,
e n v ir o n m e n t ( t e m p e r a t u r e ,
p ro te in '
am o u n t an d ty p e o f p r o c e s s i n g , and t h e
pH, and i o n i c s t r e n g t h ) ( K i n s e l l a ,
1979).
A d e te r m in a tio n o f f u n c tio n a l p r o p e r tie s i s e s s e n t i a l to e v a lu a te
p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n and l i m i t a t i o n s o f p r o t e i n s and t o p r e d i c t
th e ir a c c e p ta b ility .
th e p r o te in
N u t r i t i o n a l v a lu e i s o f l i t t l e
consequence i f
i s n o t a c c e p ta b le f o r e a tin g .
D if f e r e n t f u n c tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e im p o rta n t f o r s p e c i f i c
fo o d s y s te m s .
W a te r a b s o r p t i o n and b i n d in g , c o h e s i o n / a d h e s io n ,
18
e m u l s i f i c a t i o n a n d f a t a d s o r p t i o n a r e i m p o r t a n t i n s a u s a g e an d m e a t
s y s te m s , w h i l e w a t e r a d s o r p t i o n a n d b i n d in g , c o h e s i o n / a d h e s io n , c o l o r
an d f l a v o r a r e i m p o r t a n t i n b ak ed p r o d u c t s ( K i n s e l l a ,
1 9 7 9 ).
P r o c e s s i n g may h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f DDG.
The
f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s r e m a in i n g w i l l d e t e r m i n e w h a t f o o d s y s te m DDG
may be b e s t s u i t e d f o r .
D i f f e r e n t l a b o r a t o r y p r o c e d u r e s may be u s e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e s e
p h y s io - c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The o n ly r e a l t e s t , h o w e v e r, t o
d e te r m i n e how a n i n g r e d i e n t w i l l f u n c t i o n i n a s y s te m i s t o
i n c o r p o r a t e t h a t i n g r e d i e n t i n t o a f o r m u l a t i o n an d p ro d u c e t h e
f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t (J o h n s o n , 1 9 7 0 ).
im p ro v e d t e c h n i q u e s a n d
s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f t e s t i n g m e th o d s i n m e a s u r in g f u n c t i o n a l i t y i n
p r o te in s w i l l in c r e a s e th e e x tr a p o la tiv e a b i l i t y o f f u n c tio n a l
p r o p e r t y m e a s u r e m e n ts t o fo o d a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Good c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n
f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s a n d t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e i n m odel m e a t s y s te m s h a v e
b e e n fo u n d by H e rm a n sso n a n d A k esson (1 9 7 5 b ).
P ro te in S o lu b ility
One o f t h e m o st c r i t i c a l f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f
a p r o t e i n i n t o a n y fo o d s y s te m i s p r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y .
The s o l u b i l i t y
o f a p r o t e i n d e p e n d s on t h e a t t r a c t i o n b e tw e e n m o le c u le s o f t h e s o l u t e
c o m p a red t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f s o l v e n t - s o l u t e i n t e r a c t i o n s .
When th e
f o r c e s o f a t t r a c t i o n b e tw e e n s o l u t e m o le c u le s i s g r e a t e r t h a n
i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c e s b e tw e e n s o l v e n t a n d s o l u t e ,
d is s o lu tio n r e s u lts .
The c h e m ic a l s t r u c t u r e o f a p r o t e i n w h ic h i n c l u d e s i t s k i n d , num ber
an d s e q u e n c e o f a m in o a c i d s d e te r m i n e s s o l u b i l i t y .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n
19
o f i o n i c a n d n o n p o la r g r o u p s o f a m in o a c i d s a f f e c t t h e a f f i n i t y o f
p r o t e i n m o le c u le s f o r w a t e r .
S o l u b i l i t y i s m a rk e d ly a f f e c t e d by pH.
P r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y i s a t a m inim qm a t t h e i s o e l e c t r i c p o i n t and
in c r e a s e s w ith in c r e a s in g a c id i ty o r a l k a l i n i t y .
O th e r f a c t o r s
a f f e c t i n g s o l u b i l i t y a r e p r o c e s s i n g , h e a t i n g , t e m p e r a t u r e , an d i o n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( K i n s e l l a , 1 9 7 6 ).
D i f f e r e n t m e th o d s may be e m p lo y e d t o d e te r m i n e s o l u b i l i t y ,
i n c l u d i n g p r o t e i n d i s p e n s a b i l i t y a n d n i t r o g e n s o l u b i l i t y (AOAC, 19 7 5 ).
The b a s i c t e s t i n v o l v e s d i s p e r s i n g p r o t e i n i n w a t e r , a d j u s t i n g pH
v a l u e s w i t h h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d o r so d iu m h y d r o x id e t o o b t a i n d e s i r e d
pH, c e n t r i f u g i n g ,
and d e te r m in in g n itr o g e n c o n te n t o f th e s u p e rn a ta n t.
M ost r e s e a r c h e r s i n c l u d e a s o l u b i l i t y p r o f i l e a t pH r a n g e s fro m 2 t o
12.
S o l u b i l i t y i s o f p a ra m o u n t i m p o r ta n c e i n fo o d p r o d u c t i o n .
S in c e
s o l u b i l i t y r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y t o e m u l s i f y i n g a b i l i t y , fo a m in g c a p a c i t y ,
an d g e l a t i o n q u a l i t y ,
fu n c tio n a lity .
tre a tm e n ts .
s o l u b i l i t y p r o v id e s a good i n d e x t o p r o t e i n
DDG h a v e u n d e rg o n e h e a t a n d o t h e r p r o c e s s i n g
P r o te in s o l u b i l i t y w i l l be h e lp f u l i n d e te rm in in g t h e i r
s t a t e o f d e n a tu r a tio n (K in s e lla ,
1 9 7 6 ).
S o l u b i l i t y may a l s o be a good
i n d i c a t o r o f e m u l s i f i c a t i o n c a p a c i t y and s t a b i l i t y w h ic h w o u ld be
b e n e f i c i a l i n co m m in u te d m e a t s y s te m s ( I n k l a a r & F o r t u i n , 19 6 9 ).
H e rm a n sso n
(1 9 7 4 ), h o w e v e r, c a u t i o n s t h a t s o l u b i l i t i e s i n co m p le x
f o o d s y s te m s may d i f f e r fro m l a b o r a t o r y p r o f i l e s due t o d e n a t u r a t i o n ,
c o m p le x in g w i t h q u a r t e r n a r y s t r u c t u r e s ,
th e p re se n c e o f p r o te in s w ith
d i f f e r e n t n e t c h a r g e s , o r c o m p le x b i n d i n g b e tw e e n p r o t e i n s a n d o t h e r
c o m p o n e n ts .
20
The pH s o l u b i l i t y p r o f i l e s o f b r e w e r s g r a i n r e p o r t e d by
K o iv u rin ta e t a l .
(1980) show ed p o o r s o l u b i l i t y b e tw e e n pH 3 and 8
i n c r e a s i n g s l i g h t l y o v e r pH 8 .
N e i t h e r i n c r e a s e d t e m p e r a t u r e n o r NaCl
{2%) h ad s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on t h e s o l u b i l i t y .
F in le y e t a l .
(1976)
fo u n d t h e p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e r e c o v e r e d fro m s p e n t g r a i n p r e s s w a t e r
t o be e s s e n t i a l l y i n s o l u b l e a t n e u t r a l o r a c i d i c pH 's a n d t h e r e f o r e
s u g g e s t e d u s e s i n fo o d a p p l i c a t i o n s w h e re s o l u b i l i t y w a s n o t c r i t i c a l ,
i.e ,,
e x tr u d e d v e g e ta b le p ro te in .
B in d in g
B in d in g i s a n i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f many f o o d s ,
e s p e c i a l l y s a u s a g e m e a ts ,
c h e e se s and c u s ta r d s ( K in s e lla ,
19 7 6 ).
W a te r b i n d in g o r a b s o r p t i o n i s a m e a s u re o f t h e w a t e r r e t a i n e d by a
p r o t e i n f o l l o w i n g f i l t r a t i o n an d a p p l i c a t i o n o f m ild p r e s s u r e o r
c e n t r i f u g a t i o n (J a n i c k e a n d W a lc z a k ,
1 9 5 4 ).
The w a t e r b i n d in g
c a p a c i t y i s i m p o r t a n t i n a d j u s t i n g t h e w a t e r r a t i o f o r o p tim u m
v i s c o s i t y i n fo o d f o r m u l a t i o n s w h e re d i f f e r e n t p r o t e i n s h a v e b e e n
s u b s titu te d .
F o r e x a m p le , s o y p r o t e i n i n m e a t p r o d u c t s a b s o r b a
d i f f e r e n t a m o u n t o f m o i s t u r e t h a n w o u ld t h e m y o sin p r o t e i n .
Many s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n done t o d e te r m i n e t h e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g
b i n d in g c a p a c i t y .
The pH a n d i o n i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h ic h a f f e c t th e
s u r f a c e a r e a and p r o p e r t ie s ,
p r e s e n c e o f c a r b o h y d r a te s a n d l i p i d s ,
d e g re e o f f a t e m u ls if ic a tio n , p a r t i c l e s iz e o f p r o te in ,
e x te n t o f
m e c h a n ic a l a g i t a t i o n , m o d i f i c a t i o n by e n z y m e s o r c h e m i c a l s an d
te m p e ra tu re tr e a tm e n ts ,
a r e a l l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g b i n d in g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (K in s e lla ,
1 9 7 6 ).
B e r l i n e t a l . (1973) show ed t h a t
21
w a t e r a b s o r p t i o n i n c r e a s e d w i t h t h e n u m b er o f c o m p o n e n ts i n t h e
s y s te m , i n c l u d i n g n o n p r o t e i n m a t e r i a l .
P u re p r o t e i n w as fo u n d t o
b in d .5 g ra m s w a t e r / g r a m p r o t e i n (d ry m ilk ) .
H uffm ann e t a l .
(1975)
fo u n d t h e w a t e r a b s o r p t i o n o f s u n f l o w e r m e a ls i n c r e a s e d a s s o l u b i l i t y
d e c re a se d .
D e n a tu ra tio n enhanced th e w a te r- h o ld in g c a p a c ity .
W a te r
a b s o r p tio n in c r e a s e d a s p r o te i n c o n c e n tr a tio n in c r e a s e d and d e c re a se d
s l i g h t l y w i t h l o n g e r m ix in g tim e (F le m in g e t a l . ,
1975).
H ig h e r w a t e r a b s o r p t i o n w as o b s e r v e d b e tw e e n pH 5 an d 6 i n
c o m m in u te d m e a ts .
The a d d i t i o n o f s o y p r o t e i n o r so d iu m c a s e i n a t e
l e s s e n e d t h e e f f e c t o f pH a n d i n c r e a s e d w a t e r r e t e n t i o n (H erm an sso n
a n d A k e sso n , 197 5 b ).
M o is tu r e l o s s fro m m e a t w as a f f e c t e d by ty p e o f
m e a t a d d e d , p r o t e i n ty p e and a m o u n t, p r i o r h e a t t r e a t m e n t an d s a l t
c o n t e n t (H e rm a n sso n ,
1 9 7 5 a ).
S a l t s up t o 4% e n h a n c e d w a t e r b i n d in g
(H e rm a n sso n , 1 9 7 5 a ), b u t had v a r i e d e f f e c t s i n s y s te m s t h a t had added
p r o t e i n o r h ad b e e n h e a te d .
K o i v u r i n t a e t a l . (1980) fo u n d w a t e r b i n d in g t o be low i n drum
d r i e d a n d c o n v e y o r d r i e d b r e w e r s g r a i n ( 1.1 and 1 . 5 /g ra n l d r y m a t t e r ,
re s p e c tiv e ly ).
c a p a c ity .
a b s o rp tio n .
Sodium c h l o r i d e
(2%) d id n o t n o t r a i s e t h e b i n d in g
H ig h e r pH (pH 7 ) s l i g h t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e v a lu e o f w a t e r
The m ethod u s e d m e a s u re d w a t e r b i n d in g o f n o n - s o l u b l e
c o m p o n e n ts w h ic h may a c c o u n t f o r t h e lo w f i g u r e s .
E m u ls ific a tio n
E m u ls i f i c a t i o n .is a s u r f a c ta n t p ro p e rty r e la te d to th e a b i l i t y o f
a p r o t e i n t o l o w e r t h e i n t e r f a c i a l t e n s i o n s b e tw e e n t h e h y d ro p h o b ic
an d h y d r o p h i l i c c o m p o n e n ts .
E m u ls i f y i n g p r o p e r t i e s a r e m e a su re d a s
22
e m u l s i f y i n g c a p a c i t y (EC), e m u l s i f y i n g s t a b i l i t y (E S),
a c t i v i t y (BA).
d e s ig n ,
F a c t o r s w h ic h a f f e c t e m u l s i f i c a t i o n a r e e q u ip m e n t
shape o f c o n ta in e r,
te m p e ra tu re ,
o f p ro te in ,
o r e m u ls ify in g
b le n d o r sp e e d , r a t e o f - o i l a d d itio n ,
pH, p r o t e i n s o u r c e , s o l u b i l i t y o f p r o t e i n , c o n c e n t r a t i o n
k in d o f o i l ,
w a te r c o n te n t.
s a l t ( ty p e an d c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) , s u g a r s ,
and
I n c r e a s e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f NaCl c a u s e d i n c r e a s e d
e m u l s i f y i n g c a p a c i t y o f w a t e r - s o l u b l e p r o t e i n s and s a l t - s o l u b l e
p ro te in s (S a f f le,
1 9 6 8 ).
C a r p e n te r and S a f f l e (1964) sh o w ed t h a t
e m u ls io n c a p a c i t y i n m e a t e m u ls io n s w as d e te r m in e d by am o u n t o f
s o lu b ility .
P r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n w as i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o EG a t lo w
a n d h ig h p r o t e i n l e v e l s , a n d s t a b i l i t y w as d e p e n d e n t on t h e r a t i o o f
i n t e r f a c i a l film
th ic k n e s s t o d r o p le t s i z e (Iv e y ,
e t a l,
1 9 7 0 ).
EC
an d ES w e re r e d u c e d by d e n a t u r a t i o n o f p r o t e i n c a u s e d by p r o c e s s i n g
f a c t o r s s u c h a s c y c l i c f r e e z i n g an d th a w in g , h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e , and low
pH ( K i n s e l l a ,
1 9 7 6 ).
I v e y e t a l (1970) fo u n d t h a t h i g h e r b l e n d o r
s p e e d r e d u c e d EC.
T h r e e .b a s i c m e th o d s m e a s u re e m u l s i f y i n g a b i l i t y o f p r o t e i n s .
P e a r s o n e t a l . (1 9 6 5 ) a d d e d o i l t o a b l e n d i n g a q u e o u s p r o t e i n m ix t u r e
a n d d e te r m in e d by v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n t h e p o i n t a t w h ic h t h e e m u ls io n
b ro k e.
The e m u ls io n c a p a c i t y w as e x p r e s s e d a s g o f o i l e m u l s if ie d / m g
o f p r o te in n itro g e n .
O il and w a t e r w e re ad d e d t o a p r o t e i n and th e n
c e n t r i f u g e d i n a m eth o d by Y a su m a tsu e t a l . (1 9 7 2 ).
E m u ls if y in g
a c t i v i t y w as c a l c u l a t e d by m e a s u r in g t h e h e i g h t o f t h e e m u l s i f i e d
l a y e r o v e r t h e h e i g h t o f t h e e n t i r e l a y e r i n t h e c e n t r i f u g e tu b e .
H eat s t a b i l i t y
c o u ld be t e s t e d by h e a t i n g t h e e m u ls io n , c e n t r i f u g i n g
and c a l c u l a t i n g th e r a t i o a s d e s c r ib e d above.
The m o st o b j e c t i v e
23
e m u l s i f i c a t i o n t e s t u t i l i z e d e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y t o m e a s u re t h e
in v e r s io n p o in t.
O il w as s lo w ly a d d e d t o a p r o t e i n s u s p e n s i o n u n t i l
t h e e m u ls io n b r o k e .
A s u d d e n d ro p i n v i s c o s i t y a s d e m o n s tr a te d by a
s h a r p d r o p i n a m p e ra g e p r e c i s e l y d e te r m i n e d t h e i n v e r s i o n p o i n t .
C re n w e lg e e t a l . (1 9 7 4 ) u s e d t h i s m eth o d t o c o m p a re e m u l s i f i c a t i o n
c a p a c i t y o f f o u r p r o t e i n s a f t e r h a v in g o p t im iz e d t h e e f f e c t s o f
b le n d o r sp e ed ,
o i l a d d itio n r a te ,
a n d pH f o r e a c h s a m p le .
E m u ls i f y i n g s t a b i l i t y and c a p a c i t y o f DDG h a v e b e e n d e te r m in e d i n
s e v e ra l s tu d ie s .
K o i v u r i n t a e t a l . (1 9 8 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t b r e w e r s g r a i n
d i d n o t fo rm e m u ls io n s u n d e r t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s .
A s tu d y
by K e n d ric k (1 9 7 5 ) show ed t h a t t h e e m u ls io n c a p a c i t y d e c r e a s e d a s t h e
am ount- o f s o l u b l e p r o t e i n d e c r e a s e d .
Type o f w a s h in g a l s o a f f e c t e d
e m u l s i f i c a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s ( K e n d ric k 1 9 7 5 ).
A lc o h o l-w a s h e d c o rn
d i s t i l l e r s p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e h a d g r e a t e r e m u ls io n c a p a c i t y t h a n
te x tu r e d soy p r o te i n and o th e r d i s t i l l e r s
l e s s t h a n so y i s o l a t e .
p ro te in c o n c e n tra te , but
E m u ls i f y i n g s t a b i l i t y o f w a te r - w a s h e d c o rn
d i s t i l l e r s p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e w as p o o r e r t h a n t h e s t a b i l i t y o f non­
f a t d r y m il k a n d s o y i s o l a t e s i n c e m ore w a t e r and s o l i d s w e re r e l e a s e d
d u r in g s a u s a g e c o o k in g (K e n d ric k ,
1 9 7 5 ). .
DDG i n B aked Goods
Even th o u g h DDG e x h i b i t p o o r f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s , lo w l e v e l s o f
DDG h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o bak ed p r o d u c t s .
U t i l i z a t i o n o f DDG i n b a k e d g o o d s c o u ld i n c r e a s e t h e n u t r i t i o n a l
c o m p o n e n ts o f f i b e r an d p r o t e i n .
changes,
R educed v o lu m e , u n f a v o r a b le c o l o r
and " fe e d y " f l a v o r w e re t h e m a in p ro b le m s f o r DDG’s u s e i n
24
b a k e d p r o d u c t s ( F i n l e y e t a l„ ,
1976;
P r e n t i c e & D*A ppolo n i a ,
1977;
T o w n sle y , 1979$ F i n l e y & H anam oto, 1 9 8 0 ),
C o n su m ers a c c e p t e d b r e a d m ade w i t h b r e w e r s d r i e d g r a i n ( c o r n ) a t
5 and 10% l e v e l s i f t h e b r e w e r s d r i e d g r a i n h ad n o t b e e n d r i e d
a d d i t i o n a l l y a t IOO0 C a n d 1500C.
The u p p e r l i m i t f o r s u g a r c o o k ie s
an d s p e c i a l t y c o o k ie s w as 25% i n c o r p o r a t i o n , b u t o r g a n o l e p t i c
q u a l i t i e s w e r e l o w e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i f t h e s e l e v e l s w e re s u r p a s s e d
( P r e n t i c e e t a l.$
1 9 7 8 ).
F in le y e t a l.
(1976) fo u n d b r e w e r s d r i e d
g r a i n p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e fro m p r e s s w a t e r w as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y e v e n a t
t h e 5 % l e v e l i n b a k e d g o o d s.
One o f t h e m o st n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t s o f DDG on y e a s t - r a i s e d
p r o d u c t s w a s a d e c r e a s e i n v o lu m e .
V olum e o f b r e a d d e c r e a s e d a s DDG
a d d i t i o n w as i n c r e a s e d ( P r e n t i c e a n d DeA p p o lo n ia ,
1 9 7 7 ).
K e n d ric k
( 1975 ) c o r r e l a t e d d e c r e a s e d b r e a d v o lu m e w i t h i n c r e a s e d p r o t e i n
p e r c e n t a g e s w hen t h e p r o t e i n cam e fro m DDG.
W heat d i s t i l l e r s p r o t e i n
c o n c e n t r a t e a f f e c t e d l o a f v o lu m e l e s s t h a n d i d c o fn d i s t i l l e r s p r o t e i n
c o n c e n t r a t e o r s o y i s o l a t e s (K e n d ric k ,
1 9 7 5 ).
S a t t e r l e e (1976) a l s o
fo u n d t h a t w h e a t d i s t i l l e r p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e h ad t h e l e a s t
d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on l o a f v o lu m e w hen c o m p a red w i t h c o r n a n d so y
p ro te in c o n c e n tra te .
B re a d v o lu m e w as r e d u c e d 17% w hen DDG fro m c o r n -
m a l t m ash w e re s u b s t i t u t e d a t 15%, 11 % a t 10 % s u b s t i t u t i o n , and e q u a l
i n v o lu m e a t 5% s u b s t i t u t i o n ( P r e n t i c e a n d DeA p p o lo n ia , 1 9 7 7 ).
B re a d
made w i t h 6 and 12 % s u b s t i t u t i o n l e v e l s o f p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t e fro m
p r e s s w a t e r w as p o o r i n v o lu m e , e v e n l o w e r th a n 6 a n d 12 % so y
fo rtifie d
b re a d (F in le y e t a l . ,
1 9 7 6 ).
B r a n - e n r ic h e d b r e a d w as fo u n d
s u p e r i o r i n l o a f v o lu m e t o b r e a d e n r i c h e d w i t h g ro u n d c r u d e a l l - m a l t
25
o r m a l t - c o r n g r i t s p e n t g r a i n ( P om eranz e t a l . ,
1 9 7 6 ).
When DDG w as
s p l i t i n t o d i f f e r e n t m i l l f r a c t i o n s , a l l f r a c t i o n s a t 6% l e v e l s c a u s e d
a r e d u c t i o n i n v o lu m e , s h o r t s d e c r e a s i n g v o lu m e t h e g r e a t e s t an d b r a n
p o rtio n s ,
th e l e a s t .
At a 12$ s u b s t i t u t i o n , l o a f v o lu m e w as d e p r e s s e d
e v e n m o re w i t h t h e f i n e b r a n b r e a d h a v in g t h e l o w e s t v o lu m e ( F in l e y
a n d H anam otof 1 9 8 0 ).
I t w as c o n c lu d e d t h a t a r e p l a c e m e n t o f f l o u r
w i t h DDG a t g r e a t e r t h a n 12$ DDG w o u ld n o t y i e l d a s a t i s f a c t o r y bak ed
p ro d u c t.
C o lo r i s a n o t h e r , i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t w as
u n f a v o r a b ly c h a n g e d w i t h DDG a d d i t i o n .
A ll b r e a d s m ade w i t ^ v a r i o u s
m i l l i n g f r a c t i o n s e v e n a t 6$ f l o u r r e p l a c e m e n t, w e re c o n s i d e r a b l y
d a r k e r t h a n c o n t r o l s ( F i n l e y a n d H anam oto, 19 8 0 ).
C o lo r w as re d u c e d
w hen s p e n t g r a i n w e re h e a t t r e a t e d a t 4 5 ° C b e f o r e b e in g a d d e d t o
b r e a d ( P r e n t i c e & D’A p p o lo n ia ,
1 9 7 7 ).
T o w n sle y (19 7 9 ) r e c o g n i z e d t h e
c o l o r l i m i t a t i o n and u s e d DDG i n p r o d u c t s t h a t w e re n o t w h i t e .
DDG
c o u ld b e s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d i n c o m b in a tio n w i t h d a r k f l o u r s u c h a s r y e ,
o r w i t h m o la s s e s a n d s p i c e s .
DDG a d d i t i o n w as fo u n d s u i t a b l e f o r
d a r k c o lo r e d c o o k ie s by T se n e t a l .
(1 9 8 2 ).
F la v o r i n t e n s i t y i n c r e a s e d i n p r o d u c t s w i t h 10$ s u b s t i t u t i o n o r
m ore DDG, e s p e c i a l l y i f DDG h ad b e e n h e a t t r e a t e d a t 1 5 0 ° C ( P r e n t i c e
a n d DtA p p o lo n ia ,
1 9 7 7 ).
C o o k ie s a n d b r e a d s fro m p r e s s w a t e r p r o t e i n
c o n c e n t r a t e w e re d e s c r i b e d a s t a s t i n g " fe e d y " ( F in l e y e t a l . ,
1976).
F l a v o r o f c h o c o l a t e c h ip c o o k ie s w i t h 15$ DDG f l o u r w as n o t fo u n d any
d i f f e r e n t fro m c o n t r o l s , h o w e v e r s p i c e a n d b a r c o o k ie s w e r e r a t e d
lo w e r (T sen e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ).
26
O th e r b a k in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f DDG h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n
s t u d i e s done w i t h b r e a d and c o o k ie s .
DDG a d d i t i o n t o b r e a d s ( F in l e y e t a l . ,
1 9 7 7 ).
W a te r a b s o r p t i o n i n c r e a s e d w i t h
1976;
P r e n t i c e a n d DeA p p o lo n ia ,
P o o r crum b q u a l i t y w as n o t i c e d by F i n l e y e t a l .
(1 9 7 6 ), b u t no
c h a n g e i n cru m b t e x t u r e o r . m o u th f e e l a t 10 % l e v e l s w e re r e c o r d e d by
P r e n t i c e a n d DeA p p o lo n ia (1 9 7 7 ).
h i g h e r DDG l e v e l ,
Dough s t a b i l i t y
u n le s s h e a t tr e a te d ,
d e c re a se d w ith h ig h e r le v e l s .
in c re a s e d w ith
an d dough e x t e n s i b i l i t y
C o o k ie s made fro m f l o u r w i t h 5% DDG
a d d e d w e re s m a l l e r , d a r k e r , an d h a d p o o r to p g r a i n q u a l i t y , a n d o f f f l a v o r c o m p a red t o t h e c o n t r o l ( F i n l e y e t a l . ,
1 9 7 6 ).
C o o k ie w id th
a n d t h i c k n e s s w e re d e c r e a s e d and s p r e a d r a t i o im p ro v e d w i t h 15-25% DDG
s u b s titu tio n
(T se n e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ).
B re w e rs g r a i n l e v e l s c o u ld be
i n c r e a s e d t o 20 % i f 2 % so y l e c i t h i n w as a d d e d a s a s u r f a c t a n t .
C o o k ie s b a k e d w i t h t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n h a d a c c e p t a b l e p h y s i c a l
c h a ra c te ris tic s ,
s u b s titu tio n .
b u t o r g a n o l e p t i c q u a l i t y d e t e r i o r a t e d a f t e r 15%
S u g a r and s p e c i a l t y c o o k ie s ( c h o c o l a t e c h ip ,
o a tm e a l
a n d J a n H a g e ls ) w e re a c c e p t a b l e a t t h e 15% s u b s t i t u t i o n l e v e l s
( P r e n t ic e e t a l . , 1 9 7 8 ).
B e c a u se o f t h e p o o r f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f DDG, a d d i t i v e s
a n d s e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s t o e n h a n c e d e s i r a b l e t r a i t s o f DDG h a v e b e e n
s tu d ie d .
L e c i t h i n w as fo u n d b e n e f i c i a l i n im p r o v in g p h y s i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f v o lu m e o f c o o k ie s ( P r e n t i c e , e t a l . ,
1 9 7 8 ).
D e c re a s e d ')
l o a f v o lu m e a n d p o o r crum b g r a i n w e re im p ro v e d by a d d i t i o n o f sodium
s t e a r o y l l a c t y l a t e a n d / o r i n c r e a s i n g s h o r t e n i n g i n b r e a d u t i l i z i n g 15%
s u b s t i t u t i o n w i t h t h e b r a n f r a c t i o n o f b r e w e r s s p e n t g r a i n (D re e s e &
H o sen ey ,
19 8 2 ).
F i n l e y a n d H anam oto (1 9 8 0 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t m i l l i n g DDG
27
i n t o m ore u n if o r m p a r t i c l e s i z e d f r a c t i o n s w i t h o u t v a r y i n g n i t r o g e n
c o n t e n t m ig h t h e l p o p t i m i z e u t i l i z a t i o n f o r s p e c i f i c p r o d u c t s .
B re w e rs
in to
g r a in
h ig h
w as
m ille d
a t
p r o te in
f lo u r ,
f in e
T he
am o u n t
w as
d e c re a s e d
T he
b ra n
p r o te in
In
f lo u r
w h en
f r a c tio n s
f lo u r
f a b r ic a te d
DDG
o f
M eat
u ls if ic a tio n
m ake
o f
a
v a lu a b le
f i l l e r s ,
m
an d
w as
illin g
w e re
an d
w as
m o re
c o a rs e
d o n e
a t
an d
a n d
p ro d u c ts
h a v e
m o re
an d
s e p a ra te d
s h o r ts
m o is tu re
b a k e d
to
le v e ls
s ix - f o ld
lo w
to
a p p e a re d
e x tru d e d
b ra n ,
in c r e a s e d
s u ite d
w h ic h
m o is tu re
f r a c tio n s .
c o a rs e
( 7 .W »
le v e ls
th a n
b ra n
th e
p o te n tia l
h ig h
f o r
p ro d u c ts .
P ro d u c ts
C o m m in u te d
e m
f r a c tio n
f r a c tio n
fo o d s
d if f e r e n t
m e a t
an d
p ro d u c ts
b in d in g
n u tr itio n a l
b in d e rs ,
o r
The t e r m s e x t e n d e r ,
o f f e r
a n
p r o p e r tie s
a lte r n a te
o f
c o n tr ib u tio n
DDG
to
a r e
m e a t
u se
f o r
DDG.
a d e q u a te ,
s y s te m s
i n
DDG
I f
c o u ld
th e
fo rm
e m u ls if ie r s .
b in d e r,
e m u l s i f i e r , and s t a b i l i z e r a r e o f t e n
u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , b u t e a c h may t a k e on a m ore s p e c i f i c m e a n in g .
E x te n d e r i s a n o n - s p e c i f i c te r m t h a t r e f e r s t o "an y n o n -m e a t p r o d u c t
t h a t i s a d d e d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f w a t e r and s a l t t o s a u s a g e i n
s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y t o c o n t r i b u t e m a t e r i a l l y t o s a u s a g e b u l k and
c o m p o s itio n " ( P r i c e a n d S c h w e i g e r t ,
1 9 7 1 ).
B in d e r s m u s t p o s s e s s t h e
a b i l i t y t o h o ld f a t a n d w a t e r , w h i l e f i l l e r s n e e d t o c o n t r i b u t e o n ly
b u lk .
I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r, c e r e a l f i l l e r s b in d s e v e r a l t i m e s
t h e i r w e ig h t i n w a t e r and t h e m a in d i f f e r e n c e i s t h e a b i l i t y t o
e m u l s i f y a f a t a s w e l l a s b in d w a t e r .
N onm eat b i n d e r s a r e " in s u r a n c e "
i n g r e d i e n t s a d d e d t o r e d u c e t h e n e e d f o r s k e l e t a l m e a ts h i g h i n m y o sin
28
w h ic h i s t h e p r o t e i n p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e m u l s i f i c a t i o n ( P r i c e
and S c h w e i g e r t , 1 9 7 1 ).
E m u l s i f i e r r e f e r s t o an y p r o t e i n c a p a b le o f
k e e p in g f a t d i s p e r s e d i n a m edium .
A s t a b i l i z e r ’s m a in f u n c t i o n i s t o
b in d w a t e r and s t r e n g t h e n u n s t a b l e e m u l s io n s by p r o d u c in g i n t e r f a c i a l
f i l m s b e tw e e n tw o e m u ls io n p h a s e s ( P r i c e a n d S c h w e i g e r t , 19 7 1 ).
M eat e x t e n d e r s h a v e a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o m ake.
Not o n ly do
t h e y r e d u c e f o r m u la c o s t s , b u t a l s o may im p ro v e e m u ls io n s t a b i l i t y ,
im p ro v e c o o k in g y i e l d , im p ro v e s l i c i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d im p ro v e
f l a v o r ( P r i c e a n d S c h w e i g e r t , 1 9 7 1 ).
L ow er c o s t i s p e r h a p s t h e m a jo r
in c e n tiv e .
A m ounts o f t h e s e n o n ^ m e a t m a t e r i a l s a r e r e g u l a t e d by f e d e r a l m e a t
in s p e c tio n re g u la tio n s .
Up t o 3 .5 ? o f c e r e a l a n d / o r a n i m a l . e x te n d e r
p r o d u c t s a r e p e r m i t t e d i n s a u s a g e p r o d u c t s . y P r o d u c ts c o n t a i n i n g m ore
t h a n 3 .5? o f e x t e n d e r s m u st b e i d e n t i f i e d a s " i m i t a t i o n " (USDA,
1977).
P l a n t p r o t e i n s may be u s e d a t h i g h e r l e v e l s (1 0 -2 1 ? ) i n o t h e r
p r o c e s s e d m e a t p r o d u c t s s u c h a s m e a t l o a v e s o r c h i l i con c a m e
( G a ll i m o r e , 1 9 7 2 ).
P r o j e c t e d v o lu m e s o f p r o c e s s e d m e a t i t e m s and t h e
p o s s i b l e r e p l a c e m e n t by p l a n t p r o t e i n f o o d s i n 1980 (D uda, 197%) show
t h a t t h e s e p r o d u c t s c o u ld h a v e a g r e a t im p a c t on t h e m e a t m a r k e t,
r e p l a c i n g a s m uch a s 1 ,6 6 8 .1 4 m e t r i c t o n s o f m e a t.
Many t y p e s o f e x t e n d e r s a r e on t h e m a r k e t.
N o n fa t d r y m ilk ,
c a lc iu m - r e d u c e d n o n - f a t d r y m ilk , d r i e d w hey an d so d iu m c a s e i n a t e a r e
t h e a n im a l p r o d u c t s com m only u s e d a s b i n d e r s .
V a r io u s p l a n t p r o t e i n s
c o u ld be u t i l i z e d a s f u n c t i o n a l i n g r e d i e n t s i n m e a t p r o d u c t s ,
c o rn ,
w h e a t,
o a ts ,
ry e, r ic e ,
s o y , and p o t a t o ( B ir d , 1 9 7 4 ).
i.e .
Soy
p r o t e i n i s t h e o n ly b i n d e r o f v e g e t a b l e o r i g i n w h ic h i s e x t e n s i v e l y
29
u s e d i n p r o c e s s e d m e a ts ( P r i c e a n d S c h w e i g e r t , 1 9 7 1 ).
i n c r e a s e i n fo o d f a b r i c a t i o n te c h n o lo g y *
s u b s t i t u t e s a r e b e in g i n v e s t i g a t e d .
W ith t h e
m ore v e g e t a b l e m e a t
W i l l s and K a b i r u l l a h (1981)
r e c e n t l y fo u n d t h a t s a u s a g e s p r e p a r e d w i t h s u n f l o w e r s e e d f l o u r
p ro d u c e d a m ore s t a b l e e m u ls io n t h a n g l u t e n a n d so y p r o t e i n i s o l a t e
an d w e re e q u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e t o a t a s t e p a n e l.
The e f f i c a c y o f v a r i o u s
v e g e t a b l e an d a n im a l p r o t e i n a d d i t i v e s h a v e b e e n e v a l u a t e d by S m ith e t
a l.
(1973) an d T e r r e l l e t a l .
(1 9 7 9 ).
V e g e ta b le p r o t e i n s w e re
g e n e r a l l y fo u n d l e s s e f f e c t i v e a s e m u ls io n s t a b i l i z e r s t h a n a n im a l
p ro te in s
(S m ith e t a l . ,
1 9 7 3 ).
S e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e e x a m in e d t h e u s e o f DDG i n m e a t s y s te m s .
F i n l e y a n d H anam oto (1980) fo u n d t h a t b r e w e r s g r a i n d e r i v e d fro m c o r n
c o u ld be d r y m i l l e d t o p ro d u c e a h ig h p r o t e i n p r o d u c t w h ic h c o u ld h a v e
a p p l i c a t i o n i n e x tr u d e d p r o d u c t s o r f a b r i c a t e d f o o d s .
A p ro te in
c o n c e n t r a t e o b t a i n e d fro m b r e w e r s s p e n t g r a i n p r e s s w a t e r w as fo u n d t o
m ake a n a c c e p t a b l e m e a t e x t e n d e r w hen e x tr u d e d w i t h o t h e r c e r e a l
p ro te in s
(F in le y e t a l . ,
1 9 7 6 ).
J u n illa e t a l.
(1981) fo u n d q u a l i t y
o f s a u s a g e w i t h 1% b r e w e r s g r a i n , b r e w e r s y e a s t , o r s t i l l a g e r a t e d
a lm o s t e q u a l t o t h e c o n t r o l .
When
t h e p r o d u c t s w e re c l e a r l y i n f e r i o r .
r e p l a c e m e n t l e v e l s w e r e ab o v e 5%,
B re w e rs g r a i n d i s p l a y e d p o o r
f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s w hen i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o s a u s a g e o r m e a t b a l l s .
C o n s is te n c y o f a l l t e s t s a u s a g e s w as h a r d e r t h a n t h e c o n t r o l s a u s a g e s
w hen m e a s u re d by t e x t u r o m e t e r .
w a t e r o r w a t e r an d f a t .
H a rd n e s s w as d e c r e a s e d by a d d i t i o n o f
A d d itio n o f w a t e r a n d f a t d e c r e a s e d a l l
30
s c o re s (a p p e a ra n c e ,
g ra in te x tu re ,
In p re lim in a ry t e s t s ,
o d o r,
an d f l a v o r ) e x c e p t c o l o r .
M ahoney (19 8 2 ) fo u n d t h a t h ig h p r o t e i n f l o u r
fro m m i l l e d DDG fro m b a r l e y w o u ld b e a c c e p t e d by c o n s u m e rs w hen
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o s a u s a g e a t 5% l e v e l s .
E m u ls ific a tio n
P r o p e r tie s
in
S a u sa g e
E m u ls if ic a tio n p r o p e r tie s a r e im p o rta n t i n d e te rm in in g th e
p o t e n t i a l o f a v e g e t a b l e p r o t e i n a s a m e a t e x te n d e r .
An e m u ls io n i s a
tw o - p h a s e s y s te m o f tw o l i q u i d s d i s p e r s e d i n a c o l l o i d a l s t a t e .
A lth o u g h n o t a t r u e e m u ls io n , s a u s a g e i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s o n e, w i t h
w a t e r f o r m in g t h e c o n tin u o u s p h a s e a n d f a t t h e d i s c o n t i n u o u s p h a s e .
S o l u b i l i z e d p r o t e i n s a c t a s e m u l s i f i e r s by s u r r o u n d i n g t h e f a t
g l o b u l e s ( P r i c e and S c h w e i g e r t ,
1971)°
A s t a b l e e m u ls io n i s one i n
w h ic h t h e s e f a t g l o b u l e s do n o t s e p a r a t e .
To fo rm a n e m u ls io n , p r o t e i n m u st b e d i s s o l v e d by s u b j e c t i n g l e a n
m e a ts t o a d i l u t e b r i n e s o l u t i o n a n d by t h e c u t t i n g a c t i o n o f k n iv e s .
S e a s o n in g a n d c u r e a g e n t s a r e a d d e d t o a i d d i s p e r s i o n an d c o l o r .
d e v e lo p m e n t.
N o n -m eat b i n d e r s a r e a d d e d d u r in g t h e b e g in n in g o f
c h o p p in g t o be r e a d y f o r e m u l s i f i c a t i o n .
The f a t t y m e a ts a r e th e n
a d d e d a n d co m m in u te d u n t i l t h e e m u ls io n i s s t a b i l i z e d a n d d e s i r e d
te x tu r e i s o b ta in e d .
N o n -m eat s t a r c h y e x t e n d e r s may be a d d e d a f t e r
f a t t y m e a ts a s t h e y s e r v e o n ly a s m o i s t u r e b i n d e r s ,
n o t f a t b in d e rs .
D u rin g c o o k in g , f a t n o t m e l te d by h e a t o f c h o p p in g i s m e l te d and i s
h e ld i n b o unds by t h e p r o t e i n m em brane ( P r i c e and S c h w e i g e r t , .1971)°
S e v e ra l f a c t o r s a f f e c t e m u ls if ic a tio n o f sau sag e.
E m u ls if y in g
c a p a c i t y o f t h e s a l t - s o l u b l e p r o t e i n (m y o s in and a c t i n i n m e a ts ) i s
31
i n c r e a s e d a s pH a n d / o r s a l t i s i n c r e a s e d ( P r i c e an d S c h w e i g e r t ,
1 9 7 1 ),
W a te r s o l u b l e p r o t e i n s h a v e l i m i t e d e m u l s i f i c a t i o n c a p a c i t y w h ic h may
be in c r e a s e d i n th e p re se n c e o f s a l t .
by pH,
E m u ls ific a tio n i s a ls o a ff e c te d
The n e u t r a l pH o f m e a t b e f o r e s l a u g h t e r f a l l s t o a pH o f 5.3 -
5.7 a f t e r r i g o r m o r t i s .
As t h e i s o e l e c t r i c p o i n t ,
o r p o in t o f l e a s t
s o l u b i l i t y , f o r a c to m y o s in i s pH 5 , s o l u b i l i t y m u st be i n c r e a s e d t o
in s u re e m u ls ific a tio n .
S e v e r a l p r o c e d u r e s may be u s e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e
s o l u b l e p r o t e i n a s m uch a s 50%:
I ) c o m m in u te h o t- b o n e d m e a t,
2 ) bo n e m e a t h o t , f r e e z e r a p i d l y a n d c o m m in u te i n f r o z e n s t a t e , and
3) bone m e a t h o t ,
add s a l t c u r e , an d i c e t o m a i n t a i n lo w t e m p e r a t u r e
a n d h o ld f o r s e v e r a l h o u r s ( P r i c e a n d S c h w e i g e r t ,
1 9 7 1 ).
C ho p p in g t i m e an d m e a t t e m p e r a t u r e a l s o a f f e c t e m u l s i f i c a t i o n .
C o m m in u tio n m u st b e s u f f i c i e n t f o r maximum s o l u b i l i z a t i o n o f p r o t e i n ,
y e t n o t t o o lo n g t o d e c r e a s e e m u l s i f i c a t i o n .
P r i o r t o a d d in g f a t ,
a
t e m p e r a t u r e b e tw e e n 3 ° a n d I l 0 C i s b e s t, f o r maximum e m u ls io n
s ta b ility .
F i n a l e m u l s i f i c a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u ld r a n g e fro m 10 0 t o
16 0 C.
I f e m u l s i f i c a t i o n i s a d e q u a t e , no u n e m u l s i f i e d f a t s , unbound
m o i s t u r e o r g e l a t i n on t h e s u r f a c e o r i n t e r i o r o f s t a b l e s a u s a g e w o u ld
be fo u n d .
A ir p o c k e ts s o m e tim e s c a u s e p o c k e ts o f f r e e f a t o r g e l a t i n
i n t h e i n t e r i o r b u t may b e r e m e d ie d by s u b j e c t i n g s a u s a g e t o u n ifo r m
c o m p r e s s io n a n d c o n s t a n t t e n s i o n by u s e o f t i g h t c a s i n g s o r m o ld s.
F a t c a p s , o r f r e e , u n e m u l s i f i e d f a t i s u s u a l l y e v id e n c e d a t t h e e n d s
o f s a u s a g e s o r a s a c o a t i n g on t h e body t h e s a u s a g e .
To a v o id f a t
c a p s , t h e f o r m u l a t i o n m u st be b a la n c e d a n d c o n t a i n s u f f i c i e n t
s o lu b i l iz e d p r o te in to e m u ls ify a l l f a t .
R e d u c in g r e l a t i v e h u m id ity
32
i n t h e sm o k e h o u se w i l l a l s o h e l p e l i m i n a t e s u r f a c e g r e a s e ( P r i c e and
S c h w e i g e r t s 1 9 7 1 ),
G e l a t i n on t h e e x t e r i o r o r i n p o c k e ts i n t h e
i n t e r i o r o f s a u s a g e , i s c a u s e d by h e a t i n g c o l l a g e n p a s t i t s
p o in t i n th e p re s e n c e o f m o is tu re .
tra n s itio n
T h is nJ e l l y w may be m in im iz e d by
r e s t r i c t i n g h ig h c o l l a g e n m e a ts o r by c o m m in u tio n .
L ess J e l l y i s
fo rm e d d u r in g d r y h e a t c o o k in g t h a n m o is t h e a t c o o k in g ( P r i c e and
S o h w e ig e r t,
1971)«
S u m m a ry
D i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n may h a v e p o t e n t i a l a s a hum an fo o d s o u r c e
o f p r o te in and f i b e r .
N u t r i t i o n a l a n a l y s e s h a v e show n h ig h p r o t e i n
a n d f i b e r l e v e l s and som e m i n e r a l s p r e s e n t i n t h e b r e w e r s s p e n t g r a i n .
S u c c e s s f u l i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h e s e n u t r i t i o n a l c o m p o n e n ts i n t o fo o d
p r o d u c t s d e p e n d s on t h e f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p r o t e i n .
F u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f DDG h a v e g e n e r a l l y b e e n p o o r c a u s i n g p o o r
t e x t u r e an d l o w e r v o lu m e i n b a k e d g o o d s.
C o lo r and f l a v o r c h a n g e s
h a v e a l s o d is c o u r a g e d s u b s t i t u t i o n o f DDG i n b ak ed p r o d u c t s .
Use o f
DDG i n o t h e r f o o d s y s te m s s u c h a s c o m m in u te d m e a t p r o d u c t s w i l l be
d e te r m in e d l a r g e l y by s o l u b i l i t y ,
p ro p e rtie s .
T h u s,
e m u l s if ic a t io n , and w a te r- b in d in g
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f b o th n u t r i t i o n a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l
p r o p e r tie s a r e im p o r ta n t i n f in d in g an o r g a n o le p tic a lly a p p e a lin g fo o d
u se f o r d i s t i l l e r s d rie d g ra in .
Such a p r o d u c t w o u ld h a v e
i m p l i c a t i o n s n o t i n o n ly i n s u p p le m e n tin g t h e w o r l d 's fo o d s u p p ly , b u t
i n s u b s id iz in g th e b io f u e l in d u s tr y a s w e ll.
33
CHAPTER 3
METHODS
D i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n (DDG) w as o b t a i n e d an d s u b j e c t e d , t o a
s e r i e s o f a n a l y s e s t o d e te r m i n e f u t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n an d a c c e p t a b i l i t y i n
m e a t s y s te m s .
N u t r i t i o n a l a n a ly s e s and d e te r m in a tio n o f c e r t a i n
f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s f o r b a r l e y - d e r i v e d DDG and m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s w e re
a c c o m p lis h e d th r o u g h p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d b e lo w .
M a te ria ls
D i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n w as o b t a i n e d fro m t h e A lc o te c b i o f u e l
p l a n t , S i n g l i n g , M ontana w h ic h u t i l i z e s 100% b a r l e y i n i t s
fe rm e n ta tio n p ro c e ss.
The d i s t i l l e r s g r a i n w as c e n t r i f u g e d t o
s e p a r a t e s p e n t g r a i n fro m t h e s t i l l a g e a n d t h e n d r i e d by a d i r e c t h e a te d
r o t a t i n g drum .
M i l l i n g w as p e rf o r m e d a t t h e M o n tan a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y C e r e a l
Q u a l i t y L a b o r a t o r y on a B u h le r m i l l a t 10% m o i s t u r e l e v e l .
p ro te in f lo u r o r f in e f r a c tio n ,
A h ig h
a c o a rs e b ra n f r a c t i o n and a s h o r ts
f r a c t i o n o f f i n e l y g ro u n d b r a n a n d a d h e r e n t e n d o sp e rm w e re o b t a i n e d
fro m t h e m i l l i n g p r o c e s s .
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e m i l l i n g d a t a f o r DDG show ed
a n a v e r a g e y i e l d o f 33% f l o u r ,
1 9 8 3 ).
32% b r a n an d 35% s h o r t s (M cG uire,
T h e se f r a c t i o n s a lo n g w i t h w h o le u n m il le d DDG w e re e v a lu a te d .
34
N u t r i t i o n a l A n a ly s is
P r o x im a te a n a l y s i s o f t h e w h o le DDG and f i n e , c o a r s e , and s h o r t s
m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s w e re p e rf o r m e d i n d u p l i c a t e .
AOAC, 1975 m e th o d s f o r
m o i s t u r e ( 1 4 .0 5 8 ) , a s h ( 1 4 .0 0 6 ) , c r u d e f i b e r ( 1 4 .0 6 0 ) , f a t ( 7 .0 4 5 ) ,
and p r o t e i n (2 .0 4 9 ) w e re u s e d .
A c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r o f 6.25 w as u s e d
t o c a l c u l a t e p r o t e i n p e r c e n ta g e fro m n i t r o g e n .
N e u t r a l and a c id
d e t e r g e n t f i b e r c o n t e n t w e re a n a ly z e d by t h e G o e rin g /V a n S o e s t m ethod
a d a p t e d f r o m t h e U.S.D.A. H a n d b o o k ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s w as p e rf o r m e d on DDG W hole an d F in e
s a m p le s by AAA L a b o r a to r y , 6206 8 9 th A venue, M e rc e r I s l a n d .
W a sh in g to n .
D io n e x A n a ly z e r s , M o d els D -500 and D -502 a n d B e c k m an -S p in co A n a ly z e r,
M odel 120B w e re u s e d t o d e te r m i n e a m in o a c i d c o m p o s itio n .
A ll
a n a l y z e r s u s e d t h e io n - e x c h a n g e c h r o m a to g r a p h ic m eth o d s d e v e lo p e d , by
Spackm an e t a l .
(1 9 5 8 ).
F u n c tio n a l P r o p e r tie s
F u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s i d e n t i f i e d f o r w h o le DDG and m i l l e d
f r a c t i o n s in c l u d e d p r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y , e m u l s i f y i n g c a p a c i t y and w a t e r ­
h o l d in g . c a p a c i t y .
P r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y o f DDG and m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s w e re
d e te r m i n e d by a .p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d by I n k l a a r and F o r t u i n (1969).
P ro te in
(2.5 g ) w as a d d e d t o 100 m l d i s t i l l e d
w a te r .
The pH w as
a d j u s t e d by a d d i t i o n o f NaOH o r HCl f o r a s o l u b i l i t y r a n g e fro m pH 2 t o
10.
The pH w as m e a s u re d on a M odel 12, C o rn in g pH M e te r.
The m ix tu r e
w as s t i r r e d f o r I h o u r a t a c o n t r o l l e d t e m p e r a t u r e o f 5 0 ° C and th e n
c e n trifu g e d .
P r o t e i n i n t h e s u p e r n a t a n t w as m e a su re d by t h e AACC
(1962) B i u r e t M ethod 4 6 -1 5 f o r w h e a t a n d o t h e r g r a i n s .
T h is w as
35
e x p re s s e d a s th e r a t i o o f w a te r s o lu b le p r o te in to t o t a l p r o te in tim e s
100.
The m eth o d o f Y a su m a tsu e t a l . (1 9 7 2 ) w as u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g
e m u ls ify in g a c t i v i t y .
P r o t e i n (1 .4 g) w as s u s p e n d e d i n w a t e r (20 m l),
a n d s p y o i l (20 m l) w as a d d e d .
T h is m i x t u r e w as b le n d e d a t h ig h s p e e d
i n a n O s t e r i z e r b l e n d e r f o r o n e m in u te .
The e m u ls io n w as d i v id e d i n t o
t h r e e 15 m l c e n t r i f u g e t u b e s an d c e n t r i f u g e d a t 3 »000 rpm f o r 5
m in u t e s .
The e m u l s i f y i n g a c t i v i t y w as c a l c u l a t e d a s
.BaAffht S f e m u l s i f i e d l a y e r (mm)
________
H e ig h t o f w h o le l a y e r i n c e n t r i f u g e tu b e
x 100
W a te r - b i n d in g c a p a c i t y w as m e a s u re d by t h e m eth o d d e s c r i b e d by
S m ith e t a l . (1973)«
E ach p r o t e i n a d d i t i v e ( I g) w as d i s p e r s e d i n t o 30
m l o f 3«55? HaCl s o l u t i o n ( t o a p p r o x im a te t h e s a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
c o m m e rc ia l f r a n k f u r t e r s ) .
c o o lin g ,
2 5 ° C.
1 0 5 ° C.
A f te r a g i t a t i o n , h e a tin g to 8 5 ° and
t h i s m i x t u r e w as c e n t r i f u g e d a t 5,000 rpm f o r 15 m in u te s a t
The p r o t e i n a d d i t i v e w as w e ig h e d an d t h e n d r i e d f o r 20 h o u r s a t
W a te r h o l d in g c a p a c i t y (WHC) w as e x p r e s s e d a s t h e r a t i o o f t h e
w e t w e ig h t o f t h e a d d i t i v e t o t h e d r y w e i g h t o f t h e a d d i t i v e .
P e r fo r m a n c e i n M eat P r o d u c ts
The p e r f o r m a n c e o f DDG and DDG m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s i n m e a t s y s te m s
w as e v a l u a t e d by o r g a n o l e p t i c e v a l u a t i o n o f s a u s a g e s u b s t i t u t e d a t
3.5 p e r c e n t l e v e l s .
A m ild ly seaso n ed P o lis h sa u sa g e f o rm u la tio n
( T a b le I) w as u t i l i z e d s o t h e e f f e c t o f DDG a d d i t i o n on f l a v o r c o u ld
be e v a lu a te d .
The b o n e le s s p o r k b u t t c o n ta i n e d a p p r o x i m a t e ly 30% f a t .
The p r o t e i n e x t e n d e r w as r e p l a c e d by d i s t i l l e r s
fin e ,
c o a rse
and
s h o rts
m ille d
fra c tio n s .
d r i e d g r a i n an d
Soy p r o t e i n
is o la te
36
o b ta in e d
fro m R ic h a rd S. K u ta s Company,
c o n tro l.
New York w as u t i l i z e d
as th e
T he e x t e n d e r i s a d d e d a t t h e 3 . 5 $ l e v e l a l l o w e d by F e d e r a l
re g u la tio n s .
The m e a t w as g ro u n d th r o u g h a 1 /4 " g r i n d e r p l a t e and a l l
t h e f a t m e a t th r o u g h a 1 /8 " g r i n d e r p l a t e .
hand u n t i l e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d
i n t o 4 0 -4 2 MM hog c a s i n g s .
I n g r e d i e n t s w e re m ixed by
( t h r e e m in u te s ) .
The m ix t u r e w as s t u f f e d
Sm oking w as p e rfo rm e d by a c o m m e rc ia l m eat
p ro c e sso r.
T a b le I .
P o l i s h S a u sa g e F o r m u la tio n
In g re d ie n t
O p ^ n t it y (G ram s)
B o n e le s s p o rk b u t t s
2 kg
I c e w a te r
I pt
P r o te in e x te n d e r
68 g
S a lt
50 g
Sugar
5.6 g
C ure (P ra g u e P ow der #2)
I g
B la c k P e p p e r (C o a rs e g ro u n d )
5.5 g
G a rlic
I l a r g e bud
( F re s h )
M a rjo ra m
I g
M o d ifie d fro m K u ta s , 1976
E m u ls io n s t a b i l i t y
d e s c r i b e d by L in e t a l .
i n b o i l i n g w a t e r w as m ea su red by t h e m ethod
(1 9 7 4 ).
H a lf s a u s a g e s w e re b o i l e d f o r t w e n ty -
f i v e m in u te s i n 200 m l d i s t i l l e d w a t e r .
C ooking w a t e r w as e v a p o r a te d
37
and r e m a in i n g f a t w as m e a s u re d .
P e r c e n t c o o k in g l o s s w as t a b u l a t e d f o r
each sa u sa g e .
C o lo r a n a l y s i s w as p e rf o r m e d on t h e A g tro n M-500 A c o l o r a n a l y z e r
(M agnuson E n g in e e r in g ,
I n c .,
San J o s e ,
CA)1. R e a d in g s w e re t a k e n a t
t h e r e d s p e c t r a l m e a s u re m e n t u t i l i z i n g a 640 n a n o m e te r l i n e o f neon.
T e x tu re
E v a lu a tio n
T e x tu r e w as a n a ly z e d on co oked s a u s a g e w i t h o u t c a s i n g s u s in g t h e
W a r n e r - B r a t z l e r S h e a r T e s t e r (G.R. E l e c t r i c M a n u f a c tu r in g Company,
1317 C o l l i n s L ane,
M a n h a tta n , KS 6 6 5 0 2 )1.
t h e .5 i n c h c o r e b o r e r .
S a m p le s w e re p r e p a r e d w i t h
P e n e t r a t i o n o f a 20 g c o n e a n d 4 7 .5 g t e s t
r o d i n 5 s e c o n d s w as t a k e n w i t h a U n i v e r s a l P e n e tr o m e t e r ( P r e c i s i o n
S c i e n t i f i c Company,
N u tr itio n a l
3737 W. C o r t la n d , C h ic a g o , IL
6 0 6 4 7 )1.
E v a lu a tio n
T o t a l p r o t e i n o f t h e u n c o o k ed s a u s a g e w as a n a ly z e d u s i n g t h e AOAC
(1975) K j e l d a h l m eth o d .
M o is tu r e ,
a s h a n d e t h e r e x t r a c t w e re a l s o
m e a s u re d by AOAC (1975) m e th o d s.
O rg a n o le p tic
E v a lu a tio n
O r g a n o le p t ic e v a l u a t i o n w as p e rf o r m e d by 8 u n t r a i n e d p a n e ls
c o n s is tin g o f 8 p a n e lis ts each.
o f t h e p a n e l i s t s w e re m a le .
1M e n tio n
e n d o rse m e n t
n a tu r e .
by
o f
firm
nam e
M o n ta n a
a
S ta te
A ges ra n g e d fro m 18 t o 63.
E ig h te e n
T e s t i n g w as p e rfo rm e d i n p a r t i t i o n e d
o r
p ro d u c t
d o e s
n o t
U n iv e rs ity
o v e r
o th e r s
c o n s titu te
o f
a
s im
ila r
38
b o o th s l i g h t e d w i t h 25 w a t t r e d b u lb s .
4 p.m.
P a n e ls w e re h e l d b e tw e e n I and
S a u s a g e s a m p le s w e re c u t i n 2 cm s l i c e s , p re c o o k e d t o 1 5 0 ° F
an d r e h e a t e d i n a m ic ro w a v e o v e n f o r t e s t i n g .
S a m p le s w e r e co d ed w i t h
ra n d o m ly s e l e c t e d t h r e e d i g i t n u m b ers a n d w e re r o t a t e d s o e a c h s a m p le
h a d e q u a l e x p o s u re i n t h e f i r s t p o s i t i o n .
S a m p le s w e re s c o r e d u s in g a
h e d o n ic s c a l e ( s e e A p p en d ix A) o f l i k e d e x tr e m e l y (9 p o i n t s ) t o
d i s l i k e d e x tr e m e l y (I p o i n t ) .
O ne-w ay a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e and LSD
a t .05 w as p e rf o r m e d t o f i n d s i g n i f i c a n c e b e tw e e n t h e s c o r e s .
39
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nutritional Analysis
R e s u l t s o f t h e p r o x im a te a n a l y s e s a r e show n I n T a b le 2 .
The
m i l l e d DDG f r a c t i o n s had a p r o t e i n r a n g e fro m 20$ f o r t h e s h o r t s
f r a c t i o n t o 41$ f o r t h e f i n e f r a c t i o n .
W hole DDG c o n ta i n e d 26$
p r o t e i n w h ic h i s d o u b le t h e p r o t e i n c o n t e n t i n b a r l e y g r a i n .
P ro te in
c o n te n t w as much lo w e r i n a l l o f t h e DDG f r a c t i o n s t h a n i n t h e soy
i s o l a t e c o n t r o l w h ic h c o n ta i n e d 67$ p r o t e i n .
The f i n e m i l l e d f r a c t i o n
d i s p l a y e d t h e l o w e s t a s h and f i b e r v a l u e s o f t h e DDG s a m p le s (3.3$ and
9.3$ r e s p e c t i v e l y ) and t h e h i g h e s t l i p i d
v a lu e (4 .2 $ ).
The a s h
c o n t e n t w as much h i g h e r t h a n t h e .5$ maximum s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r b re a d
f l o u r o r 1.5$ s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r b a r l e y f l o u r ( M atz, 1 9 5 9 ).
The l i p i d
c o n t e n t w as s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e 3$ s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r b a r l e y
T a b le 2
P ro x im a te A n a ly s is o f W hole DDG and M ille d F r a c t i o n s ^
t
Protein Additive
Protein
a. a.
t
Dry Matter
t
t
t
t
iah
a.a.
I
Ether
Eztraot
Crude Fiber
a.a.
ADF
WDF
Whole DDOa
25.70
95.3
3.7
3.t5
16.65
28.3
59.5
Fine DDQ Fraction
AO.7 5
93.9
3.3
t .20
9.30
26.9
3 t.l
Coarse DDO Fraction
26.00
96.5
3.8
3.90
17.15
29.1
57.1
3.8
t.10
19.9
29.2
65.5
.7
t.t
6.0
Staorta DDQ Fraction
20.00
9t.5
Soy Isolate Control
67.00
95.8
1Eaob value la the mean of duplloat# staples.
t
40
flo u r.
The so y i s o l a t e c o n ta i n e d m uch l e s s f i b e r a n d l i p i d t h a n d id
t h e DDG s a m p le s .
s a m p le s .
A cid d e t e r g e n t v a l u e s w e re s i m i l a r f o r a l l DDG
The f i n e DDG f r a c t i o n w as l o w e r i n n e u t r a l d e t e r g e n t f i b e r
t h a n t h e o t h e r DDG m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s w h ic h c o n ta i n e d m o re b r a n .
As
b r a n c o n t a i n s a h ig h p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e h e m i c e l l u l o s e o f a g r a i n ,
n e u t r a l d e t e r g e n t f i b e r f i g u r e s w e re h i g h e r f o r b r a n c o n t a i n i n g
fra c tio n s .
Amino a c i d a n a l y s e s f o r w h o le DDG and F in e DDG a r e show n i n
T a b le 3 .
g ra in s .
L y s in e i s t h e l i m i t i n g a m in o a c i d a s i t i s i n m o st c e r e a l
The o t h e r e s s e n t i a l am in o a c i d s a r e p r e s e n t i n a m o u n ts
s i m i l a r t o t h e FAO r e f e r e n c e p r o t e i n .
F u n c tio n a l P r o p e r tie s '
F u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T a b le 4 .
T o ta l
p r o t e i n a n d s o l u b i l i t y d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e tw e e n a l l s a m p le s .
Even th o u g h t h e f i n e f r a c t i o n h ad a lm o s t d o u b le t h e p r o t e i n o f o t h e r
DDG f r a c t i o n s , t h e p r o t e i n w as n o t v e r y w a t e r s o l u b l e .
The so y
i s o l a t e c o n t r o l c o n ta i n e d m ore t h a n t h r e e t i m e s t h e s o l u b l e p r o t e i n i n
t h e DDG s a m p le s .
As s o l u b i l i t y r e f l e c t s d e n a t u r e t i o n o f p r o t e i n
( K i n s e l l a , 1 9 7 6 ), t h e lo w s o l u b i l i t y v a l u e s may be t h e r e s u l t o f t h e
p r o c e s s i n g t h e p r o t e i n h a s u n d e rg o n e .
From t h e lo w s o l u b i l i t y l e v e l s
fo u n d i n t h e DDG f r a c t i o n s , i t c o u ld be a ssu m e d t h a t f u n c t i o n a l
p r o p e r t i e s , s u c h a s e m u l s i f i c a t i o n , g e l a t i o n , and fo a m in g c a p a c i t y ,
a r e so m e w h at r e s t r i c t e d
(K in s e lla ,
1 9 7 6 ).
T a b le 3
A m in o
A c id
A n a ly s is *
Amino A cid
o f
W h o le
FAO R e fe re n c e * *
P ro te in
m g/g N
B a rle y
W hole
DDG
m g/g N
DDG
an d
F in e
$ FAO
P ro te in
M ille d
F ra c tio n
F in e
DDG
m g/g N
$ FAO
P ro te in
E s s e n t i a l Amino A c id s :
Is o le u c in e
L e u c in e
L y s in e
M e th io n in e * * *
an d t y r o s i n e
P h e n y l a l a n in e
T h re o n in e
V a lin e
250
440
340
267
491
189
220
380
250
310
86
107
112
56
120
177
363
233
305
142
93
98
265
478
159
108
192
380
213
294
106
109
47
136
151
85
95
N o n e s s e n ti a l Amino A c id s :
A la n in e
A r g in in e
A s p a r t i c A cid
G lu ta m ic a c i d
G ly c in e
H is tid in e
P ro lin e
S e r in e
T o ta l
242
213
328
349
179
189
125
872
230
313
192
159
118
948
251
251
3440
5820
• 2 4 - h o u r 6 N-HCL h y d r o l y s i s § 1 1 0 ° C; s e r i n e i n c r e a s e d by 10$
an d t h r e o n i n e i n c r e a s e d by 5$ t o c o m p e n s a te f o r d e s t r u c t i o n by a c i d .
I c r y s t a l o f p h e n o l ad d ed b e f o r e a c i d h y d r o l y s i s .
** P r o v i s i o n a l a m in o a c i d p a t t e r n f o r s c o r i n g p r o t e i n q u a l i t y
b a s e d o n e s s e n t i a l a m in o a c i d n e e d s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d (WHO,
1973)
* •* Found a s m e th io n in e s u l f o x i d e .
42
Table 4
F u n c t io n a l P r o p e r t i e s o f DDG and M ille d F r a c t i o n s
P r o t e i n A d d itiv e
T o ta l
P ro te in 1
P ro te in
S o lu b ility 2
W a te r - h o ld in g
C a p a c ity 3
E m u ls if y in g
C a p a c ity 4
%
(N=2)
(N=4)
(N=4)
(N=3)
DDG W hole
26a
1. 2 ®
4 .9 ab
0
DDG F in e
4 lb
1.8 b
4 .7 *
0
DDG C o a rs e
26°
1.5d
4 .5 a
0
DDG S h o r t s
20 d
5 .5 bc
0
Soy I s o l a t e
C o n tr o l
67.5®
—
0
5.9®
1K j e ld a h l A n a ly s is
2
Amount o f s o l u b l e p r o t e i n fo u n d a t n a t u r a l pH o f 3 .9 by AACC (1 9 6 2 )
B i u r e t M ethod
3 M ethod by S m ith e t a l . (1 9 7 3 ), e x p r e s s e d a s r a t i o o f w e t w t / d r y w t.
ltM ethod by Y a su m a tsu e t a l . (1 9 7 2 ). No e m u l s i f y i n g c a p a c i t y w as
m e a s u r e a b le a t t h e n a t u r a l pH o f t h e DDG f r a c t i o n s by t h i s m eth o d .
a b c d e M eans l n t h e aam e co lu m n w i t h u n l i k e s u p e r s c r i p t s a r e
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t (p < 0 . 0 5 ) .
S o l u b i l i t y p r o f i l e s ( F ig u r e 3) show ed a n i n c r e a s e i n s o l u b l e
p r o t e i n a s pH i n c r e a s e d .
S o l u b i l i t y w as l o w e s t a t pH 4 w h ic h i s c l o s e
t o t h e n a t u r a l pH o f t h e DDG f r a c t i o n s .
a l s o n o te d a t pH 2 .
K i n s e l l a (1 9 7 6 ).
An i n c r e a s e i n s o l u b i l i t y w as
T h ese f i n d i n g s w e re s i m i l a r t o t h o s e fo u n d by
As m o st m e a t p r o d u c t s h a v e a pH b e tw e e n 5 - 6 ,
th e
i n c r e a s e i n s o l u b l e p r o t e i n a t h i g h e r pH l e v e l s w o u ld h a v e l i t t l e
a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n m e a t p r o d u c ts .
43
F ig u re 3
P ro te in
S o lu b ility
P r o t e i n S o l u b i l i t y ^ o f DDG and Soy C o n tr o l a s a F u n c t io n o f Pb
KEY:
• DDG
V DDG
D DDG
O DDG
O Soy
1M ethod by I n k l a a r and F o r t u i n ( 1 9 6 9 ) .
Whole
F in e
Coarse
S h o rts
I s o l a t e C on trol
W a te r - b i n d in g c a p a c i t y w as h i g h e s t i n t h e s o y i s o l a t e a n d DDG
s h o rts m ille d f r a c tio n .
The h i g h e r w a t e r - b i n d i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e so y
i s o l a t e c o n t r o l c a n be e x p la i n e d by i t s h i g h e r p r o t e i n c o n t e n t a s
w a t e r - b i n d i n g i n c r e a s e s w i t h p r o t e i n c o n t e n t (F le m in g e t a l . ,
1 9 7 5 ).
D e n a t u r a t i o n a l s o e n h a n c e s w a t e r - b i n d i n g c a p a c i t y (H uffm an e t a l . ,
1975 ) w h ic h e x p l a i n s t h e h i g h e r v a l u e f o r t h e DDG s h o r t s f r a c t i o n .
A ll s a m p le s d i s p l a y e d s i m i l a r w a t e r b i n d i n g c a p a c i t y t o o t h e r p r o t e i n
a d d i t i v e s t e s t e d by S m ith e t a l . (1 9 7 3 )«
No e m u l s i f i c a t i o n c a p a c i t y w as e x h i b i t e d by any o f t h e s a m p le s
in c lu d in g th e soy p r o te i n i s o l a t e .
The so y i s o l a t e d i d fo rm a m ilk y
e m u ls io n t h a t d i d n o t r e m a in s t a b l e a f t e r c e n t r i f u g a t i o n .
f a t g l o b u l e s r e m a in e d u n m ix e d i n a l l o f t h e DDG s a m p le s .
e t a l.
L a rg e
K o iv u rin ta
(1 9 8 0 ) fo u n d t h e sam e r e s u l t s u s i n g b r e w e r s d r i e d g r a i n s .
Non­
f a t d r i e d m i l k w as t e s t e d an d h ad a n e m u ls io n c a p a c i t y o f 35
( h e i g h t o f e m u l s i o n / h e i g h t o f w h o le l a y e r X 1 0 0 ).
W hole DDG a t a
pH o f 10 w as a l s o t e s t e d an d d e m o n s tr a te d a e m u ls io n c a p a c i t y o f
15.
T h is f i n d i n g a g r e e s w i t h w o rk by C a r p e n te r and S a f f l e (1964)
t h a t d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t e m u l s i f i c a t i o n i n c r e a s e d w i t h p r o t e i n
s o lu b ility .
T h e se t e s t s show ed t h a t d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n w o u ld n o t
b e a v a l u a b l e e m u l s i f i e r i n m e a t s y s te m s .
DDG e x h i b i t e d e m u l s i f y i n g
c a p a c i t y o n ly a t a h i g h pH n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o m e a t p r o d u c t s .
S a u s a g e s w e re a n a ly z e d f o r p r o t e i n ,
( T a b le 5 ),
m o is tu re , a sh , and f a t
The f i n e f r a c t i o n and s o y i s o l a t e c o n t r o l h ad c o m p a r a b le
p r o te i n and m o is tu re l e v e l s .
The h i g h e r p r o t e i n l e v e l o f t h e s e
s a u s a g e s r e f l e c t th e h ig h e r p r o te in c o n te n t o f th e e x te n d e r i t s e l f .
The f i n e f r a c t i o n h a d t h e l o w e s t v a l u e f o r e t h e r e x t r a c t a n d h i g h e s t
45
v a lu e f o r a sh .
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o o k in g l o s s e s w e re
fo u n d b e tw e e n t h e DDG s a u s a g e s and t h e s o y s a u s a g e s .
T h is i s n o t
s u r p r i s i n g a s none o f t h e s a m p le s e x h i b i t e d e m u l s i f y i n g c a p a c i t y .
A
good e m u l s i f i e r w o u ld p r e v e n t m o i s t u r e an d f a t l o s s d u r in g c o o k in g by
b o u n d in g f a t m o le c u le s w i t h a p r o t e i n c o a t .
t h e DDG s a u s a g e s t h a n i n t h e so y s a u s a g e s .
C o lo r w as much d a r k e r i n
The DDG f i n e f r a c t i o n
s a u s a g e s h ad t h e d a r k e s t r e a d i n g s on t h e A g tro n c o l o r a n a l y z e r .
The
f i n e f r a c t i o n a l s o had t h e h i g h e s t a s h c o n t e n t w h ic h o f t e n i s a n
i n d i c a t o r o f f l o u r g r a d e (M a tz ,
1 9 5 9 ).
Ash c o n t e n t o f s a u s a g e d i d n o t
c o r r e la t e w ith ash c o n te n t o f th e m ille d f r a c ti o n s .
T a b le 5
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f P o l i s h S a u s a g e Made w i t h DDG and M ille d F r a c t i o n s
P ro te in
A d d itiv e
P ro te in 1
M o is tu r e
%
%
C ooking L o s s 2
C o lo r 3
%
(N=2)
(N=2)
2 7 .5 °
8*
37°
20.5*
10 *
30*
(N=3)
(N=3)
1 6 .9 °
5 5 .I ab
CO
DDG C o a rse
13.3*
4 9 .3 d
2.7 a
3 0 .4 d
13a
CO
DDG S h o r ts
1 5 .I b
55.6 a
2 .8 b
2 2 .5 b
10 *
34b
Soy I s o l a t e 1 6 .3 °
5 4 . Ob
7a
51d
O
O
2 3 .9b
CO
CU
DDG F in e
O
5 1 .6 °
O
13.8*
O
DDG W hole
LU
(N=2)
E th e r
E x tra c t
a
0S
(N=2)
Ash
%
1P r o x im a te a n a l y s i s by AOAC m eth o d s ( 1 9 7 5 ) .
2M ethod by L in e t a l . ( 1 9 7 5 ) .
^ A g tro n M500, r e d s e t t i n g
a b 5 d M eans i n t h e sam e co lu m n w i t h u n l i k e s u p e r s c r i p t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
d i f f e r e n t a t p < .0 5 .
46
T e x tu r e w as m e a su re d by t h e U n i v e r s a l P r e c i s i o n P e n e tr o m e t e r and
W a r n e r - B r a t z l e r S h e a r T e s t e r (T a b le 6 ).
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
w e re n o te d i n t h e W a r n e r - B r a t z l e r S h e a r t e s t i n g ,
ev e n i n t h e
c o m m e rc ia l s a m p le o f P o l i s h s a u s a g e t h a t w as i n c l u d e d i n t h e t e s t i n g .
H ow ever,
t h e p e n e t r o m e t e r show ed l e s s p e n e t r a t i o n i n t h e so y i s o l a t e
s a m p le i n d i c a t i n g a h a r d e r s a u s a g e .
had t h e g r e a t e s t p e n e t r a t i o n .
The DDG f i n e and c o a r s e s a m p le s
K o i v u r in t a e t a l .
(1980) had fo u n d t h e
BDG s a u s a g e t o be h a r d e r t h a n t h e i r c o n t r o l s a u s a g e .
A d d itio n o f
w a t e r and f a t s o f t e n e d t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f s a u s a g e i n t h e i r s tu d y .
The d a t a was i n s u f f i c i e n t i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y t o c o r r e l a t e f a t and
w a te r c o n te n t to sa u sa g e h a rd n e s s .
TABLE
T e x tu re
S a u s a g e S am ple
A n a ly s is
o f
P e n e tr o m e t e r
(N=IO)
6
S a u sa g e
E x te n d e d
w ith
DDG
W a rn e r-B ra tz le r S h ear T e s te r
(N=12)
DDG w hole
41b
1 . 66 *
DDG f i n e
44Cd
2 .0 7 *
DDG c o a r s e
46d
1 .4 7 *
DDG s h o r t s
42cb
2 .1 7 *
Soy i s o l a t e
39a
1 .3 3 *
C om m ercial
1 .7 4 *
a b c d ^ e a n s i n t h e sam e co lu m n w i t h u n l i k e s u p e r s c r i p t s a r e
s ig n if ic a n tly d i f f e r e n t a t p < .0 5 .
47
In o rg a n o le p tic t e s t in g
( T a b le 7)» t h e p a n e l i s t s show ed a s l i g h t
p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e so y e x te n d e d s a u s a g e .
The s a u s a g e c o n t a i n i n g
m i l l e d DDG f r a c t i o n s h ad a m ean s c o r e r a t i n g o f 5 ( n e i t h e r l i k e d n o r
d is lik e d ).
The s a u s a g e c o n t a i n i n g d i f f e r e n t m i l l e d DDG f r a c t i o n s
r e c e i v e d s i m i l a r r a t i n g s ( T a b le 8 ).
The so y i s o l a t e c o n t r o l w i t h a
m ean o f 7 ( l i k e d m o d e r a te ly ) w as s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t fro m t h e DDG
s a m p le s .
S e v e ra l p a n e li s ts e x p re sse d a p re fe re n c e f o r s p i c i e r sau sag e
w h ic h may a c c o u n t f o r t h e l o w e r s c o r e s .
a c c e p ta b ility o f sau sag e.
DDG a d d i t i o n s l i g h t l y lo w e re d
As t h e p a n e l w as c o n d u c te d u n d e r r e d
l i g h t s , s a u s a g e w as r a t e d o n ly on t e x t u r e and t a s t e a n d n o t c o l o r o r
a p p e ara n ce .
M i l l i n g d i d n o t seem t o a f f e c t t h e r a t i n g e v e n th o u g h
m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s v a r i e d i n p r o t e i n c o n t e n t , f i b e r an d o t h e r f u n c t i o n a l
p ro p e rtie s .
T a b le 7
M ean
S c o re s
o f
T a s te
E x te n d e d
Panel
N
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
8
8
8
9
8
7
8
8
6
6
5
6
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
Mean
8
5
5
DDG
W h o le
P a n e l
w ith
DDG
F in e
6
6
5
R a tin g s 1
DDG
M ille d
DDG
o f
P o lis h
C o a rse
DDG
S h o rts
Soy
I s o la te
6
5
5
7
6
7
5
5
5
4
4
6
5
5
5
7
S a u sa g e
F ra c tio n s
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6
5
5
7
1 R a te d on a h e d o n ic s c a l e fro m I ( d i s l i k e e x tr e m e ly ) t o 9 ( l i k e
e x tre m e ly ).
a b M eans w i t h u n l i k e s u p e r s c r i p t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
(p
< 0 .0 5 ) .
48
T a b le 8
A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e T a b le f o r T a s te P a n e l R a tin g s o f DDG P o l i s h S a u s a g e
S o u rc e o f
V a ria tio n
D e g re e s o f
Freedom
Sum o f
S q u a re s
Mean o f
S q u a re
4
11.82
2.955
W ith in
35
1 7 .6 6
T o ta l
39
2 9 .4 8
B e tw e e n
F -V a lu e
5.857 •
.05046
*F v a lu e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t p < 0 .0 5 .
Conclusions
The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n w o u ld p o s s e s s a d e q u a te
n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s t o m ake them a v a l u a b l e a d d i t i o n t o hum an fo o d
s y s te m s w as a c c e p t e d .
D i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n d i d p o s s e s s tw o
n u t r i t i o n a l l y b e n e f i c i a l c o m p o n e n ts , f i b e r a n d p r o t e i n .
The f i n e
m i l l e d DDG f r a c t i o n w o u ld c o n t r i b u t e t h e m o st p r o t e i n h a v in g a lm o s t
d o u b le t h e p r o t e i n o f o t h e r m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s .
Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s
r e v e a l e d w h o le and f i n e DDG f r a c t i o n s t o be d e f i c i e n t i n l y s i n e h a v in g
o n ly 50# o f t h e FAO r e f e r e n c e p r o t e i n .
A lth o u g h a h ig h l y s i n e c o n te n t
i s n o t a n e c e s s a ry c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m eat a d d itiv e s , i t i s im p o rta n t
f o r a n a d d i t i v e i n c e r e a l p r o d u c t s w h ic h a r e l y s i n e d e f i c i e n t .
F u r t h e r t e s t i n g o f p r o t e i n q u a l i t y o f DDG n e e d s t o be d o n e.
The o t h e r
m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s ( s h o r t s an d c o a r s e f r a c t i o n s ) w o u ld be b e n e f i c i a l i n
a d d in g f i b e r t o f o o d s .
The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n and m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s
w o u ld d i s p l a y f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s t h a t w o u ld make them s u i t a b l e f o r
49
i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o m e a t p r o d u c t s w as r e j e c t e d .
W a te r s o l u b i l i t y o f
p r o t e i n w as lo w , i n c r e a s i n g o n ly a t v e r y b a s i c o r a c i d pH l e v e l s .
T h is p o o r s o l u b i l i t y a f f e c t e d e m u l s i f y i n g c a p a c i t y .
a c t i v i t y w as e x h i b i t e d by an y o f t h e DDG s a m p le s .
No e m u l s i f y i n g
DDG f r a c t i o n s m ig h t
b e u s e f u l a s m e a t f i l l e r s a s w a t e r b i n d in g c a p a c i t y w as s i m i l a r t o
s c o r e s o f o th e r p r o te in e x te n d e rs .
The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t d i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n and m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s
fro m b a r l e y w o u ld p e rf o r m a d e q u a t e ly a s a n e m u l s i f i e r i n a b a s i c
s a u s a g e f o r m u l a t i o n w as r e j e c t e d .
O v e r a l l , a c c e p t a b i l i t y w as s l i g h t l y
l o w e r f o r t h e DDG s a u s a g e t h a n t h e so y i s o l a t e
c o n tro l sa u sa g e .
S a u s a g e s w i t h DDG and m i l l e d f r a c t i o n s r e c e i v e d a n e u t r a l r a t i n g by
p a n e l i s t s w h i l e t h e s o y s a u s a g e w as l i k e d m o d e r a te ly .
s a u sa g e s w ere s l i g h t l y l e s s f ir m
The DDG
t h a n t h e so y c o n t r o l s a u s a g e .
The
f i n e f r a c t i o n h a d t h e m o re f a v o r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m i l l e d
fra c tio n s .
S a u s a g e w i t h t h e f i n e f r a c t i o n an d s o y i s o l a t e w e re
s i m i l a r i n c o m p o s i ti o n , c o o k in g l o s s ,
and te x t u r e ,
b u t v a rie d
c o n s id e ra b ly i n c o lo r.
D i s t i l l e r d rie d g r a in does r e p r e s e n t a p o te n tia l so u rc e o f f ib e r
a n d p r o t e i n f o r hum an c o n s u m p tio n .
DDG's
a p p lic a tio n i n m eat
p r o d u c t s , h o w e v e r, i s l i m i t e d by l a c k o f a d e q u a te f u n c t i o n a l
p ro p e rtie s .
F in d in g a way t o im p ro v e p r o t e i n s o l u b i l i t y a n d o t h e r
f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f d i s t i l l e r d r i e d g r a i n w o u ld g r e a t l y e n h a n ce
th e p r o b a b ility o f i t s
u t i l i z a t i o n i n hum an fo o d p r o d u c t s .
50
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A m e ric a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f C e r e a l C h e m is ts .
S t . P a u l, MN, 1 9 6 2 .
A s s o c ia tio n
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A n a l y s is
O f f ic ia l
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A n a ly tic a l
C h e m is ts
W a sh in g to n ,
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T h e s is , M o n tan a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1980.
T se n , C., E y e s to n e , W., & W eber, J . D i s t i l l e r s d r i e d g r a i n s w i t h
s o l u b l e s — t h e r u s e a s a b a k e ry i n g r e d i e n t an d n u t r i e n t v a l u e .
, Jo u rn a l
JPood S c i e n c e , 1 9 8 2 , I Z ( 2 ) , 6 8 4 -6 8 5 .
U.S.D.A. J R e g u la tio n s U o v e riH ing M eat I n s p e c t i o n .
U.S. G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 77.
W a s h in g to n ^ D .C .:
WHO/FAO. E n e rg y an d p r o t e i n r e q u i r e m e n t s (WHO T e c h n ic a l R e p o rt
S e r i e s No. 5 2 2 ) . G en ev a, S w i t z e r l a n d , 1 9 7 3 .
W i l l s , R. & K a b i r u l l a , M. U se o f s u n f l o w e r p r o t e i n i n s a u s a g e s .
J o u r n a l o f f o o d JS o ie n c e . 19 8 1 , M $ 1 6 5 7 -1 6 5 8 .
Y a s u m a t s u , K., S a v a d a , K ., M o ri t a k a , S ., M i s a k i , M., T o d a , J . ,
W ada, T., & I s h h , K. A g r i c u l t u r a l an d B i o l o g i c a l C h e m is tr v f 1972,
3 £ (5), 719.
55
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Nutritional and functional characteristi
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Nutritional and
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