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Table of Contents
Photo courtesy: http://syntheticbiology.org/
How are scientists thinking mechanistically in the 21st century?…………………………………1
Lesson 1: Introduction to Scratch…………………………………………………………5
Scratch Resources (not provided)………………………………………………...X
Lesson 2: Case Study of Jay Keasling…………………………………………………….6
Case Study of Jay Keasling………………………………………………………..8
Lesson 3: Mechanistic Thinking…………………………………………………………10
Designing a New Microbe……………………………………………………….12
Organism Cards…………………………………………………………………13
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
How are scientists thinking
mechanistically in the 21st century?
Photo courtesy: http://syntheticbiology.org/
Understanding Goals
• The rapid advancement of technology and the accumulation of information are changing
the patterns of scientific thinking and research in the 21st century.
• Designing and creating novel organisms by combining various biological components
from different cells is one way scientists think mechanistically in the 21st century.
• Designing and creating Scratch projects using graphical programming blocks is one way
students can display mechanistic thinking.
• Identifying characteristics of successful scientist and their thinking patterns, help us
become better (science) students by applying these skills to our own learning.
Background Information
Beyond the Scientific Method
The scientific method has been commonly taught in science classrooms and textbooks as the
only correct way to conduct scientific investigations. This leaves students with the impression
that all of science proceeds in much the same way. Unfortunately, this view is not entirely
accurate. Perhaps some scientists might conduct their work in this manner, but rarely do they use
it in the stereotyped, step-by-step way that schools tend to teach it—despite the fact that
scientists report their work in this way in journals.
In fact, scientists throughout history conduct their research in a variety of ways. The exact
approach a scientist uses depends on the individual doing the investigation as well as the
particular question or problem being studied. Furthermore, scientists often engage in thinking
patterns that are specific to its particular socio-cultural context
21st Century Scientific Thinking Skills
With the explosion of advancements in scientific knowledge and technology at the turn of the
century, scientists at the cutting edge of research must adapt to new ways of interacting with
their work. Five prominent scientific thinking patterns of the 21st century are: systems thinking,
mechanistic thinking, interdisciplinary thinking, quantitative thinking, and distributed thinking1.
In this lesson, students will explore what mechanistic thinking.
Mechanistic Thinking
It is a way of thinking that has a mechanical or engineering undertone. This is shown through
scientists’ modular, synthetic, and purpose-driven approach towards their research problems.
Due to recent developments in new technologies and knowledge, scientists are able to
manipulate biology more directly, allowing them to engineer and create novel biological systems
for practical applications.
1
Liu, Y-T. D., & Grotzer, T. A. (2009). Looking forward: Teaching the nature of the science of today and tomorrow. In I. M.
Saleh, & M. S. Khine (Eds.), Fostering scientific habits of mind: Pedagogical knowledge and best practices in science education
(pp. 9-36). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
1
What is Synthetic Biology?
The thinking involved in the field of synthetic biology is the best examples of mechanistic
thinking. With the rapidly emerging field of synthetic biology, blurring the lines of biology and
engineering, scientists are no longer limited to working with organisms that naturally exist in the
world. Scientists often think synthetically by re-designing and constructing new organisms for
practical and novel applications.
Synthetic biology is an extension of genetic engineering. Some even describe it as a more
sophisticated version of genetic engineering, taking into account a broader rational design
perspective2. The engineering influence seeks out the simplicity in biological systems, and brings
standardization and modular design principles to biology.
Synthetic biologists can use interchangeable parts from natural biology to assemble systems that
function in new ways, never existing before in living systems, hence synthetic. Modular circuit
components (e.g. metabolic enzymes or fluorescent output genes) that are well characterized and
can act independently of other cellular processes are used to build synthetic biological circuits.
Much like the ease of using LEGO bricks—standardized bricks that can attach to any other
part—synthetic biology starts from the use of standardized biological building blocks.
The goal of synthetic biology is to both better understand how organisms function at the DNA,
protein, and cell level by creating artificial biological systems, and to solve important real-world
problems, the latter having caught the attention of scientists, politicians, and entrepreneurs.
Promising fields of application include energy, environmental monitoring and remediation,
biotech and pharmaceuticals, and materials fabrication.
As pointed out in the detailed case study of Jay Keasling (one of the pioneers of synthetic
biology), another key difference between synthetic biology and genetic engineering, is the
complexity of products or task the engineered organism can produce and accomplish. Genetic
engineering is typically limited to having microbes produce small proteins (e.g. insulin, growth
hormones) by simply inserting a single gene, from a different organism, into a microbe.
However, with synthetic biology, a complex interaction of several genes can be produced in a
specified sequence, much like what goes on in a chemical plant: petroleum goes in, and after a
whole chain of reactions, plastic comes out.
Scratch
Scratch (http://scratch.mit.edu) is a programming language for young people (ages 8 and up) that
makes it easy to create interactive projects (e.g. stories, animations, games, simulations, music,
and art) that can be shared on the Scratch website. It is highly conducive to learning and teaching
21st century scientific thinking skills.
The Scratch grammar is designed so that users are presented with a versatile collection of
graphical programming blocks that they can be snapped together to create programs, much like
LEGO bricks (and synthetic biology!). Connectors on the blocks suggest how they should be put
together so that over the process of tinkering with these blocks, the emerging structure can give
rise to new ideas and direction to the project. Not only does snapping together complimentary
blocks provide an easy way into learning programming, but the idea of modularization as a
problem-solving and design strategy is directly relevant to mechanistic thinking.
2
Salisbury, M.W. (2006). Get Ready for Synthetic Biology. Genome Technology Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.genome
technology.com.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
2
In this lesson, Scratch is used to have students experience thinking mechanistically in their own
work. And since programming involves the creation of external representations of the problemsolving process, Scratch provides students with opportunities of reflecting on their own thinking.
Lesson Layout
These three lessons (one lesson per day) are designed to help students 1) understand how modern
scientists think mechanistically, 2) practice thinking mechanistically by simulating how synthetic
biologists think in the field, and 3) recognize mechanistic thinking even when it is not in the
context of science, as in their own work via Scratch.
Lesson 1
Designed to familiarize students with the Scratch programming language so that they can create
projects on it. At this point, Scratch is presented simply as a medium for expressing what they
have learned, much like posters, Powerpoint presentations, and paper write-ups.
Lesson 2
Designed to expose students to the creative field of synthetic biology as a means to illustrate how
scientists think mechanistically in the field. This is done by a case study of Jay Keasling, one of
the pioneers of synthetic biology. By analyzing how a modern scientist work and think, students
are provided with a broader view of scientific inquiry and the nature of scientific thinking.
Students will be asked to demonstrate their understanding of what they have learned so far by
creating a Scratch project. This allows students to work more closely and creatively with Scratch.
It also acts as a quick formative assessment for teachers of students’ learning thus far. However,
the real goal of this exercise is to have students engage in mechanistic thinking in their own
work, which they may not recognize as it is not in the direct context of science. This will be
revealed in lesson 3.
Lesson 3
Designed to have students practice thinking mechanistically by simulating how synthetic
biologists think in the field via the Designing a New Microbe activity, adapted from an actual
experiment conducted in 20073.
This activity presents students with a problem (need for hydrogen gas as alternative fuel) and
asks students to design a microbe that can use starch and water to make hydrogen gas. Students
are given a set of organism cards to work with, each card symbolizing a different type of
organism (bacteria, rabbit, yeast, archea, spinach, and mouse). Proteins (molecules that can
convert one molecule into another) that are unique to each organism are listed on the card.
Students’ engineered microbe will essentially have different proteins from different organisms,
placed in a certain sequence, to end up with a final product of hydrogen gas. Students are given
the Designing a New Microbe worksheet to help them visualize the problem better and reduce
their cognitive loads (i.e. amount of information they need to carry in their heads).
The activity allows students to discover that synthetic biology is a very mind-blowing field,
accomplishing things that some people never thought was possible. Students will come to
appreciate how seemingly impossible feats can be possible especially when scientists are
thinking creatively. By thinking and working mechanistically, scientists have more freedom then
before in designing and creating novel organisms for real-world applications.
3
Zhang Y.H., Evans B.R., Mielenz J.R., Hopkins R.C., Adams M.W. (2007). High-yield hydrogen production from starch and
water by a synthetic enzymatic pathway. PLoS ONE 5: e456.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
3
After the activity, when students have grasped a much deeper understanding of what mechanistic
thinking looks like in practice, students are asked to reflect on their experience with Scratch. The
goal is to have students make the connection that they themselves have been engaging in
mechanistic thinking while working on their own Scratch projects. This reflective exercise
encourages students to transfer their understanding of mechanistic thinking across different
domains. Students will also gain an appreciation of how studying trends in scientists’ way of
thinking can help them in their own thinking.
Lesson Placement
These lessons can be used at the beginning of the school year when the scientific method is
usually being presented. Alternatively, this lesson can be infused during the school year, as
students learn more about genetic engineering or creative thinking.
These lessons follow a constructivist approach to learning, encouraging students to discover the
meaning of mechanistic thinking through their exploration of a case study, simulating how
synthetic biologists think, and making connections to their own work in Scratch. Students are
always encouraged to formulate their own ideas and connections before being presented with any
information.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
4
Lesson Plan: Day 1
Materials
• Computers with Scratch installed
• Scratch Resources
Prep Step
• Review lesson plan, background information and understanding goals
• Obtain computers with Scratch installed for students to work on
• Make copies of Scratch Resources (not provided)
Explore
Step 1: Introduction to lesson
Introduce the lesson by giving students a sense of what they will be doing and where they are
headed, by telling students, “This will be a three-day lesson where we will be exploring how
scientists think, and more specifically what mechanistic thinking looks like in practice. In this
process, we will also be learning Scratch. We will tie everything together at the end of the third
day.”
Step 2: Playing with Scratch
Depending on the level of your students and any future goals you wish to achieve with Scratch,
structure the class so that students are comfortable navigating around the Scratch environment,
and are able to get started on their own Scratch project by the end of the class. Please provide
students with any Scratch resources you see fit. Check out the ScratchEd's resource search
(http://scratched.media.mit.edu/resources/search) for more info. Some good examples found in
ScratchEd of Scratch lesson plans (video tutorials, PowerPoints, and worksheets) include:
•
Having Fun with Computer Programming and Games (http://www.lero.ie/educationoutreach/secondlevel/scratchlessonplans/)
• A TeachNetUK Project: 6 Lessons on Getting Started with Scratch
(http://www.teachnet-uk.org.uk/2007%20Projects/ICT-Scratch/Scratch/pages/8_schemeofwork.html)
•
Scratch Lessons: Shall We Learn Scratch Programming for Tweens (http://www.shallwelearn.com/scratchprogrammingforkidscategory)
•
Designing Animations and Games—A Creative Introduction to Programming (http://www.cs.uni-potsdam.de/~romeike/UEWettbewerb/index-english.htm)
Make sure to also introduce students to the Scratch online community, and let them know that
they can download the source code of any project to help them see how others are using the
Scratch programming language to create projects.
Review, Extend, and Apply
Step 3: Scratch Assignment
End the day by informing students that they will apply what they have learned today to create a
mini-Scratch project for an assignment after the next day’s lesson. Emphasize to students that the
goal is not to create a complex programming project, but to use Scratch creatively as a medium
for creative expressing not matter how simple the project is. Encourage students to play with
Scratch on their own time, and make it clear that you highly encourage them to borrow, adapt,
and build upon the ideas and projects of others (this is not considered cheating).
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
5
Lesson Plan: Day 2
Materials
• 21st century scientist case study of Jay Keasling
• Student notebooks or journals
Prep Step
• Review lesson plan, background information and understanding goals
• Make copies of 21st century scientist case study of Jay Keasling (p. 8)
Explore
Step 1: What is scientific thinking?
Ask students to describe what they think is scientific thinking. Collect a representative list of
students’ thoughts on the board. Ask students to explain or expound on the meaning behind what
they are saying. After reviewing the list, ask them, “ Do you think all scientists come to their
discoveries in the same way,” “Do scientists display all these characteristics at all times?” It is
important to point out to students that scientists have various methods going about their
experimentation and work, and depending on the type of work they are doing, scientists don’t
always share the same methods. Furthermore, scientists engage in thinking patterns that are
specific to its particular socio-cultural context, and one of which is mechanistic thinking.
Engage in a discussion with students on how might the explosion of advancements in scientific
knowledge and technology at the turn of the century, change the way scientists at the cutting
edge of research interact with their work.
Step 2: Analyze case study of a 21st century scientist
Let students know that they will be learning about the field of synthetic biology as a means to
illustrate how modern scientists work and think. Specifically, they will be studying Jay Keasling,
one of the pioneers of synthetic biology.
Hand out the case study on Jay Keasling. Have students work in groups of 3-4 students to
identify any patterns of thinking that the scientist displays. Make sure to ask students to
specifically identify what part of the case study justifies their claims. Have students write the
class findings in their journals/notebooks.
Possible findings from case analysis: Jay Keasling
Keasling is a pioneer of synthetic biology—a field that designs and constructs new
organisms for useful purposes. He is most known for creating a microbe that produces a
drug to treat malaria (making drugs from bugs). Some of his characteristics as a scientist
include:
• Creative and imaginative: wanted to invent new tools that can turn cells into
chemical plants, take in something very simple and spits out something complicated
and valuable, coming up with other applications of synthetic biology (use microbes
to break down pesticides, make biodegradable plastics, create fuels from plants)
• Critical thinking: thought about how to design and create microbes to produce
artemisinin much quicker and cheaper, how to integrate genes from different species
into a microbe to fabricate the drug
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
6
• Seek and integrate information: integrated methods and concepts from engineering
and biology, leading to synthetic biology
• Supported with significant resources: did research at universities and received grant
money
• Practical-minded: microbes will churn out anti-malarial drug for a fraction of its
current cost, making it accessible to much more of the world, these microbes could
save millions of lives
• Strong disciplinary understanding: studied biology and chemical engineering
extensively, leading to his PhD and professor position at UC Berkeley
Step 3: What is mechanistic thinking?
Introduce students to the idea of mechanistic thinking as a prominent thinking pattern in the 21st
century.
Mechanistic Thinking
Mechanistic thinking is a way of thinking that has a mechanical or engineering undertone.
This is shown through scientists’ regular use of mechanical analogies to conceptualize their
work, and their modular, synthetic, and purpose-driven approach towards their research
problems. The display of mechanistic thinking by scientists appears to be a result of the
merging of biology and engineering practices that is increasingly observed in 21st century
biology, as compared to a time when most of biology—traditionally known for its pure,
basic research—remain clearly demarcated from engineering—a purely applied research
field. A mechanistic way of thinking has come to the forefront of 21st century science
because of recent developments in new technologies and knowledge that enable scientists to
manipulate the object or organism they are working with more directly, allowing them to
engineer and create novel biological systems for practical applications.
Let students know that the work synthetic biologists do, often require them to think
mechanistically. Now that students are given a definition of mechanistic thinking, have students
revisit their case study analysis and explore how synthetic biologists might think
mechanistically.
Review, Extend, and Apply
Step 4: Scratch Assignment
Ask students to create a mini-Scratch project to demonstrate what they have learned so far (the
project does not have to be all inclusive; students can choose to focus on just one thing they
learned either about scientific thinking, mechanistic thinking, or synthetic biology). Emphasize
to students that the goal is not to create a complex programming project, but to use Scratch
creatively as a medium for creative expressing not matter how simple the project is. Encourage
students to work with partners and collaborate by borrowing, adapting, or building upon the
ideas and projects of others (this is not considered cheating).
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
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Detailed Case Study
Jay Keasling
(1964 – present)
Best known for: pioneering the new field of synthetic biology, which
designs and constructs new organisms for useful purposes. He is also
most known for creating a microbe that produces a drug to treat
malaria (making drugs from bugs).
Jay Keasling was raised on a farm, and spent his childhood exploring the practical
side of biology, chemistry, and engineering. This background eventually led him to work in
the rapidly growing field that uses living organisms like bacteria for various practical
purposes, such as food processing, agriculture, and medicine.
In the early 1980s, genetic engineering became popular because you can “convince”
microbes to produce insulin, growth hormones, and other valuable proteins by simply
inserting a single gene, from a different organism, into bacteria. However, Keasling
believed that genetic engineering isn’t harnessing the full power of these cells. The
production of molecules isn't always so simple; it requires a complex interaction of several
genes (not just one) being produced in a certain sequence. So Keasling wanted to invent the
tools that would allow him to create these kinds of genetic assembly lines. Thus, what goes
on in a cell is a lot like what goes on in a chemical plant: petroleum goes in, and after a
whole chain of reactions, plastic comes out.
Keasling went to college studying biology and chemical engineering extensively, and
got his Ph.D. in 1991. He is now a professor at the University of California at Berkeley. He
spent his first 10 years at UC Berkeley building the new tools he would need to turn cells
into chemical plants. He also invented powerful chemical switches (like a light switch) that
allowed him to control when he wanted to “turn on” and “turn off” protein production in
cells. This way of borrowing techniques from engineering and figuring out how to
manipulate microbes came to be call synthetic biology.
After years of perfecting his biological tool kit, Keasling wanted to find a realworld use for it. In 2002 he learned of the dire need for artemisinin, a compound derived
from the sweet wormwood plant, which is 90 percent effective against the parasite that
causes malaria and has few side effects (malaria kills some 3 million people a year).
However, extracting the drug from sweet wormwood is a slow and expensive process.
Keasling figured he could design and create microbes to produce artemisinin much quicker
and cheaper. Rather than wait months for sweet wormwood to grow on farms, Keasling
wanted to create it simply by pouring sugar in a tank full of microbes that can use the
sugar to make the drug via a chemical pathway he has designed—he wanted to integrate
genes from different species into a microbe to fabricate the drug for malaria.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
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In 2006, Keasling's team (comprised of graduate students, post-docs, and research
assistants) published their success of the production of artemisinin. It is expected to lower
the cost of artemisinin production from a dollar per gram to just 10 cents. He was awarded a $43
million grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and awarded DISCOVER
magazine’s first ever Scientist of the Year Award.
Fighting malaria is just one part of Keasling's larger agenda to explore the potential
of synthetic biology. In his laboratory, students are engineering microbes to break down
pesticides, make biodegradable plastics, and create ethanol and other fuels from plants.
Jay Keisling biography adapted from:
Zimmer, C. (2006). "Scientist of the Year: Jay Keasling." Discovermagazine.com. Retrieved from
http://discovermagazine.com/2006/dec/cover.
Excerpts of interview
i
w/ Jay Keasling
See responses to these questions at
Zimmer, C. (2006). "Scientist of the Year: Jay Keasling." Discovermagazine.com. Retrieved from
http://discovermagazine.com/2006/dec/cover.
1. You arrived at UC Berkeley in 1992 with training as both a chemical engineer and
a biologist. What did you hope to do?
Interview content removed due to copyright restrictions.
2. Why hadn't anybody tried to engineer cells that way before?
Interview content removed due to copyright restrictions.
3. How did you get involved in your antimalaria project?
Interview content removed due to copyright restrictions.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
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Lesson Plan: Day 3
Materials
• Designing a New Microbe worksheet
• Organism cards
• Student notebooks or journals
Prep Step
• Review lesson plan, background information and understanding goals
• Photocopy Designing a New Microbe worksheet (p. 28)
• Cut out organism cards (each group of 3-4 students will have a set of cards) (p.29)
Explore
Step 1: Designing a New Microbe
Introduce today’s activity by saying, “You will be simulating how synthetic biologists think
mechanistically by doing an the activity that is actually modeled after a real experiment done by
scientists in 2007.”
Divide students into groups of 3 or 4. Each group receives a set of organism cards. Each student
receives a Designing a New Microbe worksheet. Remind students that proteins (or enzymes) are
molecules inside cells that convert one molecule into another (e.g. the make-believe molecule
How is converted to the molecule Home by Protein T in bacteria).
Following the directions of the handout, have students create a kind of assembly line that
integrate proteins from different organisms into a microbe that uses water and starch (inputs) to
ultimately produce hydrogen (output).
Possible answers to Designing a New Microbe
There are two possible pathways that can lead to hydrogen production:
1. Starch & water # Protein G # Protein P # Protein D # Protein R # Protein T • Protein F # Protein H #Hydrogen
2. Starch & water # Protein G # Protein P # Protein D # Protein H # Hydrogen
Guide students along by encouraging students who have already figured out how to attempt the
problem to reveal and share with the class how they are thinking through the problem. Stop
students periodically to ask, “How are you thinking through this problem? What is your goal,
and how is your thinking helping you reach that goal?” Students may find either working
sequentially forward or backward to fill in the worksheet to be easier.
Note to teachers: The hydrogen production pathway from starch and water is a shorten
version of the actual 2007 experiment for learning purposes. The organism types and
molecule names are true to the experiment. Protein names are made up for simplicity.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
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Step 2: Discuss students’ findings
Have students tell you what they found as you write their findings on the board. Students may
have discovered by now that there are two paths that lead to hydrogen production. Students
might recall that Jay Keasling have done something similar by making an antimalarial drug from
sugar using synthetic biology.
Students may have also discovered that no proteins from the mouse organism were used for the
design of their new microbe. Ask students, “what do you think is the purpose of having a mouse
organism when we didn’t need it?” Help students understand how in reality scientists have
hundreds of organisms to choose from, some of which are irrelevant to their work. In fact, a
common skill that scientists share is being about to identify and pull together important and
relevant information.
The activity allows students to discover that synthetic biology is a very mind-blowing field,
accomplishing things that some people never thought was possible. Students will come to
appreciate how seemingly impossible feats can be possible especially when scientists are
thinking creatively. By thinking and working mechanistically, scientists have more freedom then
before in designing and creating novel organisms for real-world applications.
Review, Extend, and Apply
Step 3: How do you think mechanistically?
Ask students to reflect on their experience with Scratch and how they might have engaged in
mechanistic thinking in their own work. Helps students make the connection that they
themselves have been engaging in mechanistic thinking while working on their own Scratch
projects.
The Scratch grammar is designed so that users are presented with a versatile collection of
graphical programming blocks that they can be snapped together to create programs, much like
synthetic biology. Connectors on the blocks suggest how they should be put together so that over
the process of tinkering with these blocks, the emerging structure can give rise to new ideas and
direction to the project. Not only does snapping together complimentary blocks provide an easy
way into learning programming, but the idea of modularization as a problem-solving and design
strategy is directly relevant to mechanistic thinking!
Go on to discuss how they can apply scientists’ patterns of thinking to our own thinking in
science class and daily life.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
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Name___________________________
Date ____________
Designing a New Microbe
Task: Gas prices have reached its all time high! Thus scientists are trying to think of ways
to produce alternative fuels, such as hydrogen gas, in a much cheaper and quicker way. You
are a scientist and you are familiar with six different organisms. Based on what you know,
can you come up with a way to generate hydrogen from starch and water by designing a
microbe that borrows different mechanisms/proteins from different cells? Fill in the
blanks with protein names and the organism that the protein was taken from.
Materials: Each team has a set of cards, each card symbolizing a different organism. On
the card, you will see the name of the organism, a picture of the organism, and proteins
that is unique to them. Proteins (or enzymes) convert one molecule into another.
Starch & Water # Protein borrowed:
Input
Organism:
Protein borrowed:
Organism:
Protein borrowed:
Organism:
$ Protein borrowed:
Organism:
# Protein borrowed:
Organism:
# Protein borrowed:
Organism:
$ Protein borrowed:
Organism:
# Protein borrowed:
Organism:
#
.
# Hydrogen
Output
Experiment adapted from:
Zhang Y.H., Evans B.R., Mielenz J.R., Hopkins R.C., Adams M.W. (2007). High-yield hydrogen production from
starch and water by a synthetic enzymatic pathway. PLoS ONE 5: e456.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
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Organism Cards (one set)
Teachers: Please make as many copies as the number of groups of students. Cut the cards
out and shuffle before handing to students.
Bacteria
•
Protein T uses [X5P] to make [S7P]
•
Protein F uses [S7P] to make [NADPH]
Source: NIH
Yeast
Protein D uses [G-6-P] to make [NADPH] and [R5P]
Spinach
•
Photo: US Fish and Wildlife Service.
•
•
Protein G uses starch and water to make [G-1-P]
Protein P uses [G-1-P] to make [G-6-P]
Archea
Public domain image. (Source: Wikimedia Commons)
•
Rabbit
Public domain image. (Source: Wikimedia Commons)
Protein R uses [R5P] to make [X5P]
•
Courtesy of Angels Tapias (License CC BY).
Protein H uses [NADPH] to make Hydrogen
Mouse
•
Source: NIH
Protein X uses [T8P] to make Hydrogen
Experiment adapted from:
Zhang Y.H., Evans B.R., Mielenz J.R., Hopkins R.C., Adams M.W. (2007). High-yield hydrogen production from
starch and water by a synthetic enzymatic pathway. PLoS ONE 5: e456.
© 2009 Yu-Tzu Debbie Liu
13
MIT OpenCourseWare
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MAS.714J / STS.445J Technologies for Creative Learning
Fall 2009
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