Experiential Learning in Sociology: Service Learning and Other Community-Based Learning
Initiatives
Author(s): Linda A. Mooney and Bob Edwards
Source: Teaching Sociology, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Apr., 2001), pp. 181-194
Published by: American Sociological Association
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EXPERIENTIALLEARNINGIN SOCIOLOGY:
SERVICELEARNINGAND OTHER
COMMUNITY-BASED
LEARNINGINITIATIVES*
Despite increased popularity and a strong pedagogical tradition, the literature
on community-based learning (CBL)initiatives and service learningevidences a
certain conceptual imprecision. In the hopes of clarifyingdefinitionalambiguities, we criticallyreview the CBLliterature,identifyingsix distinct types of CBL
options and their characteristics. The result is a hierarchyof community-based
learning, which while not proposed as a definitive conceptualization, is likely to
be useful in terms of curriculardevelopment. Using a hypothetical sociology
class, the community-based learning options identified (i.e., out-of-class activities, volunteering, service add-ons, internships, service learning, and service
learningadvocacy) are discussed in terms of theirpedagogical differences and
associated curricularbenefits.
LINDA
A. MOONEY
East CarolinaUniversity
BOBEDWARDS
East CarolinaUniversity
has threecomplemenTHE PRESENTRESEARCH
BACKGROUND
first
is
to
undertake
a
critical
The
tarygoals.
reflectionon recentservice-learningpraxis In recent years there has been increased
in order to distill and synthesize current interestin studentvolunteeringand, more
thinking.In so doing, we identifydistinct specifically,servicelearning(Chapin1998;
learning(CBL) HinckandBrandell2000; ShumerandCook
types of community-based
and 1999; Wardand Wolf-Wendel2000). Seroptions,distinguishtheircharacteristics,
develop a heuristicsynthesisand typology vice learningis an evolving pedagogythat
that we hope will help clarify the ongoing incorporatesstudentvolunteeringinto the
definitionaldebate.Second,we discussCBL dynamicsof experientiallearningand the
optionswithinthe contextof a hypothetical rigorsandstructureof an academiccurricusociologycourse.Thisdiscussionis intended lum. In its simplestform, service learning
to illustratethe pedagogicaldifferencesbe- entails studentvolunteeringin the commutweenlearningmethodologiesandcurricular
nity for academiccredit. It is not a new
benefits,typicallyassociatedwith particular concept. As early as 1902, John Dewey
CBLoptions.Third,the typologydeveloped extolledthe valuesof a
"progressiveeducabelow is intendedas a heuristicdevice to tion"-an educationwhere
thoughtand acfacilitate dialogue and reflection among tioncome
in classroomandreallife
together
those endeavoringto integratecommunity(Dewey 1938).
based learninginto sociology courses and settings
While not immediatelyembracedas a
programsas well as among administrators philosophy,Dewey's principlesresurfaced
and researchersseeking to evaluate their in
by such
practicein the 1960s,popularized
impact.
nationalserviceprogramsas VISTAandthe
addressall correspondence
"*Please
to Linda Peace Corps. Studentactivism,and with it
A. Mooney,Department
of Sociology,East volunteering,wanedin the 1970s andearly
CarolinaUniversity,Greenville,NC 27585;
1980s (ShumerandCook 1999),'but by the
e-mail:MooneyL@mail.ecu.edu
Editor'snote:The reviewerswere, in alphabeticalorder,KevinD. Everett,Anne Martin,
andRachelR. Parker-Gwin.
'Brooks(1997:3)notesthatsociology
alsofell
victimto thetemporary
loss of a volunteerethic:
"In sociology the first signs of this change
Vol.29, 2001(April:181-194)
Teaching
Sociology,
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181
TEACHINGSOCIOLOGY
182
late 1980s, "serveandlearn"programshad needs than the "efficiency"of providing
been resurrectedto renewed prominence additionalcredit hours with no additional
of such umbrella facultycosts (Gose 1997). In contrast,longthroughthe establishment
organizationsas CampusCompact,a na- term observersof school-societyrelations
of college anduniversity likely see the currenttrend as simply the
tionalcollaboration
presidents"pledgedto encourageand sup- most recent ebb and flow in the tides of
port academicallybased community ser- school reformthat seek alternatelyto intevice..." (Jacoby 1994:14). Bolstered by grate schooling more tightly with current
PresidentBush's"thousand
pointsof light," marketdemandsandto use formaleducation
the 1990 Nationaland CommunityService as a tool of progressivesocialchange(Tyack
Act, the Nationaland CommunityService andCuban1995).3
The renewedemphasison CBL can also
Trust Act of 1993, and the 'Goals 2000'
educationalinitiative,today CampusCom- be tracedto a strongpedagogicaltradition
pact has over 600 institutionalmembers rootedin the worksof JohnDewey (1916;
offering 11,800 service-learningcourses 1938) and WilliamJames (1907), and the
(Finn and Vanourek1995; Perreault1997; more recent work of ErnestBoyer (1990;
Rothman, Anderson and Schaefer 1998; 1994)andPauloFreire(1970; 1985). Boyer
(1990; 1994), for example,arguesthatthe
Bringleet al. 2000).
shouldbe responsiveto commuthere
such
a
renewed
interhas
been
university
Why
est in and institutionalsupportfor service nity needs and to society as a whole, and
learning,andwhatin generalmay be called that facultymembersshouldbe "reflective
community-basedlearning (CBL)?2Some practitioners"in the education process.
commentators
pointto the rapidlychanging "Whatwe urgentlyneed today is a more
social, political, and economic context of inclusive view of what it means to be a
highereducation.For example,Marulloand scholar-a recognitionthat knowledge is
Edwards(2000a) arguethat the globalizing acquiredthroughresearch,throughsyntheeconomy increasinglydemands "workers sis, throughpracticeand throughteaching"
with symbol-manipulating
skills," driving (Boyer 1990:24). Boyer's definition of
to emphasize scholarshipthus questionsthe traditionally
universities
and
colleges
methodsthat promotecritical held notion that knowledgeis first discov"educational
thinking,complexreadingandwritingskills, ered and then applied,askingthe question:
and problem-solvingand conflict-resolution "Cansocial problemsthemselvesdefine an
abilities"(p. 747). Citing similar trends, agendafor scholarlyinvestigation?"
(Boyer
more skepticalobserverssuggest that the 1990:21)His workhas "movedteachingand
interestin community-based
learning evi- service into the forefrontin higher educadencedby manyuniversitiesmay have less tion"(Brooks1997:3).
to do with student,societal,or even market Not surprisingly,CBL options, all of
whichcomeunderthe largerrubricof active
whohadflockedto sociol- learningmethodologiesandspecifically,exas students
appeared
ogy in the late 1960sandearly1970sto learn
how to solve the social problems of the time
moved just as rapidly to the schools of business
in the mid 1970s to learn skills that would get
them a job 'andallow them to make money in an
increasinglyunstableeconomy."
2Community-basedlearning refers to any pedagogical tool in which the communitybecomes a
partner in the learning process. While all CBL
initiativesare experiential,and in that way active
learning, not all active learning techniques are
experientialin nature.
3Otherinstitutionalpressures include concerns
over the quality of undergraduateteaching, esoteric research agendas (Hinck and Brandell
2000; Jacoby 1996; Lena 1995; Marullo and
Edwards2000a), apatheticand alienatedstudents
(Wade 1997; Wallace 2000), an emphasis on
materialism
andindividual
(Bellahet
well-being
al. 1985; Myers-Lipton 1998), and the nonresponsiveness of colleges and universities to
community needs (Edgerton 1994; Edwards and
Marullo 1999; Plater 1995; Ward 1996).
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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN SOCIOLOGY
perientiallearning,appealto socialscientists
andsociologistsin particular(Corwin1996;
and Mabry1998).
Lena 1995; Parker-Gwin
adhered
First,sociologistshave traditionally
to an "underdogideology" rooted in the
social problems legacy of the Chicago
School and the activism it promoted
(Pestello et al. 1996). Second, given the
abstractnatureof sociologicaltheoriesand
concepts, faculty membershave turnedto
the "realworld" in order to groundtheir
disciplinein a frameworkto which students
can relate. Indeed as Keith (1994:312)
notes, experiential learning serves as a
"mechanismto promotethe active involvementof studentsin a learningprocesswhich
is integrativeandeschewsartificialdivisions
betweendevelopmentaland academictasks
and between classroom and life experiences." Finally, and relatedto the above,
sociology's movementtoward an applied
and practicaldiscipline(Brooks 1997) and
the accompanyinguse of practica,co-ops,
in helpingstudentsdo sociolandinternships
ogy, providesa transitionto otherexperientiallearningoptions.
However,despiteincreasedpopularityand
a strong theoreticalfoundation,the CBL
literatureevidencesa certainconceptualimprecision(FinnandVanourek1995). Definitionsof servicelearningaboundandrunthe
gamut from such vague and all-inclusive
definitionsas "academically-based
service,"
to othersso narrowlyconceivedthat much
of what is thoughtof as service learning
wouldbe excludedfrom consideration.Becauseof its recentpopularity,the "servicelearning"labelis often appliedto any existing form of CBL, furthermuddyingthe
ongoingdefinitionaldebate.Fortunately,the
diversity
verydefinitionalandprogrammatic
lamentedby some commentatorsprovides
the raw materialsneededto synthesizecurrentthinking.
SERVICE LEARNING AND
OTHER COMMUNITY-BASED
LEARNING INITIATIVES
Mintz and Hesser (1996) note that there is
183
debategoingon-a debateover
an important
what service learningis and, thus, how it
shouldbe defined:
to grapplewithandlearnabout
We continue
diverdiverseandsometimes
servicelearning's
is farfrombeing
gentaspects,anda consensus
reached.The debateaboutthe definitionof
somestillquestion
servicelearning
continues;
canbebothcocurricuwhether
servicelearning
of whoand
lar andcurricular;
classifications
is oftendifwhatcompose"thecommunity"
fuseandunclear;andthe distinctions
among
education,
internships,
practica,cooperative
andservicelearning
remain
blurred
(26).
This problemof definitionwas empirically
documentedby Hinck and Brandell(2000,
see Table 1). The two researcherssurveyed
225 directorsof randomlyselectedservicelearning centers affiliated with Campus
Compact.Askedto define servicelearning,
the directors' responses varied significantly-"co-op education,""specializedinternshipcourses,""experiencegainedin the
non-profitor governmentsector," "faculty
requiringstudentsto takepartin community
projectsand give credit in course work,"
and "community
volunteerplacementsin an
approvedsite"(p. 874).
Kendall (1990) reports identifying 147
differenttermsassociatedwithservicelearning and other CBL options. For example,
ShumerandBelbas(1996) includea variety
of programsunderthe rubricof experiential/
service-learningprograms.They also use
service learning and communitylearning
interchangeably.Similarly, Parker-Gwin
(1990) refersto service learningas one of
manytypesof experientiallearning.Easterling and Rudell state that service learning
can be "integratedin a varietyof...courses
as internshipassignments,consultancies,or
participant/observervolunteer activities"
(1997:58),Enos andTroppe(1996) referto
"service-learning internships," McCarthy
(1996) discusses "one-time and short-term
service-learning projects," and Shumer
(1997), in a review article on the impact of
service learning, includes such varied initiatives as internships, tutoring programs, ad-
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184
TEACHINGSOCIOLOGY
Figure1. Hierarchyof CommunityBasedLearning(CBL)
CBLOptions Out-of-ClassVolunteering Service
Activities
Add-ons
Internships
Service
Learning
Social
Action
X
Structured
Reflection
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Apply/AcquireSkills
Curricular
Credit
Service
Rendered
In
Community
ServiceLearning
Advocacy
X
venture education, mentoring, hospital field
work, and dropoutprevention programs.
For those who have had occasion to develop or oversee a variety of CBL options,
the differences between internships, experiential learning, volunteering, cocurricular
community service, preprofessional experiences, practica, co-ops, community service,
and applied learning may seem to be relatively clear-cut. However, among faculty
members and administratorsconsidering the
full range of CBL endeavors for the first
time, such distinctionsmay not be obvious.
Marullo (1998), in his discussion of
"bringing home diversity" in a race and
ethnic relations class, describes three CBL
options: service-learningcredits, group projects, and intensive service learning. Criteria
Marullo identifies in distinguishing between
the three learning types include variations in
the service rendered, integration of out-ofclass experiences into the course, and level
of curricular credit received for participation. Marullo's typology, however, is limited to the "three primary models to integrate community service into a course"
available at Georgetown (1998:264). What
is needed is an expansion of his continuum
through the identification of conceptually
distinct CBL initiatives. Fortunately, the
service-learning literature reveals several
common dimensions of service learning that
distinguish it from other types of CBL.
Figure 1 summarizes our categorization of
these essential components.
Figures 1 and 2 identify six CBL options,
criteria for differentiating/between types,
and benefits to students most likely to be
associated with each initiative. Obviously,
exceptions exist, and the boundariesbetween
some types may be fuzzy. In practice, one
service-learning program may be closer to
an internshipand anotherto service-learning
advocacy. Others still may not neatly fit the
mold.4 It is worth emphasizing that our
purpose in developing this typology is not to
settle the current definitional debate by offering a definitive conceptualization.Rather,
our aim is to help clarify the issues at stake
in that debate and to facilitate reflection and
dialogue among practitionersthat can lead to
improved praxis. As Figure 1 suggests,
moving from out-of-class activities to
service-learning advocacy increases the
40Othersstill may not fit the mold at all. For
example, Marullo's(1998) "GroupProjects,"
Parker-Gwinand Mabry's(1998) "Consultant
Model," and Rundblad's(1998) "Community
ExplorationProject"would be CBL hybrids
accordingto ourtypology.
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EXPERIENTIALLEARNINGIN SOCIOLOGY
185
structureand complexity of the learning Service learningis not simply volunteerexperienceas well as students'commitment ing...Manypeoplevolunteerin theircommunitieswithout
theirbeliefsor
critically
examining
to individualsandorganizations.It shouldbe
the
the
need
for such
structural
causes
of
noted that to meet the thresholdrequireservicesto exist.Simply"doing"is notsuffiments of service-learningadvocacy, CBL
cientforlearning
tooccur(1998:299).
endeavorsneed to evidence the attributes
listedin all six columnsof Figure1.
ServiceAdd-On
When studentparticipationresultsin addiOut-of-ClassActivities
tionalcredit,as wheninstructorsoffer extra
Fieldtripsareperhapsthe base line example creditor additional
pointsfor volunteering,
of out-of-classactivities. While most field sucha CBL
is calleda serviceadd-on
option
tripstakeplacein a communitysetting,they (Jacoby1996). Similarto a "fourthcredit
tendto be like havingclass somewhereelse,
(Enos and Troppe 1996; Marullo
as studentsgo on locationto hear a guest option"
(i.e., three-hourclasses that become
1998)
speakeror see an exhibit. Thoughstudents four-hourclasses when a volunteercomposeldomrenderservices,applyexistingskills, nent is
added), whether tutoring second
or engagein systematicreflectionwhile on
in a city beautificaor participating
graders
field trips (for an exception see Scarce tion
serviceadd-onstakeon another
project,
1997), field tripsdo enablestudentsto see, dimensionof CBL-academiccredit. Since
hear, and smell places and meet the people not all students
in the
may be participating
who frequentthem. Studentswith no such often
one
of
the
disadvanexercise,
optional
priorexperiencesno longerhave to imagine tages of serviceadd-onsis the tendencyfor
a place, its people,or its sights,sounds,and the volunteer
activityto remainperipheralto
smells. From field trips, a class shares a the
if thereis relatively
course,particularly
stock of common images that facilitates low studentinvolvement.One
potentialcomdiscussion and can foster camaraderie
of
add-ons
is
indirect.Stumunityimpact
among studentsand between studentsand dentswho gain throughvolunteeringexperithe instructor.
ences with add-onsmaywell be morelikely
to do so again in anothercontext. Yet,
Volunteering
compared to more substantiveforms of
Similarly, volunteeringmay be a course CBL, the directcommunityimpactof addrequirement,but rarely is additionalaca- ons is likely to be reduced because the
demic credit offered for it as "thereis no serviceis
optional,involvingfewer students
explicitfocus on the educationalvalueto be thanin classeswherea servicecomponentis
gainedthroughinvolvementin the particular requiredof all students.Moreover,the lim[volunteer]projects"(Waterman1997:3). ited durationof add-ons also suggests a
also takesplace in the commu- reduced
Volunteering
community impact (Marullo
but
nity,
contraryto out-of-classactivities, 1998:264)thanwitheithertraditional
internassumes that some service has been proor the 10-month,20-hourper week
ships,
vided. Much like the traditionalnotion of
service-learning
placementsrequiredof the
charity, volunteeringoften establishes a Washingtonstudy-serviceyear assessedby
giver-receiver relationship as students Aberle-Grasse
(2000).
"help"othersdefinedas in need (Marullo
and Edwards2000b; Perreault1997). VolInternships
unteers, however, are unlikely to apply or
enhance existing skills (e.g., handing out
sandwiches at the local homeless shelter) or
to engage in any organized and meaningful
reflection (Hironimus-Wendt and LovellTroy 1999). As Everett notes:
Internships, sometimes called practica, cooperative learning or field placements, are
pre-professionalexperiences often offered as
stand-alone courses (Hironimus-Wendtand
Lovell-Troy 1999; Marullo 1996; 1998).
Internships are a common component of
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186
TEACHINGSOCIOLOGY
sociologydepartments,
particularlywith the 2000a; Roschelle,Turpinand Elias 2000;
of
applied sociology programs Rudell1996; Sax and Chapin1998; Watergrowth
(Parillaand Hesser 1998). Studentsserve man 1997).
the communityby relatingcourse content, Theintegration
of servicelearningintothe
and
to
real
curriculum
is
a
life
dialectical
skills,
existing
expertise
processwhereby
settings and receive credit for doing so. material appropriateto the content of a
reflecStructuredreflection,however,is often not specificcourseis, throughstructured
In
structured
with
the
into
contrast,
tion,
ongoing
experiential
put
dialogue
required.
reflection in general distinguishesservice inputfrom the service-learning
setting, acfrom
other
CBL
and
and
tivities,
learning
options(Enos
communitypartners.Student
Everett
Fertman
in
1998;
1994; experiences the service-learningsetting
Trope 1996;
Gardner1997; Gereand Sinor 1997; Giles, shapetheirunderstanding
of coursecontent
and
Honnett
and
while
the
in
Gronski
course
content
turnshapestheir
1991;
Migliori,
Koulish
of
the
kinds
of
socialcontexts
1998; understanding
Pigg 2000; Jacoby 1996;
Marullo1996; 1998;Migliore1991;Parker- and relationscharacteristic
of theirserviceGwin and Mabry 1998; Perreault 1997; learningplacements.The sense of knowing
Saltmarsh 1996; Sax and Astin 1997; thatemergesfromthis type of processtranShumerandBelbas1996;andWade1997).5 scends the knowledgeattainableby either
masteringthecontentor independently
expeServiceLearning
riencingthe serviceplacement(Freire1973;
The 1990 CommunityService Act defines Palmer 1983). Optimally,subsequentdiaservicelearningas a methodof learningin logues would includeindividualsrepresentwhich studentsrenderneeded services in ing both the organizationalhost of the
theircommunities
for academiccredit,using service-learningplacementand the benefiand enhancingexisting skills with time to ciaryconstituencyfromthe community.6
"reflecton the serviceactivityin sucha way
as to gain further understandingof the
is a crucialmeansfor
6Structured
reflection
coursecontent,a broaderappreciation
of the facilitatingthe processsketchedabove.It entails
discipline,and an enhancedsense of civic the integrationof both individualand group
responsibility" (Bringle and Hatcher processes.For individuals,structuredreflection
1995:112). Although some commentators requiresstudentsto turnthe natureandresultof
theirpriorreflectionintoan objectof subsequent
questiontheextentto whichservicelearning critical
reflection-individualmeta-reflection.
must be integrated into the curriculum
The goal of this activity,whichcan be accom(Fertman 1994; Jacoby 1996; Perreault plishedin part by journalling,is to critically
1997; Rubin 1996; Scheuermann1996; analyzeour own reflectionin orderto improve
Ward and Wolf-Wendel2000), most pub- our criticalfaculties.Structuredreflectionalso
lisheddefinitionsof servicelearningimplic- has a collectiveor groupaspectsuccinctlydeitly includethe first five componentsidenti- scribedas "sharedpraxisin praxis."We first
in Groome
thissuccinctdescriptor
fied in Figure 1 (see, for example, Astin encountered
1997; Bringle and Hatcher 1995; Burns (1980)wherehe ablydiscussesfivemovements
educational
pedagogy.Though
1998; Fertman 1994; Gardner 1997; in a praxis-based
from
within
a
faith-based
contextof
articulated
Howard1998;KahneandWestheimer1996;
for socialjustice, this remainsone of
educating
Marullo[1996] 1998; Marulloand Edwards the more
andaccessiblediscussionsof
andWltizdorff
(1988:15),indefin"5Hutchings
ing reflectionas "the abilityto step back and
pondersone's own experience,to abstractfrom
it somemeaningor knowledgerelevantto other
arguethat"thecapacityfor reflecexperiences,"
tion is what transformsexperienceinto learning."
thorough
the philosophical,psychological, and social
basesof the educational
approachsketchedhere.
Forthoseseekingotherpointsof accessintothis
long-standingpedagogicaltradition,see also
Freire1974;HortonandFreire1990.Forparallel discussionsappliedto research,see Gaventa
1993;Merrifield1993;andPark1993.
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EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN SOCIOLOGY
Advocacy
Service-Learning
As Figure 1 indicates,service-learningadvocacy requiressocial action wherebystudents become "citizen leaders" (Perreault
1997)througha "pedagogyof civic involvement" (Koulish 1998:563). Unlike service
learningin general, service-learningadvocacy "shouldbe criticalof the statusquo,
challengeunjuststructures,and oppressive
institutionaloperations,and providean opsocialjustice
portunityfor institutionalizing
activism on college campuses" (Marullo
1996:117). Consistentwith Dewey's statementthat"schoolshavea role in the production of social change"(1937:409), servicelearning advocacy encouragesstudentsto
becomeactorsin the dramaof producinga
morejust society by takingchargeof their
education,appropriatingcampus-basedresourcesavailableto them,andtakingcollective action to confrontthe root causes of
socialinjustice.A key pedagogicalenhancement of service-learningadvocacyowes to
its explicitsocialchangeagendathe assumption thatpeoplebeginto appreciatefully the
relations of power in a society as they
endeavorto affectsocial changein the context of criticalreflectionand dialoguewith
otherswho are similarlyengaged.
Advocatesof this position (e.g., Boyer
1983; Giles, Honnet, and Migliore 1991;
Goodlad 1984; Koliba 2000; Newmann
1975; Wadeand Saxe 1996), respondingto
an entrenchment
of social problems(Boyer
1994:Jacoby1996;GronskiandPigg 2000;
Wade 1997) caused in large part by economicglobalizationand the continuedwithdrawalof the state from responsibilityfor
social welfare (Edwardsand Foley 1997),
arenot withoutcritics.Givenits value-laden
havenotedthat
position,commentators
187
Clearly, each of the CBL optionsidentified is likely to be instituteddifferently
dependingon faculty members'goals and
institutionalresources. Variations within
categoriesarealso likely. As practiced,each
of the CBL optionsvary in termsof: 1) the
number of studentsserved, 2) individual
versus group involvement,3) optionalor
4) level of site superrequiredparticipation,
vision, 5) class assignments,6) methodof
evaluation,7) integrationof out-of-classexperiencesandcoursematerial,8) long- versus short-termcommitments(for example,
weeks versusmonths),9) numberand type
of communityorganizationsinvolved, and
10) the relationshipbetween the various
constituencies-thedepartment,the community, the collegeor university,andthe organization(s)served.Whatthey have in common, however, is that each provides the
benefitsof experientiallearning.
curricular
CURRICULARBENEFITSOF
SERVICELEARNINGAND
OTHERCOMMUNITY-BASED
LEARNINGINITIATIVES
Figure2 identifiespotentialbenefitsto students of using CBL options in sociology
courses.Somehave arguedthatin orderfor
"servicelearningto achieveits greatestpotential as an instructionalcomponent...a
commondefinitionmustbe adopted"(Burns
1998:38). We disagree. Rather, we offer
this typologyas a heuristicdevice to facilitate the reflectionand discussionof whatis
involvedin integratingCBL initiativesinto
teachingundergraduate
sociology. As sugof
the
benefits
gestedabove, types curricular
from
CBL
gained
participation
vary directly
as one moves up the hierarchyof CBL.7
7Studieson studentoutcomeshavelinkedservice learningandotherCBLoptionsto 1) better
more effective learning, and student
...muchof whatpassesfor servicelearning grades,
retention(Blyth,Saito, and Berkas1997; Boss
involvespoliticalactivism.Butthatshouldnot
1994;CalabreseandSchumer1986;Conradand
be surprising,because,in the eyes of its advo- Hedin
1982;Greco1992;Miller1994;Saxand
cates,suchactivism-always,in practice,on the Astin
1997; Shumer1990; 1994; Waterman
liberal-to-Left
end of the politicalspectrum-is
collaborationskills (Brandonand
service learnings'most desirableform (Finn 1997); 2) Sax andAstin
1999;
1997);3) a stronger
Knapp
andVanourek1995:46)
commitmentto service,volunteerism,andcivic
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188
TEACHINGSOCIOLOGY
While students participatingin service- experienceis anotherfaculty option. Stulearningadvocacywould stand to gain all dentsmaybe placedin relevantworksitesto
benefitsthatwouldaccrueto thosein out-of- hone theirexistingskills or to acquirenew
class activitiesor service add-ons,the re- ones. Ideally, it is here that studentsget
verse is unlikely.Studentsengagedin more "hands on" practical experience as they
substantive
CBLoptionshavegreateroppor- applyabstracttheoriesand
conceptsanduse
tunityto experiencehigherordercurricular methodologicalskills at the work site. Debenefits. For example, internshipsafford
of a needs assessmentsurveyof
studentsmore opportunityto acquirenew velopment
inmates, participationin a state-levelreskills thando field tripsor serviceadd-ons.
searchprojecton juvenile delinquency,or
By the sametoken,the greaterprevalenceof
structuredreflection in service learning acting as a liaison between a community
makesstudentsmorelikely to applycritical watch group and the police departmentis
sure to help studentsunderstand
coursemathinking,synthesizeinformationfrom classterial
in
a
new
the
However,
way.
"learning
roomand communitysettings,and examine
of
these
activities
focus
objectives
typically
structural/institutional
antecedentsof social
issuesthanwouldtendto be the case among only on extendinga student'sprofessional
skills, anddo not emphasizeto the student,
volunteersor interns.
of
In teachingan upperdivisionsociologyof eitherexplicitlyor tacitly,the importance
crimecourse,a facultymembermighthave servicewithinthe communityandlessonsof
studentsinterviewpolice officers, take a civic responsibility"(Bringle and Hatcher
tour of the local jail or observe a day in 1996:222).
Service learning in such a class might
court.Eachconstitutesan out-of-classactiventail
studentsservingin a non-profitmediaand
would
facilitatestudentobservations
ity
of social actorsand their interactionsin a tion center. Working side by side in a
socio-legal setting, ideally providing stu- collaborative effort, students, teachers,
dentswith "reallife" examplesof material lawyers,mediationstaff, agencyvolunteers,
presentedin class. Studentsmightalso have andcommunityleadersmight,for example,
the opportunity
to volunteeror to earnaddi- design and implementa school mediation
tionalacademiccreditthroughserviceadd- program.Class assignmentswould include
ons, for example,by tutoringincarcerated researchingthe social, historical,political,
youths or preparingmeals at a halfway andeconomicforcesthatgaverise to mediahouse. These experiencescombine all the tion as an alternativeto traditionalmethods
benefits of out-of-classactivitieswith the of adjudication.Studentswouldrecordobadditionalbenefitof providingstudentswith servationsin reflectivejournalentries,classa stock of experience,exposureto diverse room activitieswould be designedto help
groups,and, perhapsa sense of satisfaction process out-of-classexperienceswithin the
that comes from meeting the immediate context of course material, and critical
needsof others.Suchexperiencesmay also thinkingandproblemsolvingskillswouldbe
lead to an awarenessof communityneeds sharpenedby the everydayhurdlesof proIt is
and a heightenedconsciousnessof social gramdevelopmentandimplementation.
here
that
students
a
of
sense
develop
issues.
as
are
broadened
An internship,practicum,or cooperative "knowing" perspectives
andimportant
linkagesaremade.
Dependingon the desired curriculum
responsibility
(Blyth,Saitoand Berkas1997;
Boss1994;RandEducation
1999;SaxandAstin skills" as increasedtoleranceof diversity, multimoraland cultural sensitivity, promotion of racial equality
1997;Waterman
1997);4) enhanced
ethicalreasoning
(Delve,Mintz,and Stewart and conflict resolution (Aberle-Grasse 2000;
benefits
1990;Zlotkowski1996);5) employment
(e.g., clarity in career path, networking, placement); and 6) the development of such "soft
Blyth, Saito and Berkas 1997; Easterling and
Rudell 1997; Myers-Lipton 1998; Zlotkowski
1996).
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EXPERIENTIALLEARNINGIN SOCIOLOGY
189
Figure2. CurricularBenefitsof DifferentCommunity-Based
LearningInitiativesfor Sociology
Students
CBLType
CurricularBenefitfor Students
Out-of-Class
Activities
>
>
>
>
Volunteering/
ServiceAdd-Onsa
>
>
>
>
>
>
Internship/Practica/Co-op >
>
>
>
ServiceLearning
observesgroupdynamics/interactions
sees newstatusesandrolesactedout
experiencesconcreteexamplesof socialphenomena
gainsknowledgeandinsightsthrough"realworld"experiences
needs
gainsawarenessof community
encounters
diversegroups
sees symptomsof problems
addressesimmediate
concerns
in community
participates
of socialproblems
heightensconsciousness
illustrates
of skills/knowledge
practicalapplication
fostersdevelopment
of newskills/knowledge
acquirespractical"hands-on"
experience
skills
appliesdisciplinespecifictheoryandmethodological
socialandintellectual
developsimportant
linkages
honesproblemsolvingskills
andinstitutional
causesof problems
> examinesstructural
>
appliescriticalthinking
fromclassand"realworld"
> synthesizesinformation
>
learnslessonsof civicresponsibility
> implementsabstractconcepts
citizeneducation/civic
Service-Learning
Advocacy >
literacy
enharices
skills
>
develops/hones
leadership
> actsas anagentof socialchange
>
gainsexperiential
knowledgeof powerrelations
enhancespoliticalsocialization
>
> becomesempowered
> enhancesmoralcharacter
development
skills
>
gainscollaborative
>
adoptsan interdisciplinary
approach
"aThese
twoCBLoptionswerecombinedsincetheydifferonlyin thecurricular
creditreceived.
>
>
benefits for students, a faculty member
might initiate a program of service-learning
advocacy. Such pedagogy could include students working at a battered-women'sshelter
as court companions. In addition to the
service provided, as with service learning in
general, students would be encouraged to
critically examine the socio-historical context in which violence against women occurs, and the effectiveness of institutional
responses. Students might also evaluate the
adequacy of facilities available to abused
women, and based upon their findings, begin a fund-raising and media campaign de-
signed to increase public awareness and
raise needed revenues. It is in this final
CBL initiative that students act collaboratively as agents of social change, and in
which they are most likely to develop leadership skills, political awareness, and civic
literacy.
CONCLUSION
In different contexts, each of us has struggled with the promise and difficulties of
integrating CBL options into our teaching.
We have critically reflected on our own
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190
TEACHINGSOCIOLOGY
praxis and on the collective praxis reflected
in the recent service-learningliterature.The
hierarchy of community-based learning options outlined in Figure 1 grew out of that
process as an effort to conceptualize an
empirical basis for differentiating between
various CBL endeavors. Such differentiation
is important as CBL and service learning
become more popular. Faculty members
approaching such endeavors for the first
time, program evaluators, and researchers
seeking to assess their effectiveness will all
need to differentiateamong forms of CBL in
order to clearly understandthe benefits and
limitationsof each type. Careful delineation
also clarifies the ways lower level CBL
options can provide the base of skills and
experience needed to pursue higher level
CBL options. Such an understandingis important for sequencing curricular offerings.
Programs or departmentsseeking to implement CBL and service learning into their
curricula may want to integrate lower level
CBL options, for example, out-of-class activities and service add-ons, into lower division courses with internships and integrate
service learning into upper division courses.
Students in such programs would take a
series of courses culminating in servicelearning advocacy as part of a capstone
experience.
In identifying and describing a hierarchical typology of community-based learning
options that culminateswith service-learning
advocacy, we want to avoid two common
pitfalls: the reification of the typology itself,
and the mirage that definitional consensus i's
a prerequisite of improved praxis. Typologies like the one developed here are useful
deductive propositions that enable investigators and practitioners alike to make provisional sense out of the complex social realities representedby the increasing popularity
of CBL in higher education. The typology
developed here is heuristic, intendedto stimulate discussion and reflection and in turn
facilitate improved praxis. Yet, typologies
of this sort often become counterproductive. If pushed beyond their heuristic
limits, they foster definitionaldisputes about
what fits which type and to what extent.
Such "boundary maintenance" efforts lead
to ever more fine-grained description, but
not to ever-improving praxis. Thus, any
inclination that common definitions must be
adopted as a necessary condition for improved CBL practices should be resisted.
Conceptual refinement comes through
praxis-the critical reflection upon past
struggles that orients subsequent rounds of
practice upon which CBL practitionerswill
later reflect. Indeed, we make the road by
walking (Horton and Freire 1990).
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