Empire & Aftermath
Postcolonial Egypt:
Authoritarian Nationalism and the
American Empire
James E. Baldwin
Independence in stages
• In occupation since 1882, Britain annexes Egypt in
1914.
• First World War sees fighting on Egyptian soil and
Cairo used as a military base.
• Egyptian nationalists hoped to use post-war peace
conference to secure independence.
• Nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul arrested and exiled,
resulting in unrest: the Egyptian Revolution of 1919.
• Britain grants Egypt independence in 1922, but
retains for itself: defense of Egypt, control of
imperial communications, protection of foreign
interests, occupation of Suez Canal zone.
Independence in stages
• World War 2: more fighting in Egypt, including aerial
bombardment, British force king to appoint new
government in 1942.
• Free Officers’ Revolution of 1952 overthrew monarchy
and dedicated itself to full freedom from British
influence.
• Agreement in 1954 to evacuate all British troops in
Egypt.
• Egypt during 1950s and 60s committed to nonalignment.
• From 1970s, Egypt aligned itself more closely with the
US – has it now been incorporated into an American
empire?
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Nasser’s program
• Challenging British hegemony in the Middle
East.
• Arab unity in the face of imperialism.
• Non-alignment in the Cold War.
• Freedom from influence of international
capital.
• Egyptianization of the Egyptian economy.
The Suez War of 1956
The Suez War of 1956: background
• Tension with Britain and France over
support for Arab nationalism; tension with
USA over arms purchases and funding for
Aswan dam.
• Suez Canal Company: listed company,
majority of shares owned by Britain and
France.
• July 1956: Nasser declares nationalization
of canal in speech in Alexandria.
The Suez War of 1956
• Secret plan between Britain, France and Israel.
• Israel invades Sinai, Britain and France intervene as
peacekeepers, in the process seizing control of canal
area.
• US very angry: puts enormous diplomatic and economic
pressure on British Prime Minister Anthony Eden.
• Eden suddenly recalls British forces, causing collapse of
operation.
• Experienced by Eden and the British political elite as a
deep humiliation, the war was the iconic moment of a
longer process in which the US supplanted Britain as the
dominant power in the Middle East.
Nasser’s domestic policies
• Nationalization: beyond Suez Canal, most large
businesses.
• Land reform: breaking up of large estates, with
small plots of land granted to peasant families.
• Ambitious modernization drive.
• Egyptianization: increasing restrictions on
economic activities of foreign citizens,
ultimately leading to harassment campaign
that forces out most of Egypt’s large expatriate
population.
Land redistribution ceremony in
Minya, upper Egypt, early 1960s.
Repression under Nasser
• Expulsion of foreign nationals as part of
Egyptianization drive.
• Vicious suppression of Muslim Brotherhood
after attempt to assassinate Nasser in 1954.
• The same campaign crushed all other forms
of dissent, such as communists.
• Nasser set up extensive security apparatus:
to control population and as counterweight
to the military.
Sadat’s turn to the US
• After war of 1973, Sadat decides that military
conflict with Israel futile.
• Visits Jerusalem in 1977, peace deal signed in
1979 leading to Israeli withdrawal from Sinai.
• Policy of infitah – opening of Egyptian economy
to foreign investment.
• Coincides with Iranian Revolution of 1979: US
lost its main Middle Eastern ally and was
searching for a replacement.
US-Egyptian alliance
• Most important components: peace with Israel
and support for US objectives in the oilexporting regions of the Middle East.
• Neoliberal reform: also response to IMF
pressure.
• US support provided through military aid:
currently $1.5 billion annually.
• Aid gives Egyptian armed forces huge
disincentive to engage in a coup that threatens
US interests.
Egyptian Revolution of 2011
Aftermath of 2011 revolution
• Military tried to stage-manage transition to another
authoritarian, military-friendly regime.
• Initially hoped Ahmed Shafik, former minister under
Mubarak, would be elected president.
• After Mohamed Morsi’s victory, he attempted to
seize control of repressive apparatus, rather than
reform it.
• Old regime took advantage of widespread protests
against Morsi to seize power again, with military
now in more powerful position than security
services.