The History of Humanitarianism Empire & Aftermath April 2016 Humanitarianism Having concern for or helping to improve the welfare and happiness of people The doctrine that humanity's obligations are concerned wholly with the welfare of the human race The doctrine that humankind may become perfect without divine aid Humanitarian: a person actively engaged in promoting human welfare and social reforms, as a philanthropist Pertaining to the saving of human lives or to the alleviation of suffering: a humanitarian crisis Humanitarianism Humanitarianism Humanitarianism one of defining features of the contemporary world; a central aspect of international relations and global civil society Since 19th century, humanitarianism has developed and grown into a global norm ‘Concern for distant strangers’ is not new: history of humanitarianism is intrinsically linked to modernity and empire ‘Humanitarianism’ is a broad umbrella. Today, is generally associated with crisis, intervention, disaster relief. But historical story is more complex Humanitarianism always more than the act of altruistic benevolence – closely tied to broader processes such as modernity, Enlightenment, globalisation Humanitarian Action Humanitarian action: save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain and protect human dignity during and in the aftermath of conflicts and emergencies Typical recipients: victims of natural disasters and famines, victims of conflict and war, refugees Humanitarian assistance is governed by set of key principles, set out by the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement, affirmed in UN General Assembly Resolutions, and enshrined in various international standards and guidelines: Humanity – saving human lives and alleviating suffering wherever it is found Impartiality – acting solely on the basis of need, without discrimination between or within affected populations Neutrality – acting without favouring any side in an armed conflict or other dispute Independence – ensuring autonomy of humanitarian objectives from political, economic, military or other objectives Distinguished from development aid, which focuses on alleviating poverty in the long-term Humanitarian Aid $24.5 billion spent on global humanitarian aid in 2014 –record figure, rise of 19% from previous record high of $20.5bn in 2013 2014 rise driven by needs from new emergencies against backdrop of major ongoing crises, e.g. Ebola virus disease outbreak, Iraq conflict, crises in South Sudan and Syria 76.4% ($18.7bn) comes from government contributions, and 23.6% ($5.8bn) comes from private contributions (individual donations to international humanitarian agencies; charitable trusts and foundations; private companies and corporations) Top 5 governmental donors, 2014: United States ($6.0bn), UK ($2.3bn), Germany ($1.2bn), Sweden ($933m), Japan ($882m). Top 5 recipients, 2014: Syria ($1.9bn), occupied Palestinian territory ($793m), Sudan ($736m), South Sudan ($664m), Jordan ($650m) Global Humanitarian System Complex international apparatus: identify needs, generate funding, channel this to specific agencies, and deliver aid to those who need it Key actors: nation states and official donors (including the European Union); UN agencies; international Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement; international NGOs; militaries; private companies Largest share of international humanitarian aid is channelled through the six UN agencies with a key role in humanitarian coordination and response: World Food Programme (WFP) UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) UN Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA) UN Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Very little humanitarian aid is channelled to affected states directly Humanitarian NGOs Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) non-profit, non-state, non-violent, organised on local/national/international level to address issues in support of public good International NGOs are crucial actors in global aid system, form ‘the backbone of the delivery mechanism of the international humanitarian system’ NGOs access humanitarian funding directly (from official donors) and indirectly (from UN agencies and other NGOs). Directly received 18% of total funding in 2014, and significantly more indirectly as sub-grants Funding is concentrated – ten largest international NGOs accounted for 36% of all funding to humanitarian NGOs in 2014 ‘Pro-NGO norm’ evolved in global governance since 1980s –NGOs promoted as more efficient and costeffective service providers, granted opportunities for participation Humanitarian Aid ‘Multi-sector’ assistance for refugees has dominated funding in recent years. Driven by rise in displacement from Syria, South Sudan, and Iraq Majority of aid is material relief assistance – broad range of crisis response activities, including water and sanitation, shelter, and health Significant expenditure also on emergency food aid. Largest food aid donor by far is the US Funding also spent on reconstruction and rehabilitation, and disaster prevention and preparedness Humanitarian aid is rarely a short-term intervention. Majority goes to the same countries year after year, due to recurrent chronic crises Largest recipients of aid are also often long-term recipients, e.g. Syria, Sudan, Pakistan, Kenya, DRC. Countries with high poverty rates, protracted crises, and low levels of domestic public resources History of Humanitarianism Early Origins Anti-Slavery Movement Imperial Humanitarianism The International Committee of the Red Cross Early 20th Century Relief & Reconstruction in the 1940s 1960s: Disasters & Development Biafra, 1968 1970s: The International Humanitarian System Ethiopia, 1984-85 The End of the Cold War 1990s: A ‘New Humanitarianism’ Post-2001: Humanitarianism in the Age of Terror Current Issues & Future Challenges Early Origins Religious roots: acting compassionately towards others ‘Organised compassion’ a relatively new historical phenomenon, only emerged fully in 18th century, part of transformation in moral thinking about pain and suffering Enlightenment ideals: reason, individualism, freedom, democracy, scientific thought. Promoted belief that it was possible to improve the human condition through deliberate social action Widespread humanitarian movements in 18th/19th centuries: build almshouses, reform prisons, eliminate judicial torture, end capital punishment, improve working conditions, abolish slavery Rise of humanitarian concern closely linked with modernity and market capitalism (Thomas Haskell) Evangelicalism: Protestant Christian movement, became organised in 18th century, emphasised personal salvation and piety. Evangelical view of life's purpose to serve God by saving souls of others – ‘Missionary impulse’. Evangelicals created various aid societies Early Origins: Missionary Humanitarianism Christian missionaries migrated from industrial cities to colonial outposts, preached unity of humankind, encouraged individuals back home to identify with suffering of others Missionary humanitarianism existed alongside discourses of Christianity and Colonialism – deemed ‘civilised’ peoples superior to backward populations, with moral obligation to alleviate their suffering Early missionary humanitarianism always contained mechanisms of control. Provided education, health, social services, relief. Also evangelized populations and promoted a western vision of ‘civilisation’ “An unprecedented wave of humanitarian reform sentiment swept through the societies of western Europe, England, and North America in the hundred years following 1750. Among the movements spawned by this new sensibility, the most spectacular was that to abolish slavery” (Thomas Haskell) Anti-Slavery Movement (Abolitionism) Early condemnations of slavery in 16th and 17th century, became major international movement in late 18th century British Slave Trade Act,1807 – made slave trade illegal throughout British Empire. By end of 19th century, slavery abolished in most places Abolitionism driven by rise of new moral sensibility, logic of ‘common humanity’ and ‘the rights of man’. Also coincided with consolidation of modern capitalist economy in Atlantic world Abolitionism shared many characteristics of modern social movements – pamphlets, publicity spectacles, celebrity campaigners Anti-slavery campaigning closely linked with imperialism – paternalistic, rooted in civilising mission. Slaves were human, but not equal to white Christians/Europeans. Christians had a duty to civilise slaves: ‘Benevolent colonialism’ Imperial Humanitarianism Humanitarian concern always associated with, and shaped by, Empire. Rise of humanitarian sensibility (‘passion for compassion’) closely linked with imperialism. Emerged at point where Europeans were reflecting on their relationships with vulnerable, non-European ‘Others’ Early origins of this ethos were in response to the harsh and inhumane treatment of subjects in the New World in the 16th century, by Spanish and Portuguese empires 19th century European imperialism contained an ideology of ‘trusteeship’ – expansion and conquest justified in terms of a civilising mission Humanitarian action could strengthen the power of colonial state, e.g. the Salvation Army Unapologetic paternalism – Christianity and colonialism could emancipate slaves, save souls, advance backward societies International Red Cross & Wartime Relief International Red Cross/Red Crescent: global humanitarian movement, several distinct organisations united through common principles International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC): private humanitarian institution, founded in Geneva, 1863 by Henry Dunant. Unique authority under international humanitarian law to protect victims of armed conflict 188 National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, coordinated internationally by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), founded 1919 Creation of ICRC in 1863 is important moment in the evolution of humanitarian norms and principles. Stimulated the formation of relief organisations, promoted international treaties and norms to guarantee the neutrality of wounded, medics, field hospitals Early ICRC reflected spirit of the times. Believed mercy and compassion were uniquely Christian virtues, linked to the civilising mission of empire For many commentators and practitioners, ICRC humanitarianism and principles is the definitive standard Early 20th Century First World War: heavily shaped character and direction of global humanitarianism. Relief work became more secular, more professional, more organised around transnational networks of experts. International flowering of humanitarianism in response to War: New generation of NGOs larger in scale and ambition International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) founded 1919 - brought together national Red Cross societies, prompted expansion of Red Cross movement beyond wartime assistance Save the Children Fund (SCF), 1919: founded by sisters Eglantyne Jebb and Dorothy Buxton, to provide aid to civilians suffering due to Allied blockade of Germany SCF pursued innovative and professional fundraising strategy, based around graphic images of starving children. Publicity fuelled growth, also obscured the ‘radical internationalism’ of SCF founders SCF different to 19th century missionaries: secular, professional, internationalist, appealed to universal ideas of humanity rather than religious faith. Also promoted imperial discourses of British superiority and trusteeship, linked humanitarian aid with colonial tradition League of Nations: co-ordinated various humanitarian initiatives, allowed NGOs to participate and collaborate Relief & Reconstruction in the 1940s Second World War: huge displacement and suffering across Europe, created massive humanitarian crisis Addressing this crisis catalysed the expansion and professionalisation of humanitarian action. Widely depicted as watershed moment in the historiography (Michael Barnett: 1940s a shift from ‘imperial humanitarianism’ to ‘neo-humanitarianism’) Allied governments and militaries assumed authority for co-ordinating relief, prompted a new level of co-ordination and professionalisation, a more integrated system of governance, and ‘the end of the charitable phase of modern humanitarianism’ (Gerald Cohen) United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA): international organisation set up in 1943, to coordinate aid efforts in liberated Europe. Secular, professional, technocratic, internationalist New generation of important humanitarian NGOs inspired by war: Oxfam (1942), Christian Aid (1944), CARE (1945) Following stabilisation of Europe, humanitarian agencies increasingly looked towards Middle East and Asia, following lead set by UN agencies (e.g. Korean War). Steady growth during 1950s 1960s: Disasters & Development The UN ‘Development Decade’ –widespread optimism and zeal in 1960s for development in post-colonial Third World Many humanitarian NGOs profoundly influenced this, took up cause of promoting long-term development projects, following lead set by UN Complex and ambivalent relationship between humanitarianism and development. Does tackling the long-term causes of poverty imply a move away from short-term emergency relief? 1960s also witnessed rapid growth of humanitarian NGOs, based on media images of disasters. Spread of television ownership crucial to this: news reports of distant suffering stimulated public empathy, evoked impulse to ‘save’ which shared many characteristics with 19th century imperial humanitarianism Stereotypical fundraising image of the starving African child central to this –became a ‘universal icon of human suffering’ during this period due to repeated dissemination in mass media and NGO publicity. ‘Show babies, all the time show babies and more babies’ Images of Suffering ‘Negative’ imagery, reproduces colonial ideas and stereotypes, presents Third World as helpless, passive, dependent. Infantilises global South Fit into longer lineage of child-centric appeals dating back to colonial missionaries and philanthropists, use suffering children as symbolic objects of ‘innate pathos universally worthy of humanitarian concern’ Such imagery very effective at evoking emotional response and stimulating financial donations. Also obscure more complex structural causes of inequality and suffering? Simplistic images and narratives suggest an abstraction from politics? Starving child represents an abstract universal humanity, removed from national or political context. Works to depoliticise global poverty and suffering, presented as naturally occurring conditions outside of human agency. Incompatible with campaigning on the long-term causes of poverty? Biafra, 1968 Nigerian Civil War, 1967-70: fought between Nigerian Federal Military Government and secessionist state of Biafra in the East. Complex post-colonial conflict Television images of Biafran starvation in 1968 gave rise to huge public demands for humanitarian aid all over the world – ‘the first humanitarian disaster to be seen by millions of people’ Biafra widely presented as a critical moment in the history of modern humanitarianism. Drew new level of attention to humanitarian aid, propelled NGOs to new level of prominence, influenced creation of important new agencies such as Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Biafra also a ‘loss of innocence’ for humanitarian agencies –exposed to the harmful, intended consequences of providing relief in times of conflict. Many gave up neutrality and took up pro-Biafra position, arguably helped prolong conflict Rony Brauman (MSF): ‘The Biafran War of 1967-70 was the founding event of the modern humanitarian aid movement’ 1970s: International Humanitarian System Biafran crisis followed by further major disasters in East Pakistan/Bangladesh (1970-71) and the Sahel (1973) – demonstrated Biafra was not unique phenomenon Major disasters spurred calls at the global level to improve international machinery for humanitarian aid Reforms on variety of fronts, with aim of improving relief coordination and effectiveness: dedicated emergency units, United Nations Disaster Relief Organization (UNDRO), NGO coalitions and networks, disaster research groups ‘International disaster relief network’ took shape at this time. Professionalisation and standardisation throughout the system Increasing prominence of NGOs in international aid system – ‘came of age’ in the 1970s, gained new respectability and influence, growing links with donors Cambodia, 1979: Oxfam takes centre stage, led NGO consortium to deliver aid. In doing so, waded into deeply complex political situation Ethiopia, 1984-85 Severe famine in northern Ethiopia, suddenly exposed on Western television in late 1984 (iconic BBC report) Television images of Ethiopian children gripped the global conscience, turned Ethiopian famine into a major cause célèbre and media frenzy Huge donations for humanitarian agencies, fuelled rapid growth and expansion Media reporting also presented famine as natural disaster caused by drought – obscured role of authoritarian Ethiopian government in creating and using famine as weapon of war Response to Ethiopia given added momentum by Band Aid phenomenon – fundraising initiative famously spearheaded by musician Bob Geldof. Iconic Live Aid concerts of July 1985 watched by a global audience of almost 2 billion, raised $150million for relief Ethiopia an important moment – inaugurated new phase of professionalised and competitive aid industry, new era of celebrity humanitarianism, drew new attention to political complexities of providing aid during emergencies Cumulated income (£m) of British Red Cross, Christian Aid, Oxfam and Save the Children, 1945-2009 (adjusted for inflation, 2009) The End of the Cold War End of the Cold War had important consequences for nature and trajectory of humanitarian action Collapse of bipolar system triggered rapid globalisation, unleashed flurry of violent conflicts and ‘complex emergencies’ in former superpower client states – the so-called ‘New Wars’ ‘New Wars’: decline of state's ability to provide security and perform basic governance, and simultaneous rise of paramilitary organisations, led to wars with no ‘fronts’, citizens now intended targets of conflict In new global environment of 1990s, international community showed new will to intervene in internal affairs of nation states on grounds of human rights abuses and humanitarian crises Total international expenditure on humanitarian aid increased dramatically from 1990s onwards Proliferation of humanitarian organisations in 1990s: more funding, new niche agencies, internationalisation of leading organisations, new media technologies. Increasing competition between NGOs for publicity and resources 1990s: A ‘New’ Humanitarianism? General shift in the purpose of humanitarianism in new climate of 1990s, became more associated with grander goals: development; human rights; conflict prevention. Will to move beyond minimalist aims of saving lives and reducing suffering – ‘New’ Humanitarianism ‘New’ Humanitarianism evolved in context of changing international context after end of Cold War. Shaped by series of important conflicts and crises in 1990s: Somalia (1991), Bosnia (1992-95), Rwandan genocide (1994), Kosovo (1998) Advent of ‘humanitarian war’ in late 1990s, especially in Kosovo ‘New’ Humanitarianism created number of serious ethical, moral and political dilemmas for humanitarians. ‘Identity crisis’ – struggle between traditional, limited Red Cross humanitarianism and expanded vision of rights-based aid Post-2001: Humanitarianism in the Age of Terror US-led global War on Terror after September 2001 – changing geopolitical context fuelled expansion of international humanitarianism, also raised number of challenging questions and implications Humanitarian action embedded into international politics and global security policy (‘securitisation’) Provision of humanitarian aid by US and allies to legitimise intervention – erosion of independence and neutrality? Arguably, humanitarian organisations increasingly turned into executing agencies for governmental policy Consolidation of aid ‘oligopoly’ in recent years – global landscape dominated by major players such as CARE, Catholic Relief Services, MSF, Oxfam, Save the Children, World Vision. ‘Super NGOs’ with expansive programme portfolios, huge resources, global influence Rise of militaries and private actors in delivering humanitarian aid Current Issues & Future Challenges Targeting of aid workers Syria Refugee crisis Urban conflict Climate change Conclusion: Questions to Consider Colonial legacies and continuities NGOs: independence, accountability, effectiveness. Still the ‘good guys’? Public engagement in global poverty and suffering Politics of humanitarian aid Celebrity Humanitarianism Non-Western humanitarianism