The History of
Humanitarianism
Empire & Aftermath
April 2016
Humanitarianism
 Having concern for or helping to improve the welfare and happiness of
people
 The doctrine that humanity's obligations are concerned wholly with the
welfare of the human race
 The doctrine that humankind may become perfect without divine aid
 Humanitarian: a person actively engaged in promoting human welfare and
social reforms, as a philanthropist
 Pertaining to the saving of human lives or to the alleviation of suffering: a
humanitarian crisis
Humanitarianism
Humanitarianism
 Humanitarianism one of defining features of the contemporary world; a
central aspect of international relations and global civil society
 Since 19th century, humanitarianism has developed and grown into a
global norm
 ‘Concern for distant strangers’ is not new: history of humanitarianism is
intrinsically linked to modernity and empire
 ‘Humanitarianism’ is a broad umbrella. Today, is generally associated with
crisis, intervention, disaster relief. But historical story is more complex
 Humanitarianism always more than the act of altruistic benevolence –
closely tied to broader processes such as modernity, Enlightenment,
globalisation
Humanitarian Action
 Humanitarian action: save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain and protect
human dignity during and in the aftermath of conflicts and emergencies
 Typical recipients: victims of natural disasters and famines, victims of conflict
and war, refugees
 Humanitarian assistance is governed by set of key principles, set out by the Red
Cross/Red Crescent Movement, affirmed in UN General Assembly Resolutions,
and enshrined in various international standards and guidelines:
 Humanity – saving human lives and alleviating suffering wherever it is found
 Impartiality – acting solely on the basis of need, without discrimination between
or within affected populations
 Neutrality – acting without favouring any side in an armed conflict or other
dispute
 Independence – ensuring autonomy of humanitarian objectives from political,
economic, military or other objectives
 Distinguished from development aid, which focuses on alleviating poverty in the
long-term
Humanitarian Aid
 $24.5 billion spent on global humanitarian aid in 2014 –record figure, rise of
19% from previous record high of $20.5bn in 2013
 2014 rise driven by needs from new emergencies against backdrop of
major ongoing crises, e.g. Ebola virus disease outbreak, Iraq conflict, crises
in South Sudan and Syria
 76.4% ($18.7bn) comes from government contributions, and 23.6% ($5.8bn)
comes from private contributions (individual donations to international
humanitarian agencies; charitable trusts and foundations; private
companies and corporations)
 Top 5 governmental donors, 2014: United States ($6.0bn), UK ($2.3bn),
Germany ($1.2bn), Sweden ($933m), Japan ($882m).
 Top 5 recipients, 2014: Syria ($1.9bn), occupied Palestinian territory ($793m),
Sudan ($736m), South Sudan ($664m), Jordan ($650m)
Global Humanitarian System
 Complex international apparatus: identify needs, generate funding,
channel this to specific agencies, and deliver aid to those who need it
 Key actors: nation states and official donors (including the European
Union); UN agencies; international Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement;
international NGOs; militaries; private companies
 Largest share of international humanitarian aid is channelled through the six
UN agencies with a key role in humanitarian coordination and response:
World Food Programme (WFP)
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
UN Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA)
UN Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
 Very little humanitarian aid is channelled to affected states directly
Humanitarian NGOs
 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
non-profit, non-state, non-violent, organised on
local/national/international level to address issues in
support of public good
 International NGOs are crucial actors in global aid
system, form ‘the backbone of the delivery mechanism
of the international humanitarian system’
 NGOs access humanitarian funding directly (from official
donors) and indirectly (from UN agencies and other
NGOs). Directly received 18% of total funding in 2014,
and significantly more indirectly as sub-grants
 Funding is concentrated – ten largest international NGOs
accounted for 36% of all funding to humanitarian NGOs
in 2014
 ‘Pro-NGO norm’ evolved in global governance since
1980s –NGOs promoted as more efficient and costeffective service providers, granted opportunities for
participation
Humanitarian Aid
 ‘Multi-sector’ assistance for refugees has dominated funding in recent years.
Driven by rise in displacement from Syria, South Sudan, and Iraq
 Majority of aid is material relief assistance – broad range of crisis response
activities, including water and sanitation, shelter, and health
 Significant expenditure also on emergency food aid. Largest food aid donor by
far is the US
 Funding also spent on reconstruction and rehabilitation, and disaster prevention
and preparedness
 Humanitarian aid is rarely a short-term intervention. Majority goes to the same
countries year after year, due to recurrent chronic crises
 Largest recipients of aid are also often long-term recipients, e.g. Syria, Sudan,
Pakistan, Kenya, DRC. Countries with high poverty rates, protracted crises, and
low levels of domestic public resources
History of Humanitarianism
 Early Origins
 Anti-Slavery Movement
 Imperial Humanitarianism
 The International Committee of the Red Cross
 Early 20th Century
 Relief & Reconstruction in the 1940s
 1960s: Disasters & Development
 Biafra, 1968
 1970s: The International Humanitarian System
 Ethiopia, 1984-85
 The End of the Cold War
 1990s: A ‘New Humanitarianism’
 Post-2001: Humanitarianism in the Age of Terror
 Current Issues & Future Challenges
Early Origins

Religious roots: acting compassionately towards others

‘Organised compassion’ a relatively new historical phenomenon,
only emerged fully in 18th century, part of transformation in
moral thinking about pain and suffering

Enlightenment ideals: reason, individualism, freedom,
democracy, scientific thought. Promoted belief that it was
possible to improve the human condition through deliberate
social action

Widespread humanitarian movements in 18th/19th centuries:
build almshouses, reform prisons, eliminate judicial torture, end
capital punishment, improve working conditions, abolish slavery

Rise of humanitarian concern closely linked with modernity and
market capitalism (Thomas Haskell)

Evangelicalism: Protestant Christian movement, became
organised in 18th century, emphasised personal salvation and
piety. Evangelical view of life's purpose to serve God by saving
souls of others – ‘Missionary impulse’. Evangelicals created
various aid societies
Early Origins: Missionary Humanitarianism
 Christian missionaries migrated from industrial cities to
colonial outposts, preached unity of humankind,
encouraged individuals back home to identify with
suffering of others
 Missionary humanitarianism existed alongside
discourses of Christianity and Colonialism – deemed
‘civilised’ peoples superior to backward populations,
with moral obligation to alleviate their suffering
 Early missionary humanitarianism always contained
mechanisms of control. Provided education, health,
social services, relief. Also evangelized populations
and promoted a western vision of ‘civilisation’
 “An unprecedented wave of humanitarian reform
sentiment swept through the societies of western
Europe, England, and North America in the hundred
years following 1750. Among the movements
spawned by this new sensibility, the most spectacular
was that to abolish slavery” (Thomas Haskell)
Anti-Slavery Movement (Abolitionism)
 Early condemnations of slavery in 16th and 17th century, became
major international movement in late 18th century
 British Slave Trade Act,1807 – made slave trade illegal throughout
British Empire. By end of 19th century, slavery abolished in most
places
 Abolitionism driven by rise of new moral sensibility, logic of
‘common humanity’ and ‘the rights of man’. Also coincided with
consolidation of modern capitalist economy in Atlantic world
 Abolitionism shared many characteristics of modern social
movements – pamphlets, publicity spectacles, celebrity
campaigners
 Anti-slavery campaigning closely linked with imperialism –
paternalistic, rooted in civilising mission. Slaves were human, but
not equal to white Christians/Europeans. Christians had a duty to
civilise slaves: ‘Benevolent colonialism’
Imperial Humanitarianism
 Humanitarian concern always associated with, and shaped
by, Empire. Rise of humanitarian sensibility (‘passion for
compassion’) closely linked with imperialism. Emerged at
point where Europeans were reflecting on their relationships
with vulnerable, non-European ‘Others’
 Early origins of this ethos were in response to the harsh and
inhumane treatment of subjects in the New World in the 16th
century, by Spanish and Portuguese empires
 19th century European imperialism contained an ideology of
‘trusteeship’ – expansion and conquest justified in terms of a
civilising mission
 Humanitarian action could strengthen the power of colonial
state, e.g. the Salvation Army
 Unapologetic paternalism – Christianity and colonialism could
emancipate slaves, save souls, advance backward societies
International Red Cross & Wartime Relief
 International Red Cross/Red Crescent: global humanitarian
movement, several distinct organisations united through
common principles
 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC): private
humanitarian institution, founded in Geneva, 1863 by Henry
Dunant. Unique authority under international humanitarian law
to protect victims of armed conflict
 188 National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, coordinated internationally by the International Federation of Red
Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), founded 1919
 Creation of ICRC in 1863 is important moment in the evolution of
humanitarian norms and principles. Stimulated the formation of
relief organisations, promoted international treaties and norms to
guarantee the neutrality of wounded, medics, field hospitals
 Early ICRC reflected spirit of the times. Believed mercy and
compassion were uniquely Christian virtues, linked to the
civilising mission of empire
 For many commentators and practitioners, ICRC
humanitarianism and principles is the definitive standard
Early 20th Century

First World War: heavily shaped character and direction of global
humanitarianism. Relief work became more secular, more
professional, more organised around transnational networks of
experts. International flowering of humanitarianism in response to
War: New generation of NGOs larger in scale and ambition

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
(IFRC) founded 1919 - brought together national Red Cross societies,
prompted expansion of Red Cross movement beyond wartime
assistance

Save the Children Fund (SCF), 1919: founded by sisters Eglantyne
Jebb and Dorothy Buxton, to provide aid to civilians suffering due to
Allied blockade of Germany

SCF pursued innovative and professional fundraising strategy, based
around graphic images of starving children. Publicity fuelled growth,
also obscured the ‘radical internationalism’ of SCF founders

SCF different to 19th century missionaries: secular, professional,
internationalist, appealed to universal ideas of humanity rather than
religious faith. Also promoted imperial discourses of British superiority
and trusteeship, linked humanitarian aid with colonial tradition

League of Nations: co-ordinated various humanitarian initiatives,
allowed NGOs to participate and collaborate
Relief & Reconstruction in the 1940s

Second World War: huge displacement and suffering across Europe,
created massive humanitarian crisis

Addressing this crisis catalysed the expansion and professionalisation
of humanitarian action. Widely depicted as watershed moment in
the historiography (Michael Barnett: 1940s a shift from ‘imperial
humanitarianism’ to ‘neo-humanitarianism’)

Allied governments and militaries assumed authority for co-ordinating
relief, prompted a new level of co-ordination and professionalisation,
a more integrated system of governance, and ‘the end of the
charitable phase of modern humanitarianism’ (Gerald Cohen)

United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA):
international organisation set up in 1943, to coordinate aid efforts in
liberated Europe. Secular, professional, technocratic, internationalist

New generation of important humanitarian NGOs inspired by war:
Oxfam (1942), Christian Aid (1944), CARE (1945)

Following stabilisation of Europe, humanitarian agencies increasingly
looked towards Middle East and Asia, following lead set by UN
agencies (e.g. Korean War). Steady growth during 1950s
1960s: Disasters & Development

The UN ‘Development Decade’ –widespread optimism and zeal in
1960s for development in post-colonial Third World

Many humanitarian NGOs profoundly influenced this, took up
cause of promoting long-term development projects, following
lead set by UN

Complex and ambivalent relationship between humanitarianism
and development. Does tackling the long-term causes of poverty
imply a move away from short-term emergency relief?

1960s also witnessed rapid growth of humanitarian NGOs, based on
media images of disasters.

Spread of television ownership crucial to this: news reports of distant
suffering stimulated public empathy, evoked impulse to ‘save’
which shared many characteristics with 19th century imperial
humanitarianism

Stereotypical fundraising image of the starving African child central
to this –became a ‘universal icon of human suffering’ during this
period due to repeated dissemination in mass media and NGO
publicity.

‘Show babies, all the time show babies and more babies’
Images of Suffering

‘Negative’ imagery, reproduces colonial ideas and
stereotypes, presents Third World as helpless, passive,
dependent. Infantilises global South

Fit into longer lineage of child-centric appeals dating
back to colonial missionaries and philanthropists, use
suffering children as symbolic objects of ‘innate pathos
universally worthy of humanitarian concern’

Such imagery very effective at evoking emotional
response and stimulating financial donations. Also
obscure more complex structural causes of inequality
and suffering?

Simplistic images and narratives suggest an abstraction
from politics? Starving child represents an abstract
universal humanity, removed from national or political
context.

Works to depoliticise global poverty and suffering,
presented as naturally occurring conditions outside of
human agency. Incompatible with campaigning on
the long-term causes of poverty?
Biafra, 1968

Nigerian Civil War, 1967-70: fought between Nigerian
Federal Military Government and secessionist state of
Biafra in the East. Complex post-colonial conflict

Television images of Biafran starvation in 1968 gave rise to
huge public demands for humanitarian aid all over the
world – ‘the first humanitarian disaster to be seen by
millions of people’

Biafra widely presented as a critical moment in the history
of modern humanitarianism. Drew new level of attention to
humanitarian aid, propelled NGOs to new level of
prominence, influenced creation of important new
agencies such as Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF)

Biafra also a ‘loss of innocence’ for humanitarian agencies
–exposed to the harmful, intended consequences of
providing relief in times of conflict. Many gave up neutrality
and took up pro-Biafra position, arguably helped prolong
conflict

Rony Brauman (MSF): ‘The Biafran War of 1967-70 was the
founding event of the modern humanitarian aid
movement’
1970s: International Humanitarian System

Biafran crisis followed by further major disasters in East
Pakistan/Bangladesh (1970-71) and the Sahel (1973) –
demonstrated Biafra was not unique phenomenon

Major disasters spurred calls at the global level to improve
international machinery for humanitarian aid

Reforms on variety of fronts, with aim of improving relief coordination and effectiveness: dedicated emergency units,
United Nations Disaster Relief Organization (UNDRO), NGO
coalitions and networks, disaster research groups

‘International disaster relief network’ took shape at this time.
Professionalisation and standardisation throughout the system

Increasing prominence of NGOs in international aid system –
‘came of age’ in the 1970s, gained new respectability and
influence, growing links with donors

Cambodia, 1979: Oxfam takes centre stage, led NGO
consortium to deliver aid. In doing so, waded into deeply
complex political situation
Ethiopia, 1984-85

Severe famine in northern Ethiopia, suddenly exposed on
Western television in late 1984 (iconic BBC report)

Television images of Ethiopian children gripped the global
conscience, turned Ethiopian famine into a major cause
célèbre and media frenzy

Huge donations for humanitarian agencies, fuelled rapid
growth and expansion

Media reporting also presented famine as natural disaster
caused by drought – obscured role of authoritarian
Ethiopian government in creating and using famine as
weapon of war

Response to Ethiopia given added momentum by Band Aid
phenomenon – fundraising initiative famously spearheaded
by musician Bob Geldof. Iconic Live Aid concerts of July
1985 watched by a global audience of almost 2 billion,
raised $150million for relief

Ethiopia an important moment – inaugurated new phase of
professionalised and competitive aid industry, new era of
celebrity humanitarianism, drew new attention to political
complexities of providing aid during emergencies
Cumulated income (£m) of British Red Cross, Christian Aid, Oxfam
and Save the Children, 1945-2009 (adjusted for inflation, 2009)
The End of the Cold War

End of the Cold War had important consequences for nature
and trajectory of humanitarian action

Collapse of bipolar system triggered rapid globalisation,
unleashed flurry of violent conflicts and ‘complex emergencies’
in former superpower client states – the so-called ‘New Wars’

‘New Wars’: decline of state's ability to provide security and
perform basic governance, and simultaneous rise of paramilitary
organisations, led to wars with no ‘fronts’, citizens now intended
targets of conflict

In new global environment of 1990s, international community
showed new will to intervene in internal affairs of nation states on
grounds of human rights abuses and humanitarian crises

Total international expenditure on humanitarian aid increased
dramatically from 1990s onwards

Proliferation of humanitarian organisations in 1990s: more
funding, new niche agencies, internationalisation of leading
organisations, new media technologies. Increasing competition
between NGOs for publicity and resources
1990s: A ‘New’ Humanitarianism?
 General shift in the purpose of humanitarianism in
new climate of 1990s, became more associated
with grander goals: development; human rights;
conflict prevention. Will to move beyond minimalist
aims of saving lives and reducing suffering – ‘New’
Humanitarianism
 ‘New’ Humanitarianism evolved in context of
changing international context after end of Cold
War. Shaped by series of important conflicts and
crises in 1990s: Somalia (1991), Bosnia (1992-95),
Rwandan genocide (1994), Kosovo (1998)
 Advent of ‘humanitarian war’ in late 1990s,
especially in Kosovo
 ‘New’ Humanitarianism created number of serious
ethical, moral and political dilemmas for
humanitarians. ‘Identity crisis’ – struggle between
traditional, limited Red Cross humanitarianism and
expanded vision of rights-based aid
Post-2001: Humanitarianism in the Age
of Terror
 US-led global War on Terror after September 2001 –
changing geopolitical context fuelled expansion of
international humanitarianism, also raised number of
challenging questions and implications
 Humanitarian action embedded into international
politics and global security policy (‘securitisation’)
 Provision of humanitarian aid by US and allies to
legitimise intervention – erosion of independence and
neutrality? Arguably, humanitarian organisations
increasingly turned into executing agencies for
governmental policy
 Consolidation of aid ‘oligopoly’ in recent years – global
landscape dominated by major players such as CARE,
Catholic Relief Services, MSF, Oxfam, Save the Children,
World Vision. ‘Super NGOs’ with expansive programme
portfolios, huge resources, global influence
 Rise of militaries and private actors in delivering
humanitarian aid
Current Issues & Future Challenges
 Targeting of aid workers
 Syria
 Refugee crisis
 Urban conflict
 Climate change
Conclusion: Questions to Consider
 Colonial legacies and continuities
 NGOs: independence, accountability,
effectiveness. Still the ‘good guys’?
 Public engagement in global poverty and
suffering
 Politics of humanitarian aid
 Celebrity Humanitarianism
 Non-Western humanitarianism