Introduction to Roman Literature
3. Literature to Influence
Key questions:

How did Roman power exert its influence on, and through, Roman literature?
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What techniques does Virgil use to influence the emotions of his readers?

How did Virgil's influence alter after his death, in late antiquity and the Middle Ages?
1A. Pastoral Politics: Virgil in the Eclogues
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Eclogues Virgil’s first collection: ten poems, set in a (fantasised?) pastoral Italy.
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N.B. – the problems of reading Virgil’s poetry as an allegory for Virgil’s life.
MELIBOEUS:
Tityrus, reclining beneath the spreading shelter of the beech, you practise your
pastoral Muse on a slender reed-pipe: while I must leave the limits and the beloved fields of my
homeland...
TITYRUS:
… O Meliboeus, a god bore this leisure to me. For to me he shall be a god
always, his altar often wetted with the blood of a tender lamb from my sheepfolds. It is he who
allows my cows to wander, as you see, and I to play as I wish on this country reed-pipe.
(Ecl. 1.1-10)
TITYRUS:
Sooner will light-footed stags pasture in the heavens and the seas leave the fish
uncovered on the shore, sooner, roaming in each others lands... before the look of that young prince
fades from my heart.
MELIBOEUS:
But the rest of us must go from here to the thirsty land of Africans, some to
Scythia, to the Oaxes which churns up the chalk or to Britain, utterly sundered from all the world.
Shall I ever again a long time in the future see my homeland, the roof of my little cottage heaped
high with turf, see and marvel one day at my kingdom, a few ears of corn? Will some godless soldier
own these fallows so often tilled, some barbarian these cornfields? To this misery has civil war
brought us: for these men we planted our croplands!
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
(Ecl. 1.59-72)
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Introduction to Roman Literature (3): Literature to Influence
1B. Virgil’s Golden Age
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The Eclogues feature a great variety of styles, tones and themes
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Virgil experimenting with the limits and capabilities of the pastoral genre:
Sicilian Muse, I would sing now of a somewhat greater thing. Shrubberies and humble tamarisks
are not suitable for all; if I sing of woodlands, let them be woodlands worthy of a consul. Now the
final age of the Sybil's song has come; the great order of the ages is born anew. Now the Virgin
reappears, the realm of Saturn returns, and now its first-born child is sent from on high.
At his birth look kindly, chaste Lucina, on the boy, from whom the iron age desists and a golden race
of men will rise across all the earth; now will your Apollo rule. This glorious age will commence
under your consulship, Pollio, indeed, and the great months will begin their march; under your
leadership and traces of our sin which remain will be rendered void and will free the lands of fear
forever.
(Ecl. 4.1-14)
2A. Octavian in the Georgics

In Georgics 1, Virgil asks Octavian (Caesar) to join the other gods who guide his work:
You too, Caesar, though we don’t yet know which cohort of the gods will soon enrol you –
whether you’ll wish to keep cities safe and care for our lands, so the great circling world will take you
as source of the earth’s fruits and master of seasons… Whether you shall come as god of the vast sea,
and sailors worship only your holy spirit…
… Whatever you shall be (Hell does not hope for you as king, nor may such ominous passion to
rule overwhelm you…) Grant me smooth passage, assent to this work boldly begun, and with me
feel compassion for country people unaware of their way. Enter and promise even now to hear our
prayers.
(Geo. 1.24-42)
Gods of my country, homeland gods, Romulus, mother Vesta, who protect the Tiber’s Tuscan source
and the Roman Palatine, do not prevent that young man from succouring an age in ruins…
heaven’s courts have slighted you long enough, Caesar, charging that you concern yourself with
human triumphs here the good and evil have changed places: so many wars in the world, so many
forms of wickedness, no honour for the plough, farmers conscripted, the mournful feels untilled,
and curved pruning hooks are beaten into unbending swords.
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
(Geo. 1.498-509)
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Introduction to Roman Literature (3): Literature to Influence
2B. A Poem for Caesar?
Let us seek to attain the Dryads’ woods and untried glades, in accord with your not so easy
commands, Maecenas…
… Yet soon I will arm myself to tell of Caesar’s fiery battles and assure his name’s praise through
as many years as Caesar is distant from the birth of Dawn’s consort.
(Geo. 3.41-48)
2B. Heralding the Aeneid

For many years, Maecenas’ poets had refused to write epic – even Virgil himself:
When I was to sing of kings and battles, Apollo pulled on my ear and warned me: ‘A shepherd
must feed his flock fat, Tityrus, but you must keep your song slimmed down.’

(Ecl. 6.3-5)
But as early as 26 BC, Propertius was heralding the ‘new Homer’ to the Roman public:
Let it please me to languish with yesterday’s garlands, whom sure-aiming Cupid has struck to the
bone; for Virgil the power to tell of Actium’s shores in Phoebus’ guard and Caesar’s gallant ships,
who now wakes to life the arms of Troy’s Aeneas and walls cast down on Lavinian shores. Surrender,
writers of Rome; surrender, Greeks! Something greater than the Iliad is being born.
(Prop 2.34.59-66)
3. Virgil's Innovations in Epic
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Rejection of the historical epic – too restrictive.
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The Aeneas myth was current but not canonical; Virgil free to provide his own version

Could bring out historical parallels and praise Caesar subject to his own narrative.
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Could vary Homeric themes with a new ‘subjective’ approach.
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Introduction to Roman Literature (3): Literature to Influence
3A. Reading the New Style
Read the following passages from Aeneid 9 and consider:

How does Virgil involve his readers in the story of Nisus and Euryalus?
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What Homeric episode is Virgil imitating here? How has he done it differently?
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Do you notice any other allusions to poems you have read?
3A1. Nisus' Plan
Now Nisus guarded a gate… and right beside him came his friend, Euryalus. None more winning
among Aeneas’ soldiers, none who strapped on Trojan armour, a young boy sporting the first down
of manhood, cheeks unshaved. One love bound them, side by side they’d rush to attack, so now,
standing the same watch, they held one gate.
‘Euryalus,’ Nisus asks, ‘do the gods light this fire in our hearts, or does each man’s mad desire
become his god? For a while now a craving’s urged me on to swing into action, some great exploit –
no peace and quiet for me. See those Rutulians? What trust they put in their own blind luck! … Now
listen to what I’m mulling over, what new plan is shaping my mind. The people, the elders all
demand that Aeneas be recalled and men dispatched to tell him how the land lies. If they promise
you my reward – the fame of the work’s enough for me – I think I can just make out a path…’
… Euryalus froze, his heart pounding with love of praise and he checks his fiery friend at once: ‘So,
Nisus, grudging your friend a share in your fine exploit? I’m to send you out alone to so much
danger? … Here is a heart that spurns the light, that counts the honour you’re after cheap at the
price of life!’
‘No,’ Nisus insisted, ‘I had no such qualm about you – how wrong I’d be… Ah, but if – and you often
see such things in risky straits – if anything sends me down to death, some god, some twist of Fate,
you must live on, I say, you’re young, your life’s worth more than mine… nor would I cause
your mother so much grief, dear boy. She alone, out of so many Trojan mothers, dared to
follow you all the way.’
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
(Aen 9.210-258)
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Introduction to Roman Literature (3): Literature to Influence
3A2. A Successful Raid
Rhoetus vomits his red lifeblood, spewing out gore and wine mixed with the man’s last gasp. But still
Euryalus glowed with a killer’s stealth, he was stalking nearer Messapus’ henchmen now, he could
spot the outer campfires flickering low… when Nisus, sensing his comrade run amok with bloodlust,
cuts him short: ‘Call it quits, the dawn’s at hand… enough revenge. We’ve hacked a path through
enemy lines – enough!’
And they leave behind a haul of soldiers’ armour struck in solid silver, mixing-bowls in the
bargain, gorgeous rugs. But Euryalus tears off Rhamnes’ battle-emblems and gold-studded belt…
Euryalus seizes them, fits them on to his gallant shoulders all for nothing. He dons Messapus’
helmet crested with tossing plumes…
… But then a troop of cavalry sent on ahead from the Latin city… comes riding in with messages for
King Turnus… The helmet – Euryalus forgot – it glints in the dark, it gives him away, it’s caught
in a shaft of moonlight. A sight not lost on Volcens, shouting out from the vanguard: ‘Soldiers, halt!
Why on the road – in armour! Who are you?’
(Aen 9.404-437)
3A3. United in Death
The dark branches, the heft of plunder, all weigh down Euryalus – fear leads him astray in the tangled
paths. But Nisus gets away, unthinkingly flees the foe… Here Nisus halts, looking back for his lost
friend, no use: ‘My poor Euryalus! Where did I lose you? Where can I find you now?’
… The next moment a cry hits his ears, and look, Euryalus! Caught by the full band, undone by the
dark, the place, the treachery, the sudden crashing attack – he’s overwhelmed, they’re dragging him
off, struggling, desperate, doomed. What can Nisus do? How can he save his young friend – what
force, weapons, what bold stroke? Pitch himself at the swords and die at once? Race through
wounds to a swift and noble death..?
… With that he hurled his spear, his whole body behind it – whirring on through the dark night, it flies
at Sulmo and striking his turned back it splits – crack! – and a splinter stabs his midriff through…
Volcens burns with fury, stymied – where can he find the one who threw it? Where can he aim
his rage? ‘No matter!’ he cries. ‘Now you’ll pay me in full with your hot blood for both my men!’
With that he rushes Euryalus, sword drawn as Nisus, terrified, frenzied – no more hiding in shadows,
no enduring such anguish any longer – he breaks out: ‘Me, here I am, I did it!’
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Introduction to Roman Literature (3): Literature to Influence
… But while he begged the sword goes plunging clean through Euryalus’ ribs, cleaving open his
white chest. He writhes in death as blood flows over his shapely limbs, his neck droops, sinking
over a shoulder, limp as a crimson flower cut off by a passing plough.
… But Nisus storms the thick of them, out for Volcens… till facing Volcens, he sinks his blade in his
screaming mouth – Nisus dying just as he stripped his enemy of his life. Then, riddled with wound
on wound, he threw himself on his lifeless friend and there in the still of death found peace at
last. How fortunate, both at once! If my songs have any power, the day will never dawn that
wipes you from the memory of the ages, not while the house of Aeneas stands by the Capitol’s rock
unshaken, not while the Roman Father rules the world.
(Aen 9.445-515)
5. An Instant Classic
Within or shortly after his own lifetime, Virgil becomes…

The basis for Roman grammatical and rhetorical study and practice.

A source and model for poetic imitation (see: the Appendix Vergiliana).

A symbol of Roman national vanity?
5A. The Virgilian Career
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Virgil’s three poems represent a model of steady advancement: pastoral, didactic, epic

The poems could be read as one ‘total poem’: all written in epic hexameters.

Death of Virgil coincides (almost!) with closure of his work; see the Virgilian epitaph:
Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
Parthenope; cecini pascua, rura, duces.
Mantua bore me, Calabria seized me away, now
Naples holds me: I sang of pastures, fields, and leaders.

Quoted by Virgil's biographer (fourth century AD) Aelius Donatus; almost certainly fake.

Claims it was deleted by Virgil’s posthumous editors in favour of “arma virumque cano”
That man am I who having once played his song upon a slender reed, emerging from the woods
compelled neighbouring fields to submit even to the greediest farmer, a work welcome to
husbandmen, but now Mars’ bristling arms and the Man I sing…
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Introduction to Roman Literature (3): Literature to Influence
5B. Virgil’s Universal Knowledge
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The Rota Virgilii, the ‘Wheel of Virgil’: the poet who covers all aspects of living:

The Sortes Vergilianae: a line of Virgil selected at random as an oracle

In some medieval legends, Virgil is a powerful sorcerer with supernatural powers

Do we get Virgil (as opposed to the ‘more correct’ Vergil) from virga, ‘magic wand’?
6A. Virgil and Christian Culture

Virgil remains the central Latin author even after the Empire’s conversion to Christianity
Of course, those first studies of letters, by which there was developed in me… that ability… to read
whatever I find in writing… were better because more certain than those studies in which, forgetful of
my own errors, I was compelled to remember I know not what errors of Aeneas, and to weep for
a dead Dido… all this while I myself was dying, because of these things, in Thy sight, O Lord my
Life, and in my utter wretchedness I carried on with dry eyes…
(Augustine, Confessions 13)

There were other ways of reading Virgil that were more agreeable to Christians:

By allegory: Fulgentius’ Exposition shows the Aeneid to represent the life of man.

By reconfiguring: Proba’s Cento put Virgilian verses to a Christian theme:
That Virgil put to verse Christ's sacred duties let me tell.
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
(Proba, 1. 23-26)
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Introduction to Roman Literature (3): Literature to Influence
6B. Virgil: The Christian Without Christ
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Christian desire to absolve or convert Virgil from paganism; story of St. Paul:
‘What would I not have made thee had I found thee still alive, O greatest poet!’

Emperor Constantine in his Oration to the Saints read Ecl. 4 as a prophecy of Christ.

As a result, Ecl. 4 becomes one of the most widely-read poems in Middle Ages:
Statius said: ‘It was you directed me to drink Parnassus’ waters – it was you whose radiance revealed
the way to God. You were the lonely traveller in the dark who holds his lamp behind him, shedding
light not for himself but to make others wise; for you once wrote: ‘The world is born again; Justice
returns, and the first age of man, and a new progeny descends from heaven.’ Through you I
was a poet, through you, a Christian.’
(Dante, Purgatorio 22.64-73)
6C. Virgil in Dante’s Divine Comedy

Inferno, Purgatory, Paradise; written early 1300s; first major poem written in Italian.

Virgil is Dante’s guide through Hell and Purgatory: knowledge of the afterlife (Aeneid 6).
‘Are you then Virgil, are you then that fount from which pours forth so rich a stream of words?’ I said
to him, bowing my head modestly. ‘O light and honour of the other poets, may my long years of
study, and that deep love that made me search your verses, help me now! You are my teacher,
the first of all my authors, and you alone the one from whom I took the noble style that was to bring
me honour…’
(Dante, Inferno 1.79-87)
Lecture summary: The Influence of Virgil

The primary interest of Virgil’s poetry is in the nature and fortune of human beings.

His understanding of different perspectives is what has made his appeal so extensive.

His adaptation to different cultures is an example of the value in studying reception.

As Virgil has influenced readers, readers have also influenced Virgil.
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
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