Preface
xii
Henry Stommel
xiv
The Scientific Work of Henry Stommel
Arnold B. Arons
xiv
A Theoretical Model of Henry Stommel
George Veronis
xix
Notes Related to Stommel's Early Years in
Woods Hole
Raymond B. Montgomery
xxiv
Henry Stommel
G.E.R. Deacon
Life and Work of
Henry Stommel-On
F.C. Fuglister
xxv
the Light Side
xxvi
Henry Stommel
Xxviii
Introduction
2
Part One
General Ocean
Circulation
5
I
Deep Circulation
of the World Ocean
I.I
Introduction
6
I.2
Bruce A. Warren
Historical Development of Ideas about the Deep
Circulation
6
I .3
A Dynamical Framework
7
II
I .4
Sources of Deep Water
I5
1.5
Deep Western Boundary Currents in the World Ocean
2
The Water Masses
of the World Ocean:
Some Results of a
Fine-Scale Census
L. V. Worthington
42
26
I.6
Why Is There a Deep Thermohaline Circulation At All?
38
Notes
40
2.1
Introduction
42
2.2
Methods of Describing the Oceans
43
2.3
The World Water Masses As They Exist in the Second
Half of This Century
44
2.4
The Formation of Water Masses
57
Appendix: Census of World-Ocean Water Masses with
Classes and Rank by
Division by Bivariate (°C x %/oo)
Volume
60
vi
Contents
3
On the Mid-Depth
Circulation of the
3.1
Introduction
70
3.2
World Ocean
The Circulation of the Upper Waters and Their
Contribution to the Mid-Depths
Joseph L .Reid
3.3
70
The Use of Geostrophy
70
72
3.4
The Mid-Depth Circulation of the Atlantic Ocean
from Core Analysis and Vertical Geostrophic Shear
74
3.5
Studies of Total Transport and Layers
79
3.6
Mid-Depth Studies Using Isopycnal Analysis
8i
3.7
Comparison of Relative Geostrophic Flow at
Mid-Depth with Numerical Models of Transport
85
3.8
Mid-Depth Patterns in the World Ocean
9'
3.9
4
The Gulf Stream
System
N. P. Fofonoff
II2
Comparison of the Maps of Shear Field and
Characteristics
Io9
3.I0
Conclusion
IIO
4.1
Introduction
II2
4.2
The Gulf Stream System
113
4.3
The Florida Current
II3
4.4
The Gulf Stream
I23
4.5
5
Dynamics of
Large-Scale Ocean
Circulation
George Veronis
I40
The North Atlantic Current
'33
4.6
Summary and Conclusions
I37
5.1
Introduction and Summary
140
5.2
The Equations for Large-Scale Dynamics
I42
5.3
The Quasi-Geostrophic Equations and the -Plane
I44
5.4
Ekman Layers
I47
5.5
Steady Linear Models of the Wind-Driven Circulation
149
5.6
Preliminary Nonlinear Considerations
I53
5.7
Why Does the Gulf Steam Leave the Coast?
I57
5.8
Thermohaline Circulation
vii
Contents
I58
5.9
Free Waves for a Constant-Depth Two-Layer Ocean
on the b-Plane
I64
5.Io
Effect of Bottom Topography on Quasi-Geostrophic
Waves
5.II
I69
Baroclinic Instability
5 .I2
Effect of Nonlinearity
and Turbulence
Notes
I74
183
6.I
6
Equatorial Currents:
Introduction
I84
6.2
Observations
Observations and Theory
6.3
Ants Leetmaa,
Theories
Julian P. McCreary,Jr., and
6.4
Dennis W. Moore
Discussion
I85
I88
I95
I84
7
7.1
Introduction
On Estuarine and
7.2
Continental-Shelf
Estuarine Circulation in the Middle Atlantic Bight
Circulation in the
7.3
I98
199
Middle Atlantic Bight
Continental-Shelf Circulation
207
Robert C. Beardsley and
William C. Boicourt
Appendix: Annual Air-Sea Interaction Cycles and
Mean Runoff for the Middle Atlantic Bight
230
I98
Notes
233
8
8.I
Introduction
236
Small-Scale
8.2
Mixing Processes
Preliminary Discussion of Various Mechanisms
. S. Turner
8.3
236
Vertical Mixing in the Upper Layers of the Ocean
Part Two
Physical Processes
in Oceanography
235
237
240
8.4
Mixing in the Interior of the Ocean
245
8.5
Mixing near the Bottom of the Ocean
9
Internal Waves and
Small-Scale Processes
Walter Munk
264
258
9.1
Introduction
264
9.2
Layered Ocean
268
9.3
Continuously Stratified Ocean
viiiContents
Contents
269
9.4
Turning Depths and Turning Latitudes
27I
9.5
Shear
273
9.6
Resonant Interactions
275
9.7
Breaking
276
9.8
Ocean Fine Structure and Microstructure
279
9.9
IO
Long Waves and
Ocean Tides
Myrl C. Hendershott
292
An Inconclusive Discussion
283
9.Io
Conclusion
290
Notes
290
IO.I
Introduction
292
IO.2
Astronomical Tide-Generating Forces
293
IO.3
Laplace's Tidal Equations (LTE) and the Long-Wave
Equations
295
IO.4
Long Waves in the Ocean
297
IO.5
The Ocean Surface Tide
317
io.6
Internal Tides
329
IO.7
Tidal Studies and the Rest of Oceanography
339
II
II.I
Low-Frequency
Variability of the Sea
Introduction
342
II.2
The Field of Variability of the Ocean
346
342
II.3
Summary and Conclusions
373
I2
I2.I
Introduction
376
Carl Wunsch
Some Varieties of
12.2
Biological Oceanography
Space and Time Scales of Variation
377
J. H. Steele
376
I2.3
Ecological Variations
379
12.4
Discussion
13
The Amplitude of
Convection
Willem V. R. Malkus
384
381
I3.1
Introduction
384
I3.2
Basic Boussinesq Description
385
I3.3
Initial Motions
ix
Contents
386
13.4
Quantitative Theories for High Rayleigh Number
387
13.5
The Amplitude of Turbulent Convection from Stability
389
Criteria
Part Three
Techniques of
Investigation
395
I4.I
14
Observations and the Impact of New Instruments
396
Experiment Design
I4.2
Instrument Development: Some Principles and History
398
D. James Baker, Jr.
14.3
396
Examples of Modem Ocean Instruments
402
I4.4
Ocean Experiment Design
429
Ocean Instruments and
I5
Geochemical
Tracers and Ocean
Circulation
W. S. Broecker
434
15.1
Introduction
434
I5.2
Water-Transport Tracers
435
15.3
Water-Mass Tracers
448
I5.4
Modeling Tracer Data
448
15.5
Current Applications
449
i5.6
Ventilation of the Deep Sea
450
I5.7
Ventilation of the Main Oceanic Thermocline
456
I5.8
I6
The Origin and
Development of
Laboratory Models and
Analogues of the
Ocean Circulation
Formation of Deep Waters
457
I5.9
Vertical Mixing Rates
459
I6.I
A Brief Philosophy of Laboratory Experimentation
462
I6.2
Introduction
463
I6.3
The Experiments of W. S. von Arx
465
I6.4
Alan J. Faller
The SAF Model
466
462
i6.5
Experiments with Rotating Covers
468
I6.6
A Variety of Interesting Experiments
472
I6.7
Concluding Remarks
X
Contents
478
Part Four
Ocean and
Atmosphere
48i
I7.I
17
Introduction
482
H. Charnock
17.2
The Surface Layer
483
I7.3
The Lower Boundary
486
Air-Sea Interaction
482
17.4
Waves
490
I7.5
The Atmospheric Boundary Layer
i8
Oceanic Analogues
of Large-Scale
Atmospheric Motions
495
I8.I
Introduction
504
I8.2
The General Circulation of Oceans and Atmospheres
Compared
505
Jule G. Chamey and
Glenn R. Flierl
The Transient Motions
506
504
I8.4
The Geostrophic Formalism
508
I8.3
I8.5
Linear Quasi-Geostrophic Dynamics of a Stratified
Ocean
520
I8.6
Friction in Quasi-Geostrophic Systems
525
I8.7
Nonlinear Motions
529
I8.8
Summary Remarks
544
Appendix: The Quasi-Geostrophic Equations
546
Notes
548
Acknowledgments and
Permissions
550
Reference List
554
Index
612
Contributors
622
xi
Contents