Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 3(5): 377-385, 2011
ISSN: 2040-7467
© Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2011
Received: November 08, 2010
Accepted: December 02, 2010
Published: May 25, 2011
Assessment of the Quality of Bottled/Sachet Water in the
Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality (TM) of Ghana
1
D. Nana Asamoah and 2R. Amorin
Department of Geological Engineering,
2
Department of Petroleum Engineering,
University of Mines and Technology (UMaT), Tarkwa, Ghana
1
Abstract: This study aims at assessing the quality of water from bottled/sachet water in the Tarkwa-Nsuaem
Municipality. Tarkwa is an ancient mining town sited in an Equatorial climate in Ghana and experiences high
population growth rate as a result of mining activities. Due to this, water resources are under pressure as Ghana
Water Company Ltd., (GWCL) produces only 55% of the Municipality’s water requirements. The population
is skeptical of using other sources of water for domestic purposes because of mining activities. Therefore,
majority of the people in the Municipality depend on bottled/sachet water for drinking. This study presents and
discusses the results of physicochemical and microbial analyses of six bottled/sachet water samples. The water
source of these water producing companies is groundwater. Two sets of samples were collected from each
company during the rainy season and the dry season to account for seasonal variations. A representative sample
for each company was analyzed by the Chemistry/Bacteria Division of the GWCL, Takoradi for
physicochemical parameters including pH, temperature, taste, electrical conductivity, true colour, turbidity total
dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total alkalinity, total hardness and coliform bacteria. Metals and anions
analysed were Ca, Mn, K, Na, Cr, Cd, Sb, Ba. BO3G, total Fe, Pb, Zn, As, NO3G, NO2G SO4G2, PO4G3, (NH3-N),
FG, ClG, CNG, carbonate hardness and bicarbonate hardness. Bacteria analysed were total Coliforms,
Escherichia coli and total Heterotrophic bacteria. The concentrations of most of the investigated parameters in
the drinking water samples from Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality were within the permissible limits of the World
Health Organization (WHO)/Ghana Standard Board (GSB) drinking water quality guidelines except pH, Ba
and ClG contents. The pH of SKFDW and DLFWD were respectively 5.5 and 6.31; acidic and lower than the
recommended WHO/GSB guideline of 6.5-8.5. The Ba contents in the water samples of ASBFDW and TLFDW
Companies were respectively 1.8 and 1.9 mg/L, which are higher than the WHO/GSB threshold values of 0.7
mg/L. SKFDW water samples gave higher analytical ClG value of 274 mg/L which is above the recommended
WHO/GSB threshold values of 0-250 mg/L. These packaged waters must be treated before use.
Key words: Coliform, metals, microbial, physiochemical
INTRODUCTION
Limited is able to supply only 55% of treated water to the
population and the remaining people rely on other
sources.
Due to availability, accessibility and issues of
packaging, sachet/bottled water for drinking is now
prominent. As at 2010, there are eight (8) sachet water
companies in the Municipality. The source of these
bottled/sachet water is groundwater (especially
boreholes). Due to the activities of mining, anthropogenic
and agricultural activities people are apprehensive of
drinking even the treated and the bottled/sachet water.
According to Kwakye-Nuako et al. (2007) about 77% of
filtered groundwater samples sold as sachet water in
Accra that were analyzed contained infective stages of
pathogenic parasitic organisms. It is therefore the
objective of this study to assess the quality of the
packaged bottle/sachet water as it has a direct effect on
Water is a basic requirement for life and when the
resource is to be used for domestic purposes, it should
meet some set standards. These standards include
biological settings such as microbial population and
chemical parameters such as cations and anions. Others
are physical properties including true colour, taste,
turbidity, pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, total
dissolved solids, total suspended solids and total
alkalinity. Whenever the threshold for the parameters set
by bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO)
or Ghana Standard Board (GSB), the water is said to be
polluted. The main source of water for domestic purpose
in the Municipality includes surface water, well/bore
water and treated water that may be distributed through
pipes, bottles and sachets. The Ghana Water Company
Corresponding Author: R. Amorin, Department of Petroleum Engineering, University of Mines and Technology (UMaT),
Tarkwa, Ghana
377
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
Fig. 1: Geological map of the Tarkwa Municipality (Kuma and Ewusi, 2009)
the health of individuals. The natural water analyses for
physical and chemical properties including trace element
contents are significant important for public health
studies.
between 75-90% (Anonymous, 2008). The TarkwaNsaem Municipality is also part of an extensive drainage
basin known as the Ankobra basin comprising the
Ankobra River and its tributaries and the Bonsa sub-basin
comprising of the Bonsa River and its tributaries. Almost
all these tributaries take their sources from the ridges
within the mining concessions (Anonymous, 2008). In
terms of topography, the area falls within the forest
dissected plateau region of Ghana. Birimian and
Tarkwaian Pre-Cambrian rocks underlie the forest
dissected plateau (Dickson and Benneh, 1995).
The area is generally undulating with a few scarps
ranging between 150 to 300 m above sea level. The land
rises from about 240 m to about 300 m above sea level
(Anonymous, 2008). The vegetation of the area is the
equatorial rainforest type with moist semi-deciduous
forest (Anonymous, 2008). Soils are the forest oxysols
formed from the Tarkwaian and Birimian rocks (Fig. 1),
suitable for cultivation of food and tree crops
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area: Tarkwa, the administrative capital of the
recently formed Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality (TNM) of
western Ghana, lies between latitudes 4ºN and 5º40! N
and longitudes 1º45! W and 2º10! W. It has nearly a
century of gold and manganese mining history with high
concentration of surface mines. Climatically the
Municipality lies within the south-western equatorial zone
and is marked by double maximum rainfall starting from
March to September. Annual mean rainfall is 1878.3 mm
and a fairly uniform temperature ranging between 26ºC in
August and 30ºC in March is common within the area.
Relative humidity is generally high throughout the year
378
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
(Anonymous, 2008). The soil in the Tarkwa area consists
of mostly silty-sands with minor patches of laterites,
mainly on hilly areas (Kuma and Younger, 2001).
The estimated population of the Tarkwa area is
90,000 (Kuma and Ewusi, 2009). The municipality has a
high population growth of 3.1% due to the current price
of gold which has accelerated both the large scale and
small-scale gold mining activities especially ‘galamsey’
resulting in the migration of the youth in search of jobs.
There is a positive correlation between population
growth and water demand (Kulshreshtha, 1998;
Hiscock et al., 2002). The Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality
contains 44% of Ghana’s closed forest, accounting for
30% of the country’s gold production, about 39% of
cocoa, 50% of the country’s standing commercial timber
and 100% of manganese (Akabzaa and Dramani, 2001).
impact on human health. The rocks are often carbonatedeficient and give rise to poorly buffered water
(Smedley et al., 1995). The main gold ore associated with
the Birimian Supergroup is refractory quartz-Fe/As
sulphide lode gold (Marston et al., 1992; DzigbodiAdjimah (1993). Pyrite is common in some quartzites of
the Banket Series and the dolerite that intrude the
Tarkwaian rocks (Acheampong, 2010). Thus, the
existence of sulphides in the rocks of the area would
generate moderately low pH in groundwaters within the
area which suggest that there is the possibility of
mobilisation of some toxic trace metals into the
groundwater. Consequently a high percentage of the
people in the Municipality patronize bottled and sachet
water. The proprietors use groundwater to produce these
types of drinking water.
Geological setting: Tarkwa is hosted on the
unconformable contact between the younger Tarkwaian
rocks to the west and Birimian rocks to the east. The
Birimian rocks consist of penecontemporaneous low
grade sedimentary and volcano-clastic rocks (Eisenlohr
and Hirdes, 1992). The Tarkwaian Group comprises a
sequence of coarse, clastic, fluviatile meta-sedimentary
rocks (Fig. 1) consisting of the Kawere conglomerates,
Banket Series (contains gold), Tarkwa Phyllite, and
Dompim Quartzite and Huni Sandstones in the direction
of younging.
The only manganese mine in the country is also
located in this area. In addition, there are over 100
registered, small-scale gold and diamond mining
companies in the area together with more than 600
unregistered operators. There are also about 30 local and
foreign companies exploring for gold and diamonds in the
area.
Data acquisition and analysis:
Sampling: Two water samples were collected each of six
different but common bottled/sachet water companies in
the Tarkwa Municipality. The bottled/sachet water
companies whose products were sampled include
ASBFDW, TLFDW, SKFDW, DLFDW, WLSFDW and
the popular VNMW. The water samples were collected
into 1 L pre-washed polyethylene bottles. pH of the water
samples was measured in the laboratory with a Suntex®
SP-707 (Taipei, Taiwan) portable pH meter. All the water
samples were collected in duplicate and stored in ice in
the laboratory until analysis were completed within 14
days. The determinations of the other physicochemical
properties of the water samples were performed on the
same day of sampling by the GWCL, Takoradi. Test on
samples for bacteria was conducted within 6 h of
sampling while that for anions was within 14 days. A litre
of the filtered water sample was taken at each of the
factories for the major and minor rainy seasons because of
seasonal variations in the quality of source materials.
Those from each company were composited, quartered
and about a litre of the composite was taken as a
representative sample to GWCL. The first sampling was
carried out immediately after the dry season in January
and the second one at the end of the rainy season in
September.
Water resources in the Tarkwa Municipality: The
major sources of drinking water for the people living in
the Tarkwa Municipality are treated water from Ghana
Water Company Ltd., (GWCL), rainwater, surface water
and groundwater. The treated water from the treatment
plant on the Bonsa River (BTP) is inadequate and not
commensurate with the high population growth in the
Municipality (Kuma and Ewusi, 2009). Harvesting of
rain water could be the alternate source although could be
treated with caution as the communities are sited close to
mines which generate a lot of dust and the continuous
burning of solid waste is rampant in the communities.
Groundwater would have been preferred to surface
water as a source of drinking water as the former could
have excluded from the atmosphere and would be less
susceptible to pollution. However, groundwater in hardrock aquifers, particularly in mining areas, is known to be
vulnerable to quality problems that may have serious
Analysis of chemical constituents: Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry was used to analyse for heavy metals
(Mn, Fe, Ba, Cr, Pb, Zn and Zn) as well as Ca, K and Na.
Atomic absorption gaseous hydride-APHA (1995)
Standard Method Code 3114 B was used to test for
arsenic and the Hach Smart 2 Calorimeter (Lamotte
Company, USA) for the nitrates, nitrites, phosphates and
ammonia. The Hach DR/890, with appropriate reagents as
described in the DR/890 Datalogging Colorimeter
Handbook (Anonymous, 1999) was used to test for,
cyanide, sulphates, and Total Suspended Solids (TSS).
379
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
Table 1: WHO and GSB values against SKFDW and DLFDW laboratory samples results
WHO
Sample
guideline
GSB
SKFDW
No.
Parameters
Unit
values
standard
Measured
1
Apperance
!
Clear
Must not be
Clear
2
Odour
!
Unobjectionable
objectionable
Unobjectionable
!
Unobjectionable
to most consumers
Unobjectionable
3
Taste
4
Temperature
<C
!
!
27.7
5
pH
!
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
5.5
6
True colour
HU
15
0-15
<5
7
Turbidity
NTU
5
0-5
0.11
8
Conductivity
(µS/cm)
!
!
68.6
9
Total Dissolved Solids
(mg/L)
1000
1000
34
10
Total Suspended Solids
(mg/L)
!
!
0
11
Total Alkalinity
(mg/L)
!
!
14
12
Total Hardness
(mg/L)
500
0-500
16
13
Carbonate hardness
(mg/L)
!
!
0
14
Bicarbonate hardness
(mg/L)
!
!
14
15
Nitrate (N)
(mg/L)
10
0-10.0
1.2
16
Nitrite (N)
(mg/L)
3
0-3.0
0.009
17
Chloride
(mg/L)
250
0-250
274
18
Flouride
(mg/L)
1.5
0-1.5
<0.01
19
Sulphate
(mg/L)
400
0-250
<0.01
20
Cyanide
(mg/L)
0.1
0.07
<0.001
21
Potassium
(mg/L)
!
!
13.7
22
Sodium
(mg/L)
200
0-200
39
23
Chromium
(mg/L)
0.05
0-0.05
<0.01
24
Cadmium
(mg/L)
0.05
0-0.05
!
26
Barium
(mg/L)
0.7
0.7
0.7
27
Antimony
(mg/L)
!
0.005
!
28
Lead
(mg/L)
0.01
0.01
<0.001
29
Arsenic
(mg/L)
0.01
0.01
<0.001
30
Zinc
(mg/L)
5
0 - 3.0
0.13
31
Total Iron
(mg/l)
0.3
0 - 3.0
<0.01
32
Manganese
(mg/L)
0.1
0 - 0.1
<0.001
33
Calcium
(mg/L)
!
!
4.8
34
Ammonium(NH3-N)
(mg/L)
1.5
0 - 1.5
0.05
35
Phosphate (PO4-P)
(mg/L)
2.5
2.5
0.07
36
Total Coliforms
cfu/100 mL
0
0
0
37
E. coli
cfu/100 mL
0
0
0
38
Faecal Coliform
cfu/100 mL
0
0
0
39
Total heterotrohic bacteria
count/m L
0
0
0
Water samples analysed by the Chemistry/Bacteria Division of the Ghana Water Company Ltd., (GWCL), October 2010
Table 2: WHO and GSB values against WSLFDW and VNMW laboratory samples results
WHO
guideline
No.
Parameters
Unit
values
1
Apperance
!
Clear
2
Odour
!
Unobjectionable
3
Taste
!
Unobjectionable
!
4
Temperature
ºC
!
6.5-8.5
5
pH
6
True colour
HU
15
7
Turbidity
NTU
5
8
Conductivity
(µS/cm)
!
9
Total Dissolved Solids
(mg/L)
1000
!
10
Total Suspended Solids
(mg/L)
11
Total Alkalinity
(mg/L)
!
12
Total Hardness
(mg/L)
500
!
13
Carbonate hardness
(mg/L)
!
14
Bicarbonate hardness
(mg/L)
15
Nitrate (N)
(mg/L)
10
16
Nitrite (N)
(mg/L)
3
17
Chloride
(mg/L)
250
18
Flouride
(mg/L)
1.5
19
Sulphate
(mg/L)
400
20
Cyanide
(mg/L)
0.1
!
21
Potassium
(mg/L)
22
Sodium
(mg/L)
200
23
Chromium
(mg/L)
0.05
24
Cadmium
(mg/L)
0.05
26
Barium
(mg/L)
0.7
!
27
Antimony
(mg/L)
28
Lead
(mg/L)
0.01
29
Arsenic
(mg/L)
0.01
30
Zinc
(mg/L)
5
31
Total Iron
(mg/L)
0.3
380
GSB
standard
Must not be
objectionable
to most consumers
!
6.5-8.5
0-15
0-5
!
1000
!
!
0-500
!
!
0-10.0
0-3.0
0-250
0-1.5
0-250
0.07
!
0-200
0-0.05
0-0.05
0.7
0.005
0.01
0.01
0 - 3.0
0 - 3.0
Sample
WLSFDW
measured
Clear
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
27.3
7.7
<5
0.35
140.3
69
0
74
66
0
74
0.6
0.004
20
<0.01
2
0.002
8.5
43
0.01
!
0.8
!
0.001
<.001
0.04
0.01
Sample
DLFDW
Measured
Clear
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
27.3
6.31
<5
0.22
89.1
44
0
48
36
0
48
0.3
0.004
19
0.01
2
0.001
16.9
83.0
<0.01
!
0.07
!
<0.001
<0.001
0.1
0.01
<0.001
13.6
0.08
0.48
0
0
0
0
Sample
VNMW
measured
Clear
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
29.4
6.7
<5
0.22
63.3
31
0
36
10
0
36
0.1
0.002
26
<0.01
1
0.001
6.6
33
0.01
!
0.2
!
<0.001
<0.001
0.12
0.01
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
Table 2: Continued
32
Manganese
(mg/L)
0.1
0 - 0.1
!
!
33
Calcium
(mg/L)
34
Ammonium (NH3-N)
(mg/L)
1.5
0 - 1.5
(mg/L)
2.5
2.5
35
Phosphate (PO4-P)
36
Total Coliforms
cfu/100 mL
0
0
37
E. coli
cfu/100 mL
0
0
38
Faecal Coliform
cfu/100 mL
0
0
39
Total heterotrohic bacteria
count/mL
0
0
Water samples analysed by the Chemistry/Bacteria Division of the Ghana Water Co. Ltd., (GWCL, October 2010)
<.001
16.8
0.04
0.33
0
0
0
0
<0.001
2
0.03
0.02
0
0
0
0
Sample
measured
value
ASBFDW
Clear
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
26.9
6.5
<5
1.41
173.0
86
1
20.0
46.0
0
20.0
2.7
0.018
63.0
<0.01
<0.1
0.002
10.2
51.0
0.03
!
1.9
!
0.001
<0.001
0.02
<0.01
<0.001
11.2
0.07
0.27
0
0
0
0
Sample
measured
value
TLFDW
Clear
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
27.3
6.6
<5
0.29
146.1
72.0
0
Table 3: WHO and GSB Values against ASBFDW and TLFDW Laboratory Samples Results
WHO
guideline
GSB
No.
Parameters
Unit
values
standard
1
Apperance
!
Clear
Must not be
!
Unobjectionable
objectionable
2
Odour
3
Taste
!
Unobjectionable
to most consumers
!
!
4
Temperature
ºC
5
pH
!
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
6
True colour
HU
15
0-15
7
Turbidity
NTU
5
0-5
8
Conductivity
(µS/cm)
!
!
9
Total Dissolved Solids
(mg/L)
1000
1000
!
!
10
Total Suspended Solids
(mg/L)
11
Total Alkalinity
(mg/L)
!
!
12
Total Hardness
(mg/L)
500
0-500
!
!
13
Carbonate hardness
(mg/L)
!
!
14
Bicarbonate hardness
(mg/L)
15
Nitrate (N)
(mg/L)
10
0-10.0
16
Nitrite (N)
(mg/L)
3
0-3.0
17
Chloride
(mg/L)
250
0-250
18
Flouride
(mg/L)
1.5
0-1.5
19
Sulphate
(mg/L)
400
0-250
20
Cyanide
(mg/L)
0.1
0.07
!
!
21
Potassium
(mg/L)
22
Sodium
(mg/L)
200
0-200
23
Chromium
(mg/L)
0.05
0-0.05
24
Cadmium
(mg/L)
0.05
0-0.05
26
Barium
(mg/L)
0.7
0.7
!
0.005
27
Antimony
(mg/L)
28
Lead
(mg/L)
0.01
0.01
29
Arsenic
(mg/L)
0.01
0.01
30
Zinc
(mg/L)
5
0 - 3.0
31
Total Iron
(mg/L)
0.3
0 - 3.0
32
Manganese
(mg/L)
0.1
0 - 0.1
!
!
33
Calcium
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
1.5
0 - 1.5
34
Ammonium(NH3-N)
35
Phosphate (PO4-P)
(mg/L)
2.5
2.5
36
Total Coliforms
cfu/100 mL
0
0
37
E. coli
cfu/100 mL
0
0
38
Faecal Coliform
cfu/100 mL
0
0
39
Total heterotrohic bacteria
count/mL
0
0
Water samples analysed by the Chemistry/Bacteria Division of the Ghana Water Co. Ltd., (GWCL, October 2010)
Total alkalinity, total hardness, calcium hardness,
magnesium hardness and chlorides concentrations were
determined titrimetically using the appropriate reagents
(HCl, total alkalinity indicator, total hardness indicator,
total hardness buffer, EDTA, calcium hardness indicator,
sodium
hydroxide,
ammonium
hydroxide,
phenolphthalein, silver nitrate, potassium chromate,
sodium bi-carbonate) as described in the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (1999)
standard method 2320 B, 2340 B and 4500Cl- B.
50.0
0
26.0
3.1
0.011
34.0
<0.01
4.0
0.004
20.4
102.0
<0.01
!
1.8
!
0.001
<0.001
0.14
<0.01
<0.001
12
0.03
0.2
0
0
0
0
system contains violet red bile nutrients, a cold water
soluble gelling agent, an indicator of glucuronidase
activity, 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-b-D-gluculonide and
a tetrazonium indicator that facilitates colony
enumeration.
RESULTS
The results of the various water sachet/bottled
samples from the laboratory against the WHO and GSB
values are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3. The
recommended values from WHO and GSB are presented
in columns 4 and 5. Figure 2 to 22 are plots of the various
sachet/bottled water parameter values from the laboratory
The major trace constituents are given in graphical
Microbial analysis: The 3M petrifilm Escherichia coli,
coliform and aerobic count plates from 3M Microbiology,
USA, were used for total bacteria, total coliform and
Escherichia coli tests. This sample-ready-culture-medium
381
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
representations marched against the recommended values
from the GSB for easy identification.
some of the water samples were not within the WHO and
GSB optimum limits of between 6.5 and 8.5. pH values
lower than 5.5 are considered too acidic for human
consumption and can cause health problems such as
acidosis.
Total hardness ranged from 10.0 to 66.0 mg/L
compared with WHO/GSB values of 0 to 500 mg/L. All
the samples had the total hardness concentrations within
the GSB permissible limits. Total iron was below the
minimum detection limit of 0.01 mg/L in all the samples.
DISCUSSION
The mean values for pH, conductivity, total dissolved
solids, hardness, alkalinity and cations and anions
determined in the bottled/sachet water samples are
presented in Table 1, 2 and 3. The mean values of pH of
the samples ranged from 5.5 to 7.7. The pH levels of
1000
10
Total dissolved solid
pH
800
6
600
Mg/L
8
4
400
2
200
W
D
L
FD
W
W
FD
LS
W
V
N
M
W
G
(M
SB
IN
)
G
S
M
B(
A
X
)
0
W
SK
FD
FD
W
A
A
SB
FD
TL
SB
FD
W
0
FD
TL
W
SK
FD
W
D
L
FD
W
W
FD
LS
W
V
N
M
W
G
S
M
B(
A
X
)
Fig. 2: PH values for sachet and bottled water
Fig 5: Total dissolved solids values for sachet and bottled
water
True color
25
3
20
2.5
15
2
Mg/L
HU
30
10
Nitrite
1.5
1
5
0.5
W
D
D
LF
W
W
F
LS
D
W
V
N
M
W
G
(M
SB
A
X
0
W
SK
FD
FD
W
SB
T
D
LF
)
A
A
SB
FD
W
0
3
6
Mg/L
8
2
4
1
2
D
LF
D
W
W
LS
FD
W
V
N
M
W
G
SB
(M
A
X
SK
D
L
FD
W
L
D
SF
W
V
N
M
W
G
(M
SB
A
W
W
FD
FD
W
)
SB
W
FD
SB
FD
TL
W
X
)
Nitrate
0
0
A
NTU
FD
10
Turbidity
4
A
SK
W
Fig. 6: Nitrite values for sachet and bottled water
Fig. 3: True colour values for sachet and bottled water
5
FD
TL
W
FD
TL
W
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
W
L
D
SF
W
V
Fig. 7: Nitrate for sachet and bottled water
Fig. 4: Turbidity values for sachet and bottled water
382
N
W
M
G
S
M
B(
A
X
)
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
1.5
Total hardness
500
Flouride
400
1
Mg/L
Mg/L
300
200
0.5
100
A
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
L
D
SF
W
V
N
M
W
G
S
M
B(
A
W
W
FD
W
0
)
Fig. 8: Total hardness for sachet and bottled water
200
FD
TL
SB
TL
FD
X
A
SB
FD
W
0
W
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
W
L
D
SF
W
V
N
W
M
G
S
M
B(
A
X
)
Fig. 12: Fluoride for sachet and bottled water
Sulphate
250
Sodium
200
Mg/L
Mg/L
150
100
150
100
50
50
SK
FD
W
D
LF
D
W
W
F
LS
D
W
V
N
M
W
G
SB
(M
A
SB
W
)
A
W
FD
A
SB
FD
TL
X
FD
W
0
0
FD
TL
W
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
W
F
LS
D
W
V
N
M
W
G
S
M
B(
A
X
Fig. 13: Sulphate for sachet and bottled water
Fig. 9: Sodium for sachet and bottled water
0.05
0.08
Chromium
Cyanide
0.04
Mg/L
Mg/L
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.02
A
SB
FD
FD
TL
W
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
W
FD
LS
W
V
N
M
W
G
S
M
B(
A
)
SB
X
TL
A
W
0.00
FD
W
0
FD
W
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
W
L
D
SF
W
V
N
W
M
G
S
M
B(
A
X
Fig. 14: Chromium for sachet and bottled water
Fig. 10: Cyanide for sachet and bottled water
2
Chloride
300
250
1.5
Mg/L
200
Mg/L
Barium
150
100
1
0.5
50
0
SK
FD
D
D
LF
W
W
LS
FD
V
N
M
W
G
SB
(M
)
W
X
FD
FD
W
A
SB
TL
W
W
A
A
SB
FD
W
0
Fig. 11: Chloride for sachet and bottled water
FD
TL
W
SK
FD
W
D
L
FD
W
W
L
D
SF
W
V
N
M
Fig. 15: Barium for sachet and bottled water
383
W
G
S
M
B(
A
X
)
)
)
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
0.1
0.01
Manganese
Lead
0.08
Mg/L
Mg/L
0.008
0.006
0.06
0.04
0.004
0.02
0.002
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
W
F
LS
D
W
V
N
M
W
G
(M
SB
A
X
SB
W
)
A
W
FD
A
SB
FD
TL
FD
W
0
0
W
D
L
FD
W
W
FD
LS
W
V
N
M
W
G
(M
SB
A
X
)
Ammonium(NH 3 -N)
1.5
Arsenic
Mg/L
1
0.008
mg/L
SK
FD
Fig. 20: Manganese for sachet and bottled water
Fig. 16: Lead for sachet and bottled water
0.01
FD
TL
W
0.5
0.006
0.004
0
A
SB
FD
W
0.002
F
TL
D
SK
FD
W
D
D
LF
W
W
FD
LS
W
V
N
M
W
G
(M
SB
A
X
)
X
M
W
Fig. 21: Ammonium for sachet and bottled water
V
G
N
LS
F
W
D
SB
(M
A
W
D
W
LF
D
W
FD
W
SK
TL
FD
A
SB
FD
W
)
0
W
2.5
Fig. 17: Arsenic for sachet and bottled water
Phosphate(PO4 -P)
2
3
Mg/L
Zinc
2.5
1
1.5
0.5
1
0
FD
W
mg/L
2
1.5
A
SB
0.5
W
SK
FD
W
D
L
FD
W
W
L
D
SF
W
V
N
M
W
G
S
M
B(
A
X
)
X
A
W
SB
(M
Fig. 22: Phosphate for sachet and bottled water
G
V
W
N
LS
M
W
FD
W
D
LF
D
W
FD
W
FD
SK
A
TL
SB
FD
W
)
0
FD
TL
The GSB permissible level in drinking water is from 0 to
0.30 mg/L. Mn concentrations in the samples were less
than 0.001 mg/L, below detection limit. Barium
concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 1.9 mg/L. Most of the
samples contained high concentrations of Ba far
exceeding the WHO/GSB threshold of 0.7 mg/L. Though
these trace metals are needed by the body to satisfy its
nutritional requirements, only minute quantities are
required as high doses lead to health hazards which are
sometimes lethal. The mean concentrations of Cr in the
water samples ranged between 0.01 to 0.03 compared
with the WHO/GSB guideline value of 0 to 0.05 mg/L.
The mean (average) values of ClG concentration in
the water samples ranged from 19.0-274.0 mg/L. Five
samples out of the six of these values were within the
WHO quality standard for drinking water of 250 mg/L.
Fig. 18: Zinc for sachet and bottled water
3
Total iron
2.5
mg/L
2
1.5
1
0.5
X
G
M
W
N
V
SB
(M
A
W
W
LS
F
D
W
LF
D
D
W
W
FD
SK
TL
FD
A
SB
FD
W
)
0
Fig. 19: Total Iron for sachet and bottled water
384
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(5): 377-385, 2011
PO42G ranged from 0.02 to 0.33 mg/l. FG concentrations in
all the water samples were less than 0.01 mg/L.
Permissible limit for FG concentration is 0-1.5 mg/L
according to WHO/GSB specifications. FG has a
significant mitigating effect against dental cares if the
concentration is approximately 1 mg/L. However,
continuing consumption of higher concentrations of 4
mg/L or more can cause dental fluorosis and in extreme
cases even skeletal fluorosis (Dissanayake, 1991).
Nitrate and nitrite in the investigated water samples
were respectively within the WHO/GSB guide lines of 10
and 3 mg/L NO3G and NO2G, respectively are considered
to be non-cumulative toxins. High concentrations of NO3G
and NO2G may give rise to potential health risks such as
methmoglobinemia particularly in pregnant women and
bottle-fed infants respectively.
The range of sulfate (SO42G) in the water samples was
less than 0.01 to 4.0 mg/L, which were all within the GSB
permissible limits of 0 to 250 mg/L (Table 1). The mean
concentrations of cyanide also ranged from less than
0.001 to 0.004 mg/L compared with a GSB specification
of 0.07 mg/L. The ClG content in the SKFDW water
samples gave value of 274 mg/L which is above the
recommended WHO/GSB threshold values of 0-250
mg/L. The quality of the sampled water all passed the
microbial tests as the total coliforms, E. coli, faecal
Coliform and total Hetrotrophic bacteria all satisfied the
WHO/GSB standards of 0 cfu/100 mL.
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CONCLUSION
Based on the above studies it can readily be
concluded that, the mean concentrations of some of the
investigated anions and trace metal ions in the water
samples from the Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality of
western Ghana were found to be acceptable for domestic
use according to the guidelines provided by the
WHO/GSB. However water samples SKFDW and
DLFDW are acidic with pH values respectively 5.5 and
6.31 above the recommended WHO/GSB guideline values
of 6.5-8.5. Ba contents in samples TLFDW, WFDW and
ASBFDW range between 0.8 and 1.9 which are above the
WHO/GSB specifications of 0.7 mg/L. SKFDW water
samples gave higher analytical value ClG of 274 mg/L
which is above the recommended WHO/GSB threshold
values of 0-250 mg/L. The water companies with
anomalous contents need to treat their water to satisfy the
WHO/GSB values before use.
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