Waeejt accd
E#tmeta1 2aa&t
Seminar Conducted b y
, Oregon State University
WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUT E
Fall Quarter 1967
Corvallis, Oregon
EXECUTIVE BOAR D
EMERY N . CASTLE, Directo r
HARRY K . PHINNEY
LARRY BOERSMA
PETER C . KLINGEMAN
CHAPIN D . CLAR K
LLOYD W . GAY
JAMES D . HAL L
JANUARY 1968
The multiple water resource problems facing the stat e
of Oregon were the subject of a seminar series offered durin g
Fall Quarter 1967 . Faculty, students, and the general publi c
were invited each week to participate in discussions wit h
speakers who were well qualified in specific areas . The latte r
included representatives from federal and state agencies, privat e
industry, and Oregon State University .
Those who spoke were asked not only to describe th e
present situation regarding water quality in their fields of interest ,
but to point the way to possible solutions . The presentations high lighted the significant areas -- forestry, agriculture, industry ,
urban development, recreation, and floods .
It is noteworthy that Oregon's 1967 Legislature passe d
a record number of bills to aid in the fight against water pollution .
This could not have been accomplished if there did not exist a
growing public concern over the State's water assets . However ,
this citizen interest must continue to grow and be reinforced b y
responsible agencies and individuals with the release of timely ,
significant information . Only a fully advised community can b e
expected to support the expenditures in planning, operations, and
research which are required to ensure proper development o f
Oregon's water resources . It is our hope that the lectures, whic h
were widely reported in the newspapers, and this publication wil l
prove helpful in spanning any information gap .
Emery N . Castl e
Directo r
Corvallis, Orego n
January 1968
Pag e
Quality Legislation and Standard s
by Kenneth H . Spies, Secretary, Stat e
Sanitary Authority, Portland, Oregon
1
Status of Oregon's Lake s
by Dr . John R . Donaldson, Assistan t
Professor of Fisheries, Oregon Stat e
University, Corvallis, Oregon
13
Influence of Forest Management Practice s
by Jack Rothacher, Principal Hydrologist ,
Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Forest Service ,
U .S . Department of Agriculture, Corvallis, Oregon .
Influence of Introduced Chemical s
by Robert F . Tarrant, Principal Soil Scientist ,
Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwes t
Forest and Range Experiment Station, U . S .
Department of Agriculture, Corvallis, Oregon . .
Flood Plain Plannin g
by Joe H . Heidel, Chief, Water Resource s
Planning Section, U .S . Army Engineer District ,
Portland, Oregon .
.
. 25
. 33
47
Pag e
Flood Plain Managemen t
by William R . Akre, Chief, Flood Plai n
Management Services, U .S . Army Enginee r
District, Portland, Oregon
51
Stream Temperature Problem s
by William H . Delay, Bonneville Powe r
Administration, Portland, Oregon
59
Quality Problems and Fisherie s
by Dr . Charles E . Warren, Professor o f
Fisheries, Oregon State University ,
Corvallis, Oregon
67
Willamette River "Greenway" Pla n
by David G . Talbot, State Park s
Superintendent, Salem, Oregon
77
Pulp Mill Waste s
by Donald J . Benson, Executive Secretary ,
Northwest Pulp and Paper Association, Seattle ,
Washington (first paper), and Russell O . Blosser ,
Regional Engineer, National Council for Strea m
Improvement, Corvallis, Oregon (second paper) . .
. 85
Municipal Sewage Pollution
by Lloyd A . Reed, Chief, Interagency Planning
Branch, Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis tration, Northwest Region, U .S . Department o f
the Interior, Portland, Oregon
95
Pollution of Streams by Agricultur e
by Warren C . Westgarth, Director, Sanitatio n
and Engineering Laboratories and Technical
Services, Oregon State Sanitary Authority an d
Oregon State Board of Health, Portland, Oregon .
. 10 7
Funds received under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964 ,
PL 88-379, administered by the Office of Water Resources Research ,
U . S . Department of the Interior, have been used to print this booklet .
Presented September 28, 1967 by KENNETH H . SPIES, Secretary, Stat e
Sanitary Authority, Portland, Oregon .
2sralit~y 4e9ida€io# a+rd 5tatdatda
t the close of the 1967 Legislative Assembly, Governor McCall credite d
it with having done more for water pollution control than all of the othe r
Oregon Legislatures combined . The truth of this position is readily apparen t
when it is remembered that the comprehensive water pollution control la w
under which the state has been operating for the past 28 years was drafte d
and approved not by the Legislature, but by the people themselves .
This is not to say that the legislatures in the past have not bee n
concerned about water pollution, because some of them very definitely hav e
been . This concern, in fact, goes back at least as early as 1889 when a
law was passed declaring it illegal to pollute any waters of the state use d
for domestic or livestock watering purposes . As further evidence of thi s
concern, when the State Board of Health was created in 1903 the Legislatur e
gave it certain responsibilities in the field of water pollution control -- such as supervising the quality of waters used for municipal and other publi c
water supplies .
Then, in 1915, still another law was passed requiring that th e
Board of Health review and approve the plans and specifications for all ne w
or improved sewerage works projects constructed in Oregon . However ,
being as frugal then as it is now, the Legislature provided no funds for a n
engineering staff to carry out this new responsibility until some thirtee n
years later .
The passage of the several water pollution control bills in the 196 7
session was, of course, due, at least in part, to the increased public interest in the subject which had taken place not only in Oregon but nationwide .
Because of this growing public interest, most of the political candidates in
their election campaigns the previous year had advocated the adoption o f
stronger laws for the abatement and control of water pollution . Then, too ,
the Legislative Interim Committee on Public Health created in 1965, ha d
1
devoted a considerable portion of its time to a study of both air and wate r
pollution and as a consequence had several anti-pollution bills drafted fo r
presentation to the 1967 session .
LEGISLATION PASSE D
The following discussion will cover seven separate bills passed b y
the 1967 Legislature . They are :
1)
SB 2 6
(Chapter 424, Oregon Laws 1967) which changed th e
Sanitary Authority membership .
2)
SB 3 9
(Chapter 426, Oregon Laws 1967) which extensively revised and greatly strengthened the public policy and th e
powers of the Sanitary Authority in the field of wate r
pollution control .
3)
SB 47 2
(Chapter 427, Oregon Laws 1967) which pertains t o
municipal bond issues for financing construction o f
sewerage works projects .
4)
HB 132 2
(Chapter 423, Oregon Laws 1967) which provides fo r
state grants for assisting municipalities in the financin g
of sewage treatment works construction .
5)
SB 54 6
(Chapter 592, Oregon Laws 1967) which provides ta x
benefits to industry for construction of air and wate r
pollution control facilities .
6)
SB
(Chapter 567, Oregon Laws 1967) pertaining to the
removal of sand and gravel from stream beds .
7)
HB 1338
8
(Chapter 624, Oregon Laws 1967) which provides fo r
mandatory annexation of territory to a municipality a s
a solution to sewage disposal problems .
The first bill mentioned, SB 26, was introduced initially for th e
sole purpose of adding the Dean of the School of Agriculture of Oregon Stat e
University as an ex officio member of the Sanitary Authority apparently a s
a means of looking out for the farmers' interests in connection with th e
establishment of water quality standards and the use of water for irrigation .
This purpose was completely changed, however, shortly after the bill wa s
referred to the Senate Committee on Air and Water Quality Control whic h
incidentally was the first such committee ever established by the Oregon
2
Senate . That committee completely rewrote the bill and proposed that th e
Sanitary Authority which had always been a division of the State Board o f
Health be separated entirely from the Board, that its membership b e
changed, and that it employ its own staff .
After it was pointed out to the committee that complete separation
from the Board of Health would require considerably more staff and a
greatly increased operating budget, this proposal was dropped .
The bill as finally passed left the Sanitary Authority as a divisio n
of the Board of Health, but changed and reduced its membership . Previousl y
the Authority consisted of seven members - the State Health Officer, Stat e
Engineer, a representative of the Fish Commission, a representative of th e
Game Commission and three other members appointed by the Governor . It
now consists of only five members all appointed by the Governor with th e
State Health Officer, State Engineer and representatives of the Fish and
Game Commissions no longer being included .
SB 26 as passed also designated the Secretary of the Authority a s
Director of Air and Water Quality Control rather than State Sanitar y
Engineer and makes him an employee of the Authority instead of the Boar d
of Health .
WATER POLLUTION CONTRO L
The most important water pollution control bill passed in 1967 wa s
without question SB 39 . Much credit for this particular bill should go t o
Mr . John Denman, Legal Counsel for the State Board of Health and Sanitar y
Authority . He prepared the original draft of it at the request of the Legislative Interim Committee on Public Health . It is patterned after a mode l
state law that was developed not too -long ago by a special committee for th e
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration which at the time was th e
U .S . Public Health Service .
This bill which extensively amended the existing water pollutio n
control statutes has several important provisions .
First of all it contains a comprehensive definition of the wor d
"pollution ." Such a definition had never been included in earlier legislation .
The new law defines "pollution" as such alteration of the physical, chemica l
or biological properties of any waters of the state, including change i n
temperature, taste, color, turbidity, silt or odor of the waters, or suc h
discharge of any liquid, gaseous, solid, radioactive or other substance int o
any waters of the state, which will or tends to, either by itself or i n
3
connection with any other substance, create a public nuisance or rende r
such waters harmful, detrimental or injurious to public health, safety o r
welfare, or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreationa l
or other legitimate beneficial uses or to livestock, wildlife, fish or othe r
aquatic life or the habitat thereof .
After reading this definition it is difficult to see how it could hav e
been made any more inclusive or comprehensive .
Another important provision of SB 39 is its revision of the wordin g
of the state's public policy concerning water pollution control .
In the law drafted and approved by the voters in 1938, the publi c
policy was stated to be to restore and maintain the natural purity of all in land, coastal and ground waters of the state for the protection of publi c
health, conservation of fish and aquatic life and for the recreational enjoyment of the people . This wording proved to be acceptable until 1959 whe n
it became necessary for the Sanitary Authority to institute legal proceeding s
against the city of Portland .
As a part of their defense the attorneys for the city in that cas e
argued that the wording of the state's public policy was ambiguous for th e
reason that no one could define what was meant by the term "natural purity . "
As a consequence, at the next session of the state legislature i n
1961, the wording was changed to read "restore and maintain reasonabl e
standards of purity ." Fortunately, it never became necessary to define in
court what was meant by the new term "reasonable standards of purity . "
Under the 1967 amendment such arguments are avoided as th e
degree of purity is not mentioned . The state's public policy now is simpl y
"to conserve the waters of the state and to protect, maintain and improv e
the quality thereof for public water supplies, for propagation of wildlife ,
fish and aquatic life and for domestic, agricultural, industrial, municipal ,
recreational and other legitimate beneficial uses ; to provide that no wast e
be discharged into any waters of this state without first receiving the
necessary treatment or corrective action to protect the legitimate beneficial
uses of such waters ; and to provide for the prevention, abatement an d
control of new or existing water pollution . "
An entirely new provision under SB 39 is one which provides fo r
recovery of damages to fish and wildlife caused by pollution. Any fund s
recovered under this section of the bill are to be paid to the state agenc y
having jurisdiction over the fish or wildlife or their production . Th e
recovery of such damages can be in addition to other penalties that migh t
be assessed under other statutes .
4
A fourth and perhaps the most important provision of SB 39 is the
mandatory permit section . It prohibits after January 1, 1968, without a
permit from the Sanitary Authority :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The discharge into the waters of the state of wastes fro m
any industrial or commercial establishment or activity ,
any municipal sewerage system, disposal system o r
treatment works, or any domestic sewerage syste m
serving more than 25 families or 100'persons ;
the construction, installation, modification or operatio n
of any municipal sewerage system, disposal system o r
treatment works, or domestic sewerage , system a s
defined above ;
the increase in volume or strength of any wastes i n
excess of permissive discharges specified under a n
.existing permit ; and
the construction, installation, operation or conduct o f
any industrial, commercial or other establishment o r
activity or any extension or modification thereof, the
operation or conduct of which would cause an increas e
in the discharge of wastes or the alteration of wate r
quality not lawfully authorized .
Under this section permits will not be required for discharge fro m
sewerage systems serving less than 25 families or 100 persons or fro m
industries and other establishments connected to municipal sewer systems .
In the latter cases the permits will be required only for the municipa l
systems .
Major opposition to the adoption by the Legislature of this sectio n
came from the irrigation interests who were afraid it would seriously, interfere with their use of water for irrigation . It is not anticipated that permits
will be required in connection with return irrigation waters unless suc h
returns and their effects on water quality can be readily defined .
A fifth provision of SB 39 is the requirement that each permi t
holder report periodically to the Sanitary Authority regarding the amoun t
and nature of the waste effluent being discharged . Prior to the passage o f
this bill practically all cities and major industries were already reportin g
such information to the Sanitary Authority on a monthly basis . During the
period of critical stream flow (summer and fall) the pulp mills in th e
Willamette Basin have been submitting reports of daily tests on a weekly ,
basis .
The sixth provision of SB 39 that should be mentioned here is th e
power given to the Sanitary Authority to seek a temporary injunction o r
restraining order whenever pollution or threatened pollution creates a n
5
emergency which requires immediate action to protect public health, safet y
or welfare . In such cases the law requires the court to issue a show caus e
order either on the day the suit is instituted or on the day following, an d
further the show cause order must require the defendant to appear within
not more than three calendar days after issuance of the order . It authorize s
the entry of a temporary restraining order at the beginning of the trial .
This amendment therefore provides for the fastest possible court action t o
cope with an emergency condition .
ENFORCED BOND ELECTIO N
SB 472 as passed by the 1967 Legislature requires the governin g
body of a municipality, when the municipality has been ordered by th e
Sanitary Authority to install water pollution control facilities, to hold a bon d
election within one year if bonds are needed to finance the project . If the
governing body fails to call the election within eight months, the Sanitar y
Authority may apply to the court to compel the holding of the election and i f
the voters do not approve the bonds, the Authority can apply to the court t o
direct the municipality to issue revenue bonds without a vote .
The Sanitary Authority attempted without success to get a simila r
measure approved by the 1961 Legislature . Such a provision could hav e
been used to good advantage at that time to speed up construction of th e
Portland interceptor project but the bill never got out of committee in th e
Senate.
Another provision of SB 472 passed this year is that it authorize s
the governing body of a municipality to submit a bond issue to the voters b y
either a proposed charter amendment or an ordinance . Bond issues fo r
sewerage works projects can be either general obligation, limited obligatio n
or revenue bonds . The former are without statutory limit .
STATE AID TO CITIE S
HB 1322 passed in 1967 represents a landmark in Oregon wate r
pollution control legislation because for the first time it provides for stat e
aid in the form of an outright grant to municipalities and other local govern mental units for financing construction of sewage treatment works .
Its passage was prompted by the 1966 amendments to the Federa l
Water Pollution Control Act which provide that if the state will contribut e
25% of the cost of such projects the federal government will contribute 50% .
6
In the past the federal contribution for eligible projects has bee n
limited to 30% of the construction cost . The Legislature appropriated a
total of $3,000, 000 for the 1967-1969 biennium for this program . Depending
upon the amount of funds appropriated by Congress for federal grants durin g
the next two years this $3, 000, 000 may or may not be enough .
Applications have already been received by the Sanitary Authorit y
for more than twice that amount .
TAX BENEFITS GRANTED
Still another landmark in water pollution control legislation wa s
SB 546 which provides significant tax benefits to industry for constructio n
of either air or water pollution control facilities . The tax relief is by mean s
of tax credit for, or ad valorem exemption of, such facilities constructe d
on or after January 1, 1967 and on or before December 1, 1978 . To b e
eligible for such relief the facilities must be certified by the Sanitar y
Authority as being necessary and as having been installed principally t o
satisfy air and water pollution control standards or requirements . Th e
applicant must make an irrevocable election between tax credit or ad valore m
exemption .
The maximum tax' credit allowed in any tax year is 5% of the cos t
of such facilities and the maximum total credit allowable is 50% of the cost .
The ad valorem tax exemption expires after 20 years . The law require s
that the applicant provide proper operation and maintenance of the facilitie s
or otherwise forfeit his tax benefit .
Several other states have also passed similar tax benefit laws fo r
industry but thus far the federal government has not .
PROTECTION OF RIVER BED S
The sixth water pollution control bill passed by the 1967 Legislatur e
that I wish to discuss briefly is SB 8 . This bill prohibits the removal by an y
person or governmental body of rock, gravel, sand, silt and other simila r
material from the beds or banks of any waters of the state without a permi t
issued under authority of the Clerk of the State Land Board and subject t o
the rules of the State Water Resources Board . Permits issued under thi s
law are in lieu of permits required under the provisions of SB 39 . Th e
main purpose of this bill is to protect the fish spawning areas of the state s
rivers and streams .
7
DANGER TO PUBLIC HEALT H
The last bill to be discussed is HB 1338 which provides for cit y
annexation, without a vote, of territory containing conditions dangerous t o
public health . Such conditions are defined by the bill as including :
(1)
(2)
(3)
an impure or inadequate water supply ;
inadequate installations for the disposal or treatmen t
of sewage, garbage or other contaminated or putrifyin g
waste; and
inadequate improvements for drainage of surface wate r
and other fluid substances .
Before the area can be required to be annexed the city must develop
adequate plans for proposed facilities that are considered adequate by th e
Sanitary Authority for eliminating the health hazard . Also, the State Boar d
of Health must certify that conditions dangerous to public health do exist i n
the area proposed for annexation . An opportunity is provided the resident s
of the area for working out alternate solutions to the problem if they so desire .
The passage of these seven separate bills which pertain eithe r
directly or indirectly to water pollution control undoubtedly represent th e
major contribution made by any single legislative session to the protectio n
of Oregon's water resources against the ravages of pollution .
It should be mentioned also that in addition to the approval of thes e
bills, the 1967 Legislature also greatly increased the operating budget o f
the State Sanitary Authority . The increase, however, made no allowanc e
for the new and increased responsibilities given the Board under the new
legislation . Although several new positions were authorized by the Legislature, the funds actually appropriated were not sufficient to cover all o f
them because it was expected that it would be impossible to fill all of the m
due to shortage of qualified applicants .
At the present time there is talk that some of the funds previousl y
appropriated may be withheld by action of the special legislative sessio n
which is to begin next month . Actually, the Sanitary Authority has still no t
recovered from the staff reductions that had to be made in 1963 as th e
result of voter rejection that year of a proposed increase in the stat e
income tax .
STANDARDS AND IMPLEMENTATIO N
While the 1967 Legislature was busy reviewing the many propose d
water pollution control bills that had been introduced for its consideration ,
8
the staff of the Authority was busily engaged in the drafting of special wate r
quality standards and of implementation plans and in the holding of publi c
hearings regarding such standards and plans .
Under powers granted it by the comprehensive water pollutio n
control law approved by the voters in 1938, the State Sanitary Authority i n
1947 adopted general water quality standards for all of Oregon's publi c
waters including both interstate and intrastate waters . Those genera l
water quality standards continued in effect until June 1 of this year when ne w
general standards for all public waters and special standards for the
interstate waters were adopted .
In 1965 Congress adopted several amendments to the Federal Wate r
Pollution Control Act which had been passed originally in 1956 and strengthened in 1961 . Under the 1965 amendments the states were given until Jun e
30, 1967 to adopt special water quality standards for all their interstat e
waters . If the states failed to adopt such standards by that date, or if th e
standards thus adopted were not considered by the Secretary of the Department of the Interior to be satisfactory or enforceable, the Secretary woul d
be empowered to adopt and enforce federal standards for such waters .
Interstate waters have been defined to include coastal waters an d
all estuarine waters that are subject to the rise and fall of the tide . The
waters of Portland harbor and the lower Willamette River from the confluence with the Columbia River to the falls at Oregon City are therefor e
considered as interstate waters because they are subject to tidal influence .
PUBLIC HEARINGS HEL D
From October 4, 1966 to May 23, 1967, twelve public hearing s
were held throughout the state by the Sanitary Authority for the purpose o f
receiving testimony from all interested parties regarding special standard s
proposed by the Authority for the interstate waters of Goose Lake, th e
Klamath, Snake, Grande Ronde, Walla Walla, Columbia and Lowe r
Willamette Rivers, Multnomah Channel and the marine and estuarine water s
along the Oregon coast . Following these public hearings special standard s
for t1t above mentioned interstate waters, together with special standard s
for the main Willamette River and revised general standards for all publi c
waters of the state, were formally adopted by the Sanitary Authority o n
June 1, 1967 . With the exception of the standards for the Klamath Rive r
and Goose Lake, all of them were subsequently approved with commendatio n
by the Secretary of the Interior .
The water quality standards are actually administrative rules an d
9
supposedly have the full force and effect of law . The implementation plan ,
however, had to be adopted only as administrative policy because of statutor y
limitations .
The main parameters covered by the special standards include :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
dissolved oxygen concentration ,
organisms of the coliform group (MPN) ,
turbidity ,
temperature, and
dissolved chemical substances .
Of these five, the most controversial ones based on testimony presented a t
the hearings, were the proposed dissolved oxygen, MPN and temperatur e
standards .
In the promulgation of these standards, the Sanitary Authority ,
wherever possible, used definite numerical values . For several parameters ,
however, appropriate numerical values were not available or not applicable .
In such cases verbal descriptions had to be used . Examples of the latte r
include tastes, odors, discoloration, or other aesthetic conditions offensiv e
to the human senses, toxicity, bottom sludge deposits, floating debris, and
fungi or other similar growths .
The administrative rules adopted by the Sanitary Authority on Jun e
1, 1967, require that notwithstanding the general and special water quality
standards, the highest and best practicable treatment and/or control o f
wastes, activities and flows shall in every case be provided so as to maintain DO and overall water quality at the highest possible levels --- an d
water temperature, coliform bacteria concentrations, dissolved chemica l
substances, toxic materials, radioactivity, turbidity, color, odor an d
other deleterious factors at the lowest possible levels .
The rules require further that all sewage shall receive a minimum
of secondary treatment or equivalent (equal to at least 85% removal of 5 day BOD and suspended solids) and shall be effectively disinfected befor e
being discharged into any public waters of the state .
No wastes are to be discharged and no activities are to be so con ducted that either alone, or in combination with other wastes or activities ,
they will violate the water quality standards prescribed for a given body o f
water .
It is hoped that within the next year special water quality standard s
can be developed and adopted for other major intrastate waters such as th e
Clackamas, McKenzie, Santiam, Umpqua and Rogue Rivers .
10
Compliance with these new statutory requirements and wate r
quality standards will take time . It will require the full cooperation of al l
cities, industries and the general public, the appropriation of increase d
funds ' by federal, state and local governments and the training of mor e
individuals so that qualified people will be available to design, build, operate ,
maintain and monitor the necessary water pollution control works .
11
Presented October 5, 1967 by JOHN R . DONALDSON, Assistant Professo r
of Fisheries, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon .
n my preparations for this seminar on the status of the lakes of Oregon ,
I began with a cursory search through the papers published from pas t
seminars of the Water Resources Research Institute . I was curious as. to
what had already been said concerning lakes . Somewhat to my amazement
I discovered, by chance, that the word "lake" was used by only one autho r
and that was in connection with streams . It seems as though the loti c
environments and particularly their hydrology have dominated the discussions
thus far . I thus accept the challenge to defend limnology as an essentia l
water science .
Smith and Greenup (1939), in an article on the lakes of Orego n
stated that, "very , little in limnology has been done in Oregon if one is t o
judge from the meager literature ." More recently, Professor W . T .
Edmondson, Limnology in North America, indicates that the situation ha s
not changed substantially when he mentions only briefly two lakes in Oregon ,
Crater Lake and Klamath Lake . He makes the comment that Crater Lak e
in particular has not received the study it deserves . Klamath Lake i s
probably the most studied lake in the state to date due to its naturally hig h
productivity .
A search of the literature concerning the lakes of Oregon has re- .
sulted in a rather skimpy pile of bibliography cards . Major investigation s
have been carried out by the Orego n. Game Commission on the high Cascad e
lakes and the Oregon Fish Commission on coastal lakes . ' Of necessity
these efforts have been primarily oriented to fishery management .
The U .S . Geological Survey has been studying Summer and Aber t
Lakes in Eastern Oregon for some years and will soon publish thes e
results . The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration has conducte d
and is continuing to conduct investigations on Klamath Lake . Professor s
Bond and Phinney, among others at Oregon State University, have carrie d
13
on freshwater research in the state . Several roving investigators such a s
Kemmerer, Hubbs, Hasler, etc . have passed through the state hitting th e
highlights and reporting on the same .
The only conclusion that one can draw concerning our presen t
level of knowledge on Oregon lakes is that information is available on som e
lakes but in general it is limited .
THE PROBLE M
Since this seminar series is to be problem-oriented, I will begi n
by saying that the basic problem associated with lakes is that they are dying .
Every lake, regardless of its origin, is passing through a successiona l
process that will result in the aquatic environment becoming terrestrial .
Environmental change is a fundamental principle for both land and water ,
however, these processes in lakes go on at greater relative speeds . Lake s
have been observed to pass out of existence while the surrounding topographi c
features experienced little change .
The descriptive dynamics of lake succession are well documented .
Lakes in their original stage are classified as oligotrophic which literall y
means poor in nutrients . These are lakes typical to mountainous areas o r
areas that are geologically youthful . A classic example of this type i s
Crater Lake . The process of lake aging is called eutrophication and a lak e
in its final stages is termed eutrophic or rich in nutrients .
The ephemeral existence of lakes is due to two basic factors : th e
filling in of the concave lake basin and the lowering of the outlet by erosio n
processes . Sedimentation is by far the most active of the successiona l
processes . The deposited materials are from two sources : materia l
washed in from the surrounding watershed (allochthonous) and the settlin g
organic material generated within the lake (autochthonous) . Four factor s
are generally recognized as influencing the rate of sedimentation withi n
lakes : (1) the nutrient potential of the allochthonous material, especiall y
as to its phosphorus content ; (2) the rate of utilization of the nutrien t
supply which is dependent on the age of the lake ; (3) the morphometri c
characteristics at any stage ; and (4) the climate .
These processes obviously vary considerably in type and rat e
between lakes . It has been predicted that Lake of Constance in Switzerlan d
will fill in from the sediments of the Rhine River in 12, 000 years . Even
clear, blue Crater Lake will meet a similar fate . Our descendants, what ever they may be a half million years from now, will be able to gaze out o n
a broad, shallow lake in present-day Crater Lake National Park .
14
Lindeman (1942), in his classic discussion of trophic-dynamics i n
ecology looked at lake succession from a productivity point of view . Since
it is well known that the rate of production within a lake increases rapidl y
as it progresses from oligotrophy to eutrophy, it is possible to expres s
these changes as a sigmoid curve resembling that of the well known logisti c
growth curve for a single organism or homogenous population . Followin g
eutrophy a lake passes into a series of successional changes which Lindema n
(op . cit .) plots on a productivity basis as a number of stage-equilibriu m
ending in a climax forest (Fig . 1) .
TIM E
Figure 1 . Hypothetical productivity growth- curve of a
hydrosere, developing from a deep lake to
climax in a fertile, cold-temperate region .
(Lindeman, 1942) .
In Oregon we have excellent examples of the extremes in lak e
trophy within 50 miles of each other . I make reference again to Crate r
and Klamath Lakes . Crater Lake is a text book example of oligotrophy ,
while the present status of Klamath Lake is one of prolonged eutrophi c
stage- equilibrium .
The rate of eutrophication is influenced strongly by the origina l
size of the lake basin . Smaller lakes reach and pass through eutroph y
much sooner than large ones . This is essentially a function of the relation ship of shoreline to open water and the effective fetch of the wind . Lake s
too small for active waves and currents are conducive to profuse growth o f
vegetation with the eventual formation of peat bogs and conversion to a
terrestrial environment .
15
These natural, successional processes proceed at their own uniqu e
rate in each lake . However, man is having an ever increasing influence .
Though streams and rivers have been used to a far greater extent by ma n
in his effort to get rid of his wastes, the standing waters have certainl y
been affected . Moving water, possessing the ability to rid itself of certai n
amounts of pollutant with time and distance, is more desirable for wast e
disposal . Lakes, however, are essentially closed basins that may requir e
from months to years for a theoretical complete exchange of water to tak e
place .
Under certain thermal conditions mixing and exchange may tak e
place twice a year and then for only a short period of time . Lakes, there fore, are poorly suited 'for waste disposal .
Artificial eutrophication is a world-wide problem, a fact which wa s
more than emphasized at the International Symposium on Eutrophicatio n
which I attended in June of this year in Madison, Wisconsin . It was mos t
appropriate that such a gathering take place on the campus of the Universit y
of Wisconsin located on the shores of Lake Mendota, for not only did limnology in North America have its beginning here with E . A . Birge and
Chancey Juday in the late 19th century, but Lake Mendota is a prim e
example of eutrophy that has received extensive investigation . Over 60 0
persons in attendance at these meetings heard paper after paper relate th e
severity of the problem and in many cases report on lakes that have bee n
all but lost due to mans action or lack of action, whichever the case maybe .
OREGON'S LAKE RESOURC E
Lake Type s
In order to relate ourselves to the status of the lakes of Oregon ,
we should start with a brief history of our lakes . Where are the lakes an d
how did they come to be ?
Oregon is not overly endowed in number of lakes --- there being
approximately 1, 200 lakes in the state, and a goodly portion of these ar e
unnamed . This brings up the question as to what is a lake since the definition used for this listing is unclear . Wolcott (1961, 1964) in his listing o f
the 7, 864 lakes in Washington includes everything above one acre in surfac e
area as a lake and those smaller as ponds . I have not included the man y
reservoirs in this counting as they represent a unique situation in regard s
to water resources, being more directly under the control of man .
In diversity of lake types, however, this state is more than blessed .
The jewel in the crown is certainly Crater Lake with its several uniqu e
16
physical features which have their effect on the chemistry and biology o f
the lake . Its 1, 932 foot-depth places it second to Great Slave Lake i n
Canada as the deepest lake in North America . The other extreme in dept h
is represented by the ephemeral lakes of the high desert that depend on
weather cycles and irrigation practices for their existence .
There are similar extremes to be found in regards to lake temperature . A lake sits in the crater of South Sister, at an elevation of 10, 35 4
feet, and is ice-covered most of the year . There are several hot sprin g
lakes in Eastern Oregon . Chemically, lakes differ considerably with mos t
of the high mountain lakes being very low in total dissolved solids, whil e
some of the saline lakes of Eastern Oregon contain more dissolved salt s
than sea water .
The range in biological productivity is best demonstrated by agai n
comparing nutrient-deficient Crater Lake with rich Klamath Lake . A 20 0
meter vertical plankton net tow in Crater Lake produces amazingly smal l
amounts of material while in Klamath Lake massive wind-rows of blue green algae are common along the shore in the summer .
The shape of a lake basin and the quality of the contained wate r
are reflections of the surrounding geology . Lakes have been classified b y
numerous authors based on the forces that formed them (Hutchinson, 1957) .
The following are the major agencies in lake formation with examples o f
lakes to be found in Oregon (Smith and Greenup, 1939 ; Baldwin, 1964) .
Tectonic(shifts in the earth's crust) : Klamath, Silver ,
Summer, Goose and Abert Lakes ; the Warner Valle y
lakes and the now dry basins in Catlow and Alvor d
Valleys are remnants of large Pleistocene lakes tha t
filled down-faulted troughs or grabens .
Volcanic : The caldera lakes are the most spectacula r
examples of volcanic activity . Crater Lake wa s
formed in the basin left when ancient Mt . Mazama
collapsed into its magma chamber . Similarly ,
Paulina and Newberry Lakes sit in the crater o f
Newberry volcano . Lava flow dammed the water s
that formed Clear Lake (Upper McKenzie Rive r
Valley) and the Cow Lakes in Malheur County .
Glacial : Glaciers were probably the most importan t
lake producing agency in the state . Practically al l
of the lakes above 2, 500 feet in elevation are foun d
in cirques worn by glacial action or dammed b y
moraines left after glaciation . Cirque lakes ar e
generally small in area and located at the head o f
17
alpine valleys . Morainal lakes can vary in size and
are best represented in this state by Lake Wallow a
where two large lateral and a lower terminal morain e
formed the lake basin .
Landslides : Lakes of this type are not common in Oregon .
Loon Lakes in the Coast Range and Dog Lake in Lak e
County are said to be examples of this type .
Fluviatile (by action of moving water) : The most commo n
example of fluviatile lakes are the oxbow lakes alon g
the Willamette River and the flood-plain lakes of th e
Columbia River . Alluvial fan lakes are also know n
in the state .
Wind and Waves : The action of wind and waves are credite d
with forming many of the unique coastal lakes o f
Oregon . Sands piling up along the beach have blocke d
streams flowing into the ocean thus holding wate r
back on the coastal plains and valleys .
The wealth in Oregon lakes is again seen in the variety of types .
It is possibly fair to say that no area in the world, of similar size, ha s
such a variety of lake types . Oregon has a lake for nearly every type liste d
in the many lake classification schemes . This certainly makes for excitin g
limnological research possibilities .
Lake Use s
It is not difficult to list the uses to which water is put . However ,
a priority listing is considerably more difficult . I am aware that economists have developed the tools of their trade to the point where they are abl e
to attach a dollar sign to most of these uses . Such evaluations are aids t o
rational allocation of the resource . I am sure that the economists amon g
us will be the first to admit that the full application of economic theory i s
difficult in several aspects of water use . Economists, however, certainl y
have and will continue to contribute greatly toward the orderly applicatio n
of economics to natural resources . At the risk of reiterating commo n
knowledge I will present a brief discussion of the uses made of Oregon lakes ,
making every effort to remain unprejudiced in the process .
Man's first need for water will always be for his personal consumption . Lakes served this purpose well when the population was sparse, bu t
as the number of people swelled, domestic wastes found their way int o
standing waters . It is only in isolated mountain lakes that you can no w
safely drink from the shoreline . Where public access can be eliminated o r
controlled, lakes may serve for domestic water storage . The cyclon e
18
fence around Clear Lake (Douglas County) reserves it for the specific us e
of the citizens of Reedsport . Access has already been gained to most low land lakes, thus making them less suited for domestic water supply .
Once man has made use of the water, he is prone to get rid of i t
as fast and as cheaply as possible . This has been and is becoming an ever increasing problem in lakes . Domestic wastes even when treated have pro found effects on lakes --- making them rapidly less usable . I will hav e
more to say about this in a later section .
Agriculture makes second demands on water . Lakes, being natura l
storage basins, are ideal as sources for diverting or pumping water fo r
agricultural purposes .
This is most apparent in South-Central Oregon . The stockmen i n
the Warner Valley determine the fate of several lakes at the lower end o f
the lake chain by the demands they place on the water in the valley . Lak e
Wallowa, though regulated in part by an impounding structure, is anothe r
example of lake storage for agricultural purposes . The discharge from
agricultural uses of water is less spectacular than that from domestic an d
industrial use . Modern agricultural practices, however, pose a possibl e
threat to standing water through the leaching of fertilizers and pesticide s
from the soil .
The water needs of industry seem insatiable . Lovers of lakes i n
the State of Oregon are fortunate in that there are no large lakes and majo r
industrial centers in juxtaposition . If such were the case there is n o
question but what we would have a miniature Lake Erie or another Lake
Mendota situation . It is almost axiomatic that industry on or near standin g
water soon results in the spoilage of the aquatic environment .
I think it would be fair to say that the majority of Oregonian s
equate lakes with the pleasures of fishing, boating, swimming or just plai n
looking . Recreational use has literally skyrocketed in recent years .
The development of public access sites with a variety of accommodations, as well as private recreational expansion, has taken lakes awa y
from the exclusive use of a few summer home riparians and made the m
available for public use . We are barraged with staggering figures o n
present and future usage of our water resources and estimates and predictions have a way of under-estimating the eventual . Whether recreatio n
is prime use of our lakes is still a moot question . It cannot be denied ,
however, that the pressure is on and is certain to be applied with ever increasing force to see that our lakes are usable for the public's pleasure .
Whereas other water uses remove it from its natural course ,
make use of it, and then return it most frequently in less desirable qualit y
19
and quantity, recreational users only adulterate the environment estheticall y
through noise and litter . Of all the uses of lakes, recreation has the leas t
effect on water quality .
ACTION PROGRAM S
What is the severity of the water quality problem in Oregon lakes ?
If there are problems what are the solutions, if any ?
If one were pressed for a general statement on lake quality i n
Oregon I think it safe to say that the situation, as yet, is not alarming .
There certainly are problem areas, and in this regard Klamath Lake an d
several of the coastal lakes need be mentioned . Natural richness plu s
possible leachates from agriculture are the causes of eutrophication i n
Klamath Lake . The Corvallis laboratory of the FWPCA is presently en gaged in a nutrient budget estimation for Klamath Lake, which should b e
most informative on this point . The changes in algae bloom densities an d
littoral vegetation in the coastal lakes have been visually apparent in recen t
years and the area deserves immediate attention .
Since the numerical majority of the lakes are located in mountainou s
areas where access is limited, the changes are natural in origin and relatively slow . Recently, however, road access has been developed to severa l
high lakes which will mean a sudden influx of users and potential problems .
Waldo Lake in the Eastern Cascades is in this stage of development . Th e
State Sanitary Authority has begun studies aimed at monitoring the environmental changes that may occur in this large lake .
Classification of Oregon Lake s
If our knowledge of Oregon lakes is limited, as well as bein g
diverse, and use problems have or are about to have an impact on our lenti c
environments, then it seems imperative to begin to collect informatio n
necessary to document the present status of our lakes . Such informatio n
will serve as an aid to present and future water use manipulation . With
this purpose in mind a proposal was submitted last fall to the Wate r
Resources Research Institute for funds to initiate a three-year project t o
classify the lakes of this state . The specific objectives of the project wer e
stated as follows :
1.
Assemble information presently available concerning th e
lakes of the State of Oregon ;
2.
Begin to sample selected lakes by differing geologica l
areas and or drainage basins in order to accumulate lirnnological data essential for a statewide classification ; and
20
3 . Set up a format for recording and processing th e
collected information with the eventual purpose o f
making the results available in published form .
The project, only partially funded, commenced January 1, 1967 .
I realize one can be accused of a modicum of naivete regarding the completion of such a project under the temporal and fiscal constraints . It i s
thoroughly intended, however, that a vigorous start will be made towar d
the expressed goal of several informative volumes on the lakes of Oregon .
Numerous other states have or are in the process of compilin g
data for lake classification . Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin alread y
know a great deal about their lakes and presently have chemists and biologists vigorously working at furthering their knowledge . The lakes of
Washington have recently been listed (Wolcott, 1961 and 1964) into tw o
volumes with numerous maps and photographs . It is our intent to gathe r
sufficient information to allow us to classify Oregon lakes geologically ,
morphometrically, thermally, chemically and to a limited extent biologicall y
on a productivity basis . Specific techniques and procedures have bee n
selected but will not be discussed in this brief presentation . The staffing
of the project thus far is limited to myself and Mr . Douglas Larson ,
recently arrived from the University of North Dakota to work toward a
Ph.D . in limnology .
Progress to date consists of library research and the preparatio n
of data forms suitable for computerized data processing . Some equipment
has been purchased with funds from the Research Council ; however, equipment needs still exist . We are hope ful of obtaining the necessary funds t o
develop a mobile laboratory that will allow us to carry out many analyse s
in the field and take full advantage of our field time . The plans are t o
assemble a "camper-type" unit to fit on a pickup truck . Funds limited th e
field work this past summer, but we were able to establish the Warne r
lakes (Lake County) as the study area for Mr . Larson's thesis research .
These remnant lakes offer interesting possibilities for a comparativ e
limnological investigation .
Lake Washingto n
When discussing eutrophication and action programs, it is no t
possible to pass on without reference to the Lake Washington story . As a
problem in eutrophication it is classic in its inception, realization, actio n
and solution (Edmondson, 1961) .
The lake lies amidst rapidly-growing Seattle and its expandin g
suburbia . In the early 1950's signs of eutrophication became apparent wit h
blooms of the blue-green algae, Oscillatoria rubescens and changes in th e
zooplankton species composition . Similar changes signaled the eutrophicatio n
21
of Lake Zurich 60 years earlier . Fortunately Dr . Edmondson was on to p
of the situation and from his studies was able to point out that the annua l
flushing of 650 million gallons of purified effluent from secondary treatmen t
plants was rapidly fouling Lake Washington .
As these warning signs became visually and olfactorily obvious t o
the citizenry around Lake Washington, action was taken through metropolita n
legislation (METRO) to divert the sewage from Lake Washington into Puge t
Sound . This diversion is now nearly complete, and the slow rejuvenatio n
process is under way . Dr . Edmondson is predicting that the lake will sho w
considerable improvement by the 1970's . The important message in the
Lake Washington story is that aroused citizens can pool their efforts an d
solve an area pollution problem.
CONCLUSION
There is a growing awareness in this country of the causes an d
effects of pollution . Lakes and streams that are threatened because o f
waste disposal are frequently in the news . The volume of popular and
scientific information on man's adverse influence on his environment i s
increasing rapidly .
In some areas community spirit has come to grasp with the fou l
situations, while in others the problems continue to grow . The Congres s
and some state legislatures are very much in the act as we heard from Mr .
Spies last week . A bill titled, "National Lake Preservation Act of 1967 "
(S .2001), was read in the U .S . House of Representatives on June 23, 1967 .
The bill would "preserve, protect, develop, restore, and make accessibl e
the lake areas of the nation by establishing a National Lake Area Syste m
and authorizing programs of lake and lake area research and for othe r
purposes . "
On August 23, 1967 the House Committee on Government Operation s
read a report titled, "To Save America's Small Lakes ." There is real
evidence of concern and potential action on a broad front .
As the spirit of "Manifest Destiny" swept across our continent i n
the nineteenth century, so has swept the principle of manifest degradatio n
in this century . Our position in Oregon in regard to lake water quality i s
rather enviable in relation to other sections of the country . We do not have
numerous accelerated eutrophication problems, although we are not totall y
without such situations and complacency must be avoided . Our need now i s
to consolidate our present knowledge of our lakes and then fill in wher e
there are voids with meaningful field surveys . If we know what we have ,
we can then better assure maximum use of this precious natural resource .
22
REFERENCE S
Baldwin, E . M . 1964 . Geology of Oregon . University of Oregon Coop .
Book Store . 165 p .
Edmondson, W . T . 1961 . Changes in Lake Washington following a n
increase in nutrient income . Verh . intern . Ver . Limno . , 14 :
167-175 .
Frey, D . G . 1963 . Limnology in North America . University of Wisconsi n
Press . 734 p .
Hutchinson, G . E . 1957 . A treatise on limnology, Vol . I . John Wiley an d
Sons, Inc ., New York . 1,015 p .
Lindeman, R . L . 1942 . The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology . Ecology
23 : 399-418 .
Smith, W . D . and W . Greenup . 1939 . Lakes of Oregon . Northwes t
Science . 13 (4) : 75-97.
Wolcott, E . E . 1961 . Lakes of Washington, Vol . I, Western Washington .
State of Washington Dept . of Conservation . Water Supply Bulletin
No . 14 . 619 p .
Wolcott, E . E . 1964 . Lakes of Washington, Vol . II, Eastern Washington .
State of Washington Dept . of Conservation . Water Supply Bulletin
No . 14 . 650 p .
23
Presented October 12, 1967 by JACK ROTHACHER, Principal Hydrologist ,
Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Forest Service, U . S . Department of
Agriculture, Corvallis, Oregon.
VOtegee 9evzedt
Mad9efflefte PideeteCa
70 percent of the land area in western Oregon and Washington i s
0 ver
classed as commercial forest land . The major portion of the wate r
that flows in our streams originates on these lands . Approximately 1 2
billion board feet of timber, which requires clearcutting 200, 000 acre s
of forest and construction of 2, 500 miles of logging road, is harveste d
annually from these forests . An operation of this magnitude cannot hel p
but modify the forest environment and the quantity and quality of water tha t
flows from it .
The yield of water from our undisturbed forested watersheds i s
governed primarily by climatic factors . Precipitation in the foreste d
areas, ranging from 50 to 125 inches per year, may yield from 20 to 9 0
area inches of streamflow . With few exceptions, water flowing from a
well forested watershed in the Pacific Northwest is of the highest quality .
From studies in the Cascade Range of Oregon, we have learned that sediment concentrations in water flowing from undisturbed watersheds exceed s
100 parts per million (p .p.m.) in only the most extreme storms .
(Fredriksen, 1965) .
During one 4-year period, sediment concentrations exceeded 1 0
p .p.m. during only 3 days or less per year .' Dissolved chemical load i s
also low, generally fluctuating from 20 to 70 p .p .m. This is extremel y
high-quality water .
'Rothacher, Jack, Dyrness, C . T ., and Fredriksen, Richard L . Hydrologi c
and related characteristics of three small watersheds . U .S . Forest Service Pacific Northwest Forest & Range Exp . Sta . (Scheduled for publicatio n
in November, 1967) .
25
THE PROBLE M
As our society becomes more complicated and populations increase ,
the forested watershed can no longer remain inviolate as a source of water .
It must also produce a high yield of timber, provide recreation, and be subjected to a number of other activities such as reservoir construction, power lines, etc . The problem facing the forest land manager is how to harves t
timber and provide for other uses without disruption of streamflow o r
damage to its quality .
In the Pacific Northwest, our proyblern is not one of total yield o f
usable water . In the Willamette Basin only about 16 percent of the 2 6
million acre feet that leave the basin is utilized . There is, however, a
problem of seasonal distribution -- too much at times in winter, too littl e
in late summer . As population increases and the land is put to increasingl y
intensive use, floods do more damage in winter . On the other hand ther e
is an increasing demand in late summer for more water for domestic ,
industrial, and irrigation uses and for pollution abatement .
Water of the highest quality is expected from a forested watershed .
But modification of the forest environment, resulting from intensive use ,
can cause excessive sediment in streams -- one form of water pollution .
In general, the greater the soil disturbance in the watershed the
more sediment reaching the streams . Logging road construction is one o f
the major sources of sediment in the managed forest . Fredriksen (1965 )
pointed out that runoff from the first rainstorms after road constructio n
carried 250 times the concentration found in an adjacent, undisturbe d
watershed . In about 10 percent of the water samples taken during the 2 year period after road construction, sediment concentrations were far i n
excess of expected values .
Dyrness (1967) reports that, in a 15, 000 acre watershed on th e
west side of the Cascade Mountains, 72 percent of the mass soil movement s
resulting from the now historic December 1964 storm were associated wit h
logging roads . Many of these deposited large quantities of soil, rock an d
debris in streams .
Logging disturbance is highly variable depending on logging practices (Dyrness, 1965, 1967) . The more common cable systems result i n
about 15 percent of bare soil when an area is clearcut . Tractor loggin g
may expose twice this much . How serious soil erosion is depends on a
number of factors such as distribution of the exposed soil over the logge d
area, proximity to streams and drainage channels, soil characteristics ,
topography, etc .
26
Burning of slash remaining on the ground greatly increases th e
area of bare soil . One steep experimental watershed that had 12 percen t
of bare soil after logging was found to have 55 percent of bare soil afte r
burning . The first winter after burning suspended sediment measured nea r
storm peaks averaged 775 p.p .m. on the burned watershed compared to 2 0
p .p .m. on an unburned watershed . Burning also released large quantitie s
of chemicals from slash and organic matter on the ground . The first rain s
wash some of this into the streams .
Removal of vegetation changes the microclimate of the area . Soil
temperatures are higher, and if streamside vegetation is removed, wate r
temperatures may increase appreciably .
A small tributary stream completely exposed to solar radiatio n
may have mean monthly maximum temperature increases of 7°-12° F fro m
April through August . Daily maximum temperatures may increase 20° F
or more . In midsummer normal stream temperature maximums in th e
mid sixties may be elevated to over 80° F --- temperatures generally considered well above optimum for trout . The combination of increase d
temperature and increased chemical loads can lead to changes that influenc e
the entire stream ecosystem . One often observed result of the adde d
fertility of the water is an increase in algal growth .
This is the potential problem then, one related primarily to intensity of use -- the greater the disturbance to soil and vegetation th e
greater the deterioration in water quality .
POSSIBLE SOLUTION S
Annual yield of water increases significantly following clearcuttin g
of the forest . Some of this increase comes during the summer month s
when it is most useful (Rothacher, 1965) . Additional water from lan d
logged in western Oregon and Washington within the last 2 years coul d
supply the daily needs of at least 100, 000 people with no additional storage .
Evidence of the effect of vegetation removal on flood flows is not conclusiv e
because of the complexity of factors involved .
Streamflow from early fall storms may be higher than expecte d
due to increased soil moisture after logging . However, there is littl e
evidence that flood flows from the major winter storms, resulting fro m
long-duration, low-intensity rains, are appreciably changed by logging a s
practiced on National Forests .
Although forest management practices do change yield and
27
distribution of streamflow, operations on a large watershed are so distributed in time and place that the end result may be small and incidental t o
the logging . For the present, conscious management of forest lands to
modify yields of water will probably be limited to relatively small, localize d
areas . For example, heavier cutting might be undertaken on a municipa l
watershed to increase late summer streamflow temporarily while additiona l
storage or new sources are being developed .
Water quality is more subject to manipulation by managemen t
practices than is water yield . Basically, the solution to maintaining wate r
quality is to minimize disturbance to the soil and vegetation . This can b e
accomplished in a number of ways :
1.
Alternate logging systems such as skylines or balloon yarding ,
which lift logs clear of the ground, can decrease soil exposure .
2.
In many areas, alternate harvesting systems, such as partia l
cutting, shelterwood, small clearcuts, strip cutting, etc . ,
can be used . These either leave a partial stand of trees o n
the area at all times or reduce the extent of the disturbance .
3.
Streamside strips of vegetation left to shade the stream ca n
result in lower water temperatures and also help to filte r
sediment from any surface runoff .
4.
Reduction of slash burning decreases the area of soil ex posed, reduces the dissolved chemical load and reduces ai r
pollution . More complete utilization of the trees harveste d
could reduce the need for burning slash .
5.
Much effort and thought has gone into devising methods of
reducing the soil disturbance along logging roads, the majo r
source of stream sediment . Better planning and locatio n
of the road system can decrease damage by avoiding unstabl e
soil areas and excessively steep slopes . Proper drainage ,
gravel or paved surfaces, and prompt revegetation of road banks and other bare soil areas can help maintain wate r
quality .
WHAT IS BEING DONE ?
Many of the possible solutions are operational on a limited scal e
or currently being developed .
28
Skyline and balloon yarding systems are in use in a few areas an d
are being continually improved to permit logging of steep topography wit h
a very minimum of soil disturbance . In one study, use of the skyline reduced exposed soil to half that of the more common high-lead system . No t
only was less than 7 percent of the area disturbed to expose bare soil, bu t
an understory of young hemlock was left on the area to speed the time o f
recovery to a growing forest condition . Because of the advanced regeneration and even distribution of slash, it was unnecessary to burn the logge d
area .
Perhaps the main advantage of skyline logging is that it require s
far less road construction than does the more common high-lead systems .
Binkley (1965) calculated that road requirements for skyline yarding ar e
only about one-third of those necessary for high-lead logging . This reduction is important as many studies have shown that roads, especially
those newly constructed, are often the primary source of stream sedimen t
from forested areas .
The shelterwood system of harvesting timber is becoming increasingly popular in the Douglas-fir region, especially where it is difficult t o
reforest the land after logging . If yarding is done carefully, there is les s
disturbance to the soil and the land remains partially covered by fores t
trees . Similar systems are used in scenic areas where it is desirable t o
maintain an attractive cover of trees . Clearcutting, however, remains th e
preferred system when the area is managed for Douglas-fir, and intolerant
species .
Harvest of the huge logs of old-growth timber causes more disturbance to the soil than does harvest of younger and smaller second-growt h
forests . The future trend in forest management is to younger and smalle r
merchantable trees . This means smaller, lighter equipment and les s
disturbance .
Each year a higher percentage of total tree volume is being use d
leaving less slash and reducing the area requiring burning of slash an d
exposure of bare soil .
Erosion from disturbed soil, such as along roads, landings ,
reservoir margins, powerlines, etc ., is being greatly reduced by promp t
revegetation after construction, mostly with grasses and legumes . Afte r
forested areas once come under management with a basic road system ,
construction of additional new roads will greatly decrease, roadbanks wil l
become stabilized by vegetation, and an increasing mileage of road surfac e
will be paved, all of which should decrease the importance of roads as a
source of sediment .
29
Prevention is always a better approach than corrective action .
Harvesting timber and constructing roads cause the most disturbance durin g
wet weather . In a few areas, careful control of the timing of logging operations greatly reduces soil disturbance and sedimentation .
Recreational use of forest lands, barely mentioned in this discussion ,
presents a possible bacteriological pollution problem . As recreational user s
have increased, an attempt has been made to provide developed campground s
with adequate sanitation facilities . It has, however, been difficult to kee p
up with the rapidly increased recreation use .
This discussion of what is being done to solve some of the problem s
does not mean to imply that we have all the answers . Research is helping
to find other solutions, and many new ideas are being tested in the field .
Nor does it mean that the best practices are being used in all areas . Unfortunately, this is far from true . As in the case of industrial and municipa l
pollution downstream, extra expense is often involved when practices mus t
be changed to protect water quality .
Only in recent years have forest managers become fully aware of
their responsibility to manage the land to produce good supplies of high quality water, and many forest users do not yet fully realize that they play
a key role in protecting the water resource . Finally, we must recogniz e
that intensive use of forest lands will inevitably have some effect on stream flow, and only through careful planning and conscious effort can we minimiz e
the changes .
LITERATURE CITE D
Binkley, Virgil W .
1965 . Economics and design of a radio-controlled skyline yardin g
system . Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Exp . Sta .
U .S . Forest Serv . Res . Pap . PNW-25, 30 pp ., illus .
Fredricksen [ Fredriksen] , R . L .
1965 . Sedimentation after logging road construction in a small
western Oregon watershed . U .S. Dept . Agric . Misc .
pub . 970 :56-59, illus .
Dyrness, C . T .
1965 . Soil surface conditions following tractor and high-lea d
logging in the Oregon Cascades . J . Forest . 63 :272-275 ,
illus .
30
1967 . Soil surface conditions following skyline logging . Pacifi c
Northwest Forest & Range Exp . Sta . U .S . Forest Serv .
Res . Note PNW-55, 8 pp .
Rothacher, Jack .
1965 . Streamflow from small watersheds on the western slope o f
the Cascade Range of Oregon . Water Resources Res . 1(1) :
125-134, illus .
31
Presented October 12, 1967 by ROBERT F . TARRANT, Principal Soil
Scientist, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Forest an d
Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U .S . Department of Agriculture ,
Corvallis, Oregon .
Tape.eace 4 %Adduced e‘eft#tlca‘t
depend increasingly on chemicals to accomplish forest managemen t
Weobjectives
despite widespread concern about effects of pesticide residues in the forest and its waters . We have a strong responsibility t o
maintain purity of the three-fourths of the Nation's water supply that come s
from the forest but know little about the problem of chemical residues i n
forest waters or in the forest environment generally .
The current concern over pesticide residues in water is considere d
to be only one, although important, symptom of an incipient major fores t
problem --- pollution, specifically chemical pollution .
THE PESTICIDE--FOREST WATER PROBLE M
The many problems arising from widespread dissemination o f
insecticides and other pesticides have been studied at some length (2, 4) ,
and there appears to be ample justification for increased attention to the
effect of chemical pesticides on present and future well-being of huma n
beings and all other organisms of the environment which is shared inter dependently . Certainly, too much is at stake to consider reaction to th e
pesticide residue problem merely as a matter of determining which "side "
to take in a sometimes controversial matter .
One of the chief concerns over using pesticides in the forest i s
water pollution. Chemicals are rarely intentionally applied to forest waters .
NOTE :
Material contained herein appeared originally as : Tarrant, Rober t
F . 1967 . Pesticides in forest waters -- symptom of a growing problem .
Soc . Amer . Foresters Proc . (1966) :159-163 .
33
However, drift from spraying adjacent lands for insect or vegetation control ,
movement of chemicals from the soil surface to watercourses, or percolation of contaminated water through the soil are accidental and potentia l
sources of pesticide residues in water systems .
Forest lands comprise only one-third of the total area of the Unite d
States (Table 1), but they receive about one-half the total precipitation an d
yield about three-fourths of the total streamflow (21) . Forest lands annually
receive an average of 45 inches of precipitation --- more than twice tha t
falling on other lands ; forest lands annually yield about 20 inches of runoff -- almost seven times that from other lands . Thus, what we do to affect wate r
purity in the forest has a powerful impact on the Nation's water supply .
In 1962, 1 .7 million pounds of insecticides were applied to about
1 .8 million acres of forest land (12) . In addition, about half this amount o f
herbicides and an unknown amount of other pesticidal chemicals were used .
True, this use represented only about 1 percent of the total poundage o f
insecticidal chemicals distributed in the United States (Table 1) ; the rat e
at which insecticidal chemicals are used in the forest is substantially lowe r
than that in most other systems ; and, 95 percent of the Nation's fores t
lands have never received an application of insecticidal chemicals .
Despite evidence that most of the contribution to the Nation' s
pesticide residue problem comes in connection with land uses other tha n
forest, foresters, nevertheless, are contributing to the total problem what ever it might be . And, because of the important role of forest lands i n
providing most of the Nation's water supply, a great responsibility of th e
forest watershed manager is to safeguard water purity .
The use of pesticides is, of course, related to economics . Indee d
pesticide is defined (1) as : "An agent (as a chemical) used to destroy a pest :
ECONOMIC POISON ." The root of the problem in the case of silvicultura l
use of chemicals is that we need pesticides to protect and enhance som e
mighty large economic values . In the face of mounting costs of managin g
vast forest areas for the maximum production of timber, forage, and water ,
chemicals must increasingly be used .
Greatly intensified forestry practices will be necessary to mee t
needs of our rapidly growing Nation . The demand for timber products i s
projected to rise about 80 percent in the next 35 years (22), a large increas e
over a short time as reckoned by tree growth rate . Prospective timbe r
growth and inventories in the U .S . appear to meet projected demands fo r
the next two or three decades --- but not in later years of this century .
In 1962, a year for which we have good estimates of timber losses ,
(22), more than 5 billion board feet of sawtimber --- plus an additional 1
34
w
q
o
r
a)
00
0
cd
co
N
O
O
r- I
N
N
00
CO
N
. I
In
to
tM
.O
---I
N
M
M
O
to
O
00
('
In
^-I
0
•H
O
O
L
N
N
0
•4-3
H
rd
•H
r-I
4-I
0
4-1
fli
cd
a)
•H
U
r1
U
a)
0
•H
b4
0
a
,H
~
•
a)
.H
4.4
U
a)
N
•
U
U
Qi
00 0
r~
r1
.O
tci 00
to
CY'
00
0
cd
a)
cd
4
-
U)
-
a)
cd
4--3
0
w
0
O N
▪
M
N
a)
U
.o
▪
M
O
N
r-
da
N
r
1-4
a)
a)
4
0
•
U)
•
r♦
i•1
•H
d
C
a)
4.4
O
H
cd
a-+
a)
U)
0
a)•
•
U
O
di
M
co
tr1 ts1
cd
0
R3
U)
a)
0
Ft
a)
cd
0
H
'-i
35
U)
Cd
0
H
(.1
M
billion cubic feet of valuable young growing stock --- were lost through in sect depredation . Based on current values, 5 billion board feet of saw timber stumpage is worth about 71 .5 million dollars ; more importantly ,
recent studies show that for every dollar's worth of timber cut and move d
into the economy as raw material, about $20 worth of business is create d
(in wages, transportation, manufacturing, wholesaling, and retailing) b y
the time the tree reaches its final use .
Thus, the true loss to the economy when 5 billion board feet of saw timber is killed by insects is nearly 1 .5 billion dollars --- and that is th e
figure for just one year .
Unfortunately, we do not now have a choice of methods for success fully controlling insect epidemics over wide areas in the forest . There ar e
over 7,000 pests of economic importance ; yet, after 75 years of scientifi c
effort, only about two dozen have yielded to substitutes for chemical pesticides
The most effective method we now have of controlling large scale outbreaks of highly destructive forest insect pests, such as the hem lock looper, spruce budworm, and Douglas-fir tussock moth, is sprayin g
with DDT --- the chemical most often criticized for its possible detrimenta l
effect on human health and the well-being of other organisms in ou r
environment .
(a.
Herbicides, too, have become important tools for keeping fores t
lands in full production . More than 100 million acres of commercial fores t
land are at present either "nonstocked" or "poorly stocked" with trees o f
acceptable quality or species (22) . Much of this area is occupied by brus h
or other vegetation that prevents restocking with desirable t7 :ees . Mechanical methods of removing unwanted vegetation are, for the most part, prohibitively expensive and, at best, provide only a temporary solution to th e
problem . Use of herbicides on all kinds of land has grown so rapidly i n
recent years that production of these chemicals may soon exceed that o f
insecticides (20) .
Thus, in a relatively short time, pesticides have become nearl y
indispensable tools for achieving forest management goals . Our succes s
in balancing the future timber budget of the United States within the nex t
30 years will depend greatly on protection and cultural practices that no w
include the use of pesticidal chemicals .
Pesticides for forest use appear to be here to stay, and fores t
managers have a strong responsibility to guard against possible environmental contamination when using them .
What do we know about the problem of pesticide residues in fores t
waters? Very little in contrast to information developed for waters down -
36
stream from forest lands (7) . Most reports deal with adverse effects o f
forest spraying on fish and wildlife and, unfortunately, to initial effects of
the spraying, leaving generally unanswered the question of long-time impacts of forest chemical use . It is apparent, however, that carelessl y
applied chemicals can cause significant damage to water quality and aquati c
organisms .
POTENTIAL SOLUTION S
We do have some evidence that pesticides can be used in the fores t
without contaminating adjacent waters . No trace of a mixture of 2, 4-D and
2,4,5-T herbicides in surface streamwater was found after chemical removal of woodland- riparian vegetation on the San Dimas Experimenta l
Forest in California, although small traces of diesel oil used in the spray
mixture were found (19) . In the same area, spraying vegetation wit h
herbicides again did not result in appreciable pollution of adjacent streams ;
no residues of applied herbicides were found in surface water in excess o f
1 p . p . m . , nor was any trace of the diesel oil carrier found (13) .
In northeastern United States, no evidence of herbicide contamina tion of streamwater was detected by odor tests after 2,4,5-T was used to
basal-spray tree stumps and foliage of vegetation remaining after clear cutting (18) . In the same area, mistblower spraying of streamsid e
vegetation with 2, 4, 5-T resulted in some water contamination immediatel y
below the sprayed area within 4 hours after treatment and again later afte r
a 1-inch rainfall, but no contamination was found 1 mile downstream (17) .
In the Pacific Northwest, no dangerous residue level was found i n
streamwater after spraying unwanted vegetation with several differen t
chemicals (15) . The hydrologic nature of the treated area was found to b e
of greater significance in affecting amount of residue in streamwater tha n
size of area sprayed or kind of chemical used .
DDT, sprayed with proper precautions at one-half pound per acr e
for elm spanworm control in northern Georgia, did not pollute streamwate r
(9) . In one of two drainages, DDT was allowed to reach the stream in a
normal spraying and aquatic insects were seriously depleted . In a companion drainage, the stream was avoided during spray operations and n o
significant mortality to aquatic organisms resulted . In another study involving elm spanworm control (11), DDT residues were found in streamwate r
after an entire drainage basin was sprayed . The highest concentration o f
DDT recovered (0 . 346 part per billion) was observed in a sample collecte d
during treatment . The minimum concentration (0 .005 part per billion) wa s
noted 2 months after spraying .
37
The following year, when only 49 percent of the same basin wa s
sprayed, no DDT residues were noted in streamwater nor in suspende d
sediment samples collected over a 7-month period . Thus, the probability
of DDT occurring as a stream contaminant after spraying is greatly reduce d
by controlled applications . Large-scale, carefully conducted, operationa l
sprayings for insect control have also been carried out in Oregon (16) and
Washington (3) without damage to water resources or the aquatic environment .
The pesticide -- forest water problem, then, might be summarize d
thus :
1.
2.
3.
We need pesticides to accomplish desirable goals i n
intensive forestry ;
We have a strong responsibility to deliver uncontaminated water at the forest boundary ; and
We neither know much about the magnitude of pesticid e
residues in the forest environment generally and in fores t
forest waters specifically, nor do we understand wel l
their impact on the biosystem .
OTHER THAN PESTICIDE S
Current national problems concerning water quality include : (1 )
increasing and even excessive fertility of water ; (2) dispersal of waste heat ;
(3) increase in salinity ; (4) water-borne viruses ; and (5) chemical pollution .
(4) . All of these problems are incipient in the forest environment as population pressures push against the last expanse of relatively undevelope d
land, although the first three listed are not of great immediate concern i n
forest waters . The fourth and fifth problems, water-borne viruses and
chemical pollution, are with us now, although in most forested areas the y
are still minor considerations .
Although problems of water pollution from pesticide residues ar e
now very much in the forefront, we can see possibilities of solving them .
In some cases, biological control of unwanted organisms appears feasibl e
and much research is being done along these lines . We are also workin g
actively to find new chemicals that will do the job of present pesticide s
without leaving long-lasting residues in the environment (14) . Man's ingenuity is now challenged to solve them . But, in our preoccupation wit h
residues of insecticides and herbicides in the forest environment, w e
perhaps are failing to recognize that they are only symptoms of a possibl y
much larger problem --- pollution of the forest environment by the grea t
number of chemicals available for a variety of uses .
We live in a chemical-oriented society --- the chemical industry ,
38
one of the largest single segments of the world economy, almost dail y
presents us with some new material to do a job better than it has been don e
before . More money is devoted to research in industrial chemistry than i n
any other field of economic endeavor . New advances in chemistry ar e
helping support the world population explosion, at the same time ne w
chemical products are being offered to control it .
In regard to chemical land management tools other than pesticides ,
we are perhaps now in much the same situation as we were about a quarte r
century ago with pesticides --- new chemicals are being developed and use d
to accomplish forest management objectives . At the moment, thes e
chemicals are being used in relatively small amounts, just as chemica l
pesticides were used only a few years ago . However, the chemical industr y
doubtless will continue to offer us new tools to accomplish land management
jobs effectively, economically, and rapidly over wide areas of inaccessibl e
territory where aerial application of materials is the only feasible approach .
And, doubtless, we will use them .
Most of the chemicals, other than insecticides and herbicides tha t
we are using with increasing frequency in forest management, or that ar e
being introduced into the forest environment indirectly, are used in smal l
amounts . If this small use at the moment tempts us to dismiss thes e
materials as being unimportant as possible pollutants, let us consider tha t
not many years ago we hailed pesticides as the great silvicultural tool s
they indeed are, but in early stages of their development used them widel y
with little regard to their possible secondary effects .
More than 10 million gallons of fire control chemicals mixed wit h
water are used in a severe forest fire year . These chemicals includ e
sodium borate and calcium borate (Table 2), both of which are toxic t o
forest vegetation (8) . Other chemicals have been suggested and are bein g
investigated for their effectiveness in reducing transpiration from foreste d
watersheds, for possible use as growth retardants, and as antibiotic sub stances to be used against forest tree diseases .
Diesel oil is often used as a carrier in applying chemicals in a
forest, although a number of studies have yielded conflicting information
on the toxic and water-polluting capabilities of this material . The use of
oily solvents for herbicides is prohibited in some German forests (23) ,
and some European research workers question the desirability of applyin g
large amounts of diesel oil to the forest environment .
As the Nation t s forest road system becomes more highly developed ,
we increasingly employ chemical substances such as bituminous material s
for surfacing, sulfite liquor for dust abatement, sodium or calcium chlorid e
to reduce icing, resins or asphalt emulsions for stabilization . We can
39
Table 2 . -- Some examples of chemicals used, or proposed for use, t o
achieve forest management objectives .
Example of chemica l
Management objective
Fire control
Sodium and calcium borat e
Sodium alginat e
DAP (NH 4) 2 HPO 4
Sodium and ammonium pecti n
Slash disposal
Asphalt and wax coating s
Road stabilizatio n
Bituminous paving material s
Asphalt emulsion s
Furfurol-aniline resin s
Water loss control in
Plants
Hexadecano l
Glyceryl half-ester o f
decenyl-succinic aci d
Soils
Hexadecano l
Asphalt emulsion s
Water storage
Hexadecano l
Plant growth control
Stimulatio n
Chemical fertilizer s
Tyrosin e
Retardation
2- chloroethyl CCC
Phosphon
B-99 5
Disease control
Cyclohexirnide (acti-dione)
Animal damage control
Endri n
TMT D
Toxaphen e
A cti- dion e
Road dust and ice control
Sulfite liquo r
Sodium and calcium chloride s
40
expect a growing introduction of chemical substances into the forest i n
connection with efforts to raise the permanent forest road system to highe r
standards .
The past few years have seen a great increase in the use of fertilizers to improve growth of forest trees and forage . Although this techniqu e
has not yet been evaluated thoroughly, indications are that chemical fertilizers will play an increasingly important part in forest management . Ion s
of commonly used fertilizer materials are not easily leached from the forest
soil, but a necessary part of evaluating the desirability of forest fertilizatio n
will be accurately determining the secondary effects on water resources o f
broad-scale use of such chemicals .
While the conscientious watershed manager is taking precaution s
to avoid polluting the forest environment with chemicals used for silvicultural purposes, an invisible fallout of exotic substances is taking place i n
the forest as the result of practices outside the forester's control (Table 3) .
A growing European literature, arising from research on forest problem s
generated by dense populations, should give us ample warning of th e
possibilities of the effect of air pollution on the forest environment .
Although most of this research has been aimed at damage to vegetation by chemicals carried in industrial smoke and city-generated ai r
pollutants, the finding that chemical substances can be carried comparativel y
great distances in the air to pollute water (10) indicates yet another possibl e
source of unwanted additions to previously pure forest waters .
Attempts to manipulate precipitation frequently include the releas e
of chemicals such as silver iodide and zinc sulfite into the atmosphere . In
at least one current attempt to alter precipitation patterns, concern ove r
the ultimate fate of chemicals used in weather modification has led t o
monitoring of plants, soils, and water to detect presence, amount, an d
distribution of the chemicals released .
The toxicity of lead has been recognized since ancient times, an d
it continues to be a major occupational poison . Lead has been used as a
gasoline additive since 1923 . Results of sampling various elements of th e
ecosystem (6) indicate that an average concentration of 10 mg of lead pe r
square meter is present over the entire Northern Hemisphere as a resul t
of gasoline consumption by motor vehicles . During the past few years ,
phosphorus and boron compounds have been added to gasoline, and nickel i s
now being used for the same purpose .
Other exhaust residues from gasoline and diesel engines and ra w
gasoline and oil and other wastes from greatly increased recreational powe r
boating on forest waters are rapidly coming to be factors with which we mus t
reckon .
41
Table 3 . -- Some examples of possible chemical pollutant entering th e
forest environment from nonforest use .
Example of chemical
Source
Industrial and city-generate d
air pollutio n
Sulfur compound s
Fluoride s
Zin c
Weather modification activitie s
Silver iodid e
Fisheries management
Toxaphen e
Gasoline engine exhaust s
Lead
Sulfur compound s
Motor vehicles and power boat s
Gasoline
Lubricating oi l
Mining waste s
Arseni c
Aquatic weed contro l
Copper sulfat e
Weedicide s
Precipitation
Organochlorine pesticide s
One could continue enumerating chemical substances that in on e
way or another are finding their way into the forest environment either b y
invitation or as gate-crashers .
The number of such chemicals and the magnitude of their use i s
not startlingly great now, but it would be most discouraging if we failed t o
profit from experiences of the past two decades in regard to pesticides an d
their residues . The forest watershed manager, in his key position a s
guardian of the source of three-fourths of the Nation's water supply, mus t
be alert to potential sources of chemical water pollution, whether they b e
materials purposely introduced into the forest environment to accomplis h
a management goal or unwanted additions . More and more of the countles s
tons of chemical substances being produced for an expanding population wil l
be brought into the forest environment . Lets accept this fact with prope r
42
appreciation that the problem is yet manageable, that our society is be coming increasingly aware of the seriousness of the general problem o f
pollution, and that facilities for studying the problem and determinin g
answers to it were never better .
GROWING PROBLEM OF POLLUTIO N
What should we do about the growing problem of chemical pollutio n
of forest waters? Perhaps some answers to this question may be found i n
the recent report of the Environmental Pollution Panel of the President' s
Science Advisory Committee (4), in which a great deal of thinking on the
problem of environmental pollution is summarized . Although this significan t
report deals mainly with some overall pollution problems, a number o f
recommendations made by the panel apply directly to the growing proble m
of forest pollution generated by a rapidly growing population .
.,
As guiding principles in approaching the pollution problem, the
panel recommends that :
1.
The public should come to recognize individual rights t o
quality of living, as expressed by the absence of pollution ,
as it has come to recognize rights to education, to economic advance, and to public recreation .
2.
The responsibility of each pollutor for all forms o f
damage caused by his pollution should be effectively
recognized and generally accepted . There should be
no "right" to pollute .
Concerning the role of government in pollution problems, the pane l
recommends :
1.
The roles of all governmental authorities --- local ,
State, and Federal --- in pollution problems should b e
complementary and mutually supporting .
2.
In all operations they conduct, support, or control ,
Federal agencies should give special attention to avoiding and managing pollution, both to reduce it and as a n
example to others . State and local agencies shoul d
follow the Federal example as rapidly as possible .
3.
All agencies and organizations concerned with pollution
should strengthen programs that lead to better publi c
understanding of pollution and its problems .
43
.
More than 100 specific actions to combat environmental pollutio n
are recommended by the panel . Most of these actions, though not specifically worded, have some application to the forest environment . In connectio n
with some of the recommended actions, forest managers can take pride tha t
some of their present practices might well serve as examples of suggeste d
general operational procedures . One recommendation is that the Department
of Agriculture encourage modification of present pesticide practices b y
using pesticides only when necessary and recognizing that 100 percei t control of most pests is not required to prevent economic losses . Thi s
philosophy has been successfully followed for many years by forest pesticid e
users .
Other recommendations call for intensifying surveillance of othe r
possibly serious chemical pollutants, such as lead, in air, water, and soil .
Many other such chemicals entering the environment could as well be studied .
Strong recommendations are offered encouraging the formation of compact s
and unified authorities to deal with air pollution, water quality, and effect s
of environmental changes on lands and water, and a substantial expansio n
of research on effects of all pollutants on forests, agricultural lands, wild life, and fisheries . The panels report serves well as a first approximatio n
of a national charter for a concerted and effective attack on the problems of
environmental pollution .
In relation to other areas of the chemical pollution problem, the
forest environment is generally in good condition, but this fortunate situatio n
can operate to our disadvantage if we remain complacent . If forest water shed managers are to keep on top of the chemical pollution threat, we must :
1.
Use chemicals with proper regard for their possible ad verse effects on water quality ;
2.
Keep alert to sources of chemical pollution in the fores t
that are not under direct control of the forest manager ;
3.
Strengthen our programs leading to better public under standing of forest pollution and its problems ;
4.
Develop baseline values for forest water quality and
monitor forest water systems to detect presence o f
chemical pollutants ; and
5.
Improve our research position to provide informatio n
leading to safe use of chemicals in the forest .
We must become aware of the growing possibility of widesprea d
contamination of the forest environment by a broad array of chemicals .
44
Our research must be aimed at defining the problem and its components an d
supplying information on which sound operational practices can be based .
Given a n . awareness of the problem and information on means of controllin g
it, we not only can maintain production of high-quality water from th e
Nation's forest lands but, perhaps, under the impetus of growing concer n
about environmental pollution, improve the quality of water vt/e deliver a t
the forest boundary . Such improvement should be: a firm goal .
LITERATURE CITE D
1.
Anonymous . 1960 . Webster' s New International Dictionary of th e
• English Language . Ed . 2, Unabr . G . '& C . Merriam Co ., Publ . ,
Springfield, Mass .
2.
1963 . Report on use of, pesticides . U . S :-.-President s
Science Advisory Committee . 26 pp .
3.
. 1964 . 'Status report, 1963 . . Willapa hemlock loope r
infestation control project . ' Wash. State Dep . Natur . Resources ,
Hemlock Looper Study Comm . 74 pp .
4.
. 1965 . Restoring the quality of our environment . Re -
port of the Environment Pollution Panel . U . S . President's Scienc e
Advisory Committee . 317 pp .
5.
Bear, S . H . 1965 . .Industry/Government relations .
and Pesticide Rev . 24(2) : 3-5 .
N .A .C . .New s
6. ' Chow, T . J ., and M . S . Johnstone . 1965 . Lead isotopes in gasolin e
and aerosols -of Los Angeles Basin, California . Science 147 :502-503 .
7.
Dugan, P . R ., R . M . Pfister, and Margaret L . Sprague . 1963 . Bibliography of organic pesticide publications having 'relevance ,to publi c
health and water pollution problems . Syracuse Univ . Res . Corp .
Microbiol . & Biochem . Center Res . Rep . 10, Part 2 . 122 pp .
8.
Fenton, R . H . 1961 . Toxic effects of a fire fighting chemical .
J . Forest . 59 :209-210 .
9.
Frey, P . J . 1962 . Effects of DDT spray on stream bottom organism s
. in two mountain streams in Georgia . Biol-. Abstr . 37':492 .
10.
Gorham, E ., and A . G . Gordon . 1960 . The influence of smelter fume s
upon the chemical composition of lake waters near Sudbury, Ontario,
and upon the surrounding vegetation . Can . J . Bot . 38 :477-487 .
45
1 1 . Grzenda, A . R . , H . P . Nicholson, J . I . Teasley, and J . H . Patric .
1964 . DDT residues in mountain stream water as influenced by treat ment practices . J . Econ . Entomol .57 :615-618 .
12. Hall, D . G . 1962 . Use of insecticides in the United States . Bull .
Entomol . Soc . Amer . 8 :90-92 .
13. Krammes, J . S ., and D . B . Willets . 1964 . Effect of 2, 4, -D and 2 ,
4, 5, -T on water quality after a spraying treatment . U . S . Fores t
Serv . Res . Note PSW-52 . 4 pp .
14. Moore, A . D . 1964 . Progress of insecticide screening in forestry .
Part 2 -- Insecticide evaluation project . In Western Forest Pest Conditions . West . Forest . & Conserv. Ass . West . Forest Pest Comm .
Proc . pp . 7-8 .
15. Norris, L . A ., M . Newton, and J . Zavitkowski . 1965 . Streamwate r
contamination by herbicides . resulting from brush-control operation s
on forest lands . (Abstract in West . Weed contr . Conf . Res . Comm .
Res . Progr . Rep . pp . 35-37 .
16. Perkins, R . F ., and R . E . Dolph . 1966 . Report of the 1965 Burn s
Douglas-fir tussock moth control project . U . S . Forest Serv . Region
6 . 7 pp . (in press) .
17.
Reigner, I . C ., W . E . Sopper, and R . R . Johnson . 1964 . Control o f
riparian vegetation with phenoxy herbicides and the effect on stream flow quality . Northeast . Weed Contr . Conf. Proc . 18 :563-570 .
18. Reinhart, K . G . 1965 . Herbicidal treatment of watersheds to increas e
water yield . Northest . Weed Contr . Conf. Proc . 19 :546-551 .
19. Rowe, P . B . 1963 . Streamflow increases after removing woodlan d
riparian vegetation from a 'southern California watershed . J . Forest .
61 :365-370 .
20. Shepard, H . H ., and J . N . Mahan . 1965 . The pesticide situation fo r
1964-1965 . U . S . Agr . Stabilization & Conserv . Serv . 36 pp .
21. Storey, H . C . 1965 . Watershed management research . In Who' s
responsible for water resources research . Oreg . State Univ . Wate r
Resources Res . Inst . Seminar Wit' 004 .66 . pp. 55-64 .
22. U . S . Forest Service . 1965 . Timber trends in the United States .
Forest-Resource Rep . 17 . 235 pp .
23. Woelfle . 1961 . [Forest--water--diesel oil .] Allg . Forstzeitschr .
16(16) :257-259 .
46
Presented October 19, 1967 by JOE H . HEIDEL, Chief ; Water Resource s
Planning Section, U .S . Army Engineer District, Portland, Oregon .
9toddPea
*
Peageae,#1
L
adies and Gentlemen : Before we get into a discussion of flood plai n
management, we must define the term "flood ." "A flood is the
occasional occurrence of watershed runoff which exceeds . the capacity o f
the permanent stream channels . When the flood flow exceeds the bank-full
capacity, it inundates the lands adjacent to the stream . The extent of th e
inundated land depends on the magnitude of th e. flood and on the topograph y
of the land . If the land adjacent to the stream is low and flat, the floo d
waters will spread out' over a large area . This area which becomes inundated we call the flood plain . There are no fixed boundaries to a give n
flood plain ; its extent depends on the magnitude of the flood --- the greate r
the flood, the farther the water will spread out over the land .
The Willamette Valley in your own neighborhood is a good example .
It is estimated that major uncontrolled floods would inundate betwee n
400, 000 to 500, 000 acres of low lands in the flood plain of the Willamett e
River and its tributaries . Even average annual floods would cover as muc h
as 180 ; 000 acres .
Overflow on the land does not cause great damage . In fact it ofte n
is beneficial, since floods bring in silt and builds up the land . This is how
our fertile valleys were formed .
Flood damages occur for the most part because people have foun d
the flood plains attractive and profitable locations for urban, industrial an d
agricultural development . . Since the coming of the first settlers, an
enormous amount of such development has taken place and it continues a t
a rapid pace under the pressures of economic growth . Thus, while flooding
is a natural phenomenon, the flood damage potential'is man-made and ther e
is little hope to reduce the potential that already exists .
What, then, are the measures that can be taken to reduce th e
47
harmful effects of floods? There are two categories : Engineering work s
to keep the flood waters away from men and Administrative Measures t o
keep men away from the water .
ENGINEERING WORK S
Storing floodwaters in the upstream part of the drainage basin i s
the most direct way to reduce the flood hazard in the downstream portion o f
the basin . This can be done by constructing reservoirs which are larg e
enough to store water during times of extreme river flow . The purpose o f
such flood control operation is to lower the flood crest in the downstrea m
reach of the stream .
This method is effective if the runoff from a sufficiently larg e
percentage of the drainage area is controlled by the reservoir and if th e
reservoir is of sufficient size to store the runoff until the flood crest ha s
passed potential damage areas downstream . When the flood danger ha s
passed, the stored flood waters can be evacuated at a controlled rate, with out causing overbank flow in the stream below . After evacuation, whic h
might require up to several weeks, the reservoir is ready to receive and
store another flood .
As an aside it should be mentioned that control of flood waters i s
not the only purpose a reservoir can and does serve .
To operate a reservoir for water conservation, the storage volum e
reserved for flood control during winter is gradually filled toward the en d
of the flood season . This water is kept available for release during th e
summer, for navigation, power generation, industrial and municipal wate r
supply, irrigation, water quality control, recreation and improvement o f
wildlife and fish habitat . Without employing this principle of multiple-us e
storage, water conservation often would not be justifiable economically .
Thus, flood control storage becomes the key to the realization of ever y
other water-related benefit .
WATERSHED MANAGEMEN T
Another method of controlling the runoff from upper watershed s
is watershed management . It includes preservation and improvement o f
vegetative cover, land treatment by contouring, and check dam construction .
The relative effectiveness of watershed management has been subject t o
widespread discussion, particularly as compared to major storage reservoirs . Its value is greatest in retarding the runoff during relatively smal l
48
floods . It is generally agreed that watershed management is an effectiv e
tool of flood control, especially when used in conjunction with othe r
measures .
Not all flood areas can be protected efficiently by upstream storage ,
but there are other methods available . One of the oldest and often mos t
economical flood protection is by construction of dikes .
A dike .is an earth embankment near the streambank, constructe d
to prevent the flood waters from spreading into the lowlands . The great
hazard inherent in a diking system is that it provides full protection up to a
certain flood stage and that it causes instant disaster when overtopped by a
flood, or when failure occurs for other reasons . No dike can be designe d
to protect against maximum possible water elevations and in case of dik e
failure, the disaster is greater than had there been no dike .
Thus, a dike is like an insurance policy --- .it protects only agains t
resonable risks --- but people who develop property behind dikes often don' t
realize the inherent dangers and are lulled into a false sense of security .
In some locations local flood control can be achieved by a channe l
improvement project . By straightening, cleaning, widening, deepening o r
lining the river channel, its capacity can be increased, thus lowering th e
local water surface during floods . A channel improvement project doe s
not have the built-in danger of sudden failure . If its capacity is exceeded ,
gradual flooding occurs, but at a lesser depth than would be "experience d
without the improvement .
Oftentimes, on fast flowing streams, a local flood problem exist s
in the form of bank erosion . Soft earth banks tend to erode, even durin g
moderate flood flows --- the erosion taking place primarily on the outsid e
of river bends . This erosive action not only destroys land, but in tim e
leads to formation of overflow channels or permanent channel changes .
Also, the eroded material is deposited downstream as gravel or sand bar s
and, by choking the channel, causes overflow or more erosion . Bank
erosion can be prevented by protective works such as . rock riprap .
Finally, there is one possible method of flood control left whic h
perhaps someday might become important . This method is regulation o f
rainfall by weather modification . While experimentation is still going o n
in that field, no practicable solution appears to be available as yet . In
addition, there are serious questions concerning physical effects and majo r
legal problems that need to be resolved before precipitation control can be
practiced .
49
SLIDES PRESENTE D
1. Our first slide shows the Portland Engineer District . The blu e
overlay indicates the major flood plains . It is easily seen that the mos t
extensive flood problem exists right here in the Willamette Valley . During
major floods 500, 000 acres would be inundated if no reservoirs controlle d
flooding .
2. The next slide is an example of a housing development which shoul d
never have been constructed . Even though reservoirs lowered the water b y
over 7 feet, great damage was caused because the land is low and n o
reasonable amount of upstream storage can give complete protection in th e
extremely low spots .
3. There are many local examples of flood-control works of the typ e
we have discussed . There are ten flood control storage projects in operatio n
in the Willamette River basin and more are under construction and authorized for construction . This one, shown on the slide is Lookout Point reservoir on Middle Fork Willamette River . It stores 460, 000 acre-feet of wate r
and together with an upstream reservoir controls the river at this locatio n
during floods of 100-year recurrence frequency . The picture will give yo u
an idea of the tremendous amount of storage capacity needed to effectivel y
control floods . The reservoirs now in operation in the Willamette Rive r
basin can reduce flood stage at Eugene by about 17 feet during a major flood ,
at Salem by 11 .5 feet and at Portland by 5 .5 feet . During the flood of 196 4
this kind of effective flood control prevented over 500 million dollars i n
damages in the Willamette Valley alone . Public money spent on floo d
control in the basin is only about one-half that amount .
4. This picture shows a levee project which protects agricultural lan d
from overflows .
5. This is an example of a small stream which caused many overflo w
problems because it was choked with brush . A channel cleanup job increase d
the flood-carrying capacity .
6. This revetment prevents erosion of valuable agricultural lan d
along the McKenzie River, a swift stream .
50
Presented October 19, 1967 by WILLIAM R . AKRE, Chief, Flood Plai n
Management Services, U .S . Army Engineer District, Portland, Oregon .
910~d PWft
Corps of Engineers is pleased to be able to contribute to this Wate r
T he
Resources Seminar . Mr . Heidel has provided you with a greater under standing of our single and multiple-purpose planning and constructio n
activities, including their substantial role in reducing flood damages .
The prime purpose of this portion of the seminar, is to orient thi s
audience to the Corps' large and growing "Flood Plain Management Service s
Program (FPMS) ." The objective of the new program is comprehensiv e
flood damage prevention planning at all government levels . It entails controlling the use of our Nation's flood plains as well as controlling floods i n
order to reduce future flood damages to a practicable minimum . Flood s
are a natural phenomena, but flood damage occurs only when man builds i n
the path of those floods .
Since 1936, the Corps of Engineers has placed major emphasis o n
the construction of dams, levees and channel improvements to contro l
floods . About $7 billion in Federal funds have been spent for those facilitie s
and they have served the public very well by saving over $14 billion i n
losses . Despite such a large investment, flood losses continue on the up swing and currently average over $1 billion annually .
The increase in flood damages has been due to the rapid growth o f
flood damageable developments in the flood plains of the rivers and sea coasts . More and more people have been indiscrimanently moving int o
flood prone areas .
Pressures from population growth and increasing economi c
activities are contributing to the mushrooming habitation on the Nation' s
flood plains . Many of the occupants have spread beyond the protectiv e
limits of existing flood control facilities --- quite possibly victims of fals e
51
security . The current investment of 300 million dollars ' annually for ne w
protective works is inadequate to keep abreast of the yearly increase i n
flood damages .
TASK FORCE REPOR T
Recognizing the magnitude of the Nations flood problem, the
Director of the Federal Bureau of the Budget, late in 1965, appointed a
task force on Federal flood control policy, chaired by Gilbert F . White and
including experts from the Corps of Engineers, the Departments of Agri culture and Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority and State and loca l
agencies . That group was asked to study the flood situation in the Unite d
States and recommend action to alleviate the flood losses affecting th e
national economy . The report was completed in August 1966 and publishe d
as H .D . 465 .
The report calls for a unified national program for. managing floo d
.
It
recommends alternative approaches for reducing flood damages ,
losses
which would be achieved through the combined actions of all Federa l
agencies dealing with floods .and flood plains . States would play a pivota l
role in implementing the new program .
Primarily the alternative approaches would employ flood plai n
regulations and flood proofing measures to reduce future flood damages .
President Johnson strongly endorsed the task force report when h e
forwarded it to Congress in August 1966 . Additionally, he issued Executiv e
Order 11296 in response to recommendation 8 of the report . That orde r
requires all ' executive agencies to evaluate the flood hazard in locatin g
Federally owned or financed buildings, roads, and other facilities ; in disposing of Federal lands and properties and in administration of .Federal
grants and loans involving construction on the flood plains .' Wheneve r
practical they are also required .to floodproof existing facilities . The orde r
directs the Secretary of the Army, and the TVA for lands within th e
Tennessee River Basin, to provide flood hazard information, and guidanc e
on floodproofing .
In support of the task force recommendations, the Corps of Engineers expanded its existing Flood Plain Information Study (FPI) functions to
conform with the new program . The Corps carries , out its FPMS progra m
under the authority of Section 206 of the 1960 Flood Control Act as amende d
in 1966 .
The purpose of the program is to make available to Federal, State ,
52
and local governmental agencies, and interested individuals, informatio n
and guidance on the flood hazard . That information and guidance will permit them to proceed with such planning, engineering studies, construction ,
and other action as may be necessary for the best and safest use of th e
flood plains .
A NATIONAL PROGRAM
The program includes preparation of flood plain information re ports ; provision of technical services and guidance, preparation of draft s
of flood plain regulations, and application of concepts such as structura l
flood proofing of new and existing buildings ; preparation of guides and
pamphlets, .and conduct of related research ; and long-range comprehensiv e
flood damage reduction planning .
Because this is a national program designed to prevent billions o f
dollars in future flood damages, current emphasis is being placed on thos e
areas most vulnerable to large flood losses . Consequently, flood plai n
information reports under the amended program will be prepared fo r
communities and cities rather than for sparsely settled upstream areas .
A list of urban places with flood problems already has been compiled to aid in selecting those communities to be studied first . It has bee n
determined that there are over 5, 000 communities of 2, 500 or more popu- ;
lation in the country which need flood plain information . Approximately 6 0
of those communities are located in Oregon and about 50 remain to b e
considered for study .
To accelerate the distribution of flood hazard information, distric t
offices have recently been instructed to follow a standardized report forma t
which is somewhat more simplified than FPI Reports published by the Corp s
of Engineers in the past . One of the present objectives of the Corps is t o
complete 250 reports on flood plain information per year for the next 1 0
years . Portland District will expect to complete 4 - 6 reports annually .
Flood plain information reports are prepared upon request o f
State and local agencies . All local applications for reports should be submitted to the Corps of Engineers through the responsible state agenc y
designated to approve applications . In Oregon the State Water Resource s
Board has been designated by the Governor as the responsible State agency .
A typical report contains a narrative describing the flood situatio n
--- including extent, depth and duration of flooding by floods of the past ,
and those that may be' expected in the future . In general, the depth of wate r
53
on a property and duration of inundation are highly significant factors in th e
amount of damage done by floods .
Flood velocity, scour, sediment load, ice and debris are also important factors . Damages to property include the cost of repair or replacement and also the cost of flood fighting . Some situations may dictate tha t
facilities would be more useful and convenient if located in the flood plain ,
but the location advantages must outweigh the flooding disadvantages .
SIZE OF FLOO D
The reports also contain flood profiles, charts, tables, photo graphs, typical stream cross sections and maps delineating overflow limits .
Profile sheets will show the low-water profile, usually the maximum recen t
flood, the Intermediate Regional Flood or IRF (100-year flood) and SPF o r
Standard Project Flood (a much larger flood which may be expected fro m
the most severe combination of meteorological and hydrological condition s
that are considered reasonably characteristic of the geographical area i n
which the drainage basin is located, excluding extremely rare combinations . )
The flood plain maps will identify areas inundated by the IRF an d
SPF . The SPF is considered of such magnitude that there is small risk of
its being exceeded . Showing it on the maps and profiles will assist thos e
individuals and firms who do not require to be located near a stream and d o
not want to take any flood risk .
Non-technical terms are used in the reports because the reader s
will not only be engineers and planners, but state and local officials ,
businessmen, and other citizens who are interested in wisely planning an d
regulating the use of the flood plains . We will strive to complete eac h
report within one year . Normally the report coverage will not extend up stream beyond the limits of open channel . The coverage may extend upstream and downstream five miles beyond the corporate limits .
It is the responsibility of the state and local governmental agencie s
to publicize the information and put it to use through planning groups, zonin g
boards, private citizens, engineering firms, real estate and industria l
developers, and others to whom it would be useful .
Prior to the concept of community oriented FPI Reports, this offic e
was authorized to prepare flood plain information studies for Lane County,
Marion and Polk Counties, and Washington County . The report for Lan e
County is completed and is presently being used as a source of essentia l
data for controlling development in their designated special permit areas .
54
The reports for Marion and Polk Counties and Washington County will b e
completed about July 1968 . After that date, Portland District will be in a
position to initiate work on community oriented reports in the new format .
The 'State Water Resources Board is already acting to establish prioritie s
for use in requesting new reports .
In this program, cooperative action by local, State and Federa l
governments and private interests is essential . The program is not intende d
to extend any Federal authority over zoning or other regulation of flood plain
use . The power to zone or regulate, rests strictly with the State and loca l
governments .
The technical services and guidance part of the program is expecte d
to increase greatly the use and benefits to be derived from the basic dat a
contained in the flood plain information reports . Additionally, essential
information not covered by FPI reports may be provided under this function .
TECHNICAL SERVICES OFFERE D
The technical services function includes interpretation of floo d
data in the reports ; assistance in the preparation of flood plain regulations ;
suggestions for floodway areas and evaluation of the effects of encroachments in these floodways ; provision of additional data and other relate d
assistance .
To provide flood plain information satisfactory for evaluating th e
flood problem of individual sites not covered by FPI reports, the Corps wil l
prepare brief preliminary reports . These reports will be concerned with
the locations of specific buildings, sub-divisions and other land uses whic h
would be of direct interest to Federal, State or local governments . In
general, selected sites would be limited to areas with flood plain frontage s
less than 500 feet in length . Preparation of the reports should require n o
more than 2-6 man days of field work and 2-4 man days of office work . All
local requests for preliminary reports should be coordinated with the Stat e
Water Resources Board .
The basic data furnished in the preliminary reports, of course ,
would depend upon the particular flood problem associated with each request .
Most developers and agencies want to know the elevation of a 100-year flood .
Although floods of other magnitudes are sometimes used, it appears tha t
there is a general agreement that the 100-year flood level more nearl y
represents a reasonable balance between excessive flood losses and excessive conservatism .
55
Some requests are concerned with the increase in upstream floo d
heights that would result from encroachment of proposed building or land fill developments on the flood plains . A one foot increase in flood heigh t
might substantially increase the flood damage potential to upstrea m
properties .
The technical services aspect of the FPMS program will be utilize d
further to assist other Federal agencies in compliance with E .O . 11296 .
We recently have responded to many requests for flood data to assist othe r
Federal agencies in evaluating their flood problems . To name a few -- the General Services Administration was furnished flood information on 3 0
post offices and other Federal buildings located in our district ; Office of
Surplus Property Utilization was advised of the flood hazard in connectio n
with disposable Federal lands in Tillamook County, Oregon ; FHA wa s
provided with data concerning proposed subdivisions and other propose d
construction requiring Federal loans ; and Department of Housing and Urba n
Development has been furnished flood information concerning the location s
of water treatment plants and other facilities .
We believe that technical assistance to states, local government s
and other Federal agencies will go far in alleviating flood damages .
In addition to formal regulation action by states, communities ,
counties and other local governments, the program will assist state planners ,
local officials, their staffs and others to encourage wide use of the flood data .
Through use of the flood information, municipal, commercial and industrial
developments can be directed to sites reasonably free from flooding or de signed and constructed to lessen damages from floods .
Flood damage reduction through carefully considered and well planned regulation and use of the flood plains has been recognized by many
states as a desirable alternative approach to their flood problems .
Connecticut adopted state legislation several years ago to limit encroachments on its streams and flood plains . Tennessee, North Carolina, and
Kentucky have made studies and are considering broad flood damage prevention programs . Iowa has state legislation for providing assistance an d
guidance to its cities and other local governments . California and Wisconsi n
have adopted effective state legislation . Colorado has enacted state legislation. Nebraska's State Legislature is considering legislation which wil l
establish a strong flood plain management program in that state .
SHIFTS THE COS T
Flood plain regulations remove the burden of cost for protectio n
from the shoulders of the general public and place it directly on the shoul 56
ders of those who would locate their homes or commercial enterprises with in the flood plain . Such regulations can be of great supplemental value t o
engineering structures in reducing flood damages, and are invaluable i n
areas where engineering structures are found to be economically infeasible .
Flood plain regulation is a general term applied to the full rang e
of ordinances, codes and other regulations relating to the uses of land an d
construction within flood plain areas . The term encompasses zonin g
ordinances, subdivision regulations, building codes, encroachment line
statutes, open-area regulations and other similar methods affecting the us e
and development of flood plain areas .
In any program involving development of flood plain lands, appropriate consideration must be given to preservation of portions of the natura l
waterways to pass flood waters . Those designated areas, termed floodways ,
are maintained by preventing or carefully controlling any flow-constrictin g
developments in the area selected . Although one minor encroachment may
have very little effect, the cumulative effect of additional encroachment s
may severely increase upstream flood heights .
In establishing flood plain regulations concerned with delineatio n
of floodway limits and other flood hazard areas, selection of the desig n
flood is probably one of the most difficult problems to decide . The entir e
structure of flood plain regulations is dependent upon the flood magnitud e
which is used as a base .
To choose a flood that is too large unduly restricts the land us e
and can result in economic losses not only to the owner (who in the absenc e
of the regulations might have used his land for more profitable ventures) ,
but also to the municipality by an unnecessarily low tax rate . Choosing a
flood that is too small can invite disaster greater than would be experience d
if the regulations did not exist . To assist the states and appropriate stat e
agencies with such problems, the Corps will make available engineering and
other technical assistance including data on the effects of encroachments an d
various size floodways being considered . However, decisions concerning th e
regulations to be adopted can be made only by the respective local officials .
Before closing this subject I would like to mention some of the
other measures that can be utilized to reduce flood damages . Include d
among them are : flood forecasting, temporary evacuation, permanent
evacuation, open spaces, urban redevelopment, warning signs, tax adjustment, building financing and flood insurance .
A national program of flood insurance may become a reality in
the not too distant future . Such a program would surely require identificatio n
of flood risk zones and place greater pressure on State and local bodies t o
adopt and enforce effective land use regulations .
57
Presented October 26, 1967 by WILLIAM H . DELAY, Bonneville Powe r
Administration, Portland, Oregon .
SPzeawf 7em//tetateete
Addeo:4
W hile the problem of heat pollution in streams is at least as old as the
industrial revolution, this pollution problem did not gain widesprea d
recognition until recent times . Today, however, it is a subject of specia l
concern, particularly in the Pacific Northwest . This emphasis on strea m
temperature stems primarily from the concern expressed by our fisherie s
biologists . They have expressed the fear that elevation of summer strea m
temperatures beyond their present limits will seriously jeopardize th e
survival of our anadromous fish runs .
Furthermore, we know that elevated water temperatures reduc e
the capacity of streams to assimilate waste products which originate in our
expanding industrial and urban centers, and thus degrade our aquati c
environment . It is therefore both proper and timely that we focus ou r
attention on the problem of thermal pollution .
In common with other types of pollution, thermal pollution is difficult to define, excepting at extreme levels . The difficulty arises chiefl y
because streams, in their natural state, undergo substantial changes in
temperature . Any definition of thermal degradation will thus have t o
recognize and provide for such changes . Before we attempt to coin a
definition, therefore, we will need to briefly examine the thermal behavio r
of streams in their natural state .
We know from experience that the temperature of water in stream s
fluctuates rather widely in response to the natural thermal environment .
These fluctuations occur on a diurnal as well as seasonal basis . Diurnal
variations range from 1°F on large streams to 20°F on small streams whil e
seasonal variations on the majority of streams in the Pacific Northwes t
often reach 40°F .
Such seasonal and diurnal variations, however, follow certai n
well-defined patterns subject, of course, to meteorologic and hydrologi c
59
factors . Each stream has its characteristic pattern . So indeed has eac h
reach of a particular stream . Where they have not been altered by man s
activities, these cyclic temperature variations go back in time as far a s
the existing meteorologic and hydrologic conditions . Aquatic life native to
these streams have no doubt adjusted their life cycles to fit the long estab lished temperature patterns .
Abrupt changes in these patterns are thus likely to interfere wit h
the life processes of some of this aquatic life . When the effects are advers e
to those species which are necessary to maintain the status quo of th e
stream, then the change in temperature can be regarded as a degradation .
DEFINITION NEEDE D
We may therefore describe a stream as being thermally pollute d
when the temperature regime of that stream has been so altered as to impair the value of its waters for its established uses . Such a definitio n
recognizes the normal temperature regime of a stream, it recognizes th e
accustomed uses and it implies damage or loss with regard to a desirabl e
use or resource . A definition which does not recognize the establishe d
thermal regime and uses and does not imply loss or damage would be unrealistic and inconsistent .
The necessity for a rigorous definition of thermal pollution canno t
be overemphasized particularly because of the many new concepts whic h
are implicit in this problem .
It follows from this definition that thermal pollution on a particula r
reach of a particular stream is dependent upon the natural temperature regime and established uses peculiar to that reach . A temperature chang e
tantamount to pollution on one stream or reach of stream may thus be considered quite natural on another . The adoption of a single limiting temperature for defining pollution on an entire stream or group of stream s
would appear to be inconsistent with nature . It may thus be open to question
to define stream temperature pollution based on a desirable temperatur e
for a particular use, say for a specific species of fish .
Temperature degradation is almost always associated with temperature increase, particularly in the Pacific Northwest . In rare instance s
a reduction in temperature is regarded as a degradation when it damage s
a vital resource or use . Causes of temperature degradation are generall y
man-made . They can be direct as when streamflow is used as a coolant i n
an industrial plant or they can be indirect as when streamflow is reduce d
in summer due to withdrawals for irrigation or other consumptive uses .
60
It must be remembered that heat flux from the sun and the atmos phere is sufficient during summer to cause thermal pollution in streams .
Waste heat from industrial and thermal power operations is therefore no t
always necessary for this problem to appear . However, the discharge o f
waste heat into streams can cause much higher water temperatures tha n
would occur under the most severe natural conditions . Thus the use of
streamflow as a coolant has the potential to cause a thermal problem o f
greater severity than would occur without such use .
Since we now know the nature of thermal pollution we can explor e
the streams of the Pacific Northwest for evidence of thermal pollution .
Our task is a difficult one because available stream temperatur e
records are limited to a few locations on the principal streams and th e
periods of record are relatively short . Except for reaches below larg e
impoundments, a casual examination of available records does not indicat e
a significant change in stream temperature regimen .
It is probable that summer temperatures have increased in certai n
reaches of those rivers east of the Cascades which are subject to heav y
irrigation withdrawals during summer . It is also probable that removal of
forest cover by early settlers in the valleys west of the Cascades ha s
tended to increase summer temperatures in the streams draining suc h
valleys . Available records are inadequate both by distribution and duration
to register such changes, if they had occurred .
MATHEMATICAL MODE L
Some fisheries biologists are of the opinion that, over the years ,
many of our streams in the Pacific Northwest have been getting warmer .
We are unable to verify this hypothesis because our stream temperatur e
records do not go back far enough . In the coming months, however, w e
may have an indirect method of verification . I am referring here to th e
temperature predictive model which is now being developed by the Federa l
Water Pollution Control Administration in cooperation with other Federa l
agencies .
This mathematical model is designed to simulate water temperatur e
in a stream of known physical characteristics for any given hydrologic an d
meteorologic conditions . Such a model could be used to develop the historical temperature regime of any stream . Comparison of the derived historical regime with the existing observed thermal regime will indicate whethe r
there has in fact been a thermal degradation on the stream studied .
61
While there is no direct evidence of temperature degradation on
streams which are not regulated by reservoirs, the records do demonstrat e
that below major impoundments there have occurred some changes i n
thermal regime . Such changes have been observed on the Columbia Rive r
below Grand Coulee Dam .
Based on water temperature observations at Rock Island Dam fo r
periods of 5 years preceding and 5 years following construction of Gran d
Coulee Dam, it has been reported that operation of the dam has raise d
temperatures of the Columbia River at Rock Island between September an d
March and lowered temperatures between March and September . Th e
maximum increase over natural temperature in winter was 7°F while th e
maximum decrease below natural temperature in summer was 3°F .
The natural temperature regime of the Snake River was observe d
to have been similarly altered below Brownlee Dam . Stream temperatur e
records maintained near Oxbow Dam, below Brownlee, for periods befor e
and after the construction of Brownlee Dam, have shown that temperature s
have decreased between February and August and have increased for th e
period September to January . The temperature reduction in July was abou t
3°F while the increase in October was about 6°F . Similar thermal change s
resulting from reservoir operation have been observed in the Willamett e
and other rivers .
The effects of the major reservoirs have therefore been twofold .
They have reduced summer temperatures thus causing an enhancement i n
water quality . But they have increased fall and winter temperatures . Thi s
could be considered a degradation . Biologists have indicated that increase s
in fall temperatures may interfere with upstream migration and spawning o f
certain runs of salmon . However, the overall thermal effect of reservoi r
regulation would appear to be one of net gain rather than net loss .
Besides the major impoundments, there have been created a larg e
number of lesser impoundments in the Pacific Northwest .
Once again, due to a lack of stream temperature data, we do no t
know what thermal effects these impoundments have had on the streams o n
which they stand . Temperature predictive studies on the run-of-rive r
impoundments of the Columbia River, based on energy budget analyses ,
appear to yield conflicting results .
Some studies show that the potential effect of these impoundment s
is to raise summer temperature, while others indicate a potential decrease .
I think that both results are in order and that, depending on time of travel ,
flow and weather conditions, the run-of-river impoundments in summe r
could cause either an increase or a decrease of the temperature of the free -
62
flowing stream . Here again, the mathematical model, which I referred t o
earlier, will come to our aid . We could use the model to determine th e
probable temperature increase in any reach of the Columbia River for both
free-flowing and impounded conditions under various meteorologic an d
hydrologic conditions .
STREAMFLOW FOR COOLIN G
We have thus far considered the effects of indirect causes o f
stream temperature change, principally reservoir regulation . We shall
next explore the thermal effects of the principal direct cause, namely, th e
use of streamflow for cooling .
With one exception, the use of streamflow for once-through coolin g
in industrial and thermal power plants has not caused significant change s
in stream temperature in the Pacific Northwest . This is due both to the
large thermal capacities of our principal streams and to the as yet mino r
role played by thermal power plants and other operations which produc e
waste heat . The only exception is the atomic products operation on th e
Columbia River near Richland, generally known as the Hanford Works .
Through the circulation of cooling water drawn from the Columbia River ,
the Hanford Works 'discharges a substantial heat load into the river .
The magnitude of this load is classified for security reasons . That
this thermal load has a noticeable effect on the temperature of the Columbi a
River is shown by the weekly temperature profiles published by the U .S .
Geological Survey . Unofficial estimates indicate temperature increase s
on the Columbia River below the Hanford Works of 2° to 4°F as a result o f
the Hanford operation .
Having reviewed the past, we may now attempt to look into th e
future . The most outstanding factor from a stream temperature standpoint
would appear to be the expansion in thermal generating capacity in th e
Pacific Northwest . With economically feasible hydroelectric sites reachin g
full development we will be forced to turn to thermal-electric plants to mee t
future power demand . Economic considerations would indicate a minimu m
plant capacity of 1, 000 MWe . Thermal-power plants operate at relativel y
low thermal efficiencies .
In a modern nuclear power plant, for instance, only about one third of the heat produced in the reactor would be converted to electricity .
The remaining two-thirds would have to be rejected as waste heat . Thi s
heat, if discharged into a stream of 100, 000 cfs, would result in an averag e
temperature increase of about one-third of a degree Fahrenheit .
63
Discharge of waste heat into fresh water is the most economica l
method of disposal, and other factors being equal, leads to the lowest powe r
cost . Other methods of waste heat disposal are by discharging into marin e
waters and by evaporative cooling in cooling towers and ponds . Thes e
methods are more costly than fresh water disposal and are not without thei r
attendant pollution problems .
In a recent study on nuclear power plant siting in the Pacifi c
Northwest, Battelle-Northwest investigated sixteen possible sites . O f
these, six sites offered possibilities of once-through cooling using fres h
water . Three of these sites are on the Columbia River and the others ar e
on Banks Lake, Clark Fork and American Falls Reservoir . One of the site s
on the Columbia River is currently under active consideration by a privat e
power company .
The company has directed a study to be undertaken to determin e
the probable thermal effects of once-through cooling on the Columbia River .
Whether this method of cooling or an alternative method is finally selecte d
would depend upon the results of the temperature study and upon officia l
policy regarding water quality standards .
Stream temperature effects of once-through cooling at the thre e
sites on the Columbia River would appear to be minor . It would appear t o
be difficult to make quantitative determinations of the effects of such tem perature changes upon aquatic life . At the other three sites referred to ,
the adoption of once-through cooling may have some local effects . No
anadromous fish would, however, be involved at the three latter sites .
The use of once-through cooling at the six sites indicated in th e
Battelle-Northwest Study may therefore not cause significant conflicts wit h
existing uses and would therefore not constitute thermal pollution in th e
strict sense . Proposed thermal power sites and cooling methods do not
appear to pose a threat to the thermal integrity of Pacific Northwest streams .
We may now consider what future course of action we should adop t
in order to maintain adequate thermal quality of the stream system whil e
yet utilizing the water resource to the fullest extent .
Our first step should perhaps be to find out the existing therma l
regime on our principal streams . We should determine the significan t
thermal characteristics of each stream including diurnal and seasona l
variations . Historical temperature patterns should be derived usin g
mathematical models . In the same manner temperature regimen should b e
predicted for critical hydrologic and meteorologic conditions . With suc h
comprehensive thermal analysis of each of the major streams in the Pacifi c
Northwest, we would gain a sound understanding of the thermal environmen t
64
which supports our fish life and other aquatic organisms . Such an under standing is essential to both the definition and determination of thermal
pollution .
MULTIPLE USE CONCEP T
Another step would be to investigate all possible means of lowering
summer stream temperatures . Releases from deep impoundments is one o f
the principal methods of attaining this objective . A case in point is th e
proposed High Mountain Sheep Reservoir on the Snake River . Preliminar y
studies show that this reservoir could be operated so as to reduce summe r
temperatures in the entire reach of the Lower Snake River and contribute t o
a temperature reduction on the main stem of the Columbia River .
Releases from Canadian Treaty impoundments may contribute t o
summer temperature control. One of the objectives in developing th e
mathematical model, which I referred to earlier, is to determine the therma l
effects of these impoundments on the Columbia River below Grand Coule e
Dam .
In studying sites for thermal power plants, the multiple use concep t
should be considered . Plants should be so located as to permit condense r
cooling water to be utilized for irrigation or low flow augmentation, followin g
partial treatment in cooling ponds ; and for other uses where temperature i s
not a critical factor . Withdrawal of water for condenser cooling could b e
utilized to destroy thermal stratification in reservoirs where stratificatio n
is associated with major water quality problems . Cooling water could the n
be returned to the reservoir by way of a cooling pond or be diverted fo r
irrigation .
Studies should also include the development of industrial complexe s
in which industrial plants which require heat for processing would be locate d
near thermal power plants .
Biologists may require more information on the effects of temperature change upon aquatic life . Since stream temperatures are cyclic i n
nature, the definition of limiting temperatures based on cycles would b e
more meaningful to the planner than the maximum values currently in use .
In summarizing the foregoing, I would like to say that the evidenc e
before us does not indicate that significant thermal degradation has occurre d
on our principal streams . On the contrary, it would appear that the majo r
impoundments have caused some improvement over historical temperatures .
Current plans for the use of once-through cooling in nuclear power plant s
65
would not cause significant increases in temperature on the Columbia Rive r
or other streams supporting anadromous fish runs . Studies are howeve r
needed to determine all water quality effects .
Opportunities are available for improving the thermal quality o f
our streams and for coordinating thermal power operations with other wate r
users so as to reduce heat load on streams . Thus it would appear to b e
possible to maintain satisfactory thermal conditions on our streams whil e
at the same time we make full use of the resource .
66
Presented November 2, 1967 by CHARLES E . WARREN, Professor o f
Fisheries, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon .
Ztaietf PloOtemd aid ?ide'des .
M
y topic today is water quality and fisheries resources . With your forbear ance, I would like to range somewhat more broadly than this for I a m
firmly convinced that we cannot consider the fisheries resources of thi s
state, or any other state, apart from all of the other resources and resourc e
uses . I believe that if we do, interest in fisheries will be less than interes t
in other resources and that ultimately fisheries will lose . We only have to
look at the history of dam construction in this region to see that despite th e
very real damage that dams have done to fisheries, construction has hardly
slowed down . For us to believe that somehow fisheries will go on happily ,
no matter what else people wish to do with the resources of the state, i s
erroneous .
Before going further, I would like to put the question of wate r
pollution-into perspective, and this need not take long . Fundamentally, I
do not believe that as far as water pollution is concerned things are goin g
to hell, particularly in Oregon . There is a tendency in some parts, I believe, for people to think that all real progress in water pollution contro l
began just a few years ago and that it's the outgrowth of Federal laws ,
publicity and hearings . But, very real progress in water pollution control
has been made in this country from certainly the 1920's ; that the progres s
has not been faster than it has been is, to a very real extent, due to population growth and the increased industrialization of this country .
Now, public concern over fisheries --- general public concer n
over fisheries --- is a fairly recent phenomenon and I sm not at all sure that
people are aware of the very real costs of preventing or controllin g
pollution . I don't simply mean here the costs of building treatment plant s
or doing more research because in general people have approved these sort s
of things . The biggest costs that they may not be aware of or willing to bea r
have to do with restriction of possible future development of resources . I
67
believe that the development of these resources will often, if not usually ,
come into conflict with fisheries .
Again before we go too much further, we should at least for purposes of our discussion today attempt to define pollution . Simply I woul d
define it as any change in water quality that adversely affects one or anothe r
of its uses . I think, according to this definition, that pollution is likely t o
be with us a long time .
Because most changes from the natural situation are deleteriou s
to most fisheries, and since any water use is likely to bring some chang e
in the quality of water, most water uses are likely in some degree to com e
into conflict with the development of fisheries resources . I realize tha t
not everybody would define pollution this way . Some definitions of wate r
pollution suggest it to be any change in the aquatic environment . I don' t
think that this sort of a definition can prevail . I don't think it can prevai l
for population growth in the United States is almost inevitable . And wit h
population growth and with the desires of people for higher standards o f
living, there will be further development of resources resulting in change s
in the quality of our waters .
Now, as for what changes will or will not be tolerated in the futur e
development of resources, I think that ultimately some kind of benefit-cos t
considerations are going to rule . I'm not speaking here of benefit-cos t
considerations in the narrow economic sense . I mean all the benefits tha t
man may realize from his resources and all of the costs that may be incurre d
in realizing these benefits . It is because I believe that very broadly define d
benefit-cost considerations are going to prevail that I don't think we can g o
happily along thinking just about fisheries resources apart from the rest o f
the resources of the state . I submit that in thinking about fisheries resource s
we have to think about the future population of the state, and what its need s
for food and power and fibre will be, to mention just three .
WATER US E
CLASSIFICATION, STANDARDS, AND REQUIREMENT S
We are now in the process of adopting water quality standards .
This is being encouraged very much by recent Federal legislation . It is a
necessary step, it is a desireable step . But I am concerned to the exten t
that we might place too much reliance on standards as an ultimate metho d
of controlling the kinds of changes that inevitably will come . When thes e
changes do come, the pressures that will have built up by that time t o
change the standards may become so intolerable that the standards them selves will be changed to permit the kind of economic development that
68
people want . And by that time, people may be less interested in fisheries :
not so many people will have fished for salmon or trout, or eaten salmo n
from their tables . For this reason, I believe that ultimately the only protection that we have for fisheries resources is long-range planning .
With regard to broad, long-range planning, standards are rathe r
meaningless unless we have some sort of an objective in mind . A standard ,
basically, is some sort of a legally constituted value that provides for some
level of protection for some use of water . But this is a scientific question ,
and a technical question, and an administrative question . Yet the use o f
our water really is a public question . We might hope that the people woul d
decide what uses they want to make of the Willamette River, or the Rogu e
River, or other rivers, and that some system of classification would b e
evolved in which various priorities of uses would be set and appropriat e
standards selected by administrators to provide the various levels o f
protection .
Ultimately, I think that there is another inadequacy in standards .
Standards suggest that the amount of oxygen, or the temperature level tha t
fish require in one system is likely to be the same as it is in another system ; I don't believe this . I think that as we learn more and more about ou r
fisheries we should in particular instances be able to do better than standards and set special requirements for particular fisheries and particula r
locations and particular areas . And the requirements need not always b e
more rigorous than general standards . It may be that further industria l
development in some areas could be permitted without damage to particula r
fishery resources and that requirements in such instances could be lowe r
than the general standards .
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARD S
FOR THE PROTECTION OF FISHERIES
The body of knowledge that pertains to the water quality requirements of fish might be termed the water quality criteria for fish . Standard s
would be developed from these criteria depending upon what levels of protection people might desire in different areas . Unfortunately, our wate r
quality criteria for fish are not terribly extensive . I would say that mos t
of the standards that are being set now are based more on supposition tha n
on actual knowledge of the water quality requirements of fish .
I believe there are two reasons for this . One of the reasons is tha t
not a great deal of research has been supported in the area of the wate r
quality requirements of fish . I know of no states, and certainly not Oregon ,
which are supporting adequate research programs directed toward deter -
69
mining the needs of fish . Federal support since about 1953, through grant s
and so forth, and Federal research programs in this area have increase d
but have not yet reached a point where they are beginning to provide the in formation we would need to set adequate standards . And considering th e
Vietnam war, and the considerable reorganization of the Federal Wate r
Pollution Control Administration, there is some question that the extensiveness of presently existing programs will continue .
A very fine Canadian biologist, Dr . Huntsman, in 1948, wrote a
paper in which he spoke of "biapocrisis in ecology ." He was troubled tha t
so much of our knowledge of fish or other organisms was based only on th e
distribution of abundance of animals in space and in time . He suggeste d
that we will never be able to predict on the basis of this information why
fish are where they are . He defines "biapocrisis" as being the response o f
the whole organism to its environment in terms of either surviving or not
surviving ; reproducing or not reproducing ; growing or not growing ; moving
or not moving . Most of the information we have on the water qualit y
requirements of fish has only to do with survival . We know we have t o
have better conditions than are necessary for mere survival . Population s
have to reproduce, grow and move . We have very little information about
what conditions are necessary to permit these important things .
Now, the other reason that we don't have the information I thin k
we should have to set standards has to do with the whole question of th e
biological community . Another very fine biologist, Stephen Forbes, wrot e
a paper in 1887 in which he spoke of a lake as a microcosm . He said, "I f
one wishes to become acquainted with the black bass, for example, he wil l
learn but little if he limits himself to that species . He must evidently stud y
also the species upon which it depends for its existence, and the variou s
conditions upon which these depend . He must likewise study the specie s
with which it comes in competition, and the entire system of condition s
affecting their prosperity ; and by the time he has studied all these sufficientl y
he will find he has run through the whole complicated mechanism of th e
aquatic life of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which his specie s
forms but a single element . . . . " . All he's saying is that if you want t o
know what the bass needs you can't just study the bass . You've got to study
its food organisms, its competitors, conditions that make life for its foo d
organisms possible, the predatory relations, and so forth . This was writte n
a long time ago and the information needed is still the same . We have t o
know a great deal about the response of a species to its environment, bu t
we also have to know a great deal about the response of the whole biologica l
community in which this species has to exist .
Basically, when we are interested in valuable fisheries like salmonid fisheries, we are interested not in the mere existence of thes e
populations but also in their production . We are interested in the amount
of tissue that is elaborated because this is what we use . The elaboratio n
70
of tissue by a population is determined by its reproduction and by the survival, the growth, and the movements of its individuals . It's also determine d
by this community thing of which Dr . Forbes wrote . The whole food chai n
of the animal has to be adequate .
When we talk about how much we know about such things as dissolve d
oxygen, or temperature, we really know very little . I'm not suggesting tha t
we have to know everything before we can begin to set intelligent standards .
What I am suggesting is that there are a lot more things we have to kno w
than we know now . What troubles me most is that I see the research hardly
begun . Research takes a long time and our water quality problems ar e
increasing .
DISSOLVED OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS OF FIS H
Just to take one example, to more or less document what I sa y
about our not knowing as much as we should, we can consider dissolve d
oxygen . I don't think that there is an environmental factor that has bee n
studied more extensively than dissolved oxygen . And to take one species ,
I don't suppose that there is a species or group of species more studie d
than Pacific salmon . What, then, do we really know about the oxyge n
requirements of Pacific salmon ?
There are dozens and dozens of papers on this question . We ca n
say, with some certainty, that depending on temperature and other factor s
juvenile salmon will survive somewhere around 2 ppm . We can probably
say, with some certainty, that any appreciable decrease below air-saturatio n
values in the dissolved oxygen content of the water among streambed gravel s
in which the salmon deposit their eggs would be deleterious to the reproduction of the species .
The effect of oxygen on the growth of fish has been studied a lot .
We know that when fish are getting all the food they can possibly eat in th e
laboratory, any decrease in the oxygen concentration from saturation wil l
decrease the amount of food the fish will eat and in so doing will decreas e
the growth rate of the fish . On the other hand, if the rations that the fis h
are getting are restricted so that they can not eat all they want, a concentration of 3 to 4 ppm will not appreciably decrease their growth rate . Wha t
does this mean as far as growth of the fish in nature is concerned? W e
don't know very much about how much fish eat in nature . They don't ge t
all they can eat ; so somewhere between saturation and 3 ppm there is th e
amount of oxygen that fish under different circumstances would need t o
grow in nature .
71
What about the effects of oxygen on the swimming ability of fishes ?
If we measure the ability of juvenile salmon to swim for a long period o f
time maximally, any decrease in the oxygen concentration will decreas e
their ability to swim . How much do fish have to swim in nature? Most o f
us would doubt that little salmon are swimming at the peak,of their effort al l
of the time . And salmon can swim a long time at oxygen concentration s
around 4 ppm if not swimming at maximum speeds . So, here again, one
wouldn't know really what is required in nature .
What about the movements of fish? We don't know very much about
the movements of juvenile salmonids in relation to oxygen . We don't kno w
very much about the movements of the big fish, either . In this context, I
would like to point out that we don't know how much oxygen is necessary t o
bring about the movement of adult salmon through the Willamette Harbor .
And there isn't a problem in the state that has received more publicity o r
more attention or more concern . Yet, we do not know what is required t o
have the big fish survive and move through --- with all the years that thi s
problem has existed in Oregon .
However, I don't believe that oxygen, or at least oxygen depletio n
from any particular waste outfalls or sources, is really going to be th e
pollution problem which is most serious in Oregon in the years ahead . I
think that we have two serious problems facing us . One is eutrophicatio n
of our streams, and the other is temperature .
EUTROPHICATION AND TEMPERATUR E
We can treat organic wastes to remove most of their oxygen demand, but we don't really have adequate methods of treating wastes or o f
identifying or handling the sources that cause problems of eutrophicatio n
and temperature increase . Eutrophication, of course, is the increase i n
plant nutrients that occur in waters . Eutrophication can come about by
natural processes or through the activities of man . Eutrophication can
lead to taste and odor problems in our water supplies, increase treatmen t
costs, be deleterious to fisheries resources, and reduce the esthetic an d
recreational value of the particular waters . Eutrophication is the thing tha t
has caused so much concern over Lake Tahoe and Lake Erie .
Secondarily treated wastes can contribute fantastically to the enrichment of streams, and costly, tertiary treatment may be required . But
even if we treat in a tertiary way all of the sources that we can identify a s
contributing to eutrophication in natural waters, we still have the proble m
of impoundments contributing organic materials and other nutrients fro m
algal blooms .
72
Temperature I think is the other big problem we face in this state .
I don't know of any salmon fisheries that are immediately in danger o f
extinction because of temperature problems . I do know that we now hav e
waters in the state that are close to the level at which we should be ver y
concerned about the effects of temperature . I think many of these water s
have been in this condition for a long, long time . But the difficulty wit h
regard to temperature is that we know practically nothing about the temperature requirements of salmonids . I know of only one really importan t
study of the temperature requirements of juvenile salmon . This was published in 1952 by J . R . Brett. He found that juvenile salmon of a differen t
species can survive, if properly acclimatized, at temperatures of about 25 °
C or about 77°F .
These are lethal temperatures . This really isn't the thing tha t
concerns us so much . We are interested in the conditions in which the fis h
do well . There has been practically no satisfactory work done even on th e
temperature requirements of the developing embryos of salmonids .
Salmon generally enter to spawn or spawn in waters ranging i n
temperature between 55 to 45°F . The lethal level for Sockeye embryos i s
about 57°F . This means these fish are entering streams to spawn at temperatures that are just barely below the level at which the embryos coul d
not survive . Whether fish will delay spawning, which isn't a desirable thing ,
if temperatures are higher than this, or whether they would spawn and th e
embryos suffer heavy mortality is not well understood for most runs .
The things that contribute to the temperature problems are not th e
kinds of things that lend themselves easily to control by standards . Temperature problems arise primarily, perhaps, from climatic conditions an d
factors such as agricultural irrigation reducing the flow of the streams .
Dams, of certain sorts, can increase stream temperatures . And, we hav e
on the horizon, not really on the horizon at all but here, nuclear powe r
reactors . These are the kinds of things --- changes in streamflow, locatio n
of power plants, the design and operation of dams --- which don't len d
themselves very easily to control by standards .
Perhaps planning could prevent some problems of this sort ; bu t
not all of them . We don't know what to plan for . If we don't even know
within a few degrees what the temperature requirements of the developin g
salmonid embryo might be, or what the requirements of the juvenile s
might be, what are we designing our dams to do? What if power reactor s
do increase stream temperatures at this location or that by a few degrees ?
Hopefully, some day, there will be knowledge upon which reall y
adequate -standards can be based . But, as I attempted to point out earlier ,
standards are not really adequate protection in themselves for some kind s
73
of pollutional change . When were talking about eutrophication and temperature, we're not talking about pollution in the sense that if a party is pollutin g
standards can be enforced . Here were talking about the whole picture o f
development of a state --- where we locate our cities, where we build o r
don't build dams, where our power plants are built, whether or not we us e
rivers for irrigation . If temperature problems develop and we have standards for the protection of fish life which are being exceeded, what are w e
going to do about it? Tear down our nuclear power reactors, quit populatio n
growth in the state, or quit irrigating our fields? This is what it woul d
mean at that point to conform to the standards .
It isn't a matter of instructing a party to quit polluting or be shu t
down . We won't shut down the dams and power reactors and agriculture .
So that as much as we need standards now, and as much as they provid e
some sort of protection based on present information, ultimately we canno t
rely on them . About all that we can really rely on is learning what we really
need for the protection of the particular resources, what we really need i n
terms of power, agriculture and industry, and then planning so that our need s
and desires can be met in the future . We cannot depend solely on standard s
that we keep creeping up to and then can't do anything about because we can' t
shut down the whole state .
BROAD RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNIN G
I've used the word planning . Supposing we know a great deal about
the water quality requirements of fish, about population growth in Oregon ,
about the needs and desires of people in the future, what kind of planning i s
possible? I don't believe that resource planning as it has been traditionall y
pursued in this country is the final answer . It's a step in the right direction ,
but traditionally in this country resource planning has been accomplished b y
various agencies --- agencies with vested interests such as fisheries, power ,
irrigation, and navigation . They have developed their various plans, brough t
them all together, and attempted to compromise . It is as though we striv e
for just as much power and just as much fish production and just as muc h
irrigation from a river as we can possibly get by each interest seeking it s
highest possible objective and then cutting back as much as necessary at th e
conference table .
I don't believe that you can have all the power and all of the wate r
and all of the salmon from the Willamette River that each of us might want .
We really don't know the potential of the Willamette River, but certainl y
there will not be as many salmon in the Willamette River as the fisherie s
people want, or as much nuclear power or hydro-power as the power interests might want, or as much irrigation as the agricultural interests migh t
74
want, or as much water for industries and cities as others might want .
Maybe we can have irrigation, and power, and industries and cities in grea t
amounts if were ready to write off the fisheries . But if we are not to writ e
off the fisheries, planning must go far beyond the initial stages of settin g
standards .
It's hard to visualize the kind of planning it might take to preven t
these kinds of problems . But it seems to me that the planning would hav e
to be done by groups at the highest levels of government, groups withou t
particular vested interests other than the development of the best possibl e
plan for the region or the state . It seems to me that the fundamental considerations that we have to take into account are all of our resources, th e
future population growth of the state, and the probable needs and desires o f
the people at various times in the future .
What are the resources of the state? --- How much timber do w e
have and where is it? --- How much water do we have or can we develop
and where will this best be done? --- What are the irrigable lands of th e
state? And finally, where can we produce the food, and where can we pro duce the timber, and where can we have the pulp mills and the power reactors ,
and where can we also hope to keep some fisheries ?
I don't think that in every river in the state we can have salmon, o r
that on every river in the state we can have pulp mills, or power reactors ,
or dams . But I'm very much afraid that, unless we learn what our requirements are and what our resources are and what our future people want, th e
tendency will be to attempt to have all of everything on every stream an d
we'll end up with no fisheries, on most streams .
In this connection, it seems to me, that plans can be developed i n
which adequate zoning, and location of industry, and recognition of the mos t
important uses of particular rivers and streams are given important consideration . This type of planning could be developed for the state as a whole ,
provide for the people of the state, and be incorporated into the laws of th e
state, so that it will be a far more distant date when all of the somewha t
incompatible uses may come into conflict .
REFERENCES CITE D
Brett, J . R . 1952 . Temperature tolerance of young Pacific salmon . J .
Fish . Res . 2nd . Can . 9(6) :265-323 .
Forbes, S . A . 1887 . The lake as a microcosm . Bull . Peoria Scientifi c
Association . pp . 77-87 .
Huntsman, A . G . 1948 . Method in ecology -- biapocrisis . Ecology 29
(1) :30-42 .
75
Presented November 9, 1967 by DAVID G . TALBOT, State Parks
Superintendent, Salem, Oregon.
oe~e4meeee River 9zeewa " Raft
In many ways the Willamette River is Oregon .
This great river flows for 270 miles through the heart of Orego n
. . . from lakes and lava beds of the Cascades and Coast Ranges . . . to
the Columbia at Portland . It's Oregon's river all the way . It drains almos t
12, 000 square miles . It carries 25 million acre feet of water each year t o
the Columbia and the sea .
It's been a sewer for industry .
A playground for thousands .
The carrier of millions of dollars in commerce each day .
The idea and the fact of Oregon flourished on the banks of th e
Willamette . Farsighted men believe the river is equally as crucial to
Oregon's future . This is especially true in terms of liveability . With
industry and population booming, the Willamette will mean much, eithe r
in the good or bad quality of liveability . For that reason . . . Oregon i s
trying to increase its control of pollution, and to step up its recreationa l
resources along the Willamette through a system of parks, called th e
"Willamette River Park System" or "Greenway . "
Oregon's first civil government was formed in Champoeg in 1843 .
Long before that the Champoeg neighborhood was an Indian gatherin g
NOTE :
Mr . Talbot's talk was illustrated by over 70 slides . This text i s
the gist of remarks made in conjunction with the visual presentation .
77
place --- then, an outpost for Northwest Fur Company and Hudson's Ba y
Company trappers . Ultimately it became a favorite location for the earlies t
permanent settlers .
Some say that on May 2, 1843, the settlers gathered here to decid e
whether they wanted Oregon to be America's or England's . Joe Meek, th e
famous mountain man, persuaded an Indian or half-breed to join the American line, and by that one vote Oregon cast its lot with the United State s
instead of Canada . Such is the stuff of legend .
At Champoeg State Park a monument commemorates anothe r
version of that story . It lists as best it can the names of 52 pioneers wh o
on May 2, 1843, voted here to form a provisional American government fo r
the territory . It says 52 voted yes and 50 voted no . It lists those who vote d
yes . Those who voted no are not yet commemorated here at Champoeg o r
anywhere else .
According to the best available records in the Oregon Stat e
Archives, the story isn't quite right either .
The settlers did meet here in May, 1843 and voted by a substantia l
majority to form a provisional government . This government served until
the United States extended its jurisdiction over the territory some fiv e
years later . A committee of 9 drew up the original organic law of Orego n
which was approved by the settlers at Champoeg on July 5, 1843 . It is sai d
that some phraseology of Oregon's present constitution can be trace d
directly to this faded, four-page document .
How many settlers were there? There were only about 163 familie s
of non-Indian Oregonians in 1843 --- living at French Prairie near Champoeg --- at Newberg in the Ewing Young settlement -- in the Tualati n
Valley and at Oregon City's Falls --- and at Methodist mission stations a t
Salem and Mission Bottom --- all on the Willamette .
THE GREAT MIGRATIO N
But not for long . 1843 is also recognized as the first year of th e
great migration, along the Oregon Trail from Missouri to The Dalles, an d
the Barlow Trail from The Dalles to Oregon City . It was a hard trip that
took up to 2 years .
This was Oregon . The pioneers endured hardship and terror t o
come here . The Willamette Valley, 75 miles wide and 150 miles long ,
timber, grazing, adequate rainfall, free fertile farmland . All south of
78
the Columbia in territory they were sure would be American, not British .
In a century and a quarter, those 163 families grew to a valley
population of almost 1,400,000 --- 70% of Oregon's population on 12% o f
its area .
In the early days before roads and railroads, our commerc e
moved up and down the Willamette and other rivers in a long succession o f
stern-wheeled and side-wheeled steamboats, memorialized now at Champoeg .
The river still carries our commerce, but more quickly . Log rafts move .
Paper and pulp are barged .
The brig Owyhee, out of Boston, is reputed to have been the firs t
ocean-going cargo ship to turn out of the Columbia into the Willamette .
That ill-fated attempt to catch salmon at Clackamas Rapids occurred i n
1829 --- long before the Champoeg provisional government . In 1966, a
total of 1, 675 ocean-going ships were reported to have made this turn int o
the Port of Portland --- carrying more than a half-billion dollars worth of
products in and out .
Water-borne commerce above the locks at the Oregon City Falls ,
once so crucial, is now about 1 million tons a year . Experts say it ' s
making a comeback and will increase 5 times, to 5 million tons, by th e
year 2000 .
The Willamette flows through one of the Pacific Northwest's mos t
heavily populated areas . So, it isn't unusual that it has a pollution proble m
--- "one of the most serious" pollution problems according to inter government agency task force studies . The Willamette carries the treate d
and untreated sewage of its 1, 400, 000 people . It carries the treated and
untreated sewage of industry, equivalent of another 5 million people .
Several times in recent years the Willamette at Portland has become s o
polluted at low water that migratory fish couldn't make it through the harbor .
Oregonians became so alarmed about all types of pollution that th e
last legislature strengthened the makeup of the Sanitary Authority, givin g
it new powers and more money . Prospects for rapid improvement are good .
Farming has been an economic pillar for all the White Man's tim e
here . But surprisingly, direct agricultural use of the river has bee n
sparse . Even today only 250, 000 acres of land are irrigated by direc t
pumping out of the river . But even this relatively small amount in heavy use seasons will pull down the river's level at Salem by 5 feet . The Stat e
Water Resources Board has had to set a minimum water flow at Salem ,
below which additional irrigation is prohibited .
79
FOREST PRODUCTS, RECREATIO N
Throughout the history of the White Man in the Valley, the fores t
products industry has been the largest direct and indirect employer o f
manpower, and one of the Willamette River's heaviest users for transportation, sewage disposal and power . It still is . In fact, 60% of the Willamette
Basin's land area remains forested --- and the industry employs 38% of th e
region's total manufacturing manpower --- decreasingly in lumber, increasingly in pulp, paper and paperboard .
Oregon's major cities, like Oregon itself, were born on th e
Willamette . Portland for example . It was born on the river in 1849 t o
take advantage of commerce from the sea via the Columbia, and commerc e
up the river to the agricultural centers of the Valley .
Portland is a river city, a city of bridges, a city of sea and rive r
commerce . But Portlanders tend to forget it because Portland has grown
away from the Willamette in recent years . It came as a surprise when a
California magazine featured Portland as "A river city" --- but pointed ou t
that it's difficult to reach the river anywhere in the city . A noted out-ofstate architect in a speech in Portland said much the same thing, and sai d
that Portland must return to the river, mowing down deteriorated ol d
business areas which once flourished beside the Willamette .
It is difficult to reach the river . The city's streets and highway s
are along the river banks . Even a view of the river usually requires a
high-rent office or apartment . In the past, planners have seemed to loo k
at the Willamette as a barrier instead of an asset .
But things are changing . The city and the State Highway Department provided access to a small park area begween the east bank freewa y
and the Willamette and the city and county are toying with a civic cente r
which may eventually bring modern buildings right down to the river's edg e
on the west side . But getting back to the river is years and millions o f
dollars away, because "Portland the river city " seems not to be a rive r
city in the minds of its citizens .
For the average Oregonian, the Willamette is recreation, boating ,
picnicking, camping, fishing . But increased industrialization and population dim the future of river recreation, unless we act soon . Right now
the Willamette and its tributaries give big game hunters 324, 000 days o f
sport a year --- upland hunting, 191, 000 days --- waterfowl huntin g
113, 000 days . It's estimated that sports fishermen spend almost 2 millio n
man days a year angling the Willamette and its tributaries, and this wil l
increase to more than 5 million by the turn of the century .
80
Some say the resource won't take the pressure . Even if the
Willamette Falls fishway is completed, and water quality maintained, an d
irrigation outlets screened, and other conditions are improved, the no w
inconsequential salmon runs can be built up only to half the demand by th e
year 2000 . Careful management of trout and warm water species offe r
better prospects .
The most startling river recreation-use in recent years has bee n
the increase in boating . The number of licensed boats in Willamette Rive r
counties since 1960 increased by 20, 000 to a present 38, 500 boats -- ranging from splendid pleasure yachts, to speedy skiing runabouts, to tin y
fishing boats . Such recreation-use may become the great demand o n
Oregon's vital resource the Willamette, in future years . Boating, picnicking
camping, together have a demand now of 33 million users a year . By th e
year 2000, it will be almost 100 million users .
MANY PROBLEMS INVOLVE D
If by the turn of this century, this basin's population and industr y
double, as is the expectation, present recreation resources will flounder .
What are we doing about it ?
We are only beginning to realize the problem and taking our firs t
steps toward improvement .
One of the most hopeful prospects is an eye-glimmer idea fo r
setting aside increasing portions of the river banks for various kinds o f
recreation activities . The last legislature under gubernatorial promptin g
took an important step --- authorizing a Willamette River Greenway o r
park system . Under it, the State is trying to help cities and counties develop camps --- access to the river across now private land which block s
the public from the stream --- recreation trails for hiking and bike ridin g
along the river --- scenic drives for automobiles --- recreation tract s
aimed at preserving natural habitat --- and scenic easements under whic h
private landowners would guarantee to leave private land in its wild appearing state . Altogether the Willamette River Park System seeks t o
preserve the river's scenery, its use and its historic places .
This important step seems small contrasted with the need demonstrated by present use, by population projections and by increasing exclusiveness on the part of river property-owners, demonstrated by "Privat e
Beach, Keep Off" signs along the Willamette's sylvan banks .
81
The idea of the Willamette River Park System originated with a
professor emeritus of social sciences at the University of Oregon . Dr .
Karl Onthank, who called it to the attention of both gubernatorial candidates .
Both state treasurer Robert Straub and then secretary of state Tom McCal l
agreed that it was a great idea . Following election Governor Tom McCal l
appointed a Willamette River Park System Committee of eleven privat e
citizens to help local government coordinate plans . The chairman of the
committee is Mr . C . Howard Lane, president of Mt . Hood Radio an d
Television Broadcasting Company in Portland .
The Willamette River represents thousands of acres of prim e
recreation areas lying in the very heart of Oregon's fastest growing section,
and the river itself is already publicly owned . Long stretches of the strea m
are still primitive and unspoiled, but they are hard to reach, due to a
shortage of public facilities .
Like any great idea there are many problems and even more peopl e
who say it cannot be done . We hear about and see river pollution fro m
industry, uncontrolled gravel mining, and urban sprawl, to name but a fe w
of the problems we will face if the idea is to ever become a reality . Th e
Governor's office, the Highway Commission, the Governor's committe e
and the staff are all dedicated to the belief that these problems and other s
can be solved .
Gravel mining, log storage and industrial uses continue but with
exercise of proper care these activities may be more compatible .
MORE FUNDS NEEDE D
The development of urban areas and expansion of agricultural use s
is gradually removing the vegetative cover and screen of greenery tha t
enhances the river and provides habitat for wildlife . The State hopes t o
encourage local government to acquire recreation facilities by purchase o r
gift, and would help finance local park acquisitions through matching funds .
$800, 000 was appropriated by the Legislature from the Highway Fund fo r
the first two years . The $800, 000, when matched by local government ,
will provide $1, 600,000 to be spent in the next year and a half . That's a
good beginning and other state and federal officials are anxious to lend thei r
support . We could receive an additional $1, 600, 000 if the Federal Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation approves our application for special funding .
After the Legislature authorized a Willamette River Park System ,
Governor Tom McCall led a boat trip down the upper main-stem to see th e
possibilities for the Willamette River Park System Program . He wa s
82
impressed with the quiet the Willamette still provides despite the fact tha t
it flows past hundreds of thousands of people, and he is anxious to see th e
program progress . Progress is underway . The city of Albany is negotiating for purchase of waterfront properties right down town . Eugene i s
developing its North Bank Park . Portland is planning to buy Oaks Park o n
the river near the Sellwood Bridge, and the Oregon State Game Commissio n
is endeavoring to acquire sportsmen's access points at regular interval s
along the river .
We expect the cities and counties to take advantage of this oppor tunity by making application for funding of local projects . If they do, th e
next Legislature may continue the program .
Not everyone is enthusiastic . Owners of river bank lands ar e
fairly cooperative with people asking to get to the river over their lands bu t
they have a right to be concerned . They've seen what vandals can do . They
want assurance that they are not going to be exposed to more damage an d
litter .
We Oregonians chose to live here because of the quality of ou r
surroundings and our orientation to the out-of-doors . We're willing to
protect that way of life . This program for the Willamette is an indicatio n
of what one day may happen to other Oregon streams . We have learne d
from the loss of great rivers in other parts of the Nation . We know that
this river is increasingly important to us both commercially and as a
measure of quality of Oregon life .
We must be astute enough to see that preservation is far easie r
than correction, perceptive enough to realize that in the Willamette Rive r
we still have more to preserve than to correct, and bold enough to ac t
accordingly .
83
Presented as a panel discussion on November 16, 1967 by DONALD J .
BENSON, Executive Secretary, Northwest Pulp and Paper Association ,
Seattle (first paper), and RUSSELL O . BLOSSER, Regional Engineer ,
National Council for Stream Improvement, Corvallis, Oregon (second paper) .
Pedit Nett
the problems of pulp and paper pollution control it is usefu l
I ntodiscussing
take a look at the industry in terms of present and potential size an d
place in the economy as well as the various methods of manufacturing an d
types of product . Also a brief review of the quantities of water used fo r
this production may be of interest . The potential pollution loadings and
methods of control will be covered by the other panelists .
A BRIEF REVIE W
Pulp and paper production ranks as one of the top 10 manufacturing
industries in the U .S . The Pacific Northwest is one of the United States '
important pulp producing regions . Washington ranks as the number on e
producer and Oregon is number 10 . Regions of the world and their respective percent pulp production are as follows : U .S . Southeast 21%, Scandinavian Countries 17%, Quebec 8%, Pacific Northwest 6%, Japan 6% ,
British Columbia 3% .
The Southeast has shown a spectacular increase in productio n
since World War II for two reasons . First, the land crop has been change d
from cotton to pine forests where fast growth and intensive farm like forestr y
practices supply more than enough raw material on a sustained basis .
Second, the kraft pulping process has been developed to the degree that al most all grades of pulp can now be produced from the pine wood .
Professor John Guthrie, Economist, Washington State University ,
predicts that the Northwest pulp production could almost double in the 1 5
year period 1960-1975 . Present trends lend support to that prognosis .
85
The per capita consumption now in the United States is 530 lbs . per
capita, up about 100 lbs . in four years' time . The Pacific Northwest pul p
industry uses only about 1 /4 of the wood harvested in the area and nearl y
70% of this is in the form of wood chips or residue formerly destroyed i n
wigwam burners . In Oregon alone the chip to log ratio is over 90% . Th e
logs utilized are of low quality old growth or thinnings from second growt h
forests .
Resources for the Future has predicted that by the year 2000 th e
Pacific Northwest will rank with the Southeast as the world's most important
pulp producing region because of the tremendous ever renewable fibre supply .
The future will see a much more sophisticated use of the fibr e
supply . Note that log cabins gave way to dimension lumber then plywood ,
then linerboard boxes . It is quite possible that efficient structural shape s
made from basic fibres could supplant the present cut and glued woo d
material .
The three most important means of producing pulp are kraft, sulfite and groundwood . Kraft makes up about 65%, sulfite 25% and ground wood 10% of the Northwest production . Almost 100% of the southeast production is in the form of kraft pulp .
Originally, kraft, which means strong in Swedish, was used fo r
grocery bags and cartons in the brown unbleached state . The pulping an d
bleaching technology has now progressed so that most of the sophisticate d
dissolving pulp market is now kraft produced .
WATER USE VARIE S
The sulfite was the "darling" process of the 1930's when the North west industry burgeoned . The process is partial to spruce, true fir an d
hemlock woods . The process is considered the most satisfactory for
dissolving pulp grades in spite of the kraft inroads . It is also used extensively for tissue, fine papers, etc .
The groundwood process does not use delignifying chemicals in th e
pulping process but instead relies upon mechanical means of breaking th e
wood into fibre . The standard process uses manufactured stones severa l
feet in diameter to grind cord wood to fibre while a more recent innovation
employs defibrators which process chips to groundwood . This pulp is use d
extensively as newsprint, telephone book paper and as "furnish" to othe r
pulp mixes for special quality papers and tissue .
86
To produce pulp chemically (Kraft Sulfite), a large pressur e
digestor is charged with chips, cooking chemicals are added (Calcium
Magnesium or Ammonium Bisulfite and Sulfurous acid for Sulfite and Sodiu m
Sulfide and Sodium Hydroxide for Kraft) . The mixture is placed unde r
pressure and steam for several hours and then removed with the fibr e
separated from the lignin or wood glue . The fibre is washed, refined an d
then sometimes bleached for further delignification . The pulp is then eithe r
dried and marketed or pumped to the paper machine . The fast screen
Fourdrinier of the paper machine separates the water and fibre and form s
a wet sheet which is pressed and dried on a series of rollers where fille r
material can be added for special properties to make the desired pape r
product .
The cycle for the spent chemicals and lignin or spent liquors varie s
with the chemicals used . In the Kraft process the liquor is evaporated t o
about 60% solids and burned in a furnace for recovery of heat and make u p
chemicals . In the sulfite process the spent liquors are sometimes evaporated and burned in a similar manner . If this is not done the disposal o f
the material must be accomplished in a careful manner because of its hig h
pollution potential .
The water use in gallons per ton for the various pulping processe s
and papermaking are generalized in the following table . Note that grea t
variations will occur from these figures in any particular mill dependin g
upon available supply, product mix, waste treatment techniques and age o f
equipment .
Groundwood
Sulfite
Kraft
Pulp
Bleach
1,000
25,000
15,000
1,000
25,000
50,000
Pape r
8,000 gals/to n
to
10,00
0 Water use in the pulp and paper industry has declined steadily o n
a unit basis in past years . Data collected in 1960 showed that 180% of th e
intake water is reused in the process . This is an increase of 52% ove r
data collected in 1949 . All indications are that this trend will continue wit h
the increased need .
87
I
previous paper referenced the large use of water in various aspect s
T he
of pulping, bleaching and paper making . There is no truly typica l
pulping operation, bleaching operation or paper making operation althoug h
striking similarities exist when the same product is manufactured by a
process using similar raw materials . The problem is further complicate d
by the fact that liquid effluents in pulping vary, depending on the presenc e
or absence of a recovery system for the collection and reprocessing o f
spent chemicals and residual organic matter in the cooking liquor .
TREATMENT AND CONTRO L
Approximately 40% to 70% of the organic matter initially presen t
in wood is concentrated in the cooking liquor of chemical pulping processes .
In those processes where recovery is a universal practice, such as in th e
manufacture of Kraft pulp, the effluent handling problem is substantially
different than in those processes where recovery is not commonly practiced .
The sulfite processes and semi-chemical processes, up to the present, hav e
represented the latter case at most installations .
Regarding the composition and characteristics of these effluents ,
the differences are in most cases matters of degree --- in which absolut e
values are of most interest in the development of cause and effect relation ships in water quality administration rather than in discussions of wha t
treatment control schemes are used and why .
Pulp and paperniill effluent characteristics which may be considere d
in an effluent control or treatment program are listed in Table 1 . Flow i s
one of the first considerations since the volume may and often does dictat e
the feasibility or practical application of a specific treatment process .
Segregation of flow with separate discharge of uncontaminated proces s
waters and cooling waters in order to reduce the size of a treatment system
is evaluated at most sites and developed into practice at several .
The dissolved solids fraction of pulp mill effluents contains the
bulk of the material which exerts BOD, lignin compounds which are colored ,
and residual chemicals . For the most part the inorganic fraction, composed principally of spent chemicals, is not of primary significance in wate r
quality management programs since the concentrations are low and tota l
quantity discharged not sufficient to alter significantly water quality in th e
receiving waters . The bulk of the problem with dissolved solids is foun d
in the organic fraction which contributes to BOD and color .
Practically all pulp and paper mill effluents contain residual suspended solids . Of principal interest are the settleable solids whose discharg e
88
Table 1
EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS FOR CONSIDERATIO N
1.
Flow
a.
b.
2.
Solid s
a.
b.
3.
Dissolve d
(1) Organi c
(2) Inorganic
Suspende d
(1) Settleabl e
(a) Organi c
(b) Inorgani c
(2) Nonsettleabl e
(a) Organi c
(b) Inorganic
BOD
a.
b.
c.
4.
Volume
Segregatio n
Strength
Dissolve d
Settleabl e
Colo r
a.
b.
Sourc e
Volume and Strength of Specific Source s
5.
pH
6.
Turbidity
7.
Temperatur e
8.
Odo r
9.
Toxicity
89
results in bottom deposits and associated problems if the velocity in receiving waters is inadequate to maintain them in suspension . There are a
limited number of cases where the nonsettleable solids may create problems .
These are closely related to the inorganic fraction which may increas e
turbidity .
Biochemical oxygen demand is an effluent characteristic whic h
along with settleable solids creates the bulk of the receiving water problem s
where pulp mill effluents are discharged . Exclusive of spent cooking liquor s
from pulping, the BOD concentration of pulp and paper effluents is simila r
to that of domestic sewage and ranges from about 50 ppm to 250 ppm . Th e
bulk of the material,usually 75% or greater, is derived from dissolved solid s
with the remainder associated with the settleable solids fraction of th e
effluents .
COLOR PROBLE M
Color may be a problem with some pulping effluents where ther e
is inadequate dilution in the receiving waters . The loss of dye stuffs whic h
are not retained in the product may be a local problem in some paper manufacturing operations . The largest source of colored material is ligni n
removed during bleaching of pulp resulting in effluents dark brown in color .
The bulk of the color in the bleaching process originates in the causti c
extract stage of bleaching .
Several effluent characteristics which may be considered in wate r
quality management but which usually comprise only small problems i n
effluent control or treatment programs are hydrogen ion concentration ,
turbidity, temperature, odor and toxicity . None are common problems an d
specifically turbidity, odor and toxicity, are substantially reduced o r
eliminated where conventional treatment for settleable solids and BO D
removal is practiced .
Several factors other than effluent characteristics must be considered in the selection and design of an effluent control or treatment system . These are summarized in Table 2 and include stream need and uses ,
available space, versatility and economics .
Until recently stream needs and stream uses dictated the desire d
water quality which in turn dictates the degree of treatment required . Fo r
the most part this philosophy still dominates in most water managemen t
programs . Tailoring of a waste treatment or control program to best sui t
the stream uses and needs is therefore an engineering challenge . Meetin g
this challenge involves an integration of consistent operations at the desire d
90
Table 2
OTHER FACTORS FOR CONSIDERATIO N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Stream need s
Stream use s
Space availabl e
Versatility for expansio n
or upgradin g
Economic s
performance level with a minimum of expense . The selection of a specifi c
treatment or control may be dictated by available space, potential for expansion, or upgrading at effluent quality --- all integrated into the mos t
economical system that will satisfy all these objectives .
METHODS OF TREATMENT AND CONTRO L
The most prominent method of treatment practiced in the pulp and
paper industry is physical treatment for removal of settleable solids . Ther e
is a limited amount of settleable solids removal by flotation . The bulk o f
the treatment installations which now exist or are in various stages o f
planning or construction rely on principles of sedimentation . A limite d
number of earthen sedimentation basins, usually providing from 6 to 4 8
hours theoretical detention time, are in use . Due to the ease with whic h
the collected solids can be handled over flotation and earthen basins, conventional mechanical clarifiers now constitute greater than 90%0 of the
settleable solids removal installations .
As is shown in Table 3, settleable solids removal reduces the tota l
suspended solids concentration --- from 5% to 90% and usually above 65% .
Some 90% or greater of the settleable solids are removed in these installations with 10% to 70% BOD being accomplished . A BOD removal of 10% t o
25% is most common for sedimentation . There is usually a substantia l
reduction in turbidity, ranging from 50% to 75% . Color removal is negligible since color is commonly contributed by dissolved materials .
Cooling is not a common method of effluent treatment since th e
temperature differential between effluent and receiving waters is not grea t
enough to create problems . A limited number of installations cool effluent
to the range of 100°F to enhance its treatability in biological processes .
The chemical treatment in use outlined in Table 3 include s
91
Table 3
METHODS OF TREATMENT AND CONTRO L
1.
Physica l
a . Solids Remova l
(1) Flotatio n
(2) Sedimentatio n
Earthen Basin s
Mechanical Clarifier s
Accomplishes
(a) 5% to 90% Suspended Solids Remova l
(b) Approximately 90% Settleable Solids Remova l
(c) 10% to 70% BOD Reductio n
b . Cooling
2.
Chemical
a. Coagulation - of limited use due to high dissolved solid s
b. Color Remova l
c. pH Adjustment
3.
Biologica l
a . High Rat e
(1) Activated Sludg e
(2) Trickling Filter s
Advantages
(a) Smallest space requiremen t
Disadvantages
(a) Activated Sludge is sensitiv e
(b) Trickling Filters have limited application abov e
50% BOD remova l
Accomplishes
(a) Activated Sludge - 60% to 90% Reductio n
(b) Filters - 50% Reduction
b . Intermediate Rate
(1) Aerated Basin s
Advantages
(a) Stable Proces s
(b) Requires Moderate Supervisio n
(c) Less Nutrients Require d
(d) Small Solids Generatio n
Disadvantages
(a) Space Requirement s
(b) Temperature Dependen t
Accomplishe s
(a) 30% to 90% Reduction in BO D
92
3.
Biological (Continued)
c . Low Rate
(1) Stabilization Basin s
Advantages
(a) Very Stabl e
(b) Works well with a controlled discharge progra m
Disadvantage s
(a) Large Land Requirement s
Accomplishe s
(a) 30% to 90% BOD Reductio n
(2) Seepag e
(3) Irrigatio n
coagulation to enhance suspended solids removal and pH adjustment . Coagulation finds little application since the improvement in effluent quality ove r
that obtained by plain sedimentation is not significant . The control of p H
is limited almost entirely to the preparation of effluents to assure goo d
biological treatment in subsequent processes .
Several biological treatment processes for pulp and papermil l
effluents have been developed and are used to a greater or lesser degree .
These all employ the basic principles of conversion of organic materia l
containing carbon to CO2 and water using biological organisms . In additio n
to reducing BOD, they usually afford some additional suspended solids removal beyond that accomplished in primary sedimentation due to biologica l
flocculation . These processes are limited in their effectiveness to remov e
color from pulping effluents since lignin, the principal contributor of color ,
decomposes slowly by biological means . Color contributed by particulat e
matter is usually substantially reduced however .
While it is not a common practice there is an increasing tendenc y
to differentiate between biological treatment processes, using the contac t
time of the effluent in the treatment process as a parameter . Two processes, commonly called high rate processes, which find use in the pul p
and paper industry are the activated sludge process and trickling filters .
These are the most compact of the biological treatment processes, henc e
require the least space . Of the two activated sludge is the most extensively used . Even though it is more sensitive to changes in effluent compositio n
it will produce a higher quality effluent and is capable of 60% to 90% BOD
reduction . Trickling filters have limited application due to their ability t o
provide BOD removal above 50% at an economically attractive cost .
The biological treatment process which is growing at the mos t
rapid rate is the use of aerated stabilization basins . This process whic h
93
provides for from 2 to 10 days storage of effluent is a stable process, requiring only moderate supervision, uses less nutrients, and produces littl e
if any solids for disposal . It provides from 30% to 90% BOD removal . It
requires reasonably large land areas and is temperature dependent, limitin g
its known potential to moderate climate for high degree treatment in the
winter .
The simplest biological treatment process is the stabilizatio n
basin .which depends on surface aeration to furnish oxygen for the biologica l
treatment process . These basins represent the most stable of the treatmen t
processes but require large land areas since effluent storage times of 15 t o
90 days are employed . There are capable of 30% to 90% BOD removal an d
are well suited to controlled volume discharge programs where effluen t
discharge rate is proportioned to streamflow .
Other low rate biological processes are seepage basins, whic h
find limited use, and irrigation which finds extensive use during the summe r
months to cope with low strearnflow situations .
94
Presented November 30, 1967 by LLOYD A . REED, Chief, Interagency
Planning Branch, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, North west Region, U . S . Department of the Interior, Portland, Oregon .
7/6eftecoa,e5eweve Ped4t,eaw
M unicipal waste pollution within the State of Oregon is at a point in time
when we can say, with reasonable assurance, that current problem s
can be solved . The implementation plan of Oregon's water quality standard s
indicates that all municipalities in the State will be providing secondar y
sewage treatment by July of 1972 . This will be a milestone for the State o f
Oregon. It marks the spot between catching up and keeping pace with the
expanding population .
Projections indicate that the Willamette Valley's population, fo r
instance, will about double in the next 20 years and then almost doubl e
again by the year 2020 . Thus, it should be obvious that, once the first mile stone has been reached, the "keeping up" will take as much or more effor t
and investment than the "catching up" has involved in the last 20 years .
Quite frankly, in order to maintain an acceptable level of treatment in the future, some time-honored traditions and principles will hav e
to be reevaluated and perhaps thrown out . The specific pollutant we ar e
talking about -- municipal waste -- is going to be changing in the year s
ahead . Traditionally, the sanitary engineer has relied on the assumptio n
that sewage is pretty much the same sewage the country around . Municipal
waste is normally defined as a mixture of domestic and household waste s
and the discharges resulting from the commercial and small industrie s
which are treated by the municipal plant .
Efficiency of treatment is measured in terms of the settleable an d
suspended solids removed mechanically, the oxygen-demanding materia l
removed biologically, or the degree of-bacterial kill . As the composition
of the waste changes, these concepts must be modified . Other constituent s
of waste discharges, such as dissolved solids, nitrates, and phosphates ,
must be more fully considered .
95
JOINT EFFORT NEEDE D
More and more, industries are turning to the cities for joint attac k
on mutual waste treatment problems . Very recently, Oregon City an d
Publishers' Paper Company announced that they are studying the possibl e
construction of joint secondary treatment facilities . Admittedly, some
industrial effluents cannot be compatibly treated with municipal wastes .
However, here in the Northwest a great majority of the troublesome waste s
could be handled jointly with municipal effluents . Such joint ventures ca n
be advantageous to industry financially due to the ability of the cities t o
obtain Federal and State construction grant funds and, of course, there i s
a desirable public relations factor . Moreover, economies of scale an d
sometimes greater combined efficiency of joint treatment can reduce th e
overall costs to the area .
The time-honored principle of community autonomy must be re evaluated when waste problems are being considered . It will be an expensive luxury to the State as a whole for a town to plan future treatmen t
facilities without considering the needs and desires of the surroundin g
population . In the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Repor t
on Water Quality Control and Management in the Willamette Valley, projections of need for treatment were based in part by considering that futur e
growth in the valley will be concentrated in four large service areas .
These are Portland, Albany-Corvallis, Salem, and Eugene-Springfield .
Figure 1 illustrates the projections developed by the FWPCA fo r
future population growth . For instance, we believe that the area runnin g
from Philomath through Corvallis and Albany and down to Lebanon an d
Sweet Home must begin thinking of consolidated and coordinated plannin g
for future water supply and waste disposal systems . Such concepts can b e
disconcerting to the smaller community, since it can be viewed as the firs t
step in abolishing the identity of the small town . However, such organizations as the Metropolitan Municipality of Seattle show that arrangement s
can be workable and result in proper consideration of integrated wast e
collection and treatment facilities, and reduced costs to each participan t
in the long run .
The Columbia Region Association of Governments is beginning t o
serve as a focus for meaningful planning in the metropolitan Portland Vancouver area . Recently, David Eccles, Vice Chairman of the Advisor y
Committee for CRAG, spoke to the Portland Chamber of Commerce about
the organization . He pointed out that over 26 percent of the financial re sources of local government now come in the form of Federal grants-in-aid .
In approving these grants, the Federal Government requires tha t
there be regional planning . Unfortunately, county authority is so restricte d
96
PRESENT and PROJECTED POPULATIO N
Albany Corvallis
97
that its functional abilities are very limited . This void has been filled by
a great many special-purpose governmental agencies within the count y
areas . None of these has the authority or the financial resources to do a n
adequate job in meeting the population growth and associated problems .
CRAG was created as an agreement of the counties involved an d
has no legal power except that which it derives from the member counties .
However, it does have persuasive power, as recently demonstrated . Unde r
the auspices of CRAG, the communities of Gresham and Troutdale hav e
agreed to have a study made to develop an economical, area-wide plan t o
solve the water pollution problems confronting both communities .
A much more pressing problem, from a water quality standpoint ,
exists in the Tualatin Basin near the Portland metropolitan area . A basinwide plan for collection and treatment of wastes must be developed an d
implemented as rapidly as possible . Municipal and food-processing waste s
produced in this area are equivalent to those produced by more than a
quarter of a million people .
Right now all communities provide secondary treatment, and a
number of the industries use land disposal, which results in waste reductio n
of over 90 percent prior to discharge to the Tualatin system . Even with
this high degree of treatment, the Tualatin is unsuitable for any use during
the summer months . The remaining flow in the river is simply inadequat e
to receive and assimilate the treated wastes . Even advanced waste treatment techniques will not achieve and maintain adequate water quality unde r
future waste loading conditions unless minimum regulated streamflows ar e
made available and allowed to remain in the stream channel .
The complex pollution problem is further complicated by th e
existence of a multitude of governmental entities with responsibility fo r
waste treatment . There are three counties, 12 cities, and 38 sanitar y
districts involved in just this one basin of the state .
We have to begin thinking in terms of long-range needs now o r
else we will continually be attempting to solve today's problems at th e
expense of tomorrow's growth .
NEED FOR RECREATIO N
Another facet of urban expansion which really hasn't receive d
enough attention is the growing weekend displacement of the population t o
the surrounding recreation areas . Recreation planners predict phenomena l
growth in outdoor activities . As people receive more take-home pay and a t
98
the same time spend less time working for it, they look to new outlets fo r
leisure-time activities .
Projections of recreation days indicate a growth for the Willamett e
Basin from a present level of about 9 . 3 million days to about 52 million day s
annually by the year 2020 . This is almost a six-fold increase in time spen t
in recreational pursuits . These figures are only for water-related recreational demand exerted by the resident population . Such figures indicat e
that a significant share of municipal waste problems will be transported t o
the surrounding countryside, at least on weekends and during vacatio n
periods .
We must also accept the fact that the average person likes to re create with other people and, in order to even begin to meet the need ,
recreational facilities will become, in fact, part-time communities wit h
most of the amenities of home . The Oregon State Park System --- probabl y
the finest in the Nation --- already bears out this fact . Such concentration s
of campers, picnickers, waterskiers, etc ., should alert us to the need o f
providing adequate waste treatment and sanitary facilities .
The potential water quality problems generated are even mor e
disconcerting when we realize that a great percentage of recreationa l
development will be located in upper watersheds --- the same areas tha t
growing communities are looking to for future water supply sources . The
necessary facilities can be provided but, to be adequate, they must be provided before a water pollution problem develops and not simply as a remedial
measure . Federal agencies, such as the Forest Service, which have responsibilities for providing public recreational facilities are already workin g
closely with the FWPCA to insure that present and proposed treatmen t
facilities are adequate to protect the water resource .
If the public expects to have recreation sites provided, they mus t
also be prepared to share in the cost of cleaning up their wastes, eithe r
through taxes or through admission fees .
An existing quasi-municipal problem with recreational overtone s
is the discharge of untreated domestic wastes from houseboats and othe r
floating structures . This is a problem of concern basically in the lowe r
portion of the Willamette River where approximately 250 units are moored .
With rare exception, these units discharge untreated sewage from toilets ,
kitchens, and baths directly to the water in violation of State statutes an d
water quality standards and may constitute a health hazard to other wate r
users . Waste treatment facilities must be provided for toilet wastes b y
January 1, 1968, and for kitchen, bath, and laundry wastes by January 1 ,
1971 . Although the houseboat wastes are similar to those from norma l
land residences, the collection and treatment of houseboat wastes will b e
more expensive because of their location .
99
WILLAMETTE
RIVERBASI N
PRESENT WASTE BY TYP E
'Kc
80o
-.J O
2000
UPPER ARE A
240 0
1000 600 600 400 200 0
J-T-I -1
MIDDLE ARE A
2000
1200 i
600 400-'
200-0
LOWER AREA
Figure 2
100
WILLAMETTE RIVER BASI N
PRESENT
a PROJECTED WAST E
90
BO -
0
0
70 -
o
60 -
0
z
50 OC
-
z
O
H
40 0
N
30
a.
O
a- 20 -
Lc)
o)
l0 0 j
+
MUNICIPAL FOO D
I
rl-n
_
PULP
MISC.
CONTRIBUTOR
Figure 3
10 1
RAW WASTE PRODUCTIO N
e.-IPRESENT& PROJECTED o .
o
RIVER
Albany Corvallis
ocKeni/i2 R
Eugene
102
In these seminar sessions on water and environmental quality ,
various aspects of the total water quality picture are being discussed individually . It is proper and convenient to segregate factors contributing t o
water pollution into such categories . However, it is the total impact of al l
of these factors which results in a given water quality situation .
Within the Willamette Basin, municipal discharges comprise les s
than 25 percent of wastes reaching the streams . Figure 2 illustrates the
relative magnitude of wastes presently produced in the Willamette Basin .
It should be noted that the information represents total wastes produced ,
prior to treatment and expressed in terms of oxygen demand referenced t o
an equivalent population base .
Figures 3 and 4 show projections of raw waste production by category and location for the . entire basin . Hence, it should be obvious that a
solution to current summer quality problems in the Willamette River ca n
only be reached by considering all sources in proper perspective . For in- .
stance, all communities either have upgraded or are upgrading thei r
facilities for chlorination of treated . effluent in order to lower the colifor m
densities in the river . • These bacterial densities are currently higher tha n
the levels recommended for water-contact sports . . But it is quite probable
that such levels will continue to be high due to other sources of pollutio n
such as feed lot and agricultural drainage . A program to limit bacteria l
concentrations must consider all sources and not just the more easily controllable ones, such as municipal ' treatment plants . It is encouraging tha t
current pollution control efforts do recognize the interrelationships present .
All planning, whether it is identified as urban, metropolitan, rural ,
or water quality planning, must begin by considering the land and water an d
human resources available . Development of the land base and the decision s
made with regard to its use, both present and future, determine the type o f
environment which will result .
Land use zoning is one method which can be an effective tool i n
programming orderly development . As a first step in the planning ventur e
now underway in the Bear Creek Valley of the Rogue River Basin, a futur e
land use plan has been outlined .' An engineerin g, study of integrated wate r
supply, waste interceptors, and treatment facilities is in progress, using
the land use plan as one criterion .
Recently this seminar had a session devoted to the "Willamett e
River Greenway Proposal ." This dramatic planning effort envision s
recreational development on a scale which is' unique, especially when on e
considers that the development will thread through the heart of the urban ized area of the Willamette Valley . ' The basic objective of the Greenway
Proposal is "the preservation and enhancement of the rivers natura l
103
environment while at the same time developing the widest possible recreational opportunities . . . without harm to the legitimate needs of industr y
or agriculture, or to local and private interests . "
AN INFORMED PUBLIC,
It would be difficult to identify a land- or water-associated us e
which does not have a potential impact on water quality . Too often in th e
past, fractionalized single-purpose development has excluded potentiall y
compatible uses, simply because they were not adequately considered . A t
the other extreme, it is folly to subscribe to the theory that all water related uses can always be made compatible . The present philosophy i n
planning for the best use of water and related land resources must be on e
of awareness of the interrelationship of use, and the well-being of all o f
the people shall be the overriding determinant . The planners job is to .
define the alternatives, and their costs, available to satisfy the needs of th e
public as expressed in law . An informed public can then decide on th e
water-use pattern they wish for themselves and their children .
As we in Oregon look to five years hence when all significant '
municipal and industrial wastes will be treated to an acceptable level, w e
must also realize that these efforts and financial investments will not i n
themselves correct all of the water quality problems .
Streamflow in many of our watercourses must be regulated durin g
the summer months to provide sufficient flow to receive the residual treate d
waste discharges . The main stem Willamette River has an average annual .
runoff of 26 million acre-feet, nearly fifteen percent of the annual yield o f
the Columbia . Unfortunately from a water quality standpoint, over 75% o f
the runoff occurs between the months of November and April . Figure 5
depicts the annual pattern, both from natural flow .and as modified by
present reservoir storage releases .
A flow of 7, 500 cfs through Portland Harbor will be required t o
achieve a desirable level of water quality in this river reach . There ar e
also streams, such as reaches of the John Day River, which are not suitabl e
for downstream use, even in the absence of waste discharges, simply be cause the flow is not sufficient to maintain a live stream . High temperatur e
and aquatic growth problems resulting from inadequate flow which restric t
use from a water quality standpoint can be just as significant as if th e
problem were caused by a municipal waste source .
Maintenance of flow for water quality control after adequate treatment will become increasingly important as the region' s economy grow s
104
43,500
45'459
AVERAGE MONTHLY HYDROGRAP H
WILLAMETTE RIVER, at SALE M
(I 9 40 )
40 -
20-
I0
I JANI FEBJMARI APR lMAY JJUNEIJULYI AUG]SEPT1 OCT J NOV I DEC I
Figure 5
105
and competition for water intensifies . The State of Oregon and the Pacifi c
Northwest still have the opportunity to program orderly water use development in many regions .
Conflicts in water uses can be identified and compromises worke d
out without writing off a legitimate water use simply because of preemptio n
of the resource by special interest groups . Whether enlightened water an d
related land use planning will prevail is dependent primarily on the abilit y
of the political and legislative processes to provide the authority to implement new concepts which will be essential to true comprehensive planning .
106
Presented December 7, 1967 by WARREN C . WESTGARTH, Director ,
Sanitation and Engineering Laboratories and Technical Services, Orego n
State Sanitary Authority and Oregon State Board of Health, Portland, Oregon .
Poaareot/t
Seteeuia 4/4readerae
full title "Water Pollution Problems Related to Agricultura l
T he
Operations" implies that problems do exist in the field of agriculture .
It is the purpose of this paper to present the major problems as we know o r
suspect them to be, to point out potential solutions and to enumerate actua l
corrections now being implemented for water pollution from agriculturall y
oriented sources .
GENERAL PROBLE M
The State of Oregon is rapidly becoming an urban-industrial-rura l
complex within which each element is interdependent on the other . Presently the 62 percent urban population is centered primarily in the Portlan d
metropolitan area . The total population of over 2,000,000 people need s
food, goods and services . Agriculture must keep pace to provide the foo d
for the people . Industry must gear-up to provide the necessary goods an d
services . Urban industrial and agricultural production creates pollutio n
which affects the entire complex . The production-disposal cycle is a majo r
problem .
Agriculture is in the center of this cycle . It is Oregon's secon d
largest primary industry . Within this industry are some 40, 000 far m
families who live on farms averaging over 500 acres each . The attraction s
of urban living have created an exodus from the farm to the city, leavin g
fewer people to produce food . However, technology is improving to pro duce more food with fewer people . This trend should lead to improved an d
more efficient use and control of water, fertilizers and agricultura l
chemicals .
107
Statistics on farmland are not consistent, but they indicate acreage s
in the order of :
Cropland
Non-forested grassland
Forest and woodland
Other land
6,000,00 0
25, 000, 00 0
30, 000, 00 0
350, 00 0
About 2, 300, 000 acres are presently irrigated and about 10, 000, 000 acre s
are potentially irrigable with all forms of irrigation, especially as sprinkle r
irrigation becomes more practical . Farm products include meat animals ,
dairy products, poultry (eggs), food grains, feed crops, vegetables, fruits ,
nuts, nursery products and seed crops .
Sources of Agricultural Pollution
Pollution may occur in the agricultural complex from three different general areas : (1) industrial-type operations (2) irrigation return flow s
(3) farmland runoff . Industrial-type sources of pollution include food processing, meat processing, dairies and confinement feeding for beef, swin e
and poultry . Irrigation waters flow through fields and pick up organi c
matter, chemical residues and parasitic, planktonic and pathogenic organ isms . Runoff from farms contains polluting matter from domestic areas ,
land erosion, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and rodenticides and ha s
the possibility of carrying pathogenic organisms .
SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
Industrial-Type Discharge s
Hart and McGauhey (5) in a review of food processing wastes an d
their disposal indicate in the following statement the general size of th e
food processing waste problem . "To produce and refine a single pound o f
food for the American household requires that five to ten pounds of soli d
wastes be left in the field or processing factory and that many gallons o f
water acquire the unholy status of waste water . "
Waste may be defined as any substance, liquid or solid, which it s
owner deems of insufficient value to justify its retention . The amounts ar e
large in all food processing operations, but the amount of wastes can b e
measured . Its constituents can be identified and the wastes can be treated ,
but are often difficult to break down and dispose of . Feed lots are a pollution
source that has long been overlooked . Large amounts of manure mixe d
with the bedding materials are potential polluting materials, depending o n
the possibility of these materials reaching a body of water . Loeh r
108
and Agnew (9) point out the extent and possible solutions for this problem .
Poultry and swine producers in the past few years have wrestled with th e
problems of high-strength wastes produced in their operations .
Irrigation Return Water s
Irrigation practices and controls vary widely . Any statemen t
made about amounts of return flow and strengths of return flow may b e
disputed because of these variations . For purposes of this paper, it i s
assumed that about 30 percent of applied water returns to the water course .
Sylvester (18) points out that this water may spend time in the aquifer o r
may reach surface drains . The amount of chemical or biological chang e
from the original water will, of course, depend on the route of return to a
stream . It is difficult to pinpoint the return contribution because it ma y
show up as base flow in streams and the effect may be attributed to othe r
sources .
Current studies in Oregon indicate that return drains do contribut e
to oxygen demanding loads of variable significance, depending primaril y
upon the method and control of application of water, fertilizers and chemicals . Return drains also tend to heavily increase in the streams the tota l
nitrogen and phosphorus which, in the order of 0 .01 mg/1 of soluble phosphorus combined with 0 .3 mg/l of organic nitrogen, can "trigger" massiv e
growths of algae and other planktonic growths . Nutrients- include nitroge n
and phosphorus as primary elements and trace elements for metabolite s
such as silicon, magnesium, manganese, boron, molybdenum, cobalt ,
copper, and zinc . Some vitamins and amino acids are also needed .
Nutrients are a problem in several ways . The undesirable effects creat e
an effect on other frequently measured parameters :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Potential BOD loadings to streams increase as a resul t
of enlarged biomass .
Certain algae produce toxic or growth-inhibiting substances .
Algae and aquatic plants produce tastes, odors and discolored waters .
Aquatic plants, filamentous or planktonic algae clo g
water with floating masses of unsightly matter whic h
affect swimmin g
Masses of dead plant materials decompose with resulting oxygen depletion, fish kills, odors and pain t
staining from H 2S gas .
Fish kills may result from oversaturation of wate r
with oxygen .
Snails, mosquitoes and nuisance animals may b e
overproduced .
When organic matter is present, bacteria may for m
excessive slime growths .
109
Chemical residues from irrigation returns may include increase d
salt content from leaching, or it may include residues from the chemical s
used for control on crops . Fertilizers add to the nutrient concentrations .
Pesticides, herbicides, and rodenticides often contain potentially toxi c
residues that may interfere with aquatic life, or in extreme cases with
animals and humans . Studies on these chemicals (2), (12) indicate that th e
problem is potentially dangerous but has not been shown to be of lethal
proportions insofar as current knowledge is concerned .
In some areas, high sediment loads are carried in the retur n
drains . This sediment is not only an undesirable load on the streams, bu t
indicates erosion from the fields that are being irrigated . It is a measurable and controllable problem .
Farmland Runoff
Very often farmland runoff is indistinguishable from irrigatio n
runoff . However, there is an added factor to the BOD, nutrient and toxi c
chemical loads previously mentioned . Agricultural land drainage contain s
wastes from humans, dogs, cats, horses, cattle and other domesticate d
animals . These wastes have been shown to contain high coliform count s
(MPN) and may reasonably be expected to contain pathogenic organism s
from man or animals . It is known that certain disease organisms ar e
mutually dangerous to man and domestic animals . The strength of thes e
wastes and the potential transmission of diseases associated with the waste s
have been detailed by Henderson (6) and is beyond the scope of this paper .
All farmland runoff, including irrigation, contains substantia l
concentrations of silt, debris, salts, chemical residues and organisms .
Streams are affected by this runoff in various ways depending on flo w
characteristics, season of the year, temperature and physical conditions .
In sluggish streams or impoundment areas, for example, silt and debri s
may settle and become innocuous . However, the chemical nutrients ma y
cause prolific growths of planktonic, algal and bacterial organisms . The
Snake River in the vicinity of Brownlee Reservoir is an example of eutrophication in an impounded area . It is an unsightly and generally an unpleasant
situation . On the other hand, in a rapidly flowing stream the same waste s
may just appear as turbid waters and may show little effect until they reac h
a slower area .
POTENTIAL SOLUTION S
Recently the agricultural industry has begun to accept the concept
that they are pollutors in the three areas of industry-type, irrigatio n
110
returns and farm runoff . This acceptance of a problem will set into motio n
the agricultural bloc which has solved agriculturally oriented problems fo r
many years . The acceptance of agriculture's role as a member of the
pollution control team in the State of Oregon was evidenced by Resolutio n
No . 5 of the Oregon Reclamation Congress at Salem, October 23-25, 1967 ,
as follows :
"WHEREAS, the Oregon Reclamation Congress supports the maintenance and enhancement of the quality of the waters of Oregon, as well a s
its full utilization for all beneficial purposes .
"NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, that the Oregon Reclamation Congress recommends that all agencies responsible for establishin g
and enforcing water quality standards continue the collection of factual dat a
on the factors affecting the water quality and modify those standards, i f
necessary, to recognize the geographic and physical use and application s
of each particular water resource .
"BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that there be adopted by al l
Federal agencies having control of Government lands and resources, irrigation districts, municipalities and private industry programs for th e
abatement of pollution and contamination of all waters, to enhance the qualit y
thereof .
"BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that copies be sent to the Orego n
Congressional delegation, Secretary of the Interior, and other intereste d
governmental agencies . "
The Legislative Interim Committee on Agriculture in a letter o f
August 1966 (8) indicated a desire among agricultural people to cooperat e
with pollution control authorities by helping to identify the problems, lookin g
for solutions to the problems and implementing controls wherever thes e
are found . Oregon State University, in its connections with the Civi l
Engineering Department, the Fish and Game Department, the Wate r
Resources Research Institute, the Agricultural Experiment Station, an d
other related activities will continue to contribute to pollution control i n
agricultural areas .
Federal studies are being carried out by the Federal Wate r
Pollution Control Administration (FWPCA) in the Klamath Basin (12) and
other areas of the United States . The Corvallis FWPCA laboratory ha s
been assigned nationwide responsibility for eutrophication . The overal l
fertilization of algae and other aquatic plants and animals has been calle d
"eutrophication . " In August 1967, Secretary of Interior Udall appointed a
13-man task force to study the problem with the charge of finding the causes ,
effects and controls for eutrophication . This is to be a joint effort of urban industry- agriculture and governmental interests .
111
Needed Studies by Groups Interested in "Used Water "
There is no coordinated effort in the State of Oregon to determin e
all of the causes and effects associated with used agricultural waters .
Studies are needed on a coordinated basis to determine how much pollutio n
is contributed by agricultural sources . As stated previously, the industry type sources can be controlled with present technology and therefore are a
problem for implementation rather than study . In fact, any source tha t
can be identified in terms of quantity and quality can be and should b e
controlled . Studies should only cover the unknown factors such as :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Where does natural surface runoff leave off an d
agricultural drainage begin ?
How do contaminants and nutrients move in soils an d
groundwater ?
How much silt is lost in irrigation and what effect doe s
it have ?
What is the increased salt concentration from irrigatio n
and farm runoff and what effect does it have ?
What is the quantity and what is the extent of biochemical ,
chemical and biological contaminants in return drains ?
How can these contaminants be reduced or eliminated ?
It should be reiterated here that this study and control is for th e
good of agriculture as well as pollution-control agencies . For example ,
the control of farm runoff is as important to downstream farmers as it i s
to other users . Root vegetable irrigation cannot be practiced safely i f
MPN values exceed 5000/100 ml . Livestock can pick up waterborne disease s
and can be killed by drinking water that contains toxic materials such a s
pesticides or toxins from prolific growths of certain blue-green algae .
PRESENT IMPLEMENTATIO N
The Oregon State Sanitary Authority has set standards of wate r
quality with an implementation plan designed to make sure that the standard s
are met . At present, these standards cover mostly interstate waters, bu t
it is contemplated that all streams will have standards within the next tw o
years . All standards are based on the premise that all beneficial uses wil l
be protected and that all wastes will be treated before discharge to any stream .
Newly enacted state laws also add enforcement capabilities to the
policies of the Authority . Two bills stand out as examples of this capability .
Senate Bill 39 defines pollution and wastes and sets a definit e
112
policy for protection of water quality for all beneficial uses . It also pre scribes a permit system for waste discharges, with treatment and reportin g
of results as part of the permit requirement .
Senate Bill 538 puts all "solid wastes" under control of the Sanitatio n
and Engineering Division of the Board of Health . The definition of soli d
wastes includes manure, animal solid and semi-solid waste, dead animal s
and other discarded solid materials .
Agricultural wastes are definitely included in these two bills .
Agricultural people are now defined as pollutors . In general the agricultural-industrial dischargers such as food processors, meat packers, dairies ,
poultry raisers, feed lots and other concentrated wastes producers will be
treated as any other industry . Removal of solids, bio-degradable materia l
and toxic chemicals from such waste discharges will be required .
In the foreseeable future, irrigation operations will also be included if the State of Oregon is to live up to the intent of SB 39 to conserv e
the waters of the state and maintain them in good condition for all beneficia l
uses .
Cooperative programs are in existence for study and control o f
waste discharges from agricultural sources . The Ultimate Needs stud y
that is headed by the Oregon State Water Resources Board has brought to gether representatives from the Oregon State Sanitary Authority an d
agricultural agencies such as the OSU Agricultural Experiment Station ,
county agents, and State and Federal Departments of Agriculture . Th e
programs that have been considered are in their infancy, but a start ha s
been made . Future programs should see interested agencies working together and pooling their resources to study and control pollution fro m
agricultural sources .
CONCLUSIONS
1.
2.
3.
The problems of identifying and controlling agricultural
pollution have been recognized as being necessary t o
protect the agricultural industry and the water quality
of streams within the State of Oregon.
Studies are being set up to describe the extent of th e
problem .
The machinery for cleaning up the problems has bee n
set in motion .
113
PROGNOSTICATIONS
The United States is in an era of public recognition of water pollution . In Oregon this public recognition has manifested itself in terms o f
some enabling legislation, but has not yet shown up as substantial financia l
assistance . When the public desires and the financial-legislative action s
coincide, it is expected that water pollution control will blossom into a
system that will assure that no polluting loads will be allowed to enter an y
water course without first receiving treatment designed to make the wast e
harmless to the body of water receiving it .
This new era of public support will make it mandatory for al l
pollutors to define the extent of their problems, find solutions for the problems and to solve the pollution problems so that they no longer affect othe r
beneficial users of the waters . I predict that the agricultural industry wil l
do their part of this job systematically, starting with the easy part and takin g
a little longer on the impossible .
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Erosion, silt and debris problems will be stopped at the
source by changes in practices .
Irrigation practices will be adjusted to make maximum
use of water with minimal runoff .
Concentrated solid and semi-solid wastes will b e
treated or disposed of so the effect on streams i s
minimized .
Agricultural chemicals will be developed with the ide a
of short life or selective toxicity or biological contro l
will replace chemical control . Perhaps plant-by-plan t
spot application may result in no residue .
Nutrients from fertilizers will be converted to plan t
growth in ponds and harvested for reuse .
With the ingenuity of the agricultural industry centered on the problems ,
the list of possible solutions can go on and on . The solution is in the future .
The job has been launched . We can only hope for an A-OK landing .
SELECTED REFERENCES
1 . Bartsch, A . F ., "Algae as a Source of Oxygen in Waste Treatment, "
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol . 33, 3, Marc h
1961 . (Pp 239-249)
2 . Brannock, L . D ., Dept . of Agricultural Chemistry, Oregon State University, private communication, Table of Pesticide Tolerances ,
July 1966 .
114
3 . Dunstan, Gilbert H ., Donald E . Proctor and Ervin Hindin, "Changes i n
Water Quality Due to Irrigation, " Eleventh PNW Industrial Wast e
Conference, Oregon State University, 1963 .
4 . Fruh, E . Gus, "The Overall Picture of Eutrophication, " Journal WPCF ,
Vol . 39, 9, September 1967 . (Pp 1449-1463 )
5 . Hart, S . A . and P . H . McGauhey, "Wastes Management in the Foo d
Producing and Processing Industries, " Eleventh PNW Industria l
Waste Conference, 1963 .
6 . Henderson, John M . , "Agricultural Land Drainage and Stream Pollution, "
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, November 1962 .
7 . Lake Tahoe Area Council, "Comprehensive Study on Protection of Wate r
Resources of Lake Tahoe Basin through Controlled Waste Disposal, "
Engineering Science, Inc ., 1963 .
8 . Leth, Walter, private communication regarding cooperation with Interi m
Committee on Agriculture, August 1966 .
9 . Loehr, Raymond C . and Robert W . Agnew, "Cattle Wastes -- Pollutio n
and Potential Treatment, " Journal of the Sanitary Engineerin g
Division, ASCE, August 1967 .
10 . Mackenthun, K . M ., W . M . Ingram and Ralph Orges, "Limnologica l
Aspects of Recreational Lakes, " U .S . Dept . of HEW, PHS, 1964 .
11 . Maloney, Thomas E ., "Detergent Phosphorus Effect on Algae, " Journa l
WPCF, Vol . 38, 1, January 1966 . (Pp 38-45 )
12 . Miller, William E . and Jerry C . Tash, "Interim Report, Upper Klamat h
Lake Studies, Oregon, " Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, September 1967 .
13 . Missingham, G . A ., "Occurence of Phosphates in Surface Waters an d
Some Related Problems, " Journal AWWA, February 1967 .
(Pp 183-211 )
14 . Oregon Reclamation Congress Resolution, Salem, Oregon October 23 24, 1967 .
15 . Oregon State Sanitary Authority Internal Report, "Irrigation Retur n
Waste Water, Snake River, " 1964 .
16 . Reid, George K ., Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries, Reinhol d
Publishing Corp ., New York, 1961 .
115
17 . "Report on the Pollution of the Navigable Waters of Moriches Bay an d
Eastern Section of Great South Bay, Long Island, New York, "
FWPCA, New Jersey, 1966 . (Pp 22-24 )
18 . Sylvester, R . O . and Robert W . Seabloom, "A Study on the Characte r
and Significance of Irrigation Return Flows in the Yakima Rive r
Basin, " 2nd Edition, May 1963, University of Washington .
116