How Can Local Community Organizations Successfully Implement National
Public Service Campaigns?: An Examination of The Office of National Drug
Control Policy’s “Above the Influence” Campaign
Elizabeth Marie Ritonia
A Capstone Project
Presented to the Faculty of the School of Communication in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Public Communication
Supervisor: Professor Pallavi Damani Kumar
April 26, 2012
ii Copyright ©
Elizabeth Marie Ritonia
2012
iii Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Maria Gallagher, Joy Lammie, and Liz Mahar from Fleishman-Hillard for
providing the valuable information that ultimately made the survey research component of this
capstone project possible. I would also like to thank the representatives from the youth-serving
organizations that ATI engaged with who completed my survey. As always, to my family and
friends—I have appreciated your support throughout this entire endeavor. Lastly, I would like to
thank Professor Pallavi Damani Kumar for her continued guidance throughout this process.
iv Abstract
The Office of National Drug Control Policy’s “Above the Influence” campaign (ATI) has used a
two-tier messaging strategy to successfully engage local, community organizations in support of
the campaign’s goals of making youth aware of the environmental influences that may lead
them to abuse drugs and alcohol and ultimately of reducing youth substance abuse across the
United States. Through a historical review of the use of community organization as a tool for
social change, an examination of empowerment theory, an overview of various substance abuse
prevention interventions, and a survey administered to representatives from the youth-serving
organizations that ATI engaged with in support of the campaign’s goals this capstone project
aims to develop a set of best practices that national public service campaigns can use to engage
local, community organizations in support of a campaign’s goals in the future.
v Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………..1-3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………….4-19
Historical perspectives on the effectiveness of community organization
as a tool for social change……………………………………………………………………….4-9
Barriers to creating effective community coalitions…………………………………….6-7
Features of successful community coalitions…………………………………………...7-9
Theoretical Review: why community coalitions can function as facilitators
of social change………………………………………………………………………………10-12
Empowerment Theory………………………………………………………………...10-12
Impacts of localized initiatives: in-school, community-based and
combination programs………………………………………………………………………..13-18
In-school substance abuse prevention programs…………………………………….14-15
Community-based substance abuse prevention programs…………………………...15-16
Combination substance abuse prevention programs…………………………………16-18
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….19
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………….20-21
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS……………………………………………………………...22-31
Funding……………………………………………………………………………….22-23
ATI Summit…………………………………………………………………………...24-25
ATI Webinars…………………………………………………………………………25-26
Event Support………………………………………………………………………...26-27
Open-ended Question: Themes……………………………………………………….28-31
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………32-37
Best Practices………………………………………………………………………...36-37
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………….38-40
vi REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………….41-44
Appendix A: Youth-Serving Organizations………………………………………………….45-46
Appendix B: Online Survey Questionnaire…………………………………………………..47-48
Appendix C: “Tag It”…………………………………………………………………………….49
Appendix D: “Be It”……………………………………………………………………………..50
Appendix E: Teen Expressions Art Project……………………………………………………...51
Appendix F: Drug Free Communities Support Program……………………………………..52-53
vii List of Tables
Table 1: Crosstabulation of designation as member of ONDCP’s Drug Free Communities
Support Program and ability to implement and sustain ATI with available resources………......23
Table 2: Respondents’ attitudes about attending the ATI Summit and presentation of the ATI
toolkit…………………………………………………………………………………………….24
Table 3: Respondents’ attitudes about the impact of testimonials from pilot communities……..25
Table 4: Respondents’ attitudes about ATI webinars…………………………………………....26
Table 5: Respondents’ attitudes about ATI support for community events……………………..27
Introduction
The origins of community organization in the United States can be traced back to the end
of the industrial revolution in 1870 (Fisher, 1984). During the industrial revolution the practices
of buying and selling goods grew away from transactions at the local, village level and shifted to
national markets. The first neighborhood organization movement began in the early 1900s, and
the activists involved in this movement sought to solve the problems that had been caused by this
sudden economic and cultural shift. Concerned citizens felt that local problems began to matter
less and less to the corporate leaders who controlled the national markets (Fisher, 1984), and
they organized as communities to make sure their voices were heard.
Community organizations have been credited with serving as intermediaries between
community members and large organizations and have been used as a tool to solve community
problems (Acosta & Chavis, 2007). Many movements have been prominent in the history of
community organization, examples include the Civil Rights Movement, the growth of
electoralism in the 1980s, and community measures taken to address the spread of AIDS from
the late 1980s to early 1990s (Miller et al., 1990). During the Civil Rights movement middleclass black leaders organized mass movements of non-violent protest against the injustices they
were experiencing. These movements did not arise from organization within a specific
community, but from organization within a shared, “beloved community” (Fisher, 1984). Miller
et al. (1990) explain that in the early 1980s many community movements involved influencing
legislation and endorsing political candidates; from the late 1980s to the early 1990s
communities organized to form AIDS victim support groups, because they felt that the federal
government was not taking sufficient action to address the issue.
2 Historically community organization has been an effective tool for social change in the
United States; specific to this capstone project is the effect that community organization can have
on substance abuse. In an editorial published in the Journal of Alcohol & Drug Education Manoj
Sharma wrote that “organizing community action is a fundamental approach for prevention,
control, and rehabilitation from alcohol, tobacco and other drugs” (2004). It is because of this
belief that national public service campaigns have tried to enlist community organizers in
support of campaigns’ goals.
The Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) launched a National Youth AntiDrug Media Campaign from 1998 to 2004 called “My Anti-Drug.” The results of research on the
effectiveness of this campaign indicated that although the campaign achieved high levels of
message exposure to the target audience, there was no evidence that this exposure led to a
change in youth’s attitudes about marijuana use; the results indicated that there was no change in
marijuana use among the target audience from 2000 to 2004 (Hornik et al., 2008). In 2005
ONDCP launched its rebranded National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign with the new name
“Above the Influence” (ATI) with a primary focus on marijuana use. ATI was re-launched after
an eight-month hiatus in June 2010 at which point it included broad substance messaging and a
two-tier messaging strategy to include both national advertising and youth-targeted efforts at the
local, community level. Evidence from a study of more than 3,000 students nationwide on the
effectiveness of this revamped campaign indicate that at the end of 8th grade 12% of students
who had not reported seeing the campaign used marijuana compared to 8% of students who had
reported exposure to the campaign. Due the success of ATI’s revamped campaign and inclusion
of a two-tier messaging strategy, an effort to determine which strategies led to the success of the
3 campaign’s engagement with local, community organizations would be instructive for future
national public service campaigns that wish to implement this two-tier messaging strategy.
Evidence from past national public service campaigns has shown that engaging at a local,
community level can contribute to the success of a campaign (Dejong & Wallack, 1999). Many
national campaigns have sought to use this two-tier model of communication, but not all have
been successful. This capstone project will explore the vital steps that a national public service
campaign must take to engage local, community organizations in support of the campaign’s
goals. The project will look specifically at the efforts of ONDCP’s revamped “Above the
Influence” (ATI) media campaign to determine the reasons why ATI was able to successfully
engage community organizations to advance the goals of the national campaign.
This paper will review literature that falls into three categories: historical perspectives on
the effectiveness of community organization as a tool for social change, the theories that suggest
why community coalitions can function as facilitators of social change, and the impacts that
specific, localized initiatives have had on social change (specifically the prevention of substance
abuse). Next, quantitative data gathered from the community organizations that ATI engaged
with will present evidence for the methods that proved to be the most effective for the successful
implementation of the campaign’s two-tier messaging strategy. Finally, this capstone will present
the best practices a national public service campaign should use in order to engage local,
community organizations in support of the campaign’s goal.
4 Literature Review
This section includes literature that falls into three categories: historical perspectives on
the effectiveness of community organization as a tool for social change, the theories that suggest
why community coalitions can function as facilitators of social change, and the impacts that
specific, localized initiatives have had on social change (specifically the prevention of substance
abuse).
Section I. Historical perspectives on the effectiveness of community organization as
a tool for social change
Fisher (1994) suggested that historically a reflective relationship between national
happenings and community organizing movements can be identified. Pilisuk et al. (1996)
contributed to the understanding of why communities organize by suggesting that individuals
who have been on the outside of mainstream power have a history of working together to make
their voices heard.
Literature that discusses the benefits and shortcomings of community organization for
social change has included an emphasis on community coalitions. This capstone project will
borrow Himmelman’s (2001) definition of a community coalition as it is cited in Kadushin et
al.’s (2005) article on the difficulties of forming effective community coalitions:
The term “community” coalition refers to a wide spectrum of social initiatives and
typically includes most of the following elements: an intervention intended to change or
reform individuals and organizations, usually dealing with a social welfare, public health,
or educational problem, by bringing together a number of organizations and other
stakeholders and attempting to coordinate their actions through networking, cooperation,
and collaboration (Himmelman, 2001) (Kadushin et al., 2005, p. 256).
5 Wolff (2001) provides reasons as to why there has been a greater appearance of
community coalitions across the country in the past thirty years. First, Wolff (2001) proposes
that a community coalition allows for the expansion of an intervention to the whole community;
the scholar provides an example of how a child who is participating in an after-school substance
abuse program would not benefit from billboards in his community that promote alcohol use, and
the scholar explains that a community coalition would be able to address such an issue. Next,
Wolff (2001) explains that creation of community coalitions may be due to the transfer of federal
programs to local governments as well as “cutbacks in government funding for basic human
needs” (p. 170). The scholar’s final two reasons for a rise in community coalition creation are
that the health and human services system has become too complex to address community needs
and there has been a need to increase civic engagement.
There have been critics and advocates of the effectiveness of community coalitions for
social change. Zakocs & Edwards (2006) suggest that the use of community coalitions is
appealing because “it resonates with American values of democracy by encouraging citizens to
seek solutions to their own problems” (p. 351). In opposition, Kadushin et al. (2005) explain that
while there is extensive literature that supports the use of community coalitions for social change
there is little research evidence to support the claims. Scholars whose viewpoints differ on the
effectiveness of community coalitions for social change have found common ground in
discussions about the pitfalls of unsuccessful community coalitions and the qualities possessed
by successful community coalitions.
6 Barriers to creating effective community coalitions
In order to reflect on the qualities that a successful community coalition possesses it is
important to first understand the barriers to creating an effective community coalition. Kadushin
et al. (2005) suggest that it is difficult to create an effective community coalition because
coalition leaders often struggle to define a “community,” engage political systems, integrate all
races, classes, ethnicities etc. into the intervention, and overcome pre-existing attitudes about
past coalition efforts. While these barriers are difficult to overcome, Wandersman & Florin
(2003) present four community-coalition interventions that proved to be successful, these
interventions include: adolescent pregnancy and healthy births, immunization, arson prevention,
and substance abuse prevention. The scholars propose that while the organizers of the preceding
interventions documented positive results, the difficulties of other community coalitions to create
social change echo Kadushin et al.’s (2005) explanation of community coalitions being complex
entities that will fail if not properly maintained. Zakocs & Edwards (2006) further contribute to
the understanding of the complexity of community coalitions with an outline of required
maintenance, which includes:
Multiple coalition tasks, such as recruiting members, identifying lead agencies,
generating resources, establishing decision-making procedures, fostering leadership,
building the capacity of members to participate, encouraging consensus-based planning
for action, implementing agreed-upon actions by negotiating with key stakeholders in the
community, refining strategy based on evaluation data, and establishing mechanisms for
institutionalizing coalitions and/or their strategies (p. 351).
To summarize, Zakocs & Edwards (2006) suggest that in order to create and sustain an
effective community coalition there are many activities that must be maintained; maintenance of
these activities has proven to be a barrier to creating an effective community coalition.
7 The research of the scholars presented above has provided a foundation for understanding
the barriers to creating an effective community coalition, mainly that a “community” is hard to
define, coalitions are complex entities that require maintenance, and sometimes communities
have pre-existing attitudes about past coalition efforts. Next, this capstone project will present
literature that discusses the features of effective community coalitions in order to build on that
foundation.
Features of successful community coalitions
Many scholars have worked to determine the elements that lead to a successful
community coalition. Cuoto (1998) uses Alexander Chauncey’s (1967) classifications of
representation and participation in a group to suggest three types of representation that should be
found in a community coalition: technical, modal, and sociopolitical. The scholar describes
technical representation as the inclusion of individuals with extensive knowledge about a group
(but they are not members of that group), modal representatives have demographic
characteristics in common with a group, and sociopolitical representatives act as delegates for the
group. Foster-Fishman et al. (2001) expand on these three types of representation with a
contribution of four capacities involved with a successful community coalition: member capacity,
relational capacity, organizational capacity, and programmatic capacity. The scholars explain
that a coalition’s member capacity is an essential element because the coalition’s “membership is
widely regarded as its primary asset” (Foster-Fishman et al., 2001, p. 243). The scholars continue
to explain that relational capacity is necessary to build social relationships to achieve the
coalition’s goals; these relationships are both internal and external to the coalition. FosterFishman et al. (2001) characterize the need for organizational capacity as one that decides
8 whether the coalition will succeed, “Ultimately, if a coalition is to survive, it must have the
organizational capacity to engage members in needed work tasks to produce desired products” (p.
253). Finally, the scholars explain that a coalition needs programmatic capacity to implement
and sustain the programs created to have an impact on the community (Foster-Fishman et al.,
2001).
Building on the representation and capacities required for effective community coalitions
that have been presented above, Valente et al. (2007) provide five structural characteristics of an
effective community coalition:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
A clearly defined structure
Professional representations that reflect the make-up of the community
Diversity among key stakeholders
Active participation by coalition members
Membership tenure
To further understand community coalitions Wolff (2001) contributes seven ways that an
effective community coalition should function. The following list includes each of these
functions:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Holistic and comprehensive so as not to be constrained from approaching all
aspects of an issue
Flexible and responsive to allow for modification of the coalition’s strategic
plans if needed
Build a sense of community
Create and enhance resident engagement in community life
Be a vehicle for community empowerment
Promote diversity as a celebrated characteristic of the community as a whole
The literature presented above provides an understanding of the increased appearance of
community coalitions in the past 30 years, the barriers to creating an effective community
coalition, and the features of successful community coalitions. Next, this capstone project will
9 present literature that discusses the theories associated with the potential of community coalitions
to create social change.
10 Section II. Theoretical Review: why community coalitions can function as facilitators of
social change
In his explanation of the six ways that an effective community coalition should function
Wolf (2001) suggests that the coalition should be a vehicle for community empowerment.
Fawcett et al. (1995) define community empowerment broadly as “the process of gaining
influence over conditions that matter to people who share neighborhoods, workplaces,
experiences, or concerns” (p. 679). The following section of this literature review will present a
theoretical foundation to suggest how community coalitions can serve as vehicles for social
change.
Empowerment Theory
The original discussions of empowerment theory have been attributed to the Brazilian
educator Paulo Freire (Hipilito-Delgado & Lee, 2007). Hipilito-Deglado & Lee (2007) explain
that Freire dedicated his life to educating others on aiding oppressed and marginalized people so
that they may experience liberation. Perkins & Zimmerman (1995) explain that there are
numerous definitions for empowerment, but Rappaport (1981) suggests that empowerment is a
concept that ties personal strengths and abilities, established systems, and pre-emptive behavior
to social change. Gutierrez (1995) explains that theories of empowerment revolve around the
idea that beliefs about the self can have an impact on individual, social, and community change.
Perkins & Zimmerman (1995) explain that empowerment theory as a construct “connects
mental health to mutual help and the struggle to create a responsive community” (p. 569). The
scholars continue to explain that empowerment research involves identifying the capabilities of a
11 community instead of its risk factors as well as looking into the environmental influences of
social problems instead of blaming the victims of those problems.
Persily & Hildebrandt (2008) extend empowerment theory with a discussion of how the
construct can be used to create change within communities. The scholars explain that
“community empowerment theory was developed to give direction to improving health in
communities” (p. 131). To guide the remainder of this section the capstone will borrow
Wallerstein’s (1992) definition of community empowerment theory as it is cited in Reininger et
al. (2012). Wallerstein (1992) describes community empowerment theory as a “social action
process by which individuals, communities, and organizations gain mastery over their lives in
the context of changing their social and political environment” (Reininger et al., 2012, p. 34). In
other words, empowerment theory proposes that social change can occur when individuals,
communities and organizations take ownership of the social problems that they hope to solve.
Cummings (1997) proposes that the use of the empowerment model in collegiate
communities may be a successful method for reducing substance abuse. The scholar explains that
substance abuse is a problem that has many different dimensions; therefore, a prevention
program must be designed to address each of these dimensions. Cummings (1997) presents six
dimensions of the empowerment model that indicate why the construct may contribute to the
prevention of substance abuse. These dimensions include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Definition and ownership of the problem
Increased participation (including the development of skills/competencies)
Developing a sense of community
Identifying what is empowering about a program, interaction, or intervention
Examining the process of change over time
Incorporating the environment surrounding the problem to contribute to a better
understanding of the problem’s context
12 The scholar contends that the empowerment of the program’s targeted population is the key to
successful substance abuse prevention programs.
As previously stated, Wolff (2001) explained that a successful community coalition
should function as a vehicle for empowerment. The literature reviewed above provides an
understanding of empowerment theory, and Cummings (1997) presents dimensions of the
empowerment model that suggest why its inclusion in substance abuse prevention programming
could lead to successful interventions. The next section of this literature review will examine
substance abuse prevention interventions that are in-school, community-based, and combination
programs.
13 Section III. Impacts of localized initiatives: in-school, community-based and combination
programs
Because this capstone project will examine ONDCP’s “Above the Influence” campaign,
this section of the literature review will focus on research related to efforts to combat youth
substance abuse. Researchers have sought to determine the effects of in-school, communitybased, and combination substance abuse prevention programs (Kelly et al. 1996). Kelly et al.
(1996) explain that research on the effectiveness of school and community anti-substance abuse
campaigns is due to the belief that national media campaigns have limitations, including an
inability to customize to the issues, strengths etc. of individual communities. Wakefield et al.
(2010) expand on the limitations of national mass media campaigns explaining that exposure to
messages in national mass media campaigns is passive and usually a result of routine media use.
Wellings & Macdowell (2000) further develop the understanding of the limitations of national
mass media campaigns by suggesting that a mass media approach is less effective for presenting
complex information and teaching the skills that may be needed to achieve the campaign’s goals.
Due to the limitations of national mass media campaigns several scholars have sought to
determine which types of programs are the most effective for reducing and eliminating youth
substance abuse. Ellickson et al. (2003) propose that in-school drug prevention programs are a
critical component of youth anti-drug efforts, while Hill (2008) explains that there is a need for
substance abuse resistance programs that go beyond what is provided in a classroom, and
Diamond et al. (2009) present the benefits of multi-level programs that are both school and
community-based. The following section of this literature review will present literature that has
evaluated each of these three approaches.
14 In-school substance abuse prevention programs
Creators of substance abuse prevention programs have put great emphasis on the
potential of school-based communication campaigns. Slater et al. (2006) suggest that this
emphasis is a result of the belief that the influences that lead an adolescent to drug abuse occur in
a variety of social settings, including school. Therefore, substance abuse prevention programs
should also take place in these social settings. Burke (2002) presents research that suggests that
the school environment may have an effect on youth’s decisions to participate in risky behavior
involving substance use. The scholar goes on to suggest that a school that provides effective
substance abuse prevention programs may reduce the likelihood of its students experimenting
with drugs and alcohol after school hours (Burke, 2002).
The effectiveness of in-school substance abuse prevention programs has been debated
following research results that indicate that one of the most well-known in-school curriculums,
D.A.R.E (Drug Abuse Resistance Education), has shown little evidence of decreasing drug and
alcohol use among students exposed to the program (Burke, 2002). Despite negative short-term
and long-term results evaluating the effectiveness of D.A.R.E, there are scholars who have
discussed the merits of other specific in-school substance abuse prevention programs.
Ellickson et al. (2003) present Project ALERT, which the scholars contend was one of the
“most successful evidence-based…drug curriculum for middle school students” (p. 1830). The
scholars explain that through motivating students against drug use and providing them with the
skills needed to turn that motivation into resistance behavior, Project ALERT worked to prevent
and reduce cigarette and marijuana use among 8th graders across a range of 19% to 39%.
Gottfredson et al. (2009) explain that due to pressures placed on school systems to
increase academic achievement, the ability to offer in-school substance abuse prevention
15 curriculum is on the decline. Therefore, greater emphasis has been put on after-school,
community-based programs.
Community-based substance abuse prevention programs
Although there is evidence that some school-based prevention programs have led to a
decrease in substance abuse among youth, Saxe et al. (1997) explain that community-based
substance abuse prevention programs have been created around the belief that substance abuse is
influenced by both physical and social environments. Ager & Parquet (2008) explain that experts
have presented value in community-based programs combating substance abuse. The scholars
propose several reasons for this value: youth are more responsive to programs in which they
have chosen to participate, community-based programs provide more opportunities for parental,
familial, religious, etc. involvement, and community ownership of the results of such a program
is more likely.
Durlak & Weissberg (2007) explain that although research on the effectiveness of afterschool programs has been limited, evidence has shown that when the program consists of
research-based content it may be able to reduce problem behaviors (including substance use). St.
Pierre et al. (1992) propose that there is value in extending beyond “single-setting, limited-time
prevention efforts often associated with school programs, to create broader-based community
involvement in prevention” (p. 675). The scholars promote the success of one such program: the
after-school Stay SMART program, a component of SMART Moves, which was created by Boys
& Girls Clubs of America. Stay SMART was designed to give youth a broad set of skills to resist
peer pressure, substance abuse, and early sexual activity.
16 The third category, combination in-school and community-based programs can be drawn
from Hill’s (2008) identification of the four most commonly used types of prevention programs,
which includes: education and skills training with youth and their families, media campaigns,
community policies and laws aimed at reducing substance availability, and school policies that
aim to do the same thing. The following section of this literature review will focus on prevention
programs that have combined some of these approaches.
Combination substance abuse prevention programs
Slater et al. (2006) contribute to the understanding of why experts promote prevention
efforts that combine in-school and community-based programs. The scholars suggest that the
factors that lead to substance use among youth are present in a variety of settings, “including
experience in school and the larger community” (Slater et al., 2006, p.157). Flay (2000) furthers
this reasoning as it relates to effective substance abuse prevention efforts by suggesting that
programs should take place in the environments where youth are influenced to take up substance
use, and Hill (2008) supports this assessment and explains that prevention programs need to
target all levels of “adolescents’ social systems” (p. 451).
Adelman and Taylor (1997) suggest a model for the dispersal of education reforms that
may serve as a theoretical foundation for the remainder of this section. The scholars’ model
includes four phases: creating community readiness, initial implementation, institutionalization,
and ongoing evolution and renewal. Phase one, creating readiness, includes securing community
and stakeholder support and prepping the environment for change. Phase two, initial
implementation, involves providing program staff with the resources and guidance they need to
implement the program. Phase three, institutionalization, requires that there be changes made to
17 the system that the program targets through ownership of the new program. The final phase,
ongoing evolution and renewal, requires continued program development. Jowers et al. (2007)
suggest that this model can be applied to substance abuse prevention efforts and they present
Keep a Clear Mind (KACM), a model take home drug education program that targeted kids ages
8-12 and their parents.
Jowers et al. (2007) explain that the Anne Arundel County Public School System
(AACPS), located in-between Baltimore and Washington, DC, adopted KACM. Consistent with
Adelman and Taylor’s (1997) model, AACPS prepared their community for the program’s
implementation by incorporating representatives from the district’s Safe and Drug-Free Schools
Division and the county’s Local Management Board, which included representation from each of
the district’s youth-oriented agencies. In the second phase AACPS teachers received training
from the district-wide KACM facilitator. The third phase involved shifting leadership of the
program to community members. The Local Management Board funded the program for the four
years it was active, but responsibility for the program was given to the school districts. Jowers et
al. (2007) suggest that an important part of the third phase was maintaining enthusiasm about the
program in the community. The scholars explain that public events and positive media coverage
were tactics that the KACM program facilitator used to sustain enthusiasm. Finally, Jowers et al.
(2007) explain that AACPS was diligent in its evaluation of KACM in order to fulfill the fourth
phase of the model. A post intervention evaluation of KACM revealed that students reported that
they spoke more frequently with their parents about drug use, and felt like they had a greater
ability to resist the temptation of drugs as well as an increased understanding of the harm that
drugs and alcohol can do to their bodies after participating in KACM (Jowers et al., 2007, p. 82).
While the adoption and implementation of KACM shows consistencies with Adelman and
18 Taylor’s (1997) model there have been programs that take the combination school based and
community prevention approach one step further.
Pentz et al.’s (1989) Midwestern Prevention Project (MPP) employed a combination of
in-school and community-based prevention efforts in Kansas City. The program consisted of an
in-school skills training program (which functioned as the hub), the mass media, parent
engagement, community organization, and health policy programming to reduce and prevent
drug use by adolescents as well as drug use by their parents and other community members.
Scholars from the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence at the Institute of Behavior
Science at the University of Colorado Boulder present the arguments for a community-based
prevention approach. The scholars explain that such an approach can counteract the many social
influences that lead adolescents to engage in drug use, reinforce social norms for nonuse across
many segments within the community, and provide a sustained intervention, which most strictly
school-based programs are not able to accomplish. An evaluation of MPP has indicated
reductions of up to 40 percent in daily smoking, marijuana use, and smaller reductions in alcohol
use among high school students (Pentz et al., 1998).
Many substance abuse prevention programs that combine school and community based
approaches have been successful in efforts to change attitudes about drug and alcohol use and
ultimately decrease drug and alcohol use among youth. Such programs are able to focus efforts
within an environment in which youth spend most of their day (Slater et al., 2006) as well as the
physical and social environments in which adolescents may be influenced to take up substance
use (Flay, 2000; Saxe et al., 1997).
19 Conclusion
A review of the literature on community coalitions, empowerment theory, and in-school,
community-based, and combination substance abuse intervention efforts provides the context in
which the rest of this capstone should be viewed. Successful community coalitions have been
able to create social change because they function as vehicles for community empowerment
(Wolff, 2001). Community empowerment has proven to be a key part of substance abuse
prevention efforts, because the intervention’s targeted population must take ownership of the
problem, and the program must work to solve the problem in the context of the population’s
environment (Cummings, 1997). Finally, substance abuse prevention interventions that combine
in-school and community-based programming tactics have led to the reduction of youth
substance abuse because they counteract the many social influences that lead adolescents to
engage in drug use, reinforce social norms for nonuse across many segments within the
community, and provide a sustained intervention. Understanding the impact that community
organizations, which may be part of a community coalition, can have on social change, “Above
the Influence” engaged with more than 40 youth-serving organizations in over 20 communities
across the country in support of the national campaign’s goal to inspire youth to live above their
environmental influences and ultimately reduce youth substance abuse. The following section of
this capstone will present research findings that gauge the attitudes of representatives from
community organizations about the tactics that ATI used to fulfill the second tier of its two-tier
messaging strategy and ultimately reveal how each of these tactics contributed to the engagement
of community organizations in support of ATI’s goals.
20 Methodology
The research for this capstone involved a survey that was distributed to the youth-serving
organizations across the country that were engaged by the “Above the Influence” campaign to
determine which tactics employed by ATI most successfully advanced the second tier of the
campaign’s two-tier messaging strategy. The survey was created and administered using
Qualtrics software. Survey respondents were identified through an examination of the
campaign’s 2011 Fact Sheet and a meeting with representatives from Fleishman-Hillard--the
communications agency that has worked with ONDCP on the ATI campaign since it won the
contract in 1998. The survey was sent to the over 40 youth-serving organizations across the
country that ATI identified as partner organizations and has engaged with from 2010 to the
present, specifically regional Boys & Girls Clubs, YMCAs, ASPIRAs, and additional local
organizations. For a complete list of these organizations see Appendix A. Contact information
for representatives from each of these organizations was gathered online through the
organizations’ websites, and the survey link was emailed to as many contacts as could be
identified. The survey was distributed to 115 people and 27 responses were received, providing a
23% response rate.
Survey questions were developed after interviewing representatives from FleishmanHillard; this interview provided information about the specific tactics that ATI used to engage
community organizations. One of these specific tactics included holding a summit during which
representatives from community organizations were introduced to the ATI toolkit and were
provided an overview, heard testimonials from the ATI pilot communities, and learned how they
could bring the campaign back to their communities. Another tactic was the toolkit and its
availability online. The toolkit contains an overview of the campaign, guidelines for campaign
21 activities, and feedback tools. One of the campaign’s initial activities is called “Tag It.” This
activity was created to increase youth awareness about how different influences in their
environment may play a role in the decisions that they make. The ATI toolkit provides an event
primer resource to ensure that the activity resonates with youth. Respondents referenced the “Tag
It” activity in their survey responses to the open-ended question (discussed below). Additional
tactics included webinars and encouraging communities to incorporate ATI into community
events.
Survey questions incorporated the information that was gained during this interview and
sought to gauge the respondents’ feelings about the impact that each of these tactics had on their
organization’s choice to implement and ability to sustain ATI in their community. It is important
to note that 8 of the communities that ATI engaged with had received designation from ONDCP
as being part of the Drug Free Communities Support Program1. The survey sought to distinguish
between respondents whose communities have received this designation and respondents whose
communities have not received this designation in order to explore how additional funding might
change respondents’ attitudes about tactics employed by ATI. The survey took approximately 5
minutes to complete. For more information about the survey please see Appendix B. It is
important to note the limitations of the research. Contact information for representatives from the
youth-serving organizations was collected from each organization’s website, in some cases the
website only provided a generic “info” email address, therefore it is possible that some
representatives may not have received the link to the survey.
11
The Drug Free Communities Support Program (DFC) is a Federal grant program that provides funding to community-­‐based coalitions that organize to prevent youth substance use. 22 Findings
The major findings of this survey have been separated into four different categories based
on responses: funding, involvement in the ATI Summit, involvement in the ATI Webinar, and
event support. Respondents were also given the opportunity to respond to an open-ended
question about their organization’s involvement in ATI. From those responses four themes
emerged: the importance of a highly visible and recognized national campaign, the importance of
a simple and generic message, the ability of a campaign to inspire action, and the importance of
free, easily accessible materials. Responses to this open-ended question also revealed negative
attitudes about ATI’s efforts to engage with community organizations.
Funding
Respondents were asked to indicate whether or not their community is part ONDCP’s
Drug Free Communities Support Program (DFC). Sixty-one percent of respondents indicated
that that have received the DFC designation, and 39% of respondents indicated that they have not.
Respondents were also asked whether or not they felt that they were able to implement
and sustain the ATI campaign and activities with the resources available to their organization.
Table 1 (below) shows a cross tabulation between respondents’ indication of whether or not they
have received DFC designation and respondents’ feelings about their organization’s ability to
implement and sustain ATI with the resources available to their organization.
23 Table 1.
Crosstabulation of designation as member of ONDCP’s Drug Free Communities Support
Program and ability to implement and sustain ATI with available resources
Do you feel that your organization has been able to implement and sustain the ATI
campaign and activities with the resources available to your organization?
Has your community
received designation as a
member of the Drug Free
Communities Support
Program from The Office
of National Drug Control
Policy?
Yes
Somewhat
No
N
Yes
9 (53%)
6 (35%)
2 (12%)
17 (100%)
No
3 (27%)
1 (9%)
7 (64%)
11 (100%)
N
12 (43%)
7 (25%)
9 (31%)
28 (100%)
*p < .01
Table 1 shows that while 53% of respondents whose communities have received DFC
designation responded that yes, they feel that they have been able to implement and sustain the
ATI campaign and activities with the resources available to their organization, only 27% of
respondents whose communities have not received this designation felt that they have been able
to implement and sustain the campaign and activities. The table also reveals that while only 12%
of respondents from communities with DFC designations responded that they do not feel that
their organization has been able to implement and sustain the ATI campaign and activities with
the resources available to their organization, 64% of respondents from communities without
DFC designation do not feel that their organization has been able to implement and sustain the
campaign and activities with resources available to their organization.
24 ATI Summit
Respondents were asked whether or not they or a representative from their organization
attended the ATI Summit. Thirty-nine percent of respondents indicated that they attended the
summit and 61% of respondents indicated that they did not attend the summit. Respondents who
attended the ATI summit were asked about the impact that this event had on their abilities to
implement ATI in their communities. Table 2 (below) shows these responses.
Table 2.
“If you or a representative from your organization attended an ATI Summit, do you feel that by attending
this summit and being walked through the ATI toolkit your organization was better able to implement the
campaign?”
N
I feel that attending the summit
and being walked through the ATI toolkit
was a key reason why my organization
was able to implement the campaign
I feel that attending the summit
and being walked through the ATI
toolkit was somewhat of a reason why
my organization was able to implement
the campaign.
I feel that I would not have been able
to implement the campaign without attending
the summit and being walked through the
toolkit.
N
6 (60%)
4 (40%)
0 (0%)
10 (100%)
Table 2 reveals that the majority of respondents felt that attending the ATI Summit where
they were introduced to the ATI toolkit was a key reason their organization was able to
implement the campaign in their community.
25 Respondents who attended the ATI summit were also asked about the impact that the
testimonials from the ATI pilot communities had on their choice to implement the ATI
Campaign.
Table 3.
“If you or a representative from your organization attended an ATI Summit, how much of an impact did
the testimonials of representatives from the pilot programs in Bronx, NY, Milwaukee, WI, and Portland,
Oregon have on your decision to implement ATI in your community?”
N
The testimonials had a profound
impact and were a key reason why
my organization chose to implement
ATI in our community
The testimonials had somewhat of
an impact and were somewhat of a reason
why my organization chose to implement
ATI in our community.
The testimonials had no impact and
did not influence my organization’s
choice to implement ATI in our community.
N
2 (20%)
5 (50%)
3 (30%)
10 (100%)
Table 3 shows that the majority of respondents who attended the ATI Summit felt that
testimonials from the three ATI pilot communities had somewhat of an impact and were
somewhat of a reason why their organization chose to implement the ATI campaign in their
community.
ATI Webinars
Respondents were asked whether or not they have participated in an ATI webinar. Sixtyfour percent of respondents indicated that they have participated in an ATI webinar and 36% of
26 respondents indicated that they have not. Similar to the survey question featured in Table 2,
Table 4 (below) shows respondents’ answers to a question about whether or not they feel that
participation in a webinar has helped them to implement and sustain ATI in their communities.
Table 4.
“If you or a representative from your organization has participated in an ATI webinar do you feel that
participating in this webinar has contributed to your organization's ability to implement and sustain the
ATI campaign?”
N
Yes
9 (47%)
Somewhat
7 (37%)
No
3 (16%)
N
19 (100%)
Table 3 reveals that 84% of respondents felt that participating in a webinar has
contributed or somewhat contributed to their organization’s ability to implement and sustain the
ATI campaign, while only 16% of respondents felt that participating in a webinar has not
contributed to their organization’s ability to implement and sustain the ATI campaign. It is also
important to note that while only 39% of respondents indicated that they attended the ATI
summit, 64% of respondents indicated that they have participated in an ATI webinar.
Event Support
Respondents were asked whether or not they have participated in an event in their
community in which ATI was incorporated. Sixty-seven percent of respondents indicated that
they have participated in an event in their community in which ATI was incorporated and 33% of
respondents indicated that they have not. Respondents were then asked whether or not they felt
27 that representatives from the national ATI campaign played an important role in the event's
success. Table 5 shows responses to this question.
Table 5.
“If your organization has participated in an event in the community in which the ATI campaign
was incorporated, do you feel that representatives from the national ATI campaign played an
important role in the event’s success? (i.e. did representatives attend? Did the national
campaign send merchandise?)”
N
Yes
9 (35%)
Somewhat
5 (19%)
No
12 (46%)
N
26 (100%)
Table 5 shows that 46% of respondents felt that the success of a community event in
which ATI was incorporated did not rely on participation of representatives from the national
ATI Campaign, while 35% of respondents felt that the representatives from the national ATI
campaign played an important role in their community event’s success. Additional cross
tabulations revealed:
•
82% of respondents who reported that they attended the ATI summit also
participated in a community event in which ATI was incorporated.
•
54% of respondents who did not attend the ATI summit participated in an event
in their community in which ATI was incorporated.
•
88% of respondents who reported that they had participated in an ATI webinar
also participated in an event in their community in which ATI was incorporated.
•
14% of the respondents who reported that they had not participated in a webinar
participated in a community event in which ATI was incorporated.
28 Themes
Respondents were also given the opportunity to respond to an open-ended question
asking: “What do you think has ultimately led to your organization’s choice to adopt, implement,
and sustain the ATI campaign in your community? (Please use this space to say anything you
think might be important about the national campaign’s effort to engage your organization.)”
Four themes emerged from the responses to this question: the important of a highly visible and
widely recognized national campaign, the importance of a simple and generic message, the
ability of a campaign to inspire action, and the importance of free, easily accessible materials.
The importance of a highly visible and widely recognized national campaign
Respondents explained that “youth instantly recognize the symbols and engage with it
easily” and “teens are familiar with ATI from ads they consider cool and attention grabbing on
channels like MTV.” Other respondents explained that their organization has been able to secure
youth participation due to the “connection to a national campaign,” the “fact that the ATI brand
is widely recognized by youth,” and “success with the ATI/MTV Unwasted Weekend2.” One
respondent explained:
By joining a campaign that is recognized nationally, it has eased access in our
community via buy-in from community leaders and has definitely helped us in garnering
the youth excitement. The teens in our community want to associate themselves with the
‘upward arrow’ largely due to the fact that the campaign has been so successful and
authentic on a national level.
2
MTV’s Unwasted Weekend Challenge was an opportunity for youth to submit an inspirational video featuring their “most epic” weekend. The winning videos were given MTV’s MADE treatment and featured on MTV. For more information visit: http://www.mtv.com/asm/ondcp/. 29 Finally, another respondent explained that “having the national media spotlight which
allows our students to be part of something bigger really has helped our students be active
participants in the campaign.”
The importance of a simple and generic message
Many respondents wrote about ATI’s simple and generic message. One respondent
explained that “the message is simple and applies generically to all negative behaviors. By not
specifying one drug or use, we have been able to expand the focus of the ATI campaign to all
unhealthy choices.” Respondents also explained that ATI’s message is in-line with the messages
they are already trying to spread in their community. One respondent explained that “the ATI
message is in-line with one of our key outcomes for kids to live healthy lifestyles and make
sound choices” and another respondent highlighted the campaign’s ability to tie into their
organization’s existing mission.
The ability of a campaign to inspire action
Several respondents indicated that the campaign materials and activities’ ability to inspire
youth action has been a key reason why their organization has been able to sustain ATI campaign
efforts in their communities. One respondent explained that the toolkit provided by ATI has
allowed their organization to create and provide their own toolkit to local youth workers who
also use ATI in their program settings. Materials provided in the campaign toolkit have led to
this organization’s creation of a “county wide calendar that highlights the youth participating in
the campaign” and this organization’s youth march in a local parade “proudly displaying
messages of ATI.” The projects developed by the ATI campaign provide youth-serving
30 organizations with activities that inspire and require action; respondents highlighted “teens
enthusiasm for the Tag It project” and that fact that “our kids love action and ATI is another way
we brought them actionable items.”
The importance of free, easily accessible materials
The ATI toolkit and campaign materials can be downloaded from the National Youth
Anti-Drug Media campaign website. Some respondents indicated that free and easy access to
these materials has helped them implement and sustain the campaign in their community. One
respondent wrote that the “print resources and t-shirts are GREAT!” while another explained that
their organization has been able to implement and sustain the campaign because “the campaign
materials are free.” Another respondent pointed out that having the materials on hand has
allowed their organization to integrate the campaign into their ongoing projects.
Additional Responses
Although the majority of respondents indicated that they have been satisfied with ATI
providing campaign materials online, one respondent explained:
When the ATI project started there was a large push from ONDCP to get it going in our
area so we received a large amount of resource material which made it easy to do, this
second year has been more difficult because we were not provided with material, we
were told to download the new activities.
The majority of the responses to this open-ended question consisted of positive views of
the ATI campaign; one respondent indicated that they do not feel that the campaign has provided
concrete opportunities for programmatic implementation. The respondent wrote:
As a result of the lack of concrete drug prevention activities, we have not chosen to set a
standard for implementation. There have been uses of various ATI activities in some
program sites. Overall the Summit, and the subsequent Webinars have not been valuable
31 to us. There is not ongoing technical support, no resources provided to fund activities
with youth, and no true collaboration between ATI and local partners who were invited
to the summit but not funded as a Drug Free Community partner.
32 Discussion
The objective of this capstone project was to determine the steps that a national public
service campaign should take in order to successfully engage community organizations in
support of its goals. The research of this capstone involved a survey that specifically focused on
the efforts of ONDCP’s “Above the Influence” campaign to engage youth-serving organizations
across America to inspire youth to live above their environmental influences and ultimately
reduce youth substance abuse. The results of this survey revealed key findings (detailed below)
that can be discussed in the context that the literature review on community organizations,
empowerment theory, and youth substance abuse prevention programs has provided.
1) Having an easily identifiable and widely recognized national public service campaign
contributes to the ability of that campaign to engage community organizations in support
of its goals.
2) In order to successfully engage community organizations in support of its goals a national
public service campaign must provide resources that inspire and facilitate action within a
community.
3) The resources available to a community organization have an impact on its ability to
implement a national public service campaign regardless of the fact that the campaign
materials may be free and easily accessible.
Additional findings will contribute to the development of a set of best practices that a
national public service campaign should use to engage community organizations in support of its
goals, and those findings will be detailed below.
Fisher (1994) suggested that historically there has been a reflective relationship between
national happenings and community movements. In 2011 the National Institute on Drug Abuse
Reported that from 2009 to 2010 daily marijuana use increased among 8th, 10th, and 12th graders;
33 among 12th graders from 2009 to 2010 daily marijuana use was at its highest level since the early
1980s. NIDA also reported that after several years of decline, ecstasy use among 8th and 10th
graders increased by .6% to 1.1% and prescription and over the counter medications were the
most prevalent drugs abused by 12th graders from 2009 to 2010.
Although youth substance abuse in the United States has been a problem for decades,
ATI’s strategy to employ youth-serving organizations in support of the campaign’s goals and its
ability to successfully engage with these community organizations may be a reflection of
Fisher’s (1994) assessment of the relationship between national happenings and community
movements. As presented above, many survey respondents indicated that ATI’s highly visible
and widely recognized national campaign ultimately contributed to their organization’s choice to
implement and ability to sustain the campaign in their community.
ATI’s strategy to employ youth-serving organizations in support of the campaign’s goals
and its ability to successfully engage with these community organizations may reflect Fisher’s
(1994) assessment of the relationship between community organizations and national happenings
on two levels. First, with the rise in marijuana, ecstasy, and prescription and over the counter
drug use across the nation it is possible that community organizations recognized a need for
action to combat this issue. Acting as a facilitator for action, the ATI campaign has provided
these community organizations with the tools they need to fight youth substance abuse in their
communities. Second, as stated in the first key finding, as a national happening ATI has been
easily identifiable and widely recognized, and therefore has had the ability to engage community,
youth-serving organizations in support of the campaign’s goals.
As indicated in the second key finding, ATI’s ability to provide resources that inspire and
facilitate action has been a key contributor to the campaign’s successful engagement of
34 community organizations. This capstone project borrowed Wallerstein’s (1992) definition of
community empowerment theory as it is cited in Reininger et al. (2012). Wallerstein (1992)
describes community empowerment theory as a “social action process by which individuals,
communities, and organizations gain mastery over their lives in the context of changing their
social and political environment” (Reininger et al., 2012, p. 34). The nature of the original
activities that ATI outlined in the campaign toolkit and the activities that the campaign has
created to ensure sustained community engagement have inspired and facilitated community
action, thus reflecting Wallerstein’s (1992) definition of community empowerment theory; the
communities have taken ownership of the problems that they wish to solve.
The initial activity, called “Tag It”, and the teen expressions art project have helped to
empower teens and inspire them to think critically about the negative influences in their
environments and discuss the ways that they can stay above these influences. Another activity,
called “Be It”, empowers teens by asking them to take a photo that indicates what living “above
the influence” looks like to them. For more information on “Tag It”, “Be It” and the teen
expressions art project see Appendices C-E.
The nature of these activities also embodies the first dimension (definition and ownership
of the problem) of Cummings’ (1997) six dimensions of the empowerment model that indicate
why the construct may contribute to the prevention of substance abuse. The resources that ATI
has provided to youth-serving organizations have not only inspired and facilitated action within
the community, but the nature of these activities has required youth to define and take ownership
of the influences in their environment, thus empowering them to stay above the influence of
drugs and alcohol.
35 The third key finding reflects the impact that the resources available to a community
organization may have on its ability to implement and sustain a national public service campaign.
As indicated in the results section of this capstone project, 60% of respondents indicated that
they have received designation as a member of the Drug Free Communities Support Program
(DFC) by the Office of National Drug Control Policy. As part of this program these communities
receive funding for substance abuse prevention programs. For more information on DFC see
Appendix F.
While 53% of respondents who indicated that they have received DFC designation felt
that they have been able to implement and sustain ATI with the resources available to their
organization, only 27% of respondents who indicated that they have not received DFC
designation felt that they have been able to implement and sustain ATI with the resources
available to their organization. Further, in their response to the open-ended question one
respondent indicated that there has been “no true collaboration between ATI and local partners
who were invited to the summit but not funded as a Drug Free Community partner.”
Although ATI has made campaign materials free and easily accessible online it is
possible that the activities involved in the campaign may require resources, such as creative
materials, cameras, or manpower that organizations with limited funding simply don’t have. The
success of a national public service campaign’s efforts to engage community organizations may
rely on the campaign’s ability to create activities that are both powerful but cost effective.
Additional research findings can contribute to a better understanding of how a national
public service campaign can engage community organizations in support of the campaign’s goals.
The development of a simple and generic campaign message allows communities to customize
that message to reflect the most important issues in their community. As presented in the
36 literature review, Kelly et al. (1996) suggested that national media campaigns have limitations,
including an inability to customize to the issues, strengths etc. of individual communities; ATI’s
decision to include broad substance messaging in 2010 and inclusion of a simple and generic
message contributed to its ability to engage youth-serving community organizations by allowing
them to customize the campaign to their community. Providing evidence of the campaign’s
success may also contribute to a national public service campaign’s ability to engage community
organizations. As indicated in the results section of this capstone project 70% of respondents
indicated that the testimonials they heard at the ATI Summit had a profound or somewhat of an
impact on their organization’s decision to implement the campaign in their community.
Finally, offering ongoing opportunities for representatives from community organizations
to participate in educational programs about the campaign may have an impact on the success of
a national public service campaign’s efforts to engage community organizations. Although a
limited number of representatives from community organizations were invited to the ATI
Summit, webinars have provided ongoing opportunities for representatives from youth-serving
organizations to learn more about the ways that they can implement the campaign in their
communities. The results of the capstone project also indicated that 88% of respondents who
responded that they had participated in a webinar also participated in a community event in
which ATI was incorporated; ongoing opportunities for representatives from community
organizations to learn about ways that they can implement the campaign in their community may
lead to a higher level of implementation in the form of local events.
As a result of the survey research findings this capstone project proposes a set of best
practices that a national public service campaign can use to engage community organizations in
support of the campaign’s goals. These best practices urge national public service campaigns to:
37 1) Develop a highly visible and widely recognized national campaign before engaging
community organizations.
2) Create a simple and generic campaign message that community organizations can
customize to reflect important community-specific issues.
3) Provide free and easily accessible campaign materials.
4) Create cost-effective, powerful campaign activities that empower the target audience.
5) Provide evidence of the campaign’s success in the form of testimonials from
representatives from programs in pilot communities.
6) Provide ongoing opportunities for representatives from community organizations to
learn about the ways that their organization can implement and sustain the campaign.
38 Conclusion
The goal of this capstone project was to develop a set of best practices that national
public service campaigns can use to engage community organizations in support of the
campaign’s goals. As presented above, this capstone project recommends that national public
service campaigns:
1) Develop a highly visible and widely recognized national campaign before engaging
community organizations.
2) Create a simple and generic campaign message that community organizations can
customize to reflect important community-specific issues.
3) Provide free and easily accessible campaign materials.
4) Create cost-effective, powerful campaign activities that empower the target audience.
5) Provide evidence of the campaign’s success in the form of testimonials from
representatives from programs in pilot communities.
6) Provide ongoing opportunities for representatives from community organizations to
learn about the ways that their organization can implement and sustain the campaign.
Youth-serving organizations across the nation have been important members of
community coalitions aimed at eliminating youth substance abuse. Over a six year period from
1997 to 2002, the number of youth-serving organizations in the United States grew by 41%
(Bridgespan Group, 2005). To better understand the growth of youth-serving organizations in the
United States, this capstone considers Wolff’s (2001) proposed reasons for an increase in the
number of community coalitions in the United States over the past 30 years as presented in the
literature review. These reasons include: the transfer of federal programs to local governments,
39 cutbacks in government funding, complexities of the health and human services system, and the
allowance for expansions of an intervention to the whole community.
As discussed in the literature review, substance abuse prevention interventions that
combine in-school and community-based programming tactics have led to the reduction of youth
substance abuse because they counteract the many social influences that lead adolescents to
engage in drug use, reinforce social norms for nonuse across many segments within the
community, and provide a sustained intervention. In other words, the success of substance abuse
prevention programs that combine in-school and community-based programming tactics reflect
one of Wolff’s (2001) reasons for an increase in the number of community coalitions in the
United States over the past 30 years—they allow for the expansion of an intervention to the
whole community. The “Above the Influence” campaign lends itself easily to this type of
substance abuse prevention program because aspects of the campaign can be implemented in
schools and by community organizations to create an intervention that reaches youth across the
many environments in which they may be influenced to take up drug and alcohol use.
Community empowerment has also proven to be a key part of school and communitybased substance abuse prevention efforts. Cummings (1997) proposed that an intervention’s
targeted population must take ownership of the problem, and the program must work to solve the
problem in the context of the population’s environment. The ATI campaign has provided
communities with the opportunity to solve the problem of youth substance abuse in the context
of their own environment by developing a simple and generic message that each community can
customize. ATI has also empowered communities and allowed targeted populations to take
ownership of their problems through the different campaign activities that call upon youth to
identify environmental factors that may influence them to take up drug and alcohol use.
40 The historical reflection between national happenings and community organizing
movements in the United States, an increase in the number of youth-serving organizations across
the nation, and the impact that the “Above the Influence” campaign has had on reducing youth
substance abuse may indicate that the ability of a national public service campaign to change a
target audience’s behavior may depend on the successful engagement of local, community
organizations in support of the campaign’s goals. The “Above the Influence” campaign has
shown that a two-tier messaging strategy can lead to the successful engagement of local,
community organizations, and research from this capstone project reveals additional campaign
elements that a national public service campaign must consider when adopting and implementing
this two-tier messaging strategy.
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45 Appendix A: Youth-Serving Organizations
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100 Black Men Baton Rouge (Baton Rouge, LA)
100 Black Men Bay Area (Oakland, CA)
ASPIRA Miami-Dade County (Miami-Dade, FL)
ASPIRA of Connecticut (Hartford, CT)
ASPIRA of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, PA)
Boys & Girls Clubs of (Indianapolis, IN)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Fauquier (Washington, DC)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Fresno County (Fresno, CA)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Greater Baton Rouge (Baton Rouge, LA)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Hartford (Hartford, CT)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Honolulu (Honolulu, HI)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Metro Denver (Denver Colorado)
Boys & Girls Clubs of South Alabama, Inc. (Mobile, AL)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Southcentral Alaska (Anchorage, AK)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Tampa Bay (Tampa, FL)
Boys & Girls Clubs of Tucson (Tucson, AZ)
Broome County YMCA (Binghamton, NY)
Calloway County Alliance for Substance Abuse Prevention (Paducah, KY)
Casa Grande Alliance (Tucson, AZ)
Clinton Substance Abuse Council (Clinton, IA)
Coalition for a Drug Free Hawaii/EW Alution (Honolulu, HI)
Coalition for Healthy Communities (East Brunswick, NJ)
Community Coalition for Healthy Young (Binghamton, NY)
Community Service Council of Greater Tulsa, Inc. (Tulsa, OK)
Connect the Dots (Kansas City, KS)
East Baltimore Drug Free Coalition (Washington, DC)
Essex CHIPS (Burlington, VT)
Florida SADD (Tampa, FL)
Girl Scouts of Southern Alabama (Mobile, AL)
Girl Scouts of Western Ohio (Cincinnati, OH)
Girl Scouts-Diamonds of Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas (El Dorado, AR)
Girls Inc. at the YWCA of Minneapolis (Minneapolis, MN)
Girls Incorporated of Greater Atlanta (Atlanta, GA)
Girls Incorporated of Metro Denver (Denver, CO)
Girls Incorporated of Santa Fe (Santa Fe, NM)
Greater Spokane Substance Abuse Council—Washington Drug Free Youth Programs
(Spokane, WA)
Gwinnett Coalition for Health and Human Services (Savannah, GA)
Healthy Peabody Collaborative (Boston, MA)
Illinois SADD (Chicago, IL)
Indiana SADD (Valparaiso, IN)
McCullum Youth Court (Oakland, CA)
MCYAF (Maine Community Youth Assistance Foundation) (Chicago, IL)
46 •
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Montana Wyoming Tribal Leaders (Billings, MT)
National Organizations for Youth Safety (VA)
North Providence Substance Abuse Prevention (Providence RI)
Northern Lights SADD (Fargo-Valley City, ND)
PACE Coalition (Elko, NV)
Partnership for a Healthy Community (Burlington, VT)
Prevention First (Chicago, IL)
Raritan Valley YMCA (East Brunswick, NJ)
Stayin’ Alive Inc. (Indianapolis, IN)
Tennessee SADD (Memphis/Shelby County, TN)
The kNOw Youth Media (Fresno, CA)
The Salvation Army Boys & Girls Clubs of Metro Tulsa (Tulsa, OK)
TOUCH Coalition (El Dorado, AR)
Unified Prevention! (UP!) Coalition for a Drug Free Dona Ana County (Dona Ana
County, NM)
Van Buren County SAFE Coalition (Van Buren County, IA)
Villages at Carver Family YMCA (Atlanta, GA)
Ward 8 Drug-Free Coalition (Washington, DC)
Washington, DC SADD (Washington, DC)
YMCA of Billings (Billings, MT)
YMCA of Coastal Georgia (Savannah, GA)
YMCA of Greater Boston (Boston, MA)
YMCA of Greater City Kansas (Kansas City, KS)
YMCA of Inland NW (Spokane, WA)
YMCA of Metropolitan Minneapolis (Minneapolis, MN)
YMCA of Metropolitan Washington (Washington, DC)
YMCA of Philadelphia & Vicinity (Philadelphia, PA)
YMCA of Port Arthur (Beaumont-Port Arthur, TX)
Youth Substance Abuse Prevention Coalition of Southeast Missouri (Cape Girardeau,
MO)
47 Appendix B: Online Survey Questionnaire
Q1: Has your community received designation as a member of the Drug Free Communities
Support Program from The Office of National Drug Control Policy?
a. Yes
b. No
Q2: Did you or a representative from your organization attend an ATI Summit?
a. Yes
b. No
Q3: If you or a representative from your organization attended an ATI Summit, do you feel that
by attending this summit and being walked through the ATI toolkit your organization was better
able to implement the campaign?
a. I feel that attending the summit and being walked through the toolkit was a key
reason why my organization was able to implement the campaign.
b. I feel that attending the summit and being walked through the toolkit somewhat
helped my organization to implement the campaign.
c. I feel that I would not have been able to implement the campaign without attending
the summit and being walked through the toolkit.
d. Not Applicable.
Q4: If you or a representative from your organization attended an ATI Summit, how much of an
impact did the testimonials of representatives from the pilot program in Bronx, NY, Milwaukee,
WI, and Portland, Oregon have on your decision to implement ATI in your community?
a. The testimonials had a profound impact and were a key reason why my organization
chose to implement ATI in our community.
b. The testimonials had somewhat of an impact and were somewhat of a reason why my
organization chose to implement ATI in our community.
c. The testimonials had no impact and did not influence my organization’s choice to
implement ATI in our community.
Q5: Do you feel that any evidence of youth enthusiasm about or interest in the ATI campaign in
your community has led your organization to implement and sustain the ATI campaign?
a. Yes, youth in my community have shown enthusiasm about and interest in the ATI
campaign so my organization has chosen to implement and sustain the campaign.
b. No, youth in my community have NT shown enthusiasm about or interest in the ATI
campaign but my organization has chosen to implement and sustain the campaign.
48 c. Somewhere in between—there has been a limited amount of youth enthusiasm about
and interest in the ATI campaign and my organization has chosen to implement and
sustain the campaign.
Q7: Have your or a representative from your organization participated in an ATI webinar?
a. Yes
b. No
Q8: If you or a representative from your organization has participated in an ATI webinar do you
feel that participating in this webinar has contributed to your organization’s ability to implement
and sustain the ATI campaign?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Yes
Somewhat
No
Not Applicable
Q9: Has your organization participated in an event in your community in the ATI campaign was
incorporated?
a. Yes
b. No
Q10: If your organization has participated in an event in the community in which the ATI
campaign was incorporated do you feel that representatives from the national ATI campaign
played an important role in the event’s success? (i.e. did representatives attend? Did the ntional
campaign send merchandise?)
a. Yes
b. Somewhat
c. No
Q11: Do you feel that your organization has been able to implement and sustain the ATI
campaign and activities with the resources available to your organization?
a. Yes
b. Somewhat
c. No
Q12: What do you think has ultimately led to your organization’s choice to adopt, implement,
and sustain the ATI campaign in your community? (Please use this space to say anything you
think might be important about the national campaign’
49 Appendix C: “Tag It”
Office of National Drug Control Policy/National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign: Above the Influence Activities Toolkit
Retrieved from http://www.theantidrug.com/resources/pdfs/ATI_InfluenceProject_ActivityKit_PUBLIC_FINAL.pdf.
50 Appendix D: “Be It”
Above the Influence—Be It: Words You Live By. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CHnAboC-qk.
51 Appendix E: Teen Expressions Art Project
Office of National Drug Control Policy/National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign: Above the Influence Activities Toolkit
52 Retrieved from http://www.theantidrug.com/resources/pdfs/ATI_InfluenceProject_ActivityKit_PUBLIC_FINAL.pdf.
53 Appendix F: Drug Free Communities Support Program
Program Overview
The Drug Free Communities Support Program (DFC) is a Federal grant program that provides funding to
community-based coalitions that organize to prevent youth substance use. Since the passage of the DFC
Act in 1997, the DFC program has funded nearly 2,000 coalitions and currently mobilizes nearly 9,000
community volunteers across the country. The philosophy behind the DFC program is that local drug
problems require local solutions. With a small Federal investment, the DFC program doubles the amount
of funding through the DFC program’s match requirement, to address youth substance use. Recent
evaluation data indicate that where DFC dollars are invested, youth substance use is lower. Over the life
of the DFC program, youth living in DFC communities have experienced reductions in alcohol, tobacco,
and marijuana use.
In the past eight years that DFC has been evaluated, DFC-funded communities have achieved significant
reductions in youth alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use. For middle school youth living in DFC-funded
communities, data from the DFC National Evaluation indicate a 16% reduction in alcohol use, 27%
reduction in tobacco use, and 23% reduction in marijuana use. High school-aged youth have reduced
their use of alcohol by 9%, tobacco by 16%, and marijuana by 7% in DFC-funded communities. DFCfunded coalitions are actively engaged in facilitating prescription drug take-back programs in conjunction
with local law enforcement, as well as local policy change to effectively address the accessibility and
available of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs.
Recent data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) indicate increases in youth
prescription drug abuse, as well as marijuana, ecstasy, and methamphetamine use. Now, more than ever,
the DFC program is needed in communities across the country to help prevent drug use and reduce its
consequences. Drug problems manifest in local communities and show up in our schools, churches,
health centers, and in our homes. The DFC program helps local leaders organize to identify the youth
drug issues unique to their communities and develop the infrastructures necessary to effectively prevent
and respond to the disease of addiction.
Community-based coalitions that meet all of the statutory eligibility requirements can respond to the
annual Request for Applications (RFA). The DFC RFA is usually released to the public in mid-January,
with applications due in mid-March. DFC grantees are chosen using a peer review process comprised of
current and former DFC grantees.
The Drug Free Communities Act of 1997 and the Formation of the DFC Program
Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) receives funding for the DFC program from Congress
through the Drug Free Communities Act of 1997 (Public Law 105-20) to provide support to communitybased coalitions that have formed to address local youth substance use and its related consequences. The
DFC program was reauthorized through ONDCP’s Reauthorization Act of 2006 (Public Law 109469). The latest reauthorization extends the program until 2012. Since 1998, ONDCP has awarded over
1,750 DFC grants. Grants have been awarded to communities from every region in the nation and include
rural, urban, suburban, and tribal communities.
The DFC program is overseen by ONDCP, with day-to-day management conducted by Project
Officers (Center for Substance Abuse Prevention/CSAP) and Grants Management Specialists (Division of
Grants Management/DGM) at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).
54 The DFC program operates on a yearly grant cycle that starts with a Request for Applications (RFA)
being posted in January of each year. The RFA, when open, is posted on Grants.gov and SAMSHA.gov
and this website. Community coalitions meeting all of the statutory eligibility requirements can apply
during the open period for funding. DFC grants are awarded for five years with a maximum of 10
years. Coalitions can ask for up to $125,000 per year and must provide at least a one-to-one match (cash,
in-kind, donations, but no Federal funds) each year, with increases in Years 8-10.
Purpose of the DFC Program
The primary purpose of the DFC program is to: strengthen collaboration among community entities; and
reduce substance use among youth. DFC grantees are required to work toward these two goals as the
primary focus of their Federally-funded effort. Grants awarded through the DFC program are intended to
support established community-based coalitions capable of effecting community-level change. For the
purposes of the DFC program, a coalition is defined as a community-based formal arrangement for
cooperation and collaboration among groups or sectors of a community in which each group retains its
identity, but all agree to work together toward a common goal of building a safe, healthy, and drug-free
community. Coalitions receiving DFC funds are expected to work with leaders within their communities
to identify and address local youth substance use problems and create sustainable community-level
change through environmental strategies.
What DFC Funds
The DFC program funds one thing: community coalitions that have formed to address youth substance
use. Communities often understand that local stakeholders and citizens hold the key to solving local
problems. In realizing this, community-based coalitions are created every day in this country. A typical
DFC budget submission includes the salary and benefits of an individual that ensures effective day-to-day
operations of the coalition, training and technical assistance for the coalition, travel, and prevention
efforts that place emphasis on environmental strategies. DFC funding can be considered the financial
support required to further leverage funding to support the various strategies a community needs in order
to solves its youth substance use problems.
DFC does not fund programs. DFC does not fund the following (not a fully exhaustive list):
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Afterschool programs
Mentoring programs
Sports programs
Treatment services/programs/facilities
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Drug Courts
Construction
Landscaping/Neighborhood Revitalization
Projects
Office of National Drug Control Policy: Drug Free Communities Support Program
Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp/Drug-Free-Communities-Support-Program.