RMPS
Making Moral Decisions
Human Relationships
Intermediate 1 and 2
9007
Summer 2001
HIGHER STILL
RMPS
Making Moral Decisions
Human Relationships
Intermediate 1 and 2
Support Materials
CONTENTS
1. Tutor’s Guide
2. Student's Guide
3. Moral Stances
 Religious Authority
 Egoism
 Utilitarianism
 Things to discuss and write about
4. Marriage/Alternatives to Marriage
 Background information
 Christian views
 Alternatives to marriage
 Christian views
 Egoism
 Utilitarianism
 Things to discuss and write about
5. Divorce
 Background information
 Christian views
 Egoism
 Utilitarianism
 Things to discuss and write about
6. Sexual Behaviour
 Background information
 Christian views
 Contraception
 Homosexuality
 Egoism
 Utilitarianism
 Things to discuss and write about
7. Resources
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1.
TUTOR’S GUIDE
The unit, Making Moral Decisions is designed to allow students the opportunity to
consider and develop their own understanding of the common bases of morality.
Morals are the end result of a collection of factors, religious, social and psychological.
Students in the secondary school are very much in the middle of a process of working
out the bases for their own developing morality. This will doubtless be less than fully
formed and not always entirely systematic. The teacher's role is to develop in the
student the necessary intellectual and particularly critical tools to enable them to cope
more effectively with the demands of making moral decisions.
Morality involves tensions. Conclusions are the end result of much reflection and
consideration as well as the weighing up of numerous possibilities. The development
of the skills of analysis and evaluation should therefore be at the forefront of the
teacher's activities with the class, and study in this area of the curriculum should go
beyond the purely descriptive. Conclusions cannot be reached until options have been
explored.
This particular unit at these levels uses common moral stances as checks against
which moral decisions can be made. Students may not always be able to identify at
the outset that they have a particular moral stance on any issue, but as working tools
these stances at least open out for the student the multi-layered nature of moral
thinking.
It would however, be wrong if students were to pigeonhole their morality as a result
of their study. For example, while individuals may generally base their decisions on
their own interests it is unlikely that there is such a thing as a "pure egoist". Teachers
should highlight the fact that moral decision-making is a many-sided process.
Morality may also be fluid - there is no reason why someone may not base moral
responses on egoism in one context/instance and on utilitarianism in the next.
Teachers/lecturers should present a range of moral responses to each of the issues. As
in RE generally, the search for a ‘right’ response and the whole process of making
moral decisions is as important as the conclusion reached. The aim is to allow
students to make their own responses as far as possible based on accurate information
and their own reasoning and reflection.
The purpose of the unit is:
•
•
•
•
to help students identify a number of common moral stances
to help students develop an awareness of how these moral stances can influence
the moral decisions that they make
to help students develop their own conclusions about moral issues
to help students weigh up the relative merits of different moral stances.
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These materials are designed to support students working on Making Moral
Decisions: Human Relationships Intermediate 1 and 2.
The issues that will be supported by the unit are:

Marriage/Alternatives to Marriage

Divorce

Sexual Behaviour
The relevant moral stances to be covered are:

Religious authority

Egoism

Utilitarianism (Intermediate 2 only)
The materials have been prepared with the intention that the moral stances will be the
focus of learning and teaching at the beginning of the unit (Outcome 1). Knowledge
gained will then be applied to the particular issues that are studied.
In studying the moral issues students should be encouraged to engage in both analysis
and evaluation (Outcomes 2 and 3). While at Intermediate 1 level students will be
expected to be able express a clear personal opinion on the issue with two supporting
reasons, at Intermediate 2 level they will be required to demonstrate awareness of
both sides of the issue.
Sources of information for students might include newspaper reports, information
from relevant agencies/pressure groups, CD Roms, the Internet, textbooks, television
or video, reports, publications and articles relating to Religious Authority, Egoism and
Utilitarianism.
Learning and teaching strategies will include the gathering and processing of
information from a range of sources, class and group discussion, direct teaching,
brainstorming and report writing. It may be a useful exercise on occasion to have
selected students prepare a presentation on an issue or one of the stances for delivery
to the rest of the class.
When exploring the response of Religious Authority to moral issues these notes refer
to Christian perspectives. Students are encouraged in the tasks to investigate
Religious Authority stances from other religions and tutors are encouraged to
introduce examples from other religions in their teaching.
Unless specified, student information sheets contained in these materials are
applicable to both levels. Student tasks can be used either as class work or homework
to prepare for unit assessments which should be selected from the SQA National
Assessment Bank or assessment materials which have been validated by SQA.
Students at Intermediate 1 are studying two moral stances, namely, Religious
Authority and Egoism and their response to Marriage, Divorce and Sexual Behaviour.
At Intermediate 2 level they also study Utilitarianism as a moral stance. Intermediate
2 students are expected to be able to discuss both sides of the issues, while at
Intermediate 1 they are expected to be able to provide an opinion on the issues and
justify it with valid reasons.
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2.
STUDENT’S GUIDE
You are studying HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS as a topic within the Higher Still unit
Making Moral Decisions. You will study three moral issues and consider how people
who have a particular moral stance respond to these issues.
The issues that you will study are:
 Marriage/alternatives to marriage
 Divorce
 Sexual behaviour
Your tutor will advise you early in the unit whether you will complete the unit at
Intermediate 1 or Intermediate 2 level. Candidates at Intermediate 1 will consider two
moral stances, while candidates at Intermediate 2 will consider three moral stances:
Intermediate 1
Intermediate 2
Religious Authority (I’ll do what my religion tells me)
Egoism (I’ll do what’s in my own best interest)
Utilitarianism (I’ll do what produces the
greatest good for the greatest number)
You will be expected to complete 3 outcomes:
 Demonstrate understanding of moral stances (describing moral stances and
explaining their importance in decision making).
 Analyse moral issues (outline a moral viewpoint on the issue for each stance and
explain how the viewpoint relates to its stance).
 Evaluate moral issues (express a clear opinion on an issue and justify it with
supporting reasons).
Assessment
Intermediate 1
In the context of the unit you will be required to complete a restricted response which
describes the two moral stances you have studied in approximately 100 words. You
will also complete assessments on one of the issues. These will relate to analysis and
evaluation. (Analysis approximately 100 words, evaluation approximately 50 words.)
Intermediate 2
You will be required to complete an extended response which describes the three
moral stances you have studied in approximately 200 words. You will also complete
assessments on one of the issues you have studied. These will relate to analysis and
evaluation (responses of approximately 200 words are expected). For the evaluation
question you need to be able to discuss both sides of the issues.
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3.
MORAL STANCES
Making moral decisions is concerned with the PROCESS by which we make up our
minds about questions of right and wrong. It is about deciding whether actions are
right or wrong. Whatever the influences, the process of making a moral decision
involves considering a number of important questions:
 How do I know if I am doing the right thing?
 Am I considering the interests of everyone involved or should I just follow my
own inclinations?
 What values and principles should I consider (what makes one action right and
another action wrong?)
Every situation is different. A person may find it hard to apply the same principles in
different circumstances. The same action may be considered to be right in one
situation and wrong in another situation. Many of the moral dilemmas that people
face are complicated and it can be difficult to know what is the right decision to make.
Morality is essentially linked to the dignity and well being of the human person and in
the course of everyday living human beings will be forced to make decisions which
will have an essential moral nature: Should I have sex before I am married? Should I
lie to cover my tracks? Does an unborn baby have the right to life? Should a doctor
have the right to administer a lethal injection to a person who has asked to die?
Morality is a fundamental part of human life. Making moral decisions is something
from which a person cannot escape.
What is a moral issue?
A moral issue poses the question of what is right and wrong in relation to human
behaviour. There are many moral questions which people have sought to answer in
different ways. People have different opinions on a whole range of topics. The topics
in this unit: Marriage/Alternatives to marriage, Divorce and Sexual Behaviour are all
areas of life which give rise to moral issues. Moral issues affect us all. They are part
of our lives and are often the subject of public and private debates. At some time in
our lives we are likely to become personally concerned about particular moral issues
through our contacts and experiences.
Everyone is influenced in making moral decisions, whether it be their religious
beliefs, what their parents tell them, social influences or from pure self interest. The
central question in making moral decisions is whether or not a foundation, or moral
criteria, can be found by which actions can be determined as morally good or morally
bad. In other words what actions make us more human and why do they make us
more human?
In the course of human history various moral criteria have been developed to
determine the rightness or wrongness of actions and this is what distinguishes various
moral theories from each other.
It is essential therefore, that students clearly understand the nature of the moral
principles and criteria underlying the three positions or stances that they will be asked
to consider in the course of their study.
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Why should people be concerned about moral issues?
We all have to make moral decisions. Ultimately our fulfilment and happiness
depends on our ability to make the right choices.
There are various influences which affect the moral decisions which people make e.g.:
 From an early age people get some of their standards from their families.
 Religion influences some people in their moral decision making.
 As they grow up people are influenced by friends.
 Gradually people are influenced by the media – television, newspapers, videos.
 Many people are influenced by the books that they read.
 People can be influenced by computer games and the Internet.
 Some get their standards from cultural influences within school, organisations in
the community or political groups.
We should also recognise that the moral values we hold affect our lives and the lives
of others in our society. By influencing people’s views it is possible to make a
difference to the kind of society that we live in.
What is a moral stance?
Philosophers and theologians have tried to solve the problem of deciding how to
behave in a moral way. Over the centuries certain theories or stances have developed.
These explain the ways in which people arrive at moral decisions. Moral stances
describe the principles which people apply when making moral decisions. People
with a particular moral stance have a framework that they can follow when they want
to establish whether an action is right or wrong. Religious Authority, Egoism and
Utilitarianism are all examples of moral stances. People adopting the same moral
stance may not necessarily agree on a moral issue since they may apply the principles
in different ways.
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Features of the three moral stances that will be considered are outlined in the table
below. These are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. Students who take
Intermediate 1 will need to be familiar with the first two while those taking
Intermediate 2 will need all three.
RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY
EGOISM
UTILITARIANISM
Provides an objective basis for
moral decision making
Relativist and Subjective
Provides an objective basis for
moral decision making
Authoritative – requiring
personal assent
Individualistic
Not based on selfish interest and
sometimes requiring selfsacrifice
Involves an external influence
Based on personal benefit
Based on the consequences of
actions
Requires submission to a higher
authority
May be accused of being selfish
Requires complex analysis to
decide if an action is morally
right
Often relies on
revelation/tradition
Independent of any tradition or
external influence
Relies on the Principle of Utility
Sometimes can be open to
different interpretations
Sometimes can be open to
different interpretations
Has the support of a whole
religious community
Often provides very clear
guidelines or laws
Sometimes can be open to
different interpretations
For most people, making moral decisions is a complex process. Not many people are
purely Egoist or focus entirely on Religious Authority or Utilitarianism when making
moral decisions. For most people their moral choices will be based on a combination
of different moral stances. Studying specific moral stances, however, helps us to
understand the different ideas that influence people in making moral decisions. As
well as helping us to understand how other people make moral decisions it helps us to
think through the processes which we use ourselves when making these decisions.
Religious authority
People who look to religious authority when making moral decisions rely on the
teachings of their faith. This may be communicated through a holy book, through
religious leaders or some other form of revelation. They all share the desire to obey
and be faithful to God.
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The teachings of a religion influence a person’s actions and how they respond to
moral issues. Some of the most important religious teachings refer to how people
should behave morally. For example, many of the parables of Jesus were designed to
teach people what is right. A lot of the teachings of the Qur’an are about morality as
are many of the teachings of the Buddha and the great Sikh gurus.
Much of a religion’s teaching about right and wrong is to be found in its holy books.
These sacred texts are considered to be sources of moral authority. Some people
believe that the holy books should be followed without question while others see them
as a guide for moral behaviour. Very often they contain direct rules about how people
should live. An example of this is the Ten Commandments in the Bible.
Religious leaders and groups often speak out on specific moral issues. They want
their followers to know what their religion teaches. Sometimes they provoke
discussion and at other times they clarify what believers already know. They want
society to be clear about what their religion teaches so that they can challenge the
views of society if necessary.
People who follow a religious authority believe that their religion is in a better
position to give them guidance on moral issues than anything else. They believe that
it is better to follow the teachings of their religion than to follow their own interests
and tastes or to look to the current views that are held within society.
People who look to religious authority believe:
 Right and wrong is not just a matter of personal opinion. It is possible for people
to be wrong in their moral judgements and on such occasions it is desirable that
they are challenged.
 The personal opinion of an individual needs to be weighed against the teachings of
an authority. This authority may be a religious text, a religious community or a
religious leader.
 People should be humble enough to accept the teachings of a religious authority
and submit their own thoughts to that authority.
 Moral values are supported within a system of authority which gives them added
value and validity – a whole community has been involved in the testing,
development and preservation of the values.
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Christianity
For Catholic Christians religious authority comes from both Scripture and Tradition
and the Moral Law. This stems from the belief that the Scriptures, as the word of
God, contain the truth which God intended for our salvation, and that the vibrant and
living faith of the Church (Tradition) is a true guarantee that the Church’s teaching is
in constant union with the deposit of faith. Scripture and Tradition flow from the
same source, the word of God, which was transmitted to the Apostles by Jesus. This
same deposit of faith is transmitted to the successors of the Apostles (the Bishops) so
that when they teach (the Magisterium), they faithfully transmit all that the Church
believes. This means that in a response to moral issues both Scripture and Tradition
should be taken into consideration. Indeed, all sources of moral authority feed into a
response which is based on one’s conscience, properly informed by Scripture and
Tradition.
Within the Church of Scotland the General Assembly, which meets once a year,
speaks out on moral issues and provides an indication of the views of those within the
church. However, the committees which discuss these issues do not speak for all
members of the Church of Scotland. Members believe that authority lies in the
Christian Bible and its interpretation by the believer. Jesus is considered to be the
Head of the Church and members look to him as a source of authority.
As well as looking to the church to which they belong, Christians often look to other
sources of authority such as: famous Christian leaders of the past and present; the
Christian Bible, scholars and preachers who have interpreted it; and the writings of
prominent Christians from the past.
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Aspects of Religious Authority
Consider the following strengths and weaknesses…
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
Following a Religious
Authority helps people to
develop humility as they
submit their own
preferences to the teaching
of a religion
Different religious
authorities can have
conflicting responses to the
same issue
The teachings of a
Religious Authority are
normally intended to
promote the common good
and personal fulfilment
The freedom of the
individual is seen to be
restricted
The importance of the
community is stressed
A few religious leaders
may have a lot of power
over how people make
moral decisions
The appeal to authority
gives debates about
morality a clear focus
Moral beliefs are tied up
with a whole set of
religious beliefs. If
someone loses faith there is
a danger that she or he will
become confused about
morality
There can be certainty in
responding to moral issues
There can be a lack of
flexibility in responding to
contemporary issues
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Egoism
Egoists are people who believe that their most important duty is to themselves, and
therefore that anything which they do should be in their own best interest in the long
term. They base their moral decision making on what is best for the individual. They
believe that their own well-being and health is more important than the good of
others.
As a foundation of morality, egoism asserts that the individual (Latin ego = I ) is the
sole arbiter of what is right and wrong. An act is right or wrong only insofar as it
meets the needs or desires of the individual. There is no referral to universal norms
for behaviour. The aims and desire of all actions is the satisfaction of the self.
Egoists try to work out what is in their own best interests. Their decision to act is
based on what they think will be of most direct benefit to themselves. Different
people will have different ideas about what is or is not in their own interests. It also
depends on the situation at the time. What is right for one egoist may not be
considered right by another egoist (this is ethical relativism).
Egoism contains elements of selfishness. The selfish thing is to do what provides
immediate satisfaction for yourself or to expect other people to do what is in your own
interest. The egoist, on the other hand, will also look at long term self-interest. For
example, if a child has been told not to take a biscuit from the jar in the kitchen, a
selfish child may take the biscuit to satisfy his appetite. An egoistic child may think
of his own best interests and refrain from taking the biscuit, thinking about the
reaction of his parents and the possibility that he will never be trusted again.
Egoists may also believe that what is best for themselves in the long term cannot be
achieved by unacceptable behaviour such as cheating or stealing. They may think that
it is in their own best interests for everybody to accept that cheating and stealing are
wrong. The egoist may therefore support certain moral values which are common in
society, but the underlying motive is not altruistic – by supporting these moral values
egoists can also be promoting their own best interest.
Egoists may also be willing to work in co-operation with other people since this can
be in their own long-term interest. For example, rather than selfishly using a car to
travel to work in the city egoists may find that it is in their own long-term interest to
use public transport and avoid parking problems in the city and reduce traffic
congestion.
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Egoism was a theory which was made popular by the philosopher Thomas Hobbes.
Egoism believes that:






A person’s most important duty is to do what s/he thinks is in her or his own best
interests.
People are motivated by opportunities to obtain personal benefit.
Being ‘moral’ means doing what is ‘good for me’.
It is only necessary to have a sense of responsibility for other people if it benefits
oneself. For example, if one person gains a lot of wealth she or he may spend the
money in ways which help other people if it will in the long term boost business
interests or if it provides some social advantage.
A person’s basic duty is to obtain the greatest possible balance of good over evil
for himself or herself.
What is best for the individual in the long term may be achieved by promoting
acceptable behaviour in society and avoiding actions that most people find
unacceptable.
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Aspects of Egoism
Consider the following strengths and weaknesses…
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
Egoism allows
freedom to the
individual
Egoism does not
promote the
common good
Sometimes doing
what is in your own
best interests
promotes the
interests of other
people as well
Egoists may be able
to claim that what
seem to be
objectionable
actions are morally
right (e.g. gluttony)
People who are
egoists should have
less difficulty in
deciding what they
think is right
What is right for one
person could be
wrong for another
Common sense
seems to tell us that
we should do what
suits us best
There is no sense in
arguing about what
is right – it’s right if
it benefits me
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Utilitarianism (Intermediate 2)
This stance is associated with the British philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). The stance suggests that the consequences of an
action should be considered. People should decide what is right by finding out which
action produces the greatest good for the greatest number.
According to the utilitarian an action is morally right if it can produce human well
being and happiness for the greatest number of people.
The utilitarian believes that although his own welfare is important what matters is the
welfare of people in general. Utilitarianism believe that it is right to act in a way that
is best for a large number of people rather than considering self-interest or satisfying
the desires of a minority. Faced with a moral problem the utilitarian will think, ‘Will
what I am about to do add to or reduce the amount of good in the world?’
Utilitarianism believe that:
 Individuals sometimes have to make sacrifices for the good of other people.
 Individuals and society have to work out what is right and wrong based on the
likely consequences of each action.
 It is the consequences of people’s actions which need to be considered rather than
the motives.
 Everyone’s interests should be treated as equal.
 No special importance should be given to the happiness of the individual whose
actions are to be directed by it.
 It is hard to defend any action which has bad consequences for everyone involved.
 There are no absolute moral laws for all time and all people.
Problems with utilitarianism:
 There is a problem in deciding how to measure the results of an action.
 It is not easy to predict what the outcome of an action might be.
 What you think might produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number might
actually produce the opposite.
 Not everyone agrees on what happiness is as no accepted standard exists.
 It would not seem unreasonable to favour family and friends over the good of other
people.
 Why should individuals bother working for the good of the greatest number of
people if they may be made unhappy by it?
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Aspects of Utilitarianism
Consider the following strengths and weaknesses…
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
Promotes community spirit by
focusing on the greatest good
for the greatest number and
encourages people to consider
the good of others
It can be difficult to work out
whether an action is right or
wrong if it depends on the
consequences – we cannot be
sure in advance what the
consequences of an action will
be
Provides a basis for sensible
discussion about what is right
and wrong
Utilitarianism goes against
people’s basic instinct to do
what is best for themselves
Encourages concern for others
Utilitarianism makes
arguments about moral issues
quite complex
At times it promotes selfsacrifice because people are
sometimes obliged to consider
the good of others before their
own
People generally feel
responsibility towards specific
individuals and sometimes
towards minority groups.
Utilitarianism does not appear
to account for this in the idea
of the greatest good for the
greatest number
It is a practical approach to
morality where the
consequences of an action are
more important than the
motive
Utilitarians may be accused at
times of doing the right thing
for the wrong reasons
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Things to discuss and write about in relation to the moral stances

On what does egoism base its moral decisions?

How does egoism differ from selfishness?

Why might someone find egoism an attractive stance on which to base their moral
decisions?

What weaknesses are there in following egoism?

What different sources of authority might a religion have?

Why might people be attracted to religious authority as the basis for making moral
decisions?

What are the weaknesses in using religious authority as the basis for making moral
decisions?

According to utilitarianism what makes an action morally right?

On what factors does utilitarianism base its moral decisions?

What weaknesses are there in utilitarianism?
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4.
MARRIAGE/ALTERNATIVES TO MARRIAGE
Background information
In Scotland and in Western Europe generally marriage still remains popular with over
90% of men and women choosing to marry. The average age for women to marry is
24, and 26 for men. The main reasons for getting married are:



to commit ourselves to another person we love for life
to provide a secure and loving environment for bringing up children
to ensure friendship and companionship through life.
Until recently most marriages in this country took place in church. Today over half of
all marriages are civil marriages and take place in a registry office. In 1990 41% of
marriages were civil and 59% were ‘religious’, that is conducted by a clergyman or
other recognised religious leader. By 1995 civil marriage had risen to 55% and in
1996 stood at 59%.
In a church wedding the priest or minister begins by explaining the Church’s view of
marriage – that it is a gift of God and a symbol of Christ’s relationship with the
Church. The most important part of the ceremony is the vows when rings are
exchanged. The couple promise to love, honour and keep themselves for each other
till death. The priest or minister then says, “Those whom God has joined together let
no man put asunder.” With this declaration the couple are now married.
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Consider the following opinions…
WHY COUPLES MARRY
WHY THEY DON’T MARRY
Marriage means that two
people are committed to each
other for life
There is less of a religious
incentive today
Marriage is the way for a
couple to show their love for
each other physically and
emotionally
Marriage is not a guarantee for
everlasting happiness
Marriage is ‘the done thing’
Some couples don’t see the need
for a piece of paper to keep them
together
Marriage provides a stable
environment for bringing up
children
The love and support needed by
children does not require the
context of marriage
Marriage is a public
“I don’t feel our relationship is
declaration of the couple’s love less secure because we’re not
for each other
married”
Couples promise ‘to love and
to cherish . . . till death us do
part’ in front of God
Some people are afraid to
commit themselves to one other
person for life
To fulfil their religious beliefs
e.g. arranged marriages
People don’t believe in God or in
the need to make any public
declaration
People believe that sexual
intercourse should take place
in the context of marriage
“Living together is an excellent
way to see if you are compatible.
Then you can get married if you
want to”
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Christian views
Most Christians would agree on the following principles about marriage:
 that where a man and woman love one another and want to live together, marriage
provides the best and securest foundation for a long and happy relationship
 that where a man and woman love each other and want to live together, they
should declare their intention to stay together for life.
One of the most important statements on marriage for Christians is found in the New
Testament. In the gospel of Mark Jesus is reported as saying:
“In the beginning at the creation, God made them male and female. For this reason a
man shall leave his father and mother and be made one with his wife and the two
shall become one flesh. It follows that they are no longer two individuals: they are
one flesh. What God has joined together, man must not separate.” (Mark 10: 6-9)
The Catholic Church
The Catholic Church emphasises that God has called people to share his own life. He
has called them to search for him, to know him and to love him. To make this
possible He sent his Son Jesus into the world so that people could see what it means
to be fully human and fully alive. In the Catholic tradition then, marriage and
alternatives to marriage must be viewed within the context of the human vocation to
share in God’s own life and to share that life with others.
God created human beings out of love for him and calls them to love also. This is the
fundamental vocation. Human beings are created in the image and likeness of God
who is love. In turn human love is a love which should be an image (eikon) of God’s
own love in the world. Jesus reveals the Father’s love, and gives a new
commandment to love as he has loved.
“As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you, remain in my love.” (John 15:9)
Students should have the opportunity to investigate, interpret and understand the
Genesis accounts of the creation of man and woman and God’s plan for them through
the institution of marriage, as well as other Scripture teaching on marriage. They
should have the opportunity to explore and reflect upon some of the rich New
Testament passages, particularly in the Farewell Discourse from John’s Gospel, in
which Jesus gives his new commandment to love as he has loved.
The Catholic Church celebrates seven sacraments, two of which, in particular, can be
called sacraments of vocation. In the sacraments of Marriage and Holy Orders the
individual is called to live a life of love in the service of others. In these sacraments
love becomes an expression of how Jesus loves the Church. In other words, the way
in which a Catholic Christian lives out her or his sacramental vocation, should reflect
the love that Jesus himself showed to his community. That is why these sacraments
of vocation are life-long commitments. The vocation to love never ends. This is what
is known as unconditional love, it is love fully human and fully alive.
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Although there is no specific sacrament for people who choose not to get married,
clearly, they too have a vocation to love as Jesus loved, arising from their
commitment through Baptism and Confirmation. Choosing neither marriage nor the
life of a priest or nun, they too have a moral responsibility in their everyday
relationships with others to bring the love and care of Christ to others in whatever way
they can. Their vocation is not as defined as the other two groups, but it is no less
important in the eyes of the Catholic community.
Marriage is a sacrament because it is a sign of Christ’s love. The promises of the man
and woman to pledge their life to each other until death parts them is a source of
God’s grace. The man and the woman administer the sacrament of marriage to each
other with the priest and others acting as witnesses to the marriage. Because of their
baptism, when a man and woman marry it is not just their own life they give to each
other, but the life of Christ which is alive within them also. In Catholic thinking
therefore there are four characteristics of married love: it is fully human, it is total, it
is faithful, and it is creative of life. Christian marriage is a covenant relationship
which mirrors the covenant relationship of Christ with his Church.
The vows that a man and woman make are very important and so it is crucial that they
are made freely and without reservation. When they consent to give themselves to
each other in marriage they pray that their giving of themselves to each other will
truly reflect the way in which Christ gives himself to the Church. Marriage is the way
in which the husband and wife reach true fulfilment in, through and with each other.
In this most intimate of relationships they form each other in the depths of their beings
and become more fully human and more fully alive.
The love that two people commit themselves to in marriage is an image of the love
that God has for human beings. Married love is total and unconditional. When a man
and woman marry they are no longer the same person because their love makes them,
not two, but one. This love is ultimately expressed in the act of sexual intercourse
which is an expression of their unconditional self giving to each other. In this context
alone does sexual intercourse take on its most authentic and truly human dimension.
This love is also exclusive until death parts the husband and wife and is possible
through Christ who strengthens the man and woman in the sacrament of marriage. In
unconditional love a man and woman vow themselves to each other with no strings
attached, for better, for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in health till
death.
Love is always life giving. It gives the man and woman new identities as husband and
wife and therefore brings them into a new life together in which they become one
body. The gift of children is an expression of this new life. A child is the fruit of this
one body which the husband and wife have become in a unique way. In bringing
children into the world the husband and wife share in God’s creative power, they are
co-creators with God. In this way the husband and wife share in God’s creative love
because their love has be open to the creation of a new person.
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Students should be encouraged to investigate the marriage rite itself by reading the
text of a marriage ceremony (e.g. a Nuptial Mass, a Christian Rite of Marriage). These
provide a rich source of Christian thought and reflection on the important and
significance of marriage.
On his visit to Britain in 1982 Pope John Paul said of marriage:
“A man and woman pledge themselves to one another in an unbreakable alliance of
total mutual self-giving. A total union of love. Love that is not a passing emotion or
temporary infatuation, but a responsible and free decision to bind oneself completely,
‘in good times and in bad’, to one’s partner. It is the gift of oneself to the other. It is
a love to be proclaimed before the eyes of the whole world.”
The Church of Scotland
In 1994 the Church of Scotland’s Panel on Doctrine reported to the General Assembly
on the topic of marriage. It stated that:

marriage, with its privileges and responsibilities, is one of God’s great gifts to
humanity for the well-being of husband and wife, the security of growing children
and the social health of the community

marriage as an institution in which the love of God exemplified in Christ is
earthed in human relationship, requiring from couples all the love, trust,
forgiveness and faithfulness of which by grace they are capable

stable family life is the most desirable setting for the upbringing of children.
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Alternatives to marriage
Although as we have seen marriage remains popular there has also been a significant
rise in the popularity of living together. ‘Cohabiting’, as it is sometimes called, has
become much more socially acceptable.
Some people cohabit because they have experienced a failed first marriage and are
reluctant to commit themselves to another life-long union which might end the same
way. Living together is seen as a way of providing freedom for both partners to
separate and go their own way if they want to at some point in the future. In 1989
43% of divorced men and 26% of divorced women were estimated to be cohabiting.
It is also estimated that by 2021 the number of couples cohabiting could nearly double
from its present level of about 1.5 million to around 3 million. However, if two
people have really loved each other, splitting up after living together may be just as
difficult and painful as it can be for married couples.
Other people believe that marriage is simply unnecessary. You don’t need ‘a piece of
paper’ just to prove that you love someone, they would argue. Marriage may have
been necessary in the past but most people accept today that marriage may not be the
best way forward for everyone. ‘It’s just a social convention really and you can take
it or leave it.’ Those who take this view want to see people who cohabit having the
same rights as married couples. At the moment married couples are equal partners in
the eyes of the law but those who cohabit have much more limited rights. This means
they need to think about what would happen if they split up with regard to children,
property and savings.
Some people choose to live together in what they see as a ‘trial marriage’. The idea
here is to find out if they are suited before they decide to spend the rest of their lives
with each other. They can get to know the other person much better by living with
them on a day to day basis. It also means they can share their resources and cut down
on their expenses enabling them to save up for the day when they do decide to get
married. People can love each other and want to be together but perhaps don’t yet
feel ready to make a life-long commitment to one person. To say you want to be with
someone for the rest of your life is a big step.
Christian views
For most Christians, however, the alternatives to marriage discussed above are
incompatible with Christian beliefs and values. For example, Catholic perspectives
on alternatives to marriage would emphasise the importance of the single life,
priesthood and religious life. In other words Christian commitment should be lived
out either in the context of marriage, priesthood or religious life, or a single life in
keeping with the teaching of the Church.
All Christians, by virtue of the sacrament of Baptism, are called to be other Christs in
the world. The single person shares this vocation with all other Christians. The single
person is called to imitate Christ and thereby share in the essential vocation of being
an image of God in the world. The single person has an important role to play in the
world in which they bring their gifts and talents to all their endeavours. Indeed, the
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single life, lived in imitation of Christ, complements the dignity of marriage and the
religious and priestly life.
Alternatives to marriage should be studied and reflected upon in the context of the
Christian vocation to love as lived out in the priesthood and religious life. This
should be studied in contrast to contemporary culture’s alternative’s to marriage such
as “living together” or “trial marriage” which are incompatible with an authentic
expression of the human vocation to love.
In baptism Christians become part of the body of Christ and so all share in Christ’s
priesthood in a special way. The task of the priest is to mediate Christ so as to build
up the people of God. Christ assured his disciples that he would not leave them alone
in the world. On the night before he died he instituted the Eucharist in which he
guaranteed that he would feed his people and after his Resurrection he commissioned
his apostles to preach the Gospel and gave them the power to forgive sins. The
Church has continued this commission of Jesus by laying hands on men and thereby
imparting the sacrament of Holy Orders.
A priest or a Religious (monk or nun) follows Christ in a radical way committing
him/herself to celibacy for the sake of their people. The priest’s task is to proclaim
the word of God and celebrate the sacraments of the Church. Celibacy is therefore
not a way of missing out on love, but a way of expressing the human vocation to love
in a rich, though different, way. The task of the priest is to grow in likeness to Christ
so that he becomes and mediates Christ for his people. Students could be given the
opportunity to reflect on the challenge of the celibate life as life lived for the sake of
the Gospel and of others, a life of service in imitation of Jesus who came as one who
serves. A study of texts from the Rite of Ordination as well as input from a school
chaplain or someone living a celibate life would help students to gain an insight into
this way of life.
Some priests are religious, but not all religious are priests. Religious are men and
woman who have become part of a religious family (order) which has a specific
charism (gift) which it exercises on behalf of the Church. This may be missionary
work, teaching, medicine or the contemplative life. They vow to live a life of poverty,
chastity and obedience so that they can be more fully disposed to live like Jesus. This
life is most often lived in common and is marked by prayer so that religious life is a
life centred on God in a unique way. The religious aims at a total surrender to God.
There might be opportunities to investigate the different types of religious
communities in the Church and the particular mission or charism they have. There
might be one close to the school. They should investigate and reflect upon the vows
of poverty, chastity and obedience as ways of expressing a unique commitment to
Christ and the human vocation to love.
A particularly useful way of investigating the significance and importance of priestly
and religious life as expressing the human vocation to love would be through a case
study of e.g. The life of Pope John Paul II, Maximilian Kolbe, Oscar Romero, or
Mother Theresa of Calcutta or some other priest or religious.
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Egoism
Egoism believes that individuals’ most important duty is to do what they think is in
their own best interests. Egoism is therefore likely to lead people to support the
institution of marriage and to do their best to make it a success once they have made
the commitment. Whether or not a church wedding takes place will depend on how
the person interprets the desires of his or her future partner and family. Egoists may
feel it is in their interests to go along with what they want even if they would prefer a
registry office wedding. Egoism may result in individuals having difficulty
committing themselves to a life-long relationship since they might regard this as an
impossible demand. After all people change over the years. They might prefer to
have the freedom to go their own way. They might meet someone else. Either way
egoists won’t want to be tied down by too many legal restrictions. They might at least
want to have a ‘trial marriage’ before making any final decisions. Indeed, Egoists
might not see anything wrong with having as many relationships as they want,
provided that they don’t get hurt.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism believes in promoting community spirit by focusing on the greatest
good for the greatest number and encouraging people to consider the good of others.
If a person is strongly utilitarian therefore she is likely to be very much in favour of
marriage – seeing it as a valuable institution because it provides the best setting for
bringing up children to be mature and responsible. She would also see marriage as
having an important social function in maintaining a safe and stable society. Since
utilitarianism also believes that everyone’s interests should be treated equally she
would also be in favour of marriage because it provides a legal framework for
relationships. Only in this way can the interests of both partners and children be
protected.
What is the utilitarian to make of alternatives to marriage?
Again, the principle of the greatest good for the greatest number might mean different
things for different people. The utilitarian stance allows for a number of outcomes in
terms of co-habitation or trial marriage. If a couple are not going to get married then
they should live their lives in a way that gives them pleasure and happiness. If this
means living together then that’s fine because it will cause the least amount of pain if
things don’t work out for them. If people don’t want to do this then they should live
their life in a way that gives them the greatest possible pleasure and the least amount
of pain. This stance means if they want to have as many partners as they want then
that’s up to them.
This also means that if someone wants to be celibate then that’s fine also, if that’s
what brings them the most pleasure and happiness and brings happiness and pleasure
to others also.
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Things to discuss and write about in relation to Marriage/Alternatives to Marriage

What are the main reasons why people get married?

Describe the marriage service from any one religion. Do you think it is important
to have a ‘religious’ wedding? Give reasons for your answer.

Choose one Christian denomination and outline its view of marriage.

Why do Christians believe that marriage is important? Do you agree or disagree?
Give reasons for your answer.

What alternatives are there to married life?

What are the pros and cons of living a celibate life such as being a Catholic priest?

How would you account for the rise in popularity of ‘living together’ in recent
years?

‘Marriage is out of date.’ How far do you agree?

In what ways might views of marriage based on egoism differ from a Christian
view of marriage?

What reasons might utilitarianism give for supporting the institution of marriage?

‘Trial marriage is a sensible thing to take part in before deciding to spend the rest
of your life with someone.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
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5. DIVORCE
Background information
Between the 1960’s and the 1980’s divorce rates in the UK increased considerably.
This was probably due in large part to changes in the divorce law, particularly the
1969 Divorce Act. Many people argued that this act made divorce too easy. In fact
many marriages had broken down before the introduction of the 1969 Act but they
had just not been legally dissolved. Today the UK has the second highest divorce rate
in the European community after Denmark. In England and Wales around 151,000
couples are divorced each year. In Scotland the figure is around 11,000 each year.
Being divorced, however, does not seem to put people off marriage. Most divorcees
remarry. Of those first divorced in the mid 1970’s, about 60% of women and 77% of
men had remarried within ten years.
Recent changes in the law have made the process of obtaining a divorce much less
complicated. The main principle involved is ‘irretrievable breakdown’ with adultery
and unreasonable behaviour being seen as the causes. Irretrievable breakdown can
also be shown if the couple have lived apart for a period – two years if both agree to a
divorce, 5 years if one does not. In fact two years separation with consent is currently
the basis of almost half of the divorces in Scotland.
There are many pressures on marriage:




Lack of communication – due perhaps to a heavy workload on the part of both
partners and the problems associated with bringing up children, there is less time
to talk and discuss things
Human nature – everybody changes, the person you married at age 21 may be a
different person at age 30; ten years on you yourself may want different things out
of life
Finance – getting into debt, unemployment and redundancy can all put pressure
on a marriage because very often people cannot see any way out of their
difficulties
Absence of support – people often live far away from where they were brought
up so there is less support available from parents and grandparents and other
members of their family.
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Consider the following opinions…
WHY COUPLES DIVORCE
Some couples were too
young when they
married
WHY THEY REMAIN
MARRIED
Continued commitment
Unemployment can lead For financial reasons –
to financial problems
there are tax benefits
Problems such as
addiction or violence
For their public image
One partner is unfaithful For religious reasons –
in the relationship
they believe that divorce
is not an option
Some couples are
They do not want the
disillusioned with
‘stigma’ attached to
marriage and realise that divorce
they no longer love each
other
If a couple were forced
into a marriage due to
the girl being pregnant
For the sake of the
children
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Christian views
Christian views of divorce have their roots in the Bible. In particular, reference is
often made to Mark 10: 1 - 12 (see section on marriage). In this part of the Scriptures
Jesus is confronted by some Pharisees who question him about the lawfulness of a
man divorcing his wife. In his answer to the Pharisees Jesus quotes the Book of
Genesis reminding the Pharisees that marriage was God’s plan for man and woman
from the beginning, and that through marriage a man and woman become one body.
Jesus says that what God has joined together man does not have the power to divide.
In Matthew Jesus goes further and says that a man who divorces his wife and marries
another is guilty of adultery. The same applies to a woman who divorces her
husband.
“Moses permitted you to divorce your wives because your hearts were hard. But it
was not this way from the beginning. I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife,
except for marital unfaithfulness, and marries another woman commits adultery.”
(Matthew 19:8-9)
The Church of Scotland believes that there are occasions where divorce is
permissible. The Church recognises that people can make mistakes about one another
and that for different reasons relationships can break down and turn sour. In such
cases where the breakdown appears to be irreparable and where people have been hurt
emotionally and even physically, divorce is allowed. Often the decision to seek a
divorce is seen as a better option than a continuation of the marriage in which long
term physical and psychological damage to the partners or their children is a real
possibility.
The Catholic Church believes that a marriage between two baptised people is a
sacrament and cannot be dissolved. Therefore the Catholic Church does not recognise
the power of a civil divorce to end a valid sacramental marriage. When a valid
sacramental marriage has been contracted then the Catholic Church teaches that only
the death of one of the partners brings the marriage to an end. The Church believes
that this position is that of Jesus himself. A person who is validly married in the eyes
of the Church and who divorces to remarry someone else is guilty of adultery because
in the eyes of the Church she or he is still married.
The Church recognises, however, that there are situations in which it is impossible for
a husband and wife to continue to live together. In these circumstances the Church
accepts that the couple may have to separate. However, although they have separated,
they are still husband and wife in the sight of God and are not free to marry someone
else. The Church also recognises that for domestic/legal purposes a couple may have
to undergo the process of civil divorce. Provided that no other marriage takes place or
they do not entertain any other sexual relationship, they may still take part in the full
life of the Church.
The Catholic Church can also ‘annul’ a marriage. An annulment is a declaration that
a marriage never existed in the first place whereas a dissolution of marriage is a
breaking of a bond that did exist. The reasons for a declaration of nullity are varied
but can be, for example, if someone has been forced into marriage or if one of the
partners intends at the time of the marriage not to have children. If a declaration of
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nullity is made then the man and woman are free to marry again, provided that the
obligations of a previous union are discharged.
Other Christian churches see the teaching of Jesus as the ideal for marriage. They
recognise the difficulties facing some marriages and so recognise civil divorce as
ending a marriage. The Church of Scotland and Anglican Church are churches which
would recognise civil divorce. The Greek Orthodox Church, while maintaining the
teaching of Jesus as the ideal, nevertheless will permit the innocent party in a divorce
to remarry.
Egoism
One of the most important aspects of egoism is that it allows individuals the freedom
to do what suits them best. Egoism therefore is most likely to lead people to support
divorce where they would not wish to be involved in a marriage which was causing
them stress and unhappiness. Since they had originally agreed to marriage and
accepted that the commitment involved was in their own long term interest, they
would try to overcome their difficulties and not immediately seek a way of escaping.
They would not just see divorce as a convenient safety net allowing them to remarry if
they felt like it. They might even try to arrange for counselling because they would
see it as being in their interest to maintain the marriage. But if they felt there was no
way of putting things right they would want to get a divorce so they could get on with
their own life. Since egoism believes that doing what is in your own interest can
sometimes promote the interests of others, they would take the view that divorce is
also to the benefit of any children involved where every other means has been tried.
Utilitarianism
Since utilitarianism puts great emphasis on the consequences of actions, people taking
a utilitarian stance would be very concerned with the effects of divorce on everybody
involved especially children. They would want to decide on the basis of whether
going ahead with a divorce was better or worse for everyone than trying to stay
together. They would probably not be for or against divorce in general but believe that
you can only decide in relation to your own situation. They would certainly want to
avoid making a decision that resulted in a situation in which the consequences were
bad for everyone involved. Utilitarianism also wants to bring about the greatest good
for the greatest number so it would probably in most cases lead to a decision for
divorce. The argument would be that although divorce is difficult for everyone
involved and may even cause more bitterness in the short term, in the long term it
allows people to rebuild their lives and this is bound to benefit society.
The more individuals involved, the more difficult it becomes to reach a decision
which is fair to all. For example, it is straightforward where there are just the spouses
to consider. Where there are children, teenagers etc. it is much more complicated to
assess the consequences for all of them.
Organisations which deal with relationship problems associated with marriage and
divorce might be invited to the centre to speak to students about these issues e.g.
Relate, Catholic Marriage Care members etc.
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Things to discuss and write about in relation to Divorce

Describe the legal grounds for divorce in Scotland.

Despite relatively high divorce rates people still want to get married. Why do you
think marriage is still popular?

Describe the main pressures on married people today.

Which of the pressures on married people do you think is the most important?
Give reasons for your answer.

What does the Bible say with regard to divorce?

Explain briefly the position of the Roman Catholic Church on divorce and
remarriage.

Why do some Christian churches believe that divorce is sometimes permissible?

Explain how egoism might lead someone to support divorce.

What attitudes might a person who holds a utilitarian stance have towards
divorce?

“Man must not separate…..what God has joined together.” Matthew 10:9
How far do you agree?
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6.
SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
Background information
Sexual behaviour is intimately connected with the ability to reproduce. Without the
ability to reproduce the human race could not have survived. People’s sexual drive
seems to be designed to ensure that at the biological level human beings do reproduce.
But the sexual drive is also linked to our emotional and psychological needs and
development. Much of this begins at puberty which brings physical and emotional
changes in the lives of both boys and girls. Puberty introduces sexual longings and
desires that we have not consciously known before, at least not with the same
intensity that we come to experience them in our adolescent years. No matter how
sophisticated we think we are, no matter how ready we think we are for being a
teenager, no matter how many television programmes and films we have seen
portraying sexual relationships, the feelings are new to us, and they reinforce the fact
that an important change has taken place.
As a result young people come under tremendous pressure about sex both from their
peers and from society. Society puts pressure on young people through advertising
and the media. Sexual images often communicate the idea that sex is something that
exists in a vacuum unconnected to relationships and responsibilities.
More than this, sex is frequently linked explicitly or implicitly as an advertising
inducement to selling a product. The beautiful model on the bonnet of a car or the
gorgeous guy slipping out of his jeans is used to make us want the car/jeans. In the
long term, the sexual act as well as connotations of sexual behaviour come to be seen
as a means to an end, not an end in itself.
Moreover, sex is still something which young people and parents find difficult to
discuss and this can lead to misunderstanding about the thoughts and emotions
involved. In a world which is more sexually explicit than in the past, parents can be
lulled into thinking that their offspring are more mature than they really are. They
might know a lot more about these matters, but that does not mean that they have
learned any better how to cope with this difficult stage in their lives.
In a recent survey of British social attitudes researchers found that few people today
think that sex before marriage is necessarily wrong. Almost two-thirds of those
questioned believe it is a good idea that a couple who intend to get married live
together first. There was little tolerance for adultery, however, with four out of five
people believing it to be wrong. On the question of homosexuality, more than half
believe it is always or mostly wrong. Less than one in four believed it was not wrong
at all.
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Sex outside marriage has now become more common perhaps for the following
reasons:
 contraception and education about contraception is widely available
 sexual permissiveness is often encouraged in the media
 fewer people are religious and follow the teachings of the churches or religious
leaders.
Not everyone, however, believes this is a good thing and point to problems such as:
 the increase in sexually transmitted diseases, including the danger of HIV/AIDS
 the increase in unwanted pregnancies and abortions
 the increase in the number of children growing up without a stable family life.
There are many people today who believe that chastity and fidelity are important
features of happy and fulfilled relationships.
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Consider the following opinions…
REASONS WHY PEOPLE
HAVE SEX BEFORE
MARRIAGE
REASONS WHY PEOPLE
DON’T HAVE SEX BEFORE
MARRIAGE
They do not believe in
marriage
If they respect their
partner then they will
wait
There’s nothing wrong
with it
Their religion tells them
it is wrong
“He says that if I love
him, I would have sex”
They would let their
parents down
You need to be
experienced
Fear of pregnancy
How will people know if They want a commitment
the person is the right
that is permanent and in
one unless they compare front of God
them?
Everyone does it
Each gives her/himself to
the other, that’s special
and involves a promise that’s marriage
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Christian views
Most Christians agree that sex outside marriage is wrong not just because it can lead
to the problems above but more importantly because the Bible sees marriage as the
proper place for the full expression of love between a man and a woman. Christians
see sexual pleasure as a precious gift from God which needs to be appreciated and
encouraged for itself. Sex is about procreation but not entirely so, it is also about
fostering a loving relationship.
The first creation story (Genesis 1: 27) makes it clear that human sexuality is to be
understood as a good thing because it is God’s creation; God created humankind “in
his own image.” The picture in Genesis 2: 25 of man and woman “naked and
unashamed” suggests that the biblical writers saw sexuality as a gift from God to be
enjoyed. In the Song of Solomon sex is seen as a source of pleasure and not just a
means of procreation. The abuse of sex, however, is condemned, for example, incest
(Leviticus 2: 18), rape (Deuteronomy 22: 25 ff), adultery (Matthew 5: 27).
Although the Bible does not provide a detailed set of rules regarding sexual
behaviour, Christianity basically teaches that:
 sex is a gift from God and requires responsibility, commitment and love
 it is always wrong to treat and use a person as if he or she was an object
 sexual intercourse is very special because it can create new life
 sex is the fullest expression of a loving and life-long union between two people.
In a report to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1994, its Board of
Responsibility stated that:
“sexuality is a blessing and gift from God to be experienced and enjoyed without
shame or guilt; and that marriage is appointed as the right and proper setting for the
full expression of physical love between man and woman.”
The Catholic Church, while looking to Scripture for its position regarding sexual
behaviour also looks to Tradition i.e. the constant witness, life and teaching of the
Church, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, when considering what is appropriate
sexual behaviour for a Christian. The teaching of the Catholic Church is that human
sexuality is directed towards the love of a man and woman in marriage. The act of
sexual intercourse is not merely a biological function but the deepest expression of a
human person and the greatest gift a person can give to another i.e. the gift of self.
Sexual intercourse is the sign of unconditional commitment of the spouses to each
other. In fact the Church teaches that human sexuality is a source of joy and pleasure
when expressed in this context. The creation accounts in Genesis are of fundamental
importance here. Humankind is created as the pinnacle of creation because it is made
in the image and likeness of God. God creates man and woman to be a communion of
persons, they become one so that they can, in marriage, create new life and thereby
act as co-creators with God himself. This is the root of the Catholic understanding of
human sexuality expressing marriage as a covenant.
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Contraception
Contraception refers to the various methods by which a couple can avoid pregnancy.
It may be used for a number of reasons e.g.
 A couple may decide not to have children.
 A couple may already have children and have decided that their family is large
enough.
 It enables couples to plan their future by waiting until they are more financially
secure before having children.
 It helps couples to enjoy sex without worrying about pregnancy.
The Catholic Church considers that the use of artificial contraception is morally
unacceptable and that this has been the constant teaching of the Church. It believes
that the accounts of creation clearly show that from the beginning God intended man
and woman to be a communion of persons through marriage and sexual intercourse.
That communion of persons is denied when contraception is used to prevent the
conception of new life. Contraception is a refusal of the total giving of the self which
sexual intercourse intrinsically means.
Sexual intercourse has a twofold purpose: unitive and procreative. ‘Unitive’ means
that the couple’s love for each other is deepened through their sexual union, that their
relationship is strengthened as a result. ‘Procreative’ means that sexual intercourse
has the purpose of bringing children into the world. Contraception is intended to stop
this second purpose. The use of contraception to prevent conception is a failure to
express the total meaning of human love and it therefore contradicts the true meaning
of human sexuality. This meaning is not denied when the regulation of conception is
brought about by recourse to the body’s natural rhythm and cycle (natural family
planning). This view was summed up in an encyclical letter of Pope Paul VI called
‘Humanae Vitae’ – On Human Life.
Most other Christian churches take the view that a couple may practise forms of
contraception that are acceptable to both partners for the reasons already mentioned.
Homosexuality
From our discussion of sexuality so far it will be clear that the Christian position sees
sexuality as a gift from God and as an essential part of a person’s identity. For a
Christian the question arises then about whether those with a homosexual orientation
should not also be free to express their sexuality.
There is a suggestion that about 5% of adult men and women may be homosexual.
There has been much debate over the years about the causes of homosexuality but
because of the complexity of the factors involved no firm conclusion has yet been
reached. There is still some disagreement about whether sexual orientation is a matter
of choice, environmental conditioning, genetically given, or some combination of
these.
In the Book of Leviticus we find the following reference to homosexuality:
“You shall not lie with a man as with a woman.” (Leviticus 18: 22)
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In the New Testament 1 Corinthians 6: 9-10 reads:
“…no fornicator or idolater, none who are guilty either of adultery or of homosexual
perversion…will possess the kingdom of God.”
Some Christians take the view that references such as these are culturally conditioned.
In other words they reflect ideas and attitudes which belong to a different time and
place and are therefore no longer relevant in our situation in the 21st century. They
point out, for example, that we no longer follow the Bible when it comes to our
attitude to slavery or the role of women in society. Homosexuality they argue, should
be looked at in the same way.
After studying the whole area of human sexuality, however, the Church of Scotland’s
Board of Responsibility recognised that there were different points of view within the
Church regarding homosexuality:
“but saw no compelling reasons to alter the Church’s position that the practice of
homosexual acts is contrary to God’s will for humankind.”
Nevertheless they were insistent that everyone should:
“deplore all prejudice against and maltreatment of people because of their sexual
orientation.”
The Roman Catholic Church’s Declaration on Sexual Ethics (1975) states:
“In Sacred Scripture homosexuals are condemned…this does not permit us to
conclude that all those who suffer from homosexuality are personally responsible for
it, but it does point to the fact that homosexual acts are disordered and can in no case
be approved of…
… This same principle, which the Church holds from Divine Revelation and from her
authentic interpretation of the natural law, is also the basis of her traditional
doctrine, which states that the use of the sexual function has its true meaning and
moral rectitude only in true marriage.”
Within the wider Christian community there is active debate and discussion about the
status of the homosexual and of homosexuality, where groups of Christian
homosexuals are challenging their own communities to look again at the scriptures
and the tradition to discern a way forward which is inclusive both of their orientation
and their relationships.
Egoism
A central consideration for egoism is doing what is in a person’s own best interests.
This could lead to an attitude of permissiveness towards sexual behaviour if a person
believed that pleasure was the deepest reason for sex and that his or her interests were
best served by the pursuit of pleasure. But a person might also believe that their best
interests lay in being with one person they loved and in having children and that the
pleasure of sex was merely a suitable reward. In this case they would think that love
is an important part of their life. It is something we share with one another and it has
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to be accompanied by caring and responsibility. They might also believe that
participating in casual sexual relationships is definitely not in their interest either
because of the danger of contracting a sexually transmitted disease such as HIV, or
because sometimes people end up getting hurt. They are unlikely to take the view,
however, that sex outside marriage is always wrong.
Egoism allows people the freedom to make up their own minds about these matters.
They would probably say that efficient methods of contraception have made it
possible for couples to enjoy each other at a deep level without necessarily being tied
to them forever. Babies should only be brought into the world when you are sure you
can give them a secure upbringing and are ready to take on the relevant
responsibilities. In relation to homosexuality too, egoists are likely to adopt a
permissive attitude towards homosexual relationships based on what is in their own
best interests.
Utilitarianism
As far as utilitarianism is concerned there is no such thing as absolute moral laws or
rules that apply to everyone no matter where or when they live. So utilitarianism
would not agree with most Christian churches which say that sex before marriage is
always wrong. Those who base their moral decisions on utilitarianism would want to
point out that there is surely a huge difference between a client and a prostitute having
intercourse and a young couple in love with one another and having a sexual
relationship.
On the other hand utilitarianism does not necessarily support those who believe there
is nothing wrong with sleeping around. Utilitarianism adopts a very practical
approach to morality and puts great emphasis on looking at the consequences of
actions. A person might say that casual relationships are more likely to lead to people
getting hurt because the relationship is not based on mutual love and responsibility.
Utilitarianism wants to see society improve for the majority of people and would be
more likely to support stable relationships and stable family life. This is liable to
mean that they would be in favour of responsible sexual behaviour rather than a strict
‘no sex until marriage’ position. Utilitarians believe that sometimes individuals have
to make a sacrifice for the good of other people. Those who adopt this stance
therefore might well decide that it is important to give up part of their freedom in
order to ensure that children in particular have a loving and secure environment in
which to grow up.
In relation to homosexual behaviour, the greatest good of the greatest number
involves men and women in heterosexual relationships and to this extent the
homosexual lifestyle is less of a consideration. Some might see it as a threat to the
family way of life, while others might argue that the concept of family as a man and a
woman bringing up children is far from commonplace in today’s society.
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Things to discuss and write about in relation to Sexual Behaviour

What do Christians believe about the purpose of sexual intercourse in human life?
Support your answer by referring to the Bible.

Why do you think sexual intercourse outside marriage may be more common
today than in previous generations?

Explain the views of the churches on homosexuality? Do you agree or disagree?
Give reasons for your answer.

In what ways does the Roman Catholic Church’s position on contraception differ
from that of most other churches?

Why might egoism lead a person to oppose casual sexual relationships?

What reasons might utilitarianism give for opposing the Christian view that sexual
intercourse outside marriage is always wrong?

‘Christian views on sex are old-fashioned and out of touch.’ How far do you
agree with this?

‘It is a good idea to have sex before marriage so that you are experienced before
you get married.’ How far do you agree with this statement?

To what extent is the media an important influence on young people’s views about
sexual behaviour?
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7.
Resources
Life Issues: A Christian perspective - Chris Wright, Lion Educational
Today’s Issues and Christian Beliefs – Simon & Chris Danes, Lion Educational
Roman Catholic Christianity – Joe Jenkins, Heinemann
Introducing Moral Issues – Joe Jenkins, Heinemann
Beliefs Values & Traditions – Anne Lovelace & Joy White, Heinemann
One World Many Issues – Bernard Williams ed., Stanley Thornes
Catechism of the Catholic Church - Geoffrey Chapman
The Christian Faith in the Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Church – Collins
Sources for Moral/Justice Issues, Church of Scotland – HSDU materials (6835)
On Human Life (1968) Church teaching about artificial contraception
http://listserv.american.edu/catholic/church/papal/paul.vi/humanae-vitae.html
On the Family (1981) The role of the family in today’s world
http://listserv.american.edu/catholic/church/papal/jp.ii/familiar.consorti
Splendour of Truth (1993) The foundations of moral theology
http://listserv.american.edu/catholic/church/papal/jp.ii/veritati.splendor
On the Value and Inviolability of Human Life (1995)
http://listserv.american.edu/catholic/church/papal/jp.ii/jp2evanv.html
Church of Scotland documents and reports:
“Education”
“Joint Paper on Clause 28”
“Panel on Doctrine”
“Social responsibility”
http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/servingscotland/genassembly-reports.htm
The National Marriage Project
The mission of the National Marriage Project is to strengthen the institution of
marriage.
http://marriage.rutgers.edu/about.htm
Alternatives to Marriage Project
A national organisation for unmarried people…
http://www.unmarried.org/
The Religion, Culture and Family Project.
The Religion, Culture, and Family Project seeks to address the contemporary situation
of American families…
http://www.uchicago.edu/divinity/family/
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