Tutorial 7
Lesson planning (c)
Focus on teaching methods; use of resources, attention to individual learning, use of groupings, etc.
Introduction
It is important that teachers learn how to use a variety of teaching methodologies in order to cater
for the range of learning needs and requirements that are present within most class environments. It
is also important to have as many resources as you can to support your instruction and to provide as
many ways as possible for students to enhance their learning experiences. Finally, it is also
important to understand the difference between individual and group learning, and learn how to
identify which method is most appropriate for the objective at hand.
Aims and objectives:
By the end of the tutorial and observations you should:
• Identify different teaching methods and their main characteristics
• Enlist a number of resources which you can use in instruction
• Understand the difference between individual and group learning, and the merits of each.
Teaching methods
People's beliefs with regard to human learning are different and have changed over time.
1. Behaviourists believe that knowledge can be transmitted during instruction. The teacher is
considered as a transmitter of knowledge, as the expert source, as a director of skill / concept
development through structured experiences.
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Students receive information, demonstrate competence, and they all learn the same material.
The curriculum is based on skill and knowledge hierarchies and skills are taught one after
the other in set sequence.
The learning goals are stated in terms of mastery learning and behavioural competence in a
scope and sequence.
The content / skills are delivered through lectures, demonstration, discussions, student
practice, seatwork and testing.
Assessment is achieved through written tests and development of products matched to
objectives. All the tests and products match the set criteria and the same measures are used
for all students.
Behaviourists’ views of learning emphasised external influences in the form of rewards and
punishment. The role of the teacher in this approach was to control the environment through
stimuli in the forms of cues and reinforcement for appropriate student behaviour. Students were
viewed as empty receptacles, responding passively to stimuli from the teacher and the classroom
environment. Over time, this perspective on learning was found to be oversimplified and perhaps
misdirected.
2. Behaviourist approaches gradually gave way to more cognitive perspectives, which emphasise
active internal processes that students use to organise, store and retrieve information. The cognitive
view of learning involves the development of strategies to encode and retrieve information. The
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learner is an active meaning maker through strategy use and the teacher is a partner in the process
of meaning making – a teacher of organisational and retrieval strategies.
More recently, research has emphasised the critical role that learners play in constructing new
knowledge.
3. Constructivists believe that knowledge is constructed. The teacher is seen as a guide and
facilitator as students generate their own knowledge; as a collaborative resource and assistant as
students explore topics.
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Students collaborate with each other, develop competences, and different students may learn
different material.
The curriculum is based on projects that foster both higher and lower level skills
concurrently.
Learning goals are stated in terms of growth from where students begin and increased ability
to work independently and with others.
Content / skills are delivered through group projects, hands-on exploration and product
development.
Assessment is achieved through performance tests and products such as portfolios. Quality
is measured by rubrics and checklists and measures may differ among students.
As teachers, we tend to make assumptions about the entry behaviour of our students. We tend to
think that the students know nothing about the topic, or that they know a good deal. The truth is
likely to be somewhere between the two extremes and will differ from student to student. The
constructivists’ view is that we identify the students’ current ideas which they may well have to
modify or abondon before they can construct new meaning.
Constructivism emphasises four key components:
Learners construct their understanding, rather than having it delivered or transmitted to them.
• New learning depends on prior understanding and knowledge.
• Learning is enhanced by social interaction.
• Authentic learning tasks promote meaningful learning.
Inductive and Deductive Teaching:
Deductive teaching starts from a generalization or rule and leads to specific examples or activities.
Inductive teaching starts from specific examples or activities and leads to a generalization or rule.
Instructional methods tend to be either deductive or inductive, although some methods use both.
Many lessons can include both approaches. Both approaches have their benefits, and the choice of
approach may depend upon the topic under consideration. Besides, some students may prefer an
inductive approach while other students may learn better with the deductive one. It could well be
that the best approach is to use a mix of the two throughout the year.
Both approaches can offer certain advantages, but the biggest difference is the role of the teacher.
Let’s take a closer look at the differences between inductive and deductive instruction, and find out
how noticing can be used in the language classroom to better facilitate student learning.
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What is deductive instruction?
A deductive approach to instruction would be advocated by behaviourists. It is a more teachercentered approach. This means that the teacher intorduces the students to a new concept, explains it,
and then has the students practice using the concept. For example, when teaching a new grammar
concept, the teacher will introduce the concept, explain the rules related to its use, and finally the
students will practice using the concept in a variety of different ways.
What is inductive instruction?
In contrast with the deductive method is much more student centred. Inductive instruction makes
use of student “noticing”. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with
examples, the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. The
intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how the concept works.
What is noticing?
Noticing is the process of students becoming aware of something in particular; as mentioned in the
above, noticing can be used to teach a grammar concept when students are given the examples, and
they come to understand the rule by noticing what those examples have in common. In a more
general language classroom situation, noticing can be used in many ways:
• When teachers speak at a more advanced level, they are giving the students constant
opportunities to notice the differences between the teacher’s speech and theirs. This way
each student can become aware of the differences at his own pace.
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Teachers can provide students with opportunities for noticing simply by putting posters up
in the classroom in the target language. As before, when the students are ready to notice the
difference, they will.
How can a teacher decide which method is the best choice for a given topic?
Both deductive and inductive sequences are valuable for teaching concepts, generalizations,
processes, and skills. The teacher must decide which to select given the learning outcomes desired
and the composition of the class. When choosing, the teacher should consider a number of factors
as explained below:
o How personalized should the learning be?
Students will usually be more involved in the learning experience and tend to participate more
actively when an inductive approach is used. If a deductive approach is chosen, it is important to
structure the learning experience in order to draw on students' prior experiences and learning, and to
provide for their active involvement.
o Should learning experiences be predictable?
The deductive approach is more predictable because the teacher selects the information and the
sequence of presentation.
o What depth of understanding and rate of retention is desired?
Students tend to understand and remember more when learning occurs inductively.
o How much time is available to teach the material?
The deductive approach is faster and can be an efficient way to teach large numbers of facts and
concrete concepts.
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Tutorial activity 1:
In your tutorial group discuss to which teaching method you relate most closely. Give reasons for
your choice. Identify a number of benefits and weaknesses of that particular teaching method.
Use of resources:
There are numerous resources available which can help you with your instruction. You need to
keep in mind that effective teachers do not limit themselves to resources specifically designed for
planning or for the education professional. They fill drawers, cupboards and computer files with
materials that they have found useful, or that simply look as if they might be useful in planning a
lesson or unit.
Syllabi – guides with statements detailing what should be taught in each year group and in each
content area. The syllabi should be the first place to look when you are considering what to teach
and how to plan instruction. They provide a framework, in terms of both time and subject manner,
for organising instruction. Syllabi spell out, often in great detail, the specific knowledge and skills
students are expected to attain and the attitudes they should exhibit. They are arranged by year
group level for primary schools and by content area / subject for secondary schools. They can be
particularly helpful because they identify what instruction the students have already have as well as
what will be expected of them after that year group or course. Syllabi are often phrased in broad
terms, giving individual teachers freedom to develop appropriate schemes of work and lesson plans.
Level descriptors – available in most subject areas and are an excellent source of goals to aid or
direct teachers in their planning. These level descriptors provide a context for benchmarking testing
and can be a significant help in organising instruction. However, teachers can also include other
goals that are particularly relevant to their students, their school, and what they believe is important
in the subject they teach.
Textbooks – another source of planning is the text or texts adopted by the school. Textbooks can
offer useful insights into the curriculum and how to plan for and teach it. Some textbook series
provide a structured series of lessons. They specify instructional objectives, provide a variety of
teaching suggestions, offer supplementary readings and practice aids, and include an evaluation
programme. Many also provide lessons designed specifically to help with cooperative learning,
thinking processes, decision-making skills, and a variety of problem-solving techniques. If such
materials meet the teacher’s objectives, they can be extremely useful resources, helping them make
the best use of their planning time.
Beyond the formal syllabi and the supplementary materials associated with textbooks, there are
many other sources of materials that successful teachers use to bring life to their lessons. The
following list is suggestive, not comprehensive. Teachers’ imagination and thoughtful planning
should generate many other ideas:
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Colleagues – most other teachers will be very willing to help find resources and to discuss
what works well for them. School librarians can be especially helpful, not only in
suggesting resources but also in helping you determine how to include them into instruction.
The internet – a tremendous amount of educational material is found on the internet,
including scheme of work and lesson ideas for all subject and year groups. If you are
selective and can adapt the materials you find to fit your students and objectives, then
internet can be a positive force in your planning.
Local libraries, museums and historical sites – each of these can offer considerable aid in
structuring a lesson.
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Tutorial activity 2:
Discuss:
• What is the difference between lessons that use technology, and learning that is facilitated
by the use of technology?
• Does the use of technology guarantee an increase in learning?
• What are the crucial factors that must be addressed when determining the appropriate
media?
Attention to individual learning; use of groupings
As teachers, you need to decide whether an individual or collaborative learning experience is the
most appropraite for the specific task at hand.
Teachers’ preparation time differs in collaborative and individual activities, as does the time
students invest. Individual learning lets students work at their own pace. Some students will
finish quickly and either feel accomplished or be bored in class. Others may not finish in class and
plan to finish at home. Additionally, individual learning requires students to manage their time,
which some students may not handle well. Teachers should spend time teaching study skills if
necessary, and should always provide structure with individual learning.
Teaching group learning takes planning. Teachers must explain expectations and assign different
roles for each group member. Teachers must monitor students so they stay on task. Students may
work faster than they do individually, because they have more help. They could work slower,
however, if the group does not function well or if some members need extra explanations.
Teachers assign different types of homework for individuals versus collaborative groups. One
reason is ease and another deals with fairness. It is easier for teachers to assign homework to
individuals because the students only depend on themselves to finish the assignment. Since only
one person is working, the assignments are normally smaller. Students can individually ask for help
and they cannot copy off a group member. In collaborative learning, students depend on others for
help, which is a great benefit, unless they take advantage of that.
Overall, time is the largest difference between individual and group learning. Teachers spend more
time planning and grading collaborative work because more things can go wrong. Homework can
be tricky with collaborative learning due to coordinating students’ schedules. Individual learning is
used more often, as it is clear-cut in handling concerns, although collaborative learning has many
benefits.
Small-group settings encourage interaction among students and are particularly appropriate for the
exchange of ideas and to provide a focus on processes.
Group settings offers teachers:
• an effective way to engage students
• to increase the complexity and challenge of the tasks that students gain experience of
working on
• to offer students the opportunity for collaborative working
• to give the opportunity to students to share resources
• to offer the possibility of greatly reducing marking loads, especially where lengthy and
complex products emerge from project work.
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Group learning is likely to go more smoothly if you build an appropriate context for it in your class.
This means deciding how to:
• develop appropriate tasks – what are your learning goals? Ask questions that induce the
kind of thinking you want to take place. What kind of interaction should take place?
• orientate students – many students do not know how to participate effectively in group
learning situations. Do students know how to do the kind of thinking expected of them? Do
students know how to interact in the ways expected of them?
• form groups – the composition of groups can influence how they function. The teacher
assigns students to groups versus students select group members versus random assignment.
• facilitate student collaboration – what can / should teachers do to facilitate student
collaboration? Clarify collaborative expectations and monitor group work in class.
• evaluate student work – you need to decide how you are going to grade students. How can
grading promote or impede collaboration?
Examples of collaborative learning techniques:
Think-pair-share – this learning activity involves explaining answers / ideas to another student.
The teacher poses a question to the class. Students write a response and then share it with a student
nearby. Students clarify their positions and discuss points of agreement and disagreement. The
teacher can use several answers to illustrate important points or facilitate a whole class discussion.
Reciprocal teaching - this learning activity involves students teaching one another in groups.
Students jointly read a text or work on a task. Students take turns being the teacher for a segment of
the text or task. In their teaching role students lead the discussion, summarise material, ask
questions, and clarify material.
Think-aloud pair problem solving – this learning activity involves solving problems. Students
work in pairs and alternate roles. For each problem one is the solver while the other is the listener.
The solver thinks aloud – narrating his / her reasoning process – while solving the problem. The
listener prompts the solver to keep talking and asks for clarification but does not intervene to help.
Group grid - this learning activity involves analysing, classifying, organising subject matter. The
teacher creates a grid or matrix based on several categories or criteria. Students use the grid to
classify course concepts. After groups complete their grids the teacher shows the correct version.
Students compare their work, ask questions and revise their ideas.
Group writing assignments - this learning activity involves collaborative work that culminates in a
group-authored document. Assign groups to write on course-related topics or create study guides
for the course.
Tutorial activity 3:
Together with your tutor, select a number of learning objectives which have been discussed in the
previous tutorial (Session 6). Discuss whether each learning objective would work out better in an
individual pupil method, or within a group.
Observation session:
1. Observe and take note of the number of different resources your collaborating teacher uses
during the day. Write whether these resources have taken a lot of planning and preparation time,
and whether they can be used across different lessons for numerous purposes.
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2. (a) Ask your teacher when and why he/she generally uses groupwork.
(b) During the day, observe whether children work individually, in pairs or in groups. Comment
about the suitability of the method used.
Post-observation session:
In your tutorial group, evaluate whether the class teacher is making the best use of the resources
available. Discuss and write down additional resources the teacher could have used.
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