SECTION 1: THE FOOD CHAIN
Section 1: The Food Chain
Resource management
Content
Elaboration
The Food Chain
The processes of events from production of
food through to its consumption, to include:
 food hygiene and safety issues at each
stage in the food chain
Reference should also be made to the section Biochemistry, Preservation and
Processing: adverse effects of micro-organisms and enzymes in the development
of flavours and textures in foods
Steps taken throughout the food chain to ensure the provision of safe
food
1.
Primary producers
These include farmers, horticulturalists and fishermen. In all areas strict
controls are necessary.
The following points outline some areas in farming where controls are
needed:
 Strict control procedures should be used by primary produc ers, eg storage
of eggs to prevent infection with salmonella prior to hatching .
 Poultry reared for meat on farms are at risk of Campylobacter infection
unless precautions are taken to prevent this. These precautions could
include, for example, improving the cleaning of chicken houses between
different flocks and daily sanitisation of feeding water.
 The safety precautions in the UK food chain are designed to minimise any
potential risk from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Feeding
cattle (or any other farm animal) with material that includes processed
body parts of cattle or sheep is illegal. Only cattle under 30 months old
can be used for food.
 All incidences of bovine tuberculosis (TB), brucellosis, salmonella and
BSE must be reported.
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 Use of pesticides and veterinary medicines such as antibiotics need control
to minimise residue in food.
 Microbiologists are concerned about the use of antibiotics as growth
promoters in some feedstuffs because of the risk that they may lead to the
development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria, which may be
transmitted to humans. These antibiotics are being reduced or removed.
 The temperature of milk fresh from cows is around 37C. This is cooled to
4C and stored in clean tanks. Tanks are insulated to retain temperature.
Tanks are transported at this temperature.
 Animal health regulations are now being enforced by trading standards, eg
animal movement records/markets.
2.
Initial processing/primary processors
Slaughter houses
 These must comply with the Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird Meat and
Rabbit Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) Regulations 1995 , which have been
amended by the Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat
(Hygiene and Inspection) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2002. These
regulations extend to Scotland only. (Further information may be sourced
at www.hmso.gov.uk.)
 The regulations outline the standard of hygiene for the slaughterhouse,
temperature control, method and length of carcass storage.
 These controls will contribute to the prevention of microbiological
contamination, particularly salmonella (optimum temp erature 37C) and
Escherichia coli (optimum temperature 37C).
 This also helps to prevent cross-contamination occurring, especially when
gutting.
 Official controls require specific inspection of all animals, carcases and
offal, and risk-based audits to ensure that the new EU Food Hygiene
Regulations 2006 are met. These regulations came into force in 2006 in
all EU Member States – the Food Hygiene (Scotland) Regulations 2006
provides enforcement powers in respect of the EU Food Hygiene
Regulations.
 The Meat Hygiene Service (MHS) ensures that the meat industry
safeguards the health of the public, and the health and welfare of animals
at the point of slaughter, through enforcement of legislation in approved
fresh meat premises. The MHS undertakes this work on behalf of the Food
Standards Agency.
 The Clean Livestock policy sets out the standards for acceptable levels of
cleanliness for cattle and sheep being presented for slaughter. I t was
published in 1997 to improve hygiene standards following the outbreak of
E. coli in 1996 in Scotland.
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Dairies
The EU Food Hygiene Regulations set out clearly the duty of food
businesses, including milk producers, to ensure food safely. Key elements of
previous dairy hygiene legislation are retained, such as those relating to the
health and cleanliness of animals, hygiene procedures during milking and the
prohibition on sales of raw milk.
Processing is subject to inspection and strict controls. Man y authorities issue
guidance documents to milk production holdings to ensure that standards of
hygiene conform with the new legislation.
3.
Final/secondary processing or manufacturing
Quality management systems are set up to reduce the risk of microbiolo gical
contamination. Quality systems include:
 the hazard analysis critical control point ( HACCP) system, which focus on
identifying risks/hazards during food manufacture and putting controls in
place to ensure safe food
 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets quality
management standards to be followed to assure the quality of product at all
stages.
Examples of manufacturers’ responsibilities
 The storage, preparation and cooking of, for example, meat, chicken : a
proper HACCP system should be set up to minimise the risk of micro biological contamination.
 Chickens are high-risk products: a structured system, using written records
of hazard analysis, should be used to set up effective control.
 All controls must be monitored rigorously to ensure they are working
effectively and that the food is safe.
 Specific points may include separate storage areas for raw and cooked
foods, and the use of rapid cooling/chill blasting to enable foods to be
stored at low-risk temperatures quickly.
 Salmonella and E. coli are the main problems to watch out for, as well as
Clostridium (optimum temperature 43–37C) during ‘bulk cooking’.
 A minimum centre temperature of 75C is required to ensure bacteria are
killed and this should be checked with a food probe.
 Staff training is important in general hygiene practices and specifically in
relation to personal hygiene, particularly the prevention of Staphylococcus
aureus food poisoning.
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4.
Transportation/distribution
The quality and safety of food must be maintai ned during transportation and
distribution by checking operating procedures to ensure food products are
preserved correctly and that monitoring procedures are carried out. There are
three international bodies responsible for implementing quality standards:
 European Union (introduced legislation on the preservation of hygiene and
safety of food)
 ISO
 Codex Alimenarius (established in 1962 by the World Health Organisation
and the Food Agriculture Organisation).
 Cleanliness of lorries is vital; they should be sanitised between trips.
 Cramped conditions, eg in the transport of chickens/cows, may spread
infection.
 The temperature of the transport system is very important; refrigerated
lorries with temperatures below 5C and a system of monitoring
temperature control are essential to ensure safe food for the consumer.
 Products must be kept free from external pollutants , eg dust, moisture,
unsuitable temperatures, odours, rodents and insect pests.
 To help ensure this happens, packaging should not be physically bruis ed,
broken or bent. Product must be delivered in perfect condition with
packaging fully intact.
 All transportation vehicles should be clean, damp, mould and odour free to
help prevent contamination from insects, etc, and Clostridium perfringens.
5.
Retailer
 The retailer must ensure all foods received have been transported at the
correct temperature, are within the use-by date and that all packaging is
intact.
 Once in the store they must be kept from raw meats ( E. coli) and, if chilled
are below 8C or less, or if hot are above 63C (Listeria/Staphylococcus
aureus).
 Frozen food must be kept frozen to prevent the product thawing before it
reaches the consumer.
 Excess humidity can lead to the growth of moulds and bacteria on meat ,
and fungus on fruit, vegetables and dry cereals.
 The Food Hygiene (Scotland) Regulations 2006 should be followed in
relation to cleanliness, maintenance and repair of food premises, layout
and design, prevention of cross-contamination, accessibility to wash
basins, ventilation, toilet facilities, lighting and personal hygiene
facilities.
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 Foodstuffs must be handled by trained staff.
 Foods must be stored correctly; cooked and raw foods must be stored
separately to avoid the possibility of cross-contamination.
6.
Consumer
This is the final part of the food chain. The consumer must be aware of the
dangers of poor food preparation, storage, transportation from the shop and
cooking.
 Purchase – foods must be within correct the shelf life and in good
condition, packaged carefully to avoid damage from shop to home.
 Transport – frozen or chilled foods to be purchased at the end of shopping
and transported to the home as quickly as possible. A cool bag is ideal to
help food remain chilled.
 Storage – refrigerated or frozen at correct temperatu res. Food wrapped.
Cooked and raw foods should be stored away from one another, ie raw at
bottom of refrigerator, cooked above. This will avoid any cross contamination. Rotate stock to avoid out -of-date products. Fridge
temperature should be less than 4C.
 Cooking/reheating – should be done according to instructions for the
appropriate time and to safe temperatures. Food should only be reheated
once.
Consumers have a responsibility to be knowledgeable about current hygiene
and safety practices. The Department for the Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs produces advisory leaflets.
Note that the following food hygiene legislation can be enforced at various
stages in the food chain:
 Food Safety Act 1990
 Food Hygiene (Scotland) Regulations 2006.
Updates on food hygiene legislation should be accessed regularly on the Food
Standards Agency (FSA) website www.food.gov.uk.
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Resource management
Content
Elaboration
The Food Chain
The process of events from production of
food through to its consumption, to
include:
 food hygiene and safety issues at each
stage in the food chain, to include:
– food safety legislation
– the hazard analysis critical control
point system
– the role of the environmental health
department
Food Safety Act 1990
The Food Safety Act 1990 was introduced to take account of the changes in
food technology and eating habits. It was designed to help reduce the number
of cases of contamination and food poisoning. It applies to food businesses
throughout the UK.
 It aims to ensure all food produced for sale is safe to eat, reaches quality
expectations and is not misleadingly presented.
 It covers the whole food chain from the farm or factory to point of sale –
this ensures safe food for consumers.
 In particular, it covers sources from which the food is derived and articles
which come into contact with the food so the consumer is protected
throughout the food chain.
 It covers farmers directly so ensures safe primary production.
 It makes it an offence to sell food that is injurious to health, unfit to eat or
contaminated.
 All in the food business must conform to this Act, and food premises must
be registered – this ensures good hygiene standards for consumers .
 All food handlers have to undergo food hygiene training , therefore the
consumer should be protected from the risk of food poisoning.
 The Act provides legal powers and penalties to enforce it. These duties are
carried out by environmental health departments in relation to food
hygiene issues and by trading standards in relation to food labelling, etc.
 Enforcement officers have the right to inspect food sources and to take
action when an offence has been committed.
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 Food labelling must be accurate – this relates to storage/cooking
instructions and possible ingredients/additives which may cause allergies.
 This Act enables us to fit in with the requirements of the EU and to meet
their food safety requirements.
 It allows us to keep pace with technological change and so ensure food
developments do not put safety of the consumer at risk.
Due diligence
Due diligence is the principal defence under the Food Safety Act 1990 and it
enables the defendant to be acquitted of an offence if they prove that they or
a person under their control ‘took all reasonable precautions and exercised all
due diligence to avoid committing the offence’.
To prove that reasonable precautions have been taken involves setting up a
system of procedures and controls, being aware of the likely hazards and
risks, and checking that these systems are operated properly. Clear, written
records referring to hazard analysis, training, temperatures, pest control,
testing, cleaning schedules and codes of practice are essential.
It may be acceptable for a food operator to prove that someone else, not under
their control, was responsible, that they were relying on information
provided, that reasonable checks were made and they could not reasonably
know that an offence was being committed.
Food Hygiene (Scotland) Regulations 2006
These regulations are designed to ensure that food hygiene regulations in
Scotland meet the requirements of being a member of the European Union.
 Anyone who processes or sells food is covered by these regulations and is
legally bound to make sure they carry out their operations safely and
hygienically.
 Anyone who owns, manages or works in a food business, apart from those
working in primary food production such as harvesting, slaughtering or
milking, is affected by these regulations.
 The regulations apply to all premises, from restaurants and supermarkets
to vans, vending machines and village halls. Whether food is sold publicly
or privately, in a hotel or in a marquee, for profit or fund -raising these
regulations must be observed.
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The main points of the regulations are to ensure the f ollowing:
1.
Owners of a food business must carry out a risk assessment of their
business in order to ensure food safety and hygiene. The system that
is most widely used by food businesses is known as HACCP.
 This system ensures that all sellers/processors of food identify all
steps in their activities that are critical to food safety – emphasis on
controlling risk, thus reducing risk to the consumer.
 It also ensures that adequate safety controls are in place, maintained
and reviewed.
 This is undertaken by implementing the HACCP system.
2.
General food hygiene
The aim of the regulations is to set out basic hygiene principles to
control food safety risks. All food must be fit for human consumption
and protected to minimise the risk of infection.
 The regulations deal with the following areas:
– Premises – their construction and design should allow for good
cleaning and maintenance, they should have good ventilation and
lighting, good drainage and adequate hand-washing facilities, the
removal and storage of waste should be well planned and toilet
facilities should be away from food preparation areas.
– Food preparation rooms – should have floors, doors, walls,
ceilings and work surfaces that are easy to clean.
– Equipment – should be designed for ease of cleaning and
maintenance and be well installed.
– Transport used to carry food – must be kept clean and well
maintained, and have foodstuffs stored and protected to reduce the
risk of contamination.
– Hygiene of food handlers – good personal hygiene, routine hand
washing, protective clothing, cover cuts appropriately, no
jewellery or nail polish, no smoking.
– Fitness for work – specific medical conditions that will make
food handlers likely to contaminate food must be excluded from
any food handling, eg diarrhoea, pus-containing sores, vomiting
or any form of food poisoning. Food handlers known or suspected
of carrying any disease or infection must not be permitted to
work.
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– Preventing food contamination – cooked and raw foods must be
kept apart during preparation and storage; place food safely –
open food to be 45 cm from the ground; cover open food while
exposed; store food at correct temperatures, ie refrigerators below
5C.
– Training and supervising food handlers – instruction and/or
training in food hygiene matters to the level appropriate for the
job. Staff must be adequately trained and supervised in matters
relating to food safety.
Hazard analysis critical control point system
This system operates from the purchase of raw materials to service to the
customer.
There are seven stages involved in the HACCP system:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Conduct a hazard analysis.
Decide on the critical control points.
Establish a tolerance level.
Establish a monitoring system.
Establish what action should be taken to correct the hazard if it occurs.
Establish procedures to check that the HACCP system works
effectively.
Record-keeping and review of procedures.
1.
Conduct a hazard analysis
Potential hazards associated with a food, and measures to control those
hazards, are identified during hazard analys is.
Hazards could be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
contamination in the following ways:
 biological, such as bacteria, moulds, viruses
 chemical, such as cleaning chemicals or pesticides
 physical, such as foreign bodies like glass, pests, metal
temperature control during storage
Bacteria and mould will multiply in foods if they are stored at
higher temperatures than recommended or are left in warm
conditions for too long.
inadequate cooking
If food has not had sufficient cooking time or has not reached the
correct temperature then bacteria may survive.
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Personal hygiene, cleaning and disinfecting of equipment, waste
disposal and pest control are important at each step of the HACCP
system. By identifying the stages where potential hazards might occur,
controls can be put in place which can prevent bacterial growth or
contamination.
2.
Decide on the critical control points
These are the points in food production – from its raw state through
processing and distribution to the consumer – at which the potential
hazard can be controlled or eliminated. At each step of production there
are likely to be several hazards.
If the failure to control any hazard at this point could cause food
poisoning or a serious food complaint (eg glass in food) then this step is
called a critical control point and the hazard must be controlled or
eliminated. An example of a critical control point is temperature control
with a high-risk food such as chicken – food safety is maintained by
keeping temperatures below 5ºC.
If the hazard does not carry a food poisoning risk, then good hygiene
practice at this step should be sufficient to ensure good food safety –
this is called a control point.
3.
Establish a tolerance level
Controls must be implemented to eliminate the hazard or to reduce it to
a safe level. This stage establishes preventative measures with critical
limits for each control point. For a cooked food, for example, this might
include setting the minimum cooking temperature and time required to
ensure the elimination of food-poisoning bacteria.
4.
Establish a monitoring system
Procedures must be established to monitor the steps. Monitoring
involves checking to make sure that the controls are effective and that
they are being implemented throughout food production. Such
procedures might include determining how, and by whom, cooking time
and temperature should be monitored. Time and temperature are two
very important factors and they should be precise and relatively easy to
monitor.
Examples of monitoring include:
 checking the temperature of the refrigerator frequently
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 checking that staff wash their hands on entering the food preparation
area
 checking that the core temperature of a joint of meat reaches 75ºC
 checking that the equipment has been thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected.
5.
Establish what action should be taken to correct the hazard if it
occurs
When monitoring has revealed a problem or a complaint is received,
then action to correct the hazard must be taken (corrective action).
Some examples of corrective action include:
 disposing of food if the minimum cooking temperature has not been
met
 rejecting out-of-date stock.
6.
Establish procedures to check that the HACCP system works
effectively
An example of this could be a testing time and temperature recording
device to verify that a cooking unit is working properly.
7.
Record-keeping and review of procedures
This includes records of hazards and their control, the monitoring that
has taken place and any action taken to correct potential problems.
Documentation of the system is not a legal requirement but detailed and
accurate documentation will assist a defence of due diligence in the
event of a prosecution.
A review of procedures may be required if:
 the product or the controls are not satisfactory
 the method of preparation changes
 new equipment is introduced.
Advantages of the HACCP system
 Hazards are identified and controlled before production and at each stage
of the process from raw materials through to the sale of the product. This
should result in safe food for consumers so that they are not put at risk.
 Many food-poisoning incidents result from poor practices that are only
discovered after the outbreak. By identifying hazards, the likelihood of
such problems is reduced.
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 It ensures that food companies do not break the law and fac e prosecution.
 It helps food companies to compete more effectively in the world market.
 Record-keeping allows investigators to see how well a firm is complying
with food safety laws.
Stages of manufacture and HACCP
The stages of manufacture involved in food production will vary according to
the final food product.
A basic outline of the stages involved in food production is given below. All
these stages have to be closely looked at for potential hazards using the
HACCP system.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Purchase of ingredients.
Delivery of ingredients.
Storage of ingredients.
Preparation of ingredients.
Cooking of ingredients.
Chilled storage/cooling.
Packaging.
Distribution.
Stages in food production where HACCP is implemented
Stage
Importance of HACCP to each stage
1. Purchase of
ingredients



2. Delivery of
ingredients



3. Storage of
ingredients
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
Raw materials that are purchased may contain harmful
foreign bodies, eg flour could contain weevils
High-risk foods, such as fish, meat and cream, can
present a hazard to health as they could be
contaminated by bacteria
Ingredients should be purchased from a reputable
supplier to guarantee quality and safety
Checks should be in place to ensure that high -risk
foods are delivered at temperatures between 0 and 4°C
Check the temperature and condition of the delivery
vehicle
Date marks of dry stores/fats should be checked to
ensure that there is sufficient time remaining before
they can be used
Checks should be in place to ensure that high -risk
foods such as chicken and cream are stored at
temperatures between 0 and 4°C to prevent bacterial
growth
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





4. Preparation of
ingredients





5. Cooking of
ingredients



6. Chilled
storage/
cooling



7. Packaging



Dry stores should be stored in a cool place and in
sealed containers
A stock rotation system should be used to ensure that
the first in first out system applies
Foods should be used within the date mark
Containers should be sealed, to prevent the entry of
pests, and labelled
Storage areas should be kept clean and free from dust
and food debris that could attract pests
Raw and cooked ingredients should be kept separate
to prevent cross-contamination
Food handlers should follow strict food hygiene rules
and wear protective clothing to avoid possible
contamination of ingredients
Equipment must be well cleaned and maintained to
prevent possible contamination
Work surfaces and areas must be kept clean to avoid
possible cross-contamination
Handling times during preparation should be limited,
especially for high-risk foods
Check no foreign bodies have entered the food during
preparation as these could cause the consumer to
choke, eg fish bones
Cooking times and temperatures must be checked
Products must be thoroughly cooked to destroy
bacteria
Routine temperature checks using food probes must be
amde to check that core temperatures are at least 75°C
at centre
Cooked food must be cooled or chilled rapidly so that
the danger zone is quickly passed through to prevent
the growth of harmful bacteria
High-risk foods such as cream must be refrigerated at
between 0 and 4°C immediately after preparation
No contact with raw food to prevent crosscontamination
Packaging should be sealed to protect food from
contamination or physical contamination
Packaging may have to withstand chilling
temperatures without breaking up when refrigerated
Packaging should be labelled to indicate how the
product should be stored safely before eating
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8. Distribution


High-risk food/cook-chill foods should be distributed
to retail outlets in refrigerated vehicles at between 0
and 4°C
The temperature of vehicle should be checked and
recorded before food is loaded into it at the factory
and also when food is being unloaded at the retailers
The Food Hygiene (Scotland) Regulations 2006 also ensure that the
correct temperatures are maintained during food production (replaces
the Food Safety (Temperature Control) Regulations 1995).
 The regulations cover all foodstuffs, including raw materials and
ingredients.
 They apply to all stages, including transport, preparation, processing,
storage, manufacturing, catering and retailing.
 They state that the maximum temperature of 8°C is the specific
requirement for all foods that could support the development of harmful
pathogenic micro-organisms or the formation of toxins. This helps to
protect the consumer from food poisoning.
 Even if food is kept below 8°C, if it is known to support the growth of
pathogenic bacteria at say 5°C the law is breached.
 Food which is to be reheated before serving must reach a temperature of
not less than 82°C.
 Cooked food which is to be kept hot for more than 2 hours must be kept
above 63°C to prevent the growth of pathogens or the formation of toxins.
 A food business responsible for cooling food that will be kept at chill
temperatures must cool the food as quickly as possible a fter cooking.
Cooling is a critical step to food safety especially for high -risk foods.
 Environmental health officers enforce the regulations by:
– checking the temperatures of cold rooms, refrigerators and chilled
cabinets
– recording temperatures between packs of food
– probing food for the centre temperature.
Quick Frozen Foodstuffs Regulations 2007
 The Quick Frozen Foodstuffs Regulations 2007 replace the Quick Frozen
Foodstuffs Regulations 1990.
 Their purpose is to protect the quality of quick frozen foods tuffs (QFF).
 The regulations apply to all businesses that make, transport , store or sell
QFF.
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 New rules include the following:
– All new temperature-monitoring instruments used in the transport and
storage of QFF must comply with European standards from 1 J anuary
2006.
– Instruments installed before 1 January 2006 that complied with previous
rules can be used until 31 December 2009. Thereafter all instruments
must meet European standards.
– The temperature monitoring rules apply to QFF transported by rail from
January 2006.
– Businesses must keep all relevant documents showing that temperature monitoring instruments meet the relevant European standards.
 Existing rules include the following:
– The temperature for QFF must be –18°C or colder. This temperature
must be maintained except for brief periods during transport (including
local distribution), when it may reach –15°C, or when in retail display
cabinets, when it may reach –12°C.
– The food must be pre-packed to prevent contamination and dehydration.
– Businesses must date temperature recordings and store these for at least
1 year or longer, depending on the shelf life of the QFF.
 Exemptions:
– Exemptions are still in place for air temperature monitoring when QFF
is in retail display cabinets and during local distribution .
– At least one easily seen thermometer must be used to measure the air
temperature.
– For open retail display cabinets, the maximum load level line must be
clearly marked and the thermometer must measure the air temperature
at this line. The cabinet should not be filled above this line.
 Labelling – QFF must have on its label, in addition to the usual labelling
requirements, the following:
– ‘quick frozen’
– the date of durability
– the maximum advisable storage time
– the temperature or equipment that should be used for storage
– wording such as ‘Do not refreeze after defrosting’
– a batch or lot mark.
 Scotland has its own legislation called the Quick Frozen Foodstuffs
Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2007.
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The role and responsibilities of the environmental health
department
Environmental health departments employ environmental health officers
(EHOs), who protect the interests of the consumer.
EHOs have responsibility for:
 enforcing the Food Safety Act 1990 in relation to the local community and
so ensuring that consumers are protected against the risk of food poisoning
 enforcing hygiene regulations covering food premises and general food
safety.
Procedure for enforcement
 EHOs can enter food premises such as food manufacturers, retail outlets
and restaurants on a routine inspection or to investigate complaints.
 EHOs will identify potential hazards in the food chain and carry out risk
assessments.
 EHOs can inspect food to see if it is safe and retain, seize or condemn
food.
 When EHOs enter food premises they can take away food samples to be
tested and make videos to record what they see.
 Failure to comply with food hygiene regulations may result in the service
of an improvement notice, which specifies the contravention, the
improvements required and the time allowed to make the improvements.
Failure to comply with an improvement notice is an offence.
 A prohibition notice could also be issued if there is a risk of injury or
harm to consumers’ health. The EHO has to ask the court’s permission to
prevent, for example, the use of a specific piece of equipment or a process.
When the business has undertaken the action requested to prevent any
food-safety issues then the EHO will grant a certificate to the business.
 If the EHO is satisfied that there is an imminent risk of i njury to health an
emergency prohibition notice may be served and this could mean that
premises would be closed immediately.
 After doing this, an application for an emergency prohibition order must
be made to the court within 3 days of serving the emergency prohibition
notice. Once all the required action has been undertaken to ensure that the
food business is no longer a food safety risk, then a certificate will be
issued and the business can re-open.
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As well as enforcing legislation the environmental health department:
 works closely with schools and community organisations , providing
advice, training and support on local environment, public health and food
safety issues. This is very useful in protecting the interests of consumers
as it helps to raise consumers’ awareness of their function and informs
them of actions or steps to take when issues arise.
 gives advice to businesses on food laws and regulations
 offers food hygiene courses to food handlers.
There are numerous food businesses opening daily, therefore enforcing the
Food Safety Act is difficult and could mean that the consumer may not
always be fully protected.
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Resource management
Content
Elaboration
The Food Chain
Product design and quality, to include:
 market research (reasons for use, benefits to
manufacturer, methods of obtaining data)
 stages in product development (concept
generation, concept screening, development
of prototype, product testing, packaging, first
production run, marketing plan, product
launch)
 quality assurance and quality control
 use of computer technology in food
production
Product design
Food products today are very different from those of 20 years ago –
consumers’ tastes and diet change over time and foods go in and out of
fashion. People lead busier lives so they may buy more ready-made meals or
eat out more rather than cooking for themselves.
Consumers now expect to find a wide range of ingredients and products due
to:
 increased foreign travel
 a multi-cultural community with many different traditional cuisi nes
 the many cookery programmes on television, which encourage the use of
new ingredients.
Many consumers now take a greater interest in the food they eat. This may be
because of:
 a demand for healthier foods linked to health concerns about salt, sugar
and fat intake
 an increase in concern for the environment, hence the purchase of organic,
Fair Trade foods and GM–free (non-genetically modified) foods.
To be successful, a food product has to appeal to the target market.
Manufacturers spend considerable time working on a product development
strategy to ensure that the product will sell well.
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Market research
Market research may be carried out by a manufacturer:




before the development of a new product
throughout the development of a new product
after the launch of a new product
for existing product evaluation – if the product has been available for some
time and sales have dropped.
Reasons for using market research
Manufacturers use market research to find out:
 the ideas from market analysis that could be developed - perhaps even
trialling of existing products to discover reasons for their popularity,
ideas for developing similar products but with an adaptation to make it
different
 consumer opinion of a suitable product – if there is need for a certain
product and whether or not it will be marketable and sell, eg
– it is cheap, attractive, convenient
– snack-type foods
– for a special group, eg products specifically for consumers on a weight
reduction diet
 if there is a gap in the market – this helps to establish if there is a need for
a product or service
 about the competition from other manufacturers – what is available and
what could be adapted
 the market trends – which foods are popular at a particular time.
Market research could also be used to evaluate the product, gaining important
public opinions on, for example, its sensory qualities, cost, packaging , etc.
Market research for product evaluation will look at aspects of the product.
The public may be asked to judge or comment on sensory propertie s:
 appearance – how the food looks (does it look fresh, healthy, appetising?)
and its colour, for instance blue custard might be rejected because it is not
what we expect; some combinations of colours are more aesthetically
appealing than others.
 texture/consistency – how the food tastes in the mouth, eg crunchy,
smooth, rough, dry.
 smell – this matters because if something smells off -putting, then people
will not want to eat it.
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 taste/flavour – detected by the taste buds in the mouth, ie fruit, sharp,
sweet, sour, saltiness, bitterness; the flavour of food is a combination of
taste and smell.
Other aspects of product evaluation may be concerned with gaining public
opinion on:
 acceptability of price, ie will the consumer pay a certain price for the
product? Will it be value for money?
 packaging – what shape and size of packaging will the consumer prefer for
the product?
 method of cooking or reheating the product – microwave, oven, grill, etc
(container/packaging may have to suit all of these).
The benefits of market research to manufacturers and retailers
 Market research helps food businesses plan how they will promote and
advertise a product.
 Market research helps the food industry find out if a new product is a good
idea before they spend too much mone y on product development.
 Market research should ensure that the development of the product is
profitable. Manufacturers will not make a loss and retailers will have a
good turnover of goods.
 Manufacturers will keep track of market trends , ie what the consumer
wants, what meets their needs and how much they are willing to spend.
They will then be able to provide a product that will sell well and profit
margins will therefore increase.
 Competition from other manufacturers will be identified , allowing the
manufacturer to make a decision on whether it is viable to continue with
the product.
 Market research is used to gain public opinion on the cost of product so
the manufacturer and consumer can assess if they think the product is
value for money and economical to produce.
Methods of obtaining data
 Direct and indirect
– Direct research from the public using the telephone, personal and
group interviews, tasting and testing sessions, questionnaires.
– Indirect research where existing information is used, including reports
such as Social Trends (HMSO publication), computer databases, CD ROMs and collecting sales information.
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 Qualitative and quantitative
– quantitative – information is gathered using large numbers of people
and questionnaires and interviews (normally 200, eg telephone survey).
– qualitative – asking small numbers of people about their likes and
dislikes, for their opinions on products and how to increase product
appeal. Used to increase understanding by more in -depth, focused
market research.
Stages in product development
Concept generation
 This is an important initial stage as it involves developing ideas for new
products. Without it, the development process cannot take place.
 It is a thinking stage – thinking up new ideas, perhaps even looking for a
gap in the market. Ideas may come from:
– people brainstorming in teams or individually
– looking at competitors’ products – this could involve evaluating a range
of existing and similar products
– consumer research, which will show consumers needs and pref erences
– consultants who are specialists in developing ideas
– ideas from recipes books and magazines – looking at some of the longterm established tried and tested recipes, and those from other cultures
may provide inspiration
– new ingredients and technology
– food fashion trends – often set by celebrity chefs and restaurants
– government guidelines and health recommendations – this may result in
manufacturers designing products with nutrition in mind , eg reduced-fat
products
– the need to improve, update or relaunch existing products.
 Manufacturers do not want to replicate something that is already on the
market – they must put a new slant on it.
 Factors such as cost, portion size, methods of processing/manufacturing,
cooking/reheating for the consumer, flavour, texture and appearance will
be considered at this stage.
 Particular target groups (eg children), times of the day (eg breakfast),
celebratory occasions and particular times of the year (eg seasonal salads)
may also have to be considered.
Concept screening
At this stage ideas are refined and screened for feasibility.
 Consider all ideas, keep some and discard some.
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 This stage is important as it allows the production process to move away
from initial ideas to actual development issues.
 It allows the manufacturer to develop a specification against which to
develop ideas.
 The best ideas are taken forward. Clear decisions are made on which ideas
meet the specification and should be tested further.
 Specification allows the manufacturer to eliminate ideas that might be
costly, difficult to process or not meet other constraints. The commercial
viability of the product will be looked at, eg if the projected sales value
will cover the cost of production, ingredients, packaging and still make
sufficient profit for the manufacturer.
 It allows product ideas to be generated so that a prototype can be developed.
Development of a prototype
 This is an example or specimen of what the product will be like.
 This is done in a test kitchen and the prototype is developed here and
measured against the specification.
 Evaluation is an important part of the development process , eg:
– sensory evaluation – the prototype will be tested for appeal, perhaps
using a small experienced team to carry out a sensory evaluation, and it
may be further modified, accepted or rejected
– nutritional and attribute analysis by looking at the qualities and
characteristics of the product
– disassembly of the product to take a closer look at , for example, the
proportion and combination of ingredients an d learning from what is
observed.
Product testing
 Many manufacturers test new products on potential consumers before
moving on to large-scale production so that various opinions can be
obtained, for example by using consumer panels to carry out a sensory
evaluation.
 This allows the product, or a range of products, to be further refined or
eliminated as a result of consumer opinions, the most suitable solution
being kept.
Packaging design
 This is when the packaging design team consider the image of the p roduct
and the target market and start to create a design that will attract
customers and help to sell the product.
 The type of packaging will be investigated, tested and costed.
 Legal labels will be designed and produced.
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First production run
 This allows for the production of an actual product for the first time as a
full production run so the item can be assessed under factory conditions.
 It enables the quality assurance team to test the product to ensure quality,
and safeguard staff health and uniformity of standards during the
manufacturing processes.
 It allows the manufacturer to maintain food safety standards and to
consider the HACCP issues.
 This stage allows for potential production problems to be sorted out before
large-scale production, thus avoiding future downtime, when production
has to be stopped.
 This is a vital stage as it is here that changes may take place that could
affect other aspects of the product, eg changes to the ingredients will
result in changes having to be made to the ingredie nts’ list on the label.
Marketing plan
 This allows for a range of activities to be developed to promote the
product, eg where it will be sold, position in the shop, special introductory
offers, etc.
 This is important as it may help to determine the initial price of the
product, eg low to attract new customers, higher to denote quality.
 Packaging can now be finalised to take account of marketing plans.
Product launch
 The product may be launched in one region initially (piloted) to allow its
performance to be monitored before a national launch is considered and
the plan can be adjusted as necessary.
 Market monitoring: once the product is finally launched onto the national
market place sales figures will be monitored carefully to provide regular
feedback so the product can be refined and the manufacturer can
continually rethink and adapt the marketing approach.
Quality assurance and quality control
The word ‘quality’ means that a product is of a particular level of excellence
or standard. For manufacturers to be successful and meet legal requirements
they must aim to promote, improve and maintain quality in all their products.
For consumers, a product’s consistently high quality will give them
confidence in the manufacturer, and encourage them to continue buying that
product and to try others from the same range.
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Quality assurance
Quality assurance (QA) is the term used to describe the promise or guarantee
that the manufacturer makes to the consumer that products are of a particular
standard, and are safe, reliable, well designed and honestly described.
QA occurs throughout the process of design and manufacture , and ensures
products are manufactured consistently and within design specifications. At
key stages in the production of a food there should be quality control checks
and all results of the checks should be recorded. This is called the QA
system.
Food companies may use a quality management system (QMS) as their
method of documenting a QA system. A QMS is a specialised way to
document a QA system to make sure it has been implemented properly.
Companies that use a QMS to maintain high QA standards receive a
certificate recognised within the industry, called ISO 9000. The ISO created
the QMS system in 1987 and these standards are regularly updated. I n 2005
the ISO released a standard, ISO 22000, meant for the food industry. The
standard covers the values of the ISO 9000 and the HACCP standards. It
gives one integrated standard for the food industry.
These requirements include the following:
 keeping a manual of the company’s policy to include:
– procedures
– specifications
– work instructions
– quality records
 keeping records to include:
– contacts with customers
– complaints from customers
– staff training and review
– purchases from suppliers
– maintenance of equipment
– HACCP procedures.
Quality control
Quality control is the method a manufacturer uses to check that quality is
maintained throughout all stages of product development and manufacture to
make sure the product does not vary from the standard expected by consumers
or the specification laid down by the manufacturer. It is part of the QA
procedure.
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Quality control gives a ‘snapshot’ of various stages of the production process.
This means that the manufacturer has a clear idea of what is happening in the
production process at that precise moment and how the product is comparing
against the design specification. Quality control looks at the quality of design
and the quality of manufacture.
A range of checks can be carried out, eg:
 visual checks, eg raw ingredients checked for quality and colour
 organoleptic check – samples of final product tested for flavour, texture,
aroma
 chemical check – samples tested to ensure they are contamination free
 pH checks to ensure the food has the correct acidity/ alkalinity
 microbiological check – samples checked to make sure bacteria are not at
harmful levels
 weight check – weight tested at packaging stage to make sure the product
is the prescribed weight; weighing and measuring equipment must also be
checked regularly
 temperature check – samples are checked regularly to ensure accurate
temperature control
 metal check – metal detectors are used at the packaging stage to ensure
that no small pieces of metal from, for example, machinery used during
production have ended up in the product by mistake .
Use of computer technology in food production
1.
Computer aided design (CAD) software encompasses all areas of
product development: idea generation and research, investigating the
functionality and interactivity of different ingre dients, producing
manufacturing flow-charts to assess food safety issues, knowledge based systems and innovative imaging systems for product quality , and
fault diagnostic purposes. Some examples of computer applications
used in developing new food products include:
– flowchart models, which show where safety checks for HACCP need
to be included during food production in a factory
– spreadsheets, which make it easier for designers to project costs for
large-scale production
– digital cameras, which provide instant images of the product that can
be manipulated
– nutritional analysis
– drawing software, which makes it easier to produce two- and threedimensional drawings, which may help with packaging and
advertising decisions. Virtual reality software can be used to make a
three-dimensional image even more realistic by allowing the user to
‘move around’ it in three dimensions.
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Computers will continue to revolutionise the development of food
products with ever-changing advances in technology.
2.
Computer aided manufacture (CAM) is used by the food industry to
help in the manufacture of food products. There has been an increasing
demand for machines to take over the more complex operations
previously carried out by hand, eg chopping/peeling of fruit. This can
improve product consistency and quality control, reduce overheads and
increase production capacity. Advantages of CAM within the food
industry include reduced food wastage through efficient manufacture;
improved product consistency; avoidance of downtime; reducti on in
overheads, eg labour costs; increased production capacity; no fatigue
from repetitive manufacturing demands; improved food safety and
hygiene standards.
3.
Computer integrated manufacture (CIM) means that computers are
used as an integral element of the entire manufacturing process and are
monitored by a small number of operators. It involves computer -based
process control and automation, and operations and information systems
for manufacturing and quality control. The hope that profitability can be
increased or maximised with automation has been a driving force for
CIM.
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