NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS CURRICULUM SUPPORT
Biology
Unit 3: Living Together
Symbiosis and Social Behaviour
Teacher’s Notes
Graeme Steele
[HIGHER]
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the arrangements for National Qualifications. Users of
all NQ support materials, whether published by
Learning and Teaching Scotland or others, are
reminded that it is their responsibility to check that the
support materials correspond to the requirements of the
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Acknowledgement
Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledges this contribution to the National
Qualifications support programme for Biology.
The publisher gratefully acknowledges permission to use the following sources: Deep Sea
World resource made through a collaboration of our author Graeme Steele and Deep Sea
World; image of chimpanzees from Royal Zoological Society, Edinburgh © RZSS; image of
Members of our Vampire Bat Colony © The Centre for Conservation of Specialized Species; 3
images of Dr. Jane Goodall with chimpanzees © The Jane Goodall Institute / Derek Bryceson,
© The Jane Goodall Institute / Fernando Turmo, © The Jane Goodall Institute / Hugo Van
Lawick; image of wolves © WolfPhotography.com; image from
http://www.uwphoto.net/pages/gallery_si04-666.html © photography by Jim Christensen;
image from http://chemistry.csudh.edu/faculty/jim/lembehsmall/hermit.jpg © Jim Lyle; image
of Fire Ant colony from
http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/people/adams/FireAntColony.jpg.jpg; image of pea pod
© 2011 Microsoft Corporation. Clipart; image of a tick, photograph by William Needham on
Hiker’s Notebook website; image of an adult flea, photo courtesy CDC/Vector Ecology &
Control Laboratory, Fort Collins, Colo; image of a tapeworm © dogbreedinfo.com; image of
veteran oak tree covered in lichen, mosses and ferns © Lorne Gill/SNH; image of Rhizobium
nodules © Courtesy J. Wynne. Reproduced by permission from Compendium of Peanut
Diseases, 2nd Ed., 1997, American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, USA; image of a
hummingbird © Fotolia;
Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright holders but if any have been inadvertently
overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first
opportunity.
© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2011
This resource may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by educational
establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.
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Contents
Links to prior/prerequisite knowledge
4
New content areas
4
Background information
4
Identification of key concepts
9
Identification of particular areas of difficulty
10
Links to sources of further information
10
Links to websites, animations, PowerPoints, audio and video files
10
Other useful information to stimulate interest
11
Resources summary
11
Additional teacher information
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Teacher’s notes
Links to prior/prerequisite knowledge
Students should be aware of evolution, what a species is and the need for
nutrition, chloroplasts and genes, all of which will help them understand the
terminology in much of this unit.
Little of the themes of this unit will have previously been covered in any
way, but many students will be aware of examples of the se themes from
having been exposed to them through documentaries, zoos and aquaria.
New content areas
Symbiosis and social behaviour are new concepts for students at this level.
The evolution of species together and the influence of species on one another
have not been considered previously.
Background information
(a) Symbiosis
from SQA Content Tables:
Symbiotic relationships are coevolved intimate relationships between
members of two different species
Symbiosis is a specific relationship between members of two different
species. There are three types: parasitism, mutualism and commensalism.
(Note: Commensalism is not in the learning outcomes for this unit, but some
students may bring it up so it is worth knowing what it is – see below.)
Each species that is in a close relationship with another species has spent
hundreds of thousands of years undergoing natural selection in conjunction
with the other species.
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Parasitism
from SQA Content Tables:
A parasite benefits in terms of energy or nutrients, whereas its host is harmed
by the loss of these resources. Parasites often have more limited metabolism
so often cannot survive out of contact with a host.
Transmission of parasites to new hosts using direct cont act, resistant stages
and vectors.
Evolution of parasitic lifecycles involving secondary hosts.
Parasitism is a specific type of symbiosis where one organism benefits t o the
detriment of another. Examples include ectoparasites, such as ticks and
leeches, and endoparasites, such as tapeworms. Other types of parasites
include obligate (completely dependant on host) and facultative (not
dependant on host), but this terminology is not necessary for Higher level.
Mutualism
from SQA Content Tables:
Both mutualistic partner species benefit in an interdependent relationship.
Examples include the cellulose-digesting protozoa/bacteria in the guts of
many herbivores and the photosynthetic algae in the polyps of coral.
Evidence for the symbiotic origin of chloroplas ts and mitochondria.
Mutualism is a specific type of symbiosis in which both organisms benefit
from their relationship. Examples include Rhizobia (a bacterium) and clover;
hermit crabs and anemones; the goby and the blind shrimp. The formation of
eukaryotic cells is believed to have developed from associations of single celled species with mitochondria and chloroplasts that were believed to have
originated as separate organisms.
At this point it is worth mentioning the fact that some relationships benefi t
one organism but do not impact on the other. This is known as
commensalism. Examples include a bird building its nest in a tree and
barnacles living on a crab’s shell. (Note: This terminology is not necessary
for Higher level.)
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Resources
Introduction learner activity
Activity 1: Walkabout/talkabout carousel
Symbiosis PowerPoint.
Learner activities
Activity 2: Symbiosis card sort
Activity 3: Types of symbiosis
Activity 4: Branching keys
Activity 5: Symbiosis revision
Activity 12: ‘Deep Sea World’ Symbiosis questions
(b) Social behaviour
from SQA Content Tables:
Many animals live in social groups and have behaviours that are adapted to
group living such as social hierarchy or cooperative hunting and defence.
Cooperative hunting may benefit subordinate animals as well as dominant, as
the subordinate animal may gain more food than by foraging alone; also food
sharing will occur as long as the reward for sharing exceeds that for
foraging individually.
To live in a group there must be order. To gain order social animals have
behavioural adaptations so they can work together. Reasons for being
sociable include movement (birds flying together to lower air resistance),
hunting and feeding (lions can hunt more effectively in a group), defence ( eg
fish schooling – less time scanning for predators and less risk of being the
one caught), breeding (more potential to find best mates and raising offspring
together has defence and food provision advantages , eg allosuckling in fallow
deer) and saving energy (eg heat retained by group huddling in penguins).
Altruism and kin selection
from SQA Content Tables:
An altruistic behaviour harms the donor individual but benefits the recipient.
Reciprocal altruism, where the roles of donor and recipient later reverse,
often occurs in social animals.
The prisoner’s dilemma as a simple model of altruism.
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Behaviour that appears to be altruistic can be common between a donor and
a recipient if they are related (kin). The donor will benefit in terms of the
increased chances of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or
future offspring.
Vampire bats that are unsuccessful in feeding will beg once they return to
their home. A ‘donor’ may then allow them to lick blood from their face and
even regurgitate some of their food. It has been shown that those that
reciprocate are more likely to be successful in sharing again in the future.
Truly altruistic behaviour is a difficult thing to find and there is nearly
always something sought in return.
The prisoners’ dilemma is a good way to interest students in how individuals
can influence each other.
It has been posed that there is programming built into each organism that will
lead to that organism helping others that are similar (in terms of genes) to
itself: this is known as the selfish gene theory. This theory was posed by
Hamilton and resulted in Hamilton’s law.
Social insects
from SQA Content Tables:
Evolution of the societies of insects such as bees, wasps, ants and termites, in
which only some individuals contribute reproductively. Most members of the
colony are workers who cooperate with close relatives to raise relatives.
Social insects are often keystone species within their ecosystems.
Some details in Higher at present (bees and ants) and ties in with kin
selection and shared genes (above). Ants, bees, wasps and termites where
specific roles are designated to groups of individuals to such an extent that
most will never be involved in reproduction. Individuals will ensure their
success through the success of those with related genes and the survival of
the colony.
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Primate behaviour
from SQA Content Tables:
Long period of parental care in primates gives an opportunity to learn
complex social behaviours.
To reduce unnecessary conflict, social primates use ritu alistic display and
appeasement behaviours. Grooming, facial expression, body posture and
sexual presentation important in different species.
In some monkeys and apes, alliances form between individuals which are
often used to increase social status within the group.
Complexity of social structure related to ecological niche, resource
distribution and taxonomic group.
Primates: simians (monkeys and apes) and prosimians ( early monkeys, such
as lemurs, tarsiers, etc).
Simians are divided into two groups: the platyrrhine or New World monkeys
of South and Central America and the catarrhine monkeys of Africa and
southeastern Asia. The New World monkeys include the capuchin, howler and
squirrel monkeys, and the catarrhines include the Old World monkeys (such
as baboons and macaques) and the apes. Humans are the only catarrhines that
have spread successfully outside of Africa, South Asia and East Asia,
although fossil evidence shows many species once existed in Europe as well.
Primates are made up of prosimians and simians, which make up a wide range
of species. Charismatic and intelligent, most primates a re arboreal but even
those that live on the ground retain adaptations for life in the trees. Some
primates are small solitary nocturnal creatures , but many are active during the
day and form social groups for added protection.
Parental care is extensive and individuals need to see behaviours they are
then able to learn from their peers. Examples of this in chimpanzees include
social behaviour, fishing for termites and tool use.
As resources are limited, to avoid competition, it is necessary to have order
within a group such as a hierarchy. Within this hierarchy challenges will be
made (some successful) as it is a dynamic situation. The benefits of avoiding
physical aggression and fighting are obvious and there are a variety of
displays and appeasement behaviours evident throughout the animal kingdom
to demonstrate this.
Group dynamics frequently change and are challenged within a group.
Alliances are a beneficial way to increase status. Bearing young is a
noticeable way to increase alliances through an in crease in grooming.
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Primate group size and organisation vary enormously. Some species live in
monogamous pairs (gibbons) whilst others form harems (baboons) or troops
(chimps have groups of 40–80 individuals and geladas live in groups of up to
600). Most common is a stable related female group headed by a single male.
Group living leads to increased competition for resources so complex
behaviour, as already outlined, is necessary: hierarchies and alliances.
Resources
Social behaviour PowerPoint.
Learner activities
Activity 6: The prisoners’ dilemma
Activity 7: Odd one out
Activity 8: Jane Goodall
Activity 9: Chimpanzee behaviour and expressions
Activity 10: Chimpanzee hierarchy
Activity 11: Social behaviour continuum
Identification of key concepts
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Define symbiosis, parasitism and mutualism.
Give detailed examples of each of the above.
Outline the co-evolution of species.
Identify different types of social behaviours , including hierarchies and
cooperative hunting.
Describe the benefits to individuals of such behaviours.
Explain how kin selection links to shared genes.
Link shared genes to social behaviour where many individuals do not
reproduce.
Be able to give specific examples of primate social behaviour and how it
links into the structure within the group.
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Identification of particular areas of difficulty
The main challenge will be that students have not had much previous
knowledge in this unit of this area. If students try to find out further
information on some of these subjects, eg commensalisms, this may lead to
confusion or unnecessary knowledge at this level.
Links to sources of further information
Books
Lane, N, Life Ascending, Profile Books, 2009
Lane, N, Power, Sex and Suicide, Oxford University Press, 2005
Links to websites, animations, PowerPoints, audio and video
files
Since it can be tricky to do many animal behaviour experiments in the school
laboratory some ideas may be to use local zoos or aquariums. David
Attenborough films are fantastic for this section. Small clips of some of these
can be found online:
http://www.arkive.org/
Example clips on Bonobo chimps:
http://www.arkive.org/bonobo/pan-paniscus/video-05.html
Prisoners dilemma in the form of a play:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=boBmA0ADgVg
Primate behaviour from Edinburgh Zoo:
http://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/
(Please note the zoo runs a 2½ programme on primate behaviour.)
Webcam at the chimp enclosure Edinburgh Zoo:
http://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/budongocam.html
Primate behaviour from St Andrews University based at Edinburgh Zoo:
http://www.living-links.org/
Scottish Agricultural College have various very useful resources on this, but
be careful as some are overly informative because they were initially set up
for Advanced Higher Biology:
http://www.sac.ac.uk/learning/biology/
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TEACHER’S NOTES
If you do want to use animals in the school laboratory then moths and
woodlice are useful. How to catch and utilise moths can be found here:
http://asab.icapb.ed.ac.uk/resources/using_moths_2.html
The general Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour website is also
very useful:
www.asab.org
Various links to animal behaviour websites:
http://www.google.com/Top/Science/Biology/Zoology/Animal_Behavior/
Other useful information to stimulate interest
Links to what students may be planning to study at university or possibly
ideas of abroad travel to study animals around the world may entice them into
this topic more, eg students going on to study zoology, marine biology etc or
those who have an interest in things such as Operation Wallacea
( www.opwall.com/).
Resources summary
As already listed in the relevant section several tasks have been included to
help students through some of these areas and some review tasks to ensure
they have mastered them. The aim of these is to engage students with the
SQA Content Tables so that they develop a genuine understanding of the
underlying concepts and theory on which they can then build a detailed
knowledge of the identified topic.
Topic review activities
Activity 2: Symbiosis card sort
Activity 7: Odd one out
Activity 11: Social behaviour continuum
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Additional teacher information
Activity 1: Walkabout/talkabout carousel
Great starter to whole topic/or review at very end – or BOTH!!
Walk about/talk about (carousel) – four to five groups with a title on each
large sheet of paper. Around 3 minutes per poster the move around. Use
different colours of pens per group. Groups to add in formation as best they
can to each poster in the form of notes and diagrams.
Potential topics for posters
Co-evolution
Hierarchy
Alliances
Altruism
Social insects
Activity 2: Symbiosis card sort
Get the students to do the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Read out the first statement.
Place the picture into one of the categories based on that information
alone.
Read out the second statement.
See if you need to move the organism to another category.
Continue this process through all five statements.
Categories are:
 parasitism
 mutualism
 social behaviour (altruism/kin selection).
Print out the following pages and cut out into individual cards and pictures.
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Activity 6: The prisoners’ dilemma
Introduce the actual dilemma of doing prison time and get initial ‘knee -jerk’
reaction with no thinking time.
Get response after talking through in group.
Explain why the prisoners choose the way they do.
Get response after explanation.
Extension
Would it be different if they could talk to each other?
Or if related?
Extra information, if wanted, can be given at start or half way through or not
at all depending on group you are dealing with.
Activity 7: Odd one out
Students must pick then justify why they have picked the odd one out. There
are many reasons in each example from very simple to much more complex
reasons, eg leeches, lions, ticks – on a simple level some students may
identify size as a reason. However, those linking with the work should
identify something along the lines of the lion as it kills its prey outright
rather than the parasitic nature of the other two, which benefit more from
keeping the host alive as long as possible.
Extension activities
 Students should snowball with another group and come up with the highest
level of thinking they can justify. Groups th en continue to combine until
the entire class has one set of answers.
 Students can make their own cards to pass to another group.
 You can also use the cards in the reverse manner so the students must
make a link between all three things on the card and e xplain the link.
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TEACHER’S NOTES
Activity 10: Chimpanzee hierarchy
Primate observation – teacher information
The chimps at Edinburgh Zoo can be observed on the zoo’s primate behaviour
programme. Learn about the behaviour and create an ethogram.
If it is not possible to visit the zoo, there is a webcam at
http://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/budongocam.html.
Budongo trail cam
Extension
Link social behaviour to humans – understand implications of artificial
environments or impact of observers of studies, eg ‘Big Brother’ (Channel 4).
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