© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
www.asminternational.org
Prepared under the direction of the
ASM International Handbook Committee
Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino, Jr., Volume Editors
Charles Moosbrugger, Project Editor
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© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G) www.asminternational.org
Copyright # 2005 by
ASM International
1
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.
First printing, November 2005
This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from worldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems.
Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A
PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE
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Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ASM International
ASM Handbook
Includes bibliographical references and indexes
Contents: v.1. Properties and selection—irons, steels, and high-performance alloys—v.2. Properties and selection—nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials—[etc.]—v.21. Composites
1. Metals—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee.
II. Metals Handbook.
TA459.M43 1990 620.1
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Printed in the United States of America
Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International.

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© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
Enhancing the life of structures and engineered materials, while protecting the environment and public safety, is one of the paramount technological challenges for our nation and the world. Corrosion-related problems span a wide spectrum of materials and systems that impact our daily lives, such as aging aircraft, high-rise structures, railroads, automobiles, ships, pipelines, and many others. According to a study conducted in 1998, the total direct and indirect cost of corrosion to the United States alone exceeds $550 billion per year. While major technological advances have been made during the last three decades, numerous new innovations need to be made in the coming years. ASM International is pleased to publish
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials, the second book in a three-volume revision of the landmark 1987 Metals Handbook, 9th Edition, on corrosion. The information from the 1987 Volume has been revised, updated, and expanded to address the needs of the members of ASM International and the technical community for current and comprehensive information on the physical, chemical, and electrochemical reactions between specific materials and environments. Since the time the 1987
Corrosion volume was published, knowledge of materials and corrosion has grown, which aids the material selection process. Engineered systems have grown in complexity, however, making the effects of subtle changes in material performance more significant.
ASM International continues to be indebted to the Editors, Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino,
Jr., who had the vision and the drive to undertake the huge effort of updating and revising the 1987
Corrosion volume.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13A, Corrosion: Fundamentals, Testing, and Protection, published in 2003, is the cornerstone of their effort. The project will be completed with the publication of
ASM Handbook, Volume 13C, Corrosion: Environments and Industries, in 2006. The Editors have brought together experts from across the globe making this an international effort. Contributors to the corrosion Volumes represent Australia, Belgium, Canada, Crete, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy,
Japan, Korea, Mexico, Poland, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, as well as the United States. The review, revisions, and technical oversight of the Editors have added greatly to this body of knowledge.
We thank the authors and reviewers of the 1987 Corrosion volume, which at the time was the largest, most comprehensive volume on a single topic ever published by ASM. This new edition builds upon that groundbreaking project. Thanks also go to the members of the ASM Handbook Committee for their oversight and involvement, and to the ASM editorial and production staff for their tireless efforts.
We are especially grateful to the over 120 authors and reviewers listed in the next several pages. Their willingness to invest their time and effort and to share their knowledge and experience by writing, rewriting, and reviewing articles has made this Handbook an outstanding source of information.
Bhakta B. Rath
President
ASM International
Stanley C. Theobald
Managing Director
ASM International iii

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© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International has adopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customary U.S. units of measure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors have attempted to present data in metric units based primarily on Syste`me International d’Unite´s (SI), with secondary mention of the corresponding values in customary U.S.
units. The decision to use SI as the primary system of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of the Board of Trustees and the widespread use of metric units throughout the world.
For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in tables are presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equivalents in parentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example, pressure, stress, and strength are shown both in SI units, which are pascals (Pa) with a suitable prefix, and in customary U.S. units, which are pounds per square inch ( psi). To save space, large values of psi have been converted to kips per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi
=
1000 psi. The metric tonne (kg
·
10
3
) has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Some strictly scientific data are presented in SI units only.
To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on artwork. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations are presented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On graphs and charts, grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along the left and bottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding customary U.S. units appear along the top and right edges.
Data pertaining to a specification published by a specification-writing group may be given in only the units used in that specification or in dual units, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the typical yield strength of steel sheet made to a specification written in customary U.S.
units would be presented in dual units, but the sheet thickness specified in that specification might be presented only in inches.
Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the units of that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also presented.
Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original units used in the analysis.
Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEEE/
ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of significant digits in the original data. For example, an annealing temperature of 1570 F contains three significant digits. In this case, the equivalent temperature would be given as 855 C; the exact conversion to 854.44
C would not be appropriate. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs at a precise temperature (such as the melting of pure silver), it would be appropriate to report the temperature as 961.93
C or 1763.5
F. In some instances
(especially in tables and data compilations), temperature values in C and
F are alternatives rather than conversions.
The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each instance, the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity of the
Handbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm
3 rather than kg/m
3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume).
SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the units preceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following the virgule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses are required to prevent ambiguity.
iv

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© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
Corrosion, while silent and often subtle, is probably the most significant cause of degradation of society’s structures. Over the past 100 years, efforts have been made to estimate the cost of corrosion to the economies of various countries. These efforts have been updated to 2004 in this Handbook, and extrapolated to the global economy to provide an estimate of the global cost of corrosion (Ref 1). With a 2004 global Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) of about $50 trillion United States dollars (USD), the direct cost of corrosion was estimated to be $990 billion (USD) annually, or 2.0
percent of the world GDP (Ref 1). The direct cost is that experienced by owners and operators of manufactured equipment and systems and of other man-made objects (Ref 2). The indirect cost of corrosion, representing costs assumed by the end user and the overall economy (Ref 2), was estimated to be $940 billion (USD) annually (Ref 1). On this basis, the 2004 total cost of corrosion to the global economy was estimated to be about $1.9
trillion (USD) annually, or 3.8 percent of the world GDP. The largest contribution to this cost comes from the United States at 31 percent, with other major contributions being: Japan—6 percent, Russia—6 percent,
Germany—5 percent, and the UK, Australia, and Belgium—1 percent.
ASM Handbook Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials, is the second volume in a three-volume update, revision, and expansion of Corrosion published in 1987 as Volume 13 of the ninth edition Metals Handbook . The first volume— ASM Handbook Volume 13A, Corrosion: Fundamentals,
Testing, and Protection —was published in 2003. Volume 13C, Corrosion:
Environments and Industries, will be published in 2006. The purpose of these three volumes is to present the current state of knowledge of corrosion, efforts to mitigate corrosion’s effects on society’s structures and economies, and some perspective on future trends in corrosion prevention and mitigation. Metals remain the primary materials focus of the Handbook, but nonmetallic materials occupy a more prominent position, reflecting their wide and effective use to solve problems of corrosion and their frequent use with metals in complex engineering systems. Wet (or aqueous) corrosion remains the primary environmental focus, but dry (or gaseous) corrosion is also addressed, reflecting the increased use of elevated or high temperature operations in engineering systems, particularly energy-related systems where corrosion and oxidation are important considerations.
As with Volume 13A, Volume 13B recognizes the diverse range of materials, environments, and industries affected by corrosion, the global reach of corrosion practice, and the levels of technical activity and cooperation required to produce cost-effective, safe, and environmentallysound solutions to materials problems in chemically aggressive environments. As we worked on this project, we marveled at the spread of corrosion technology into many engineering technologies and fields of human activity. This occurred because the pioneers of corrosion technology from the early to mid-20th century, and the organizations they helped create, were able to effectively communicate and disseminate their knowledge to an ever widening audience through educational, training, and outreach activities. One quarter of the articles in Volume 13B did not appear in the 1987 Handbook. Authors from eight countries contributed to
Volume 13B. The references for each article are augmented by Selected
References to provide access to a wealth of additional information on corrosion.
Volume 13B is organized into three major sections addressing the materials used in society’s structures and their performance over time.
These sections recognize that materials are chemicals and respond to the laws of chemistry and physics, that with sufficient knowledge corrosion is predictable, and therefore, within the constraints of design and operating conditions, corrosion can be minimized to provide economic, environmental, and safety benefits.
The first Section, “Corrosion of Ferrous Metals,” examines the corrosion performance of wrought carbon steels, wrought low alloy steels, weathering steels, metallic-coated steels, organic-coated steels, cast irons, cast carbon and low alloy steels, wrought stainless steels, and cast stainless steels. These materials include a wide spectrum of end-use products utilizing steel’s desirable characteristics of lightness, high strength and stiffness, adaptability, ease of prefabrication and mass production, dimensional stability, durability, abrasion resistance, uniform quality, noncombustibility, and ability to be recycled. In today’s worldwide market, cost comes into play in the material selection process only after the user’s functional requirements, particularly durability, are met. Expectations for low maintenance and long life, crucial for a favorable life cycle cost evaluation, require that long-term durability, including corrosion performance, can be substantiated through prior experience and test data.
The second Section, “Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty
Products,” addresses the corrosion performance of metals and alloys made from aluminum, beryllium, cobalt, copper, hafnium, lead, magnesium, nickel, niobium, precious metals, tantalum, tin, titanium, uranium, zinc, zirconium, and specialty products including brazed and soldered joints, thermal spray coatings, electroplated hard chromium, clad metals, powder metallurgy materials, amorphous metals, intermetallics, carbides, and metal matrix composites. Numerous nonferrous alloys have extremely desirable physical and mechanical properties and have much higher resistance to corrosion and oxidation than steels and stainless steels. The most widely used nonferrous materials are those based on aluminum, copper, nickel, and titanium. Powder metallurgy materials, amorphous metals, intermetallics, cemented carbides, and metal matrix composites are defined less by their compositions than by their microstructures, which provide physical, mechanical, and corrosion and oxidation resistance unlike those of the traditionally processed metals and alloys. In most structures designed to resist corrosion, joints represent the greatest challenge. Coatings and claddings protect vulnerable substrate materials by resisting the impact of corrosive or oxidizing media or by acting as sacrificial anodes.
The third Section, “Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic
Materials,” addresses the performance of refractories, ceramics, concrete, protective coatings, rubber linings, elastomers, and thermosetting resins and resin matrix composites in aggressive environments. A significant number of engineering materials applications are fulfilled by nonmetallic materials. While nonmetallic materials are extensively used in engineering systems, they can degrade is with time, sometimes with catastrophic effect.
The goal of this section is to indicate the chemical resistance of a variety of commonly used nonmetallic materials and provide further references for those seeking more in-depth information on their environmental performance. In this regard, testing for chemical and mechanical compatibility is usually warranted before nonmetallic materials are placed into a specific service.
The Handbook concludes with the estimate of the “Global Cost of
Corrosion” noted at the beginning of this Preface and a “Gallery of Corrosion Damage.” Using earlier cost studies as a basis, the 2004 total cost of corrosion to the global economy, including both direct and indirect costs, v

© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G) www.asminternational.org
was estimated to be about $1.9 trillion (USD) annually, or 3.8 percent of the world GDP. The “Gallery of Corrosion Damage” contains color photographs of corrosion damage to complement the many black and white examples that accompany individual articles in the three volume series.
The Gallery was assembled from photographs taken by experts in their practice of corrosion control and prevention in industrial environments.
The photographs illustrate forms of corrosion and how they appear on inspection in specific environments, with a brief analysis of the corrosion problem and discussion of how the problem was corrected.
Supporting material at the back of the handbook includes a variety of useful information. A “Periodic Table of the Elements” provides fundamental information on the elements and gives their organization by group using three conventions: Chemical Abstract Service (CAS), International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)-1970, and IUPAC-1988.
A concise description of “Crystal Structure” is given. “Density of Metals and Alloys” gives values for a wide range of metals and alloys. “Reference
Electrodes” provides data on the commonly used reference electrodes and “Overpotential” distinguishes overpotential and overvoltage. The
“Electrochemical Series” from the CRC Handbook is reproduced giving standard reduction potentials for a lengthy array of elements. A “Galvanic
Series of Metals and Alloys in Seawater” shows materials by their potential with respect to the saturated calomel electrode (SCE) reference electrode.
The “Compatibility Guide” serves as a reference to metal couples in various environments. A “Corrosion Rate Conversion” includes conversions in both nomograph and tabular form. The “Metric Conversion Guide” gives conversion factors for common units and includes SI prefixes.
“Abbreviations and Symbols” provides a key to common acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols used in the Handbook.
Many individuals contributed to Volume 13B. In particular we wish to recognize the efforts of the following individuals who provided leadership in organizing subsections of the Handbook (listed in alphabetical order):
These knowledgeable and dedicated individuals generously devoted considerable time to the preparation of the Handbook. They were joined in this effort by more than 70 authors who contributed their expertise and creativity in a collaboration to write and revise the articles in the
Handbook, and by the many reviewers of these articles. These volunteers built on the contributions of earlier Handbook authors and reviewers who provided the solid foundation on which the present
Handbook rests.
For articles revised from the 1987 edition, the contribution of the previous author is acknowledged at the end of the article. This location in no way diminishes their contribution or our gratitude. Those authors responsible for the current revision are named after the title. The variation in the amount of revision is broad. The many completely new articles presented no challenge for attribution, but assigning fair credit for revised articles was more problematic. The choice of presenting authors’ names without comment or with the qualifier “Revised by” is solely the responsibility of the ASM staff.
We thank ASM International and the ASM staff for the skilled support and valued expertise in the production of this Handbook. In particular, we thank Charles Moosbrugger, Gayle Anton, and Scott Henry for their encouragement, tactful diplomacy, and many helpful discussions. We are most grateful to the Albany Research Center, U.S. Department of Energy, for the support and flexibility in our assignments that enabled us to participate in this project. In particular, we thank Jeffrey A. Hawk and Cynthia
A. Powell for their gracious and generous encouragement throughout the project.
Stephen D. Cramer
Bernard S. Covino, Jr.,
U.S. Department of Energy
Albany Research Center
Chairperson
Rajan Bhaskaran
Arthur Cohen
Bernard Covino, Jr.
Stephen Cramer
Paul Crook
Peter Elliott
John F. Grubb
Gil Kaufman
Barbara Shaw
David C. Silverman
Richard Sutherlin
Gregory Zhang
Subsection title
Global Cost of Corrosion
Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys
Corrosion of Specialty Products
Corrosion of Carbon and Alloy Steels, Corrosion of Low Melting
Metals and Alloys
Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys, Corrosion of
Nickel-Base Alloys
Gallery of Corrosion Damage
Corrosion of Stainless Steels
Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys
Environmental Performance of Non-Metallic Materials
Corrosion of Reactive and Refractory Metals and Alloys
Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys
REFERENCES
1. R. Bhaskaran, N. Palaniswamy, N.S. Rengaswamy, and M. Jayachandran, “Global Cost of Corrosion—A Historical Review,” in
Corrosion: Materials, ASM Handbook 13B, ASM International,
Materials Park OH, 2005
2. Gerhardus H. Koch, Michiel P.H. Brongers, Neil G. Thompson, Y. Paul
Virmani, and Joe H. Payer, Corrosion Cost and Preventive Strategies in the United States, FHWA-RD-01-156, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington D.C., March
2002 vi

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ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G) www.asminternational.org
Bhakta B. Rath
President and Trustee
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory
Reza Abbaschian
Vice President and Trustee
University of Florida
Robert C. Tucker, Jr.
Immediate Past President and Trustee
The Tucker Group LLC
Paul L. Huber
Treasurer
Seco/Warwick Corporation
Stanley C. Theobald
Secretary and Managing Director
ASM International
Rodney R. Boyer
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group
Dianne Chong
The Boeing Company
Roger J. Fabian
Bodycote Thermal Processing
William E. Frazier
Naval Air Systems Command
Richard L. Kennedy
Allvac
Frederick J. Lisy
Orbital Research Incorporated
Frederick Edward Schmidt
Engineering Systems Incorporated
Richard D. Sisson, Jr.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Lawrence C. Wagner
Texas Instruments
Jeffrey A. Hawk
(Chair 2005–; Member 1997–)
U.S. Department of Energy
Larry D. Hanke (1994–)
(Vice Chair 2005–; Member 1994–)
Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc.
David E. Alman (2002–)
U.S. Department of Energy
Tim Cheek (2004–)
International Truck & Engine Corporation
Lichun Leigh Chen (2002–)
Engineered Materials Solutions
Craig V. Darragh (1989–)
The Timken Company
Henry E. Fairman (1993–)
Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants
Michael A. Hollis (2003–)
Delphi Corporation
Dennis D. Huffman (1982–)
The Timken Company (retired)
Kent L. Johnson (1999–)
Engineering Systems Inc.
Ann Kelly (2004–)
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Donald R. Lesuer (1999–)
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Huimin Liu (1999–)
Ford Motor Company
Alan T. Male (2003–)
University of Kentucky
William L. Mankins (1989–)
Metallurgical Services Inc.
Toby Padfield (2004–)
ZF Sachs Automotive of America
Srikanth Raghunathan (1999–)
Nanomat Inc.
Karl P. Staudhammer (1997–)
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Kenneth B. Tator (1991–)
KTA-Tator Inc.
George F. Vander Voort (1997–)
Buehler Ltd.
R.J. Austin
(1992–1994) (Member 1984–1985)
L.B. Case
(1931–1933) (Member 1927–1933)
T.D. Cooper
(1984–1986) (Member 1981–1986)
C.V. Darragh
(1999–2002) (Member 1989–)
E.O. Dixon
(1952–1954) (Member 1947–1955)
R.L. Dowdell
(1938–1939) (Member 1935–1939)
Henry E. Fairman
(2002–2004) (Member 1993–)
M.M. Gauthier
(1997–1998) (Member 1990–2000)
J.P. Gill
(1937) (Member 1934–1937)
J.D. Graham
(1966–1968) (Member 1961–1970)
J.F. Harper
(1923–1926) (Member 1923–1926)
C.H. Herty, Jr.
(1934–1936) (Member 1930–1936)
D.D. Huffman
(1986–1990) (Member 1982–)
J.B. Johnson
(1948–1951) (Member 1944–1951)
L.J. Korb
(1983) (Member 1978–1983)
R.W.E. Leiter
(1962–1963) (Member 1955–1958,
1960–1964)
G.V. Luerssen
(1943–1947) (Member 1942–1947)
G.N. Maniar
(1979–1980) (Member 1974–1980)
W.L. Mankins
(1994–1997) (Member 1989–)
J.L. McCall
(1982) (Member 1977–1982)
W.J. Merten
(1927–1930) (Member 1923–1933)
D.L. Olson
(1990–1992) (Member 1982–1988,
1989–1992)
N.E. Promisel
(1955–1961) (Member 1954–1963)
G.J. Shubat
(1973–1975) (Member 1966–1975)
W.A. Stadtler
(1969–1972) (Member 1962–1972)
R. Ward
(1976–1978) (Member 1972–1978)
M.G.H. Wells
(1981) (Member 1976–1981)
D.J. Wright
(1964–1965) (Member 1959–1967) vii

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ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
Safaa J. Alhassan
International Lead Zinc Research
Organization, Inc.
Jim Alexander
Consultant
Robert Baboian
RB Corrosion Service
Brian Baker
Special Metals Corporation
James P. Bennett
U.S. Department of Energy, Albany Research
Center
R. Bhaskaran
Central Electrochemical Research Institute
Malcolm Blair
Steel Founders’ Society of America
Arthur Cohen
Arthur Cohen & Associates
Terry W. Cowley
DuPont
Paul Crook
Haynes International, Inc.
Jim Crum
Special Metals Corporation
P.K. Datta
Advanced Materials Research Institute,
Northumbria University
Terry DeBold
Carpenter Technology Corporation
Larry DeLashmit
Polycorp, Ltd.
Christopher Dellacorte
NASA Glenn Research Center
Manish Dighe
Hi TecMetal Group
H.L. Du
Advanced Materials Research Institute,
Northumbria University
Peter Elliott
Corrosion & Materials Consultancy, Inc.
F.B. Fletcher
Mittal Steel USA
Lee Flower
Haynes International, Inc.
Dennis S. Fox
NASA Glenn Research Center
James D. Fritz
TMR Stainless
Ronald A. Graham
ATI Wah Chang, Allegheny Technologies
John F. Grubb
ATI-Allegheny Ludlum
Robert J. Hanrahan, Jr.
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Warren J. Haws
Brush Wellman, Inc.
L.H. Hihara
The University of Hawaii at Manoa
D.R. Holmes
ATI Wah Chang, Allegheny Technologies
Nathan S. Jacobson
NASA Glenn Research Center
M. Jayachandran
H.H. The Rajah’s College
Allen R. Jones
Atotech
G. Kaufman
Kaufman Associates, Ltd.
Pradip Khaladkar
DuPont
Dwaine Klarstrom
Haynes International, Inc.
Toshiaki Kodama
Nakabohtec Corrosion Protection Co., Ltd.
Kyei-Sing Kwong
U.S. Department of Energy, Albany Research
Center
Jay W. Larson
American Iron and Steel Institute
Kang N. Lee
Cleveland State University
Jennifer A. Lillard
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Ashley Lucente
University of Virginia
Steve Matthews
Haynes International
Tapio Ma¨ntyla¨
Tampere University of Technology
Sabrina Meck
Haynes International, Inc.
Bert Moniz
DuPont
Raymond W. Monroe
Steel Founders’ Society of America
Thomas G. Oakwood
Consultant
Elizabeth J. Opila
NASA Glenn Research Center
George Oprea
University of British Columbia
N. Palaniswamy
Central Electrochemical Research Institute
William C. Panarese
Portland Cement Association
Raul Rebak
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
N.S. Rengaswamy
Central Electrochemical Research Institute
Michel Rigaud
CIREP, E
Mark Rowe
Haynes International, Inc.
Ronald W. Schutz
RMI Titanium Company
John R. Scully
University of Virginia
C. Ramadeva Shasty
International Steel Group, Inc.
Barbara A. Shaw
Pennsylvania State University
David C. Silverman
Argentum Solutions, Inc.
James L. Smialek
NASA Glenn Research Center
Gaylord D. Smith
Special Metals Corporation
Thomas C. Spence
Flowserve Corporation
Krishna Srivastava
Haynes International, Inc.
Bill Stahl
DuPont Performance Elastomers
Richard C. Sutherlin
ATI Wah Chang, Allegheny Technologies
Hiroyuki Tanabe
Dai Nippon Toryo Company viii

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ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
Kenneth B. Tator
KTA-Tator, Inc.
Tommy Taylor
DuPont Performance Elastomers
Mikko Uusitalo
Metso Powdermet Oy
Stephen M. Winder
U.K. Software Services
Ryan C. Wolfe
Pennsylvania State University
Jim Wu
Deloro Stellite, Inc.
www.asminternational.org
Te-Lin Yau
Te-Lin Yau Consultancy
X. Gregory Zhang
Teck Cominco Metals Ltd.
ix

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ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
Robert L. Bratton
Nuclear Materials Disposition and
Engineering
Juan Bustillos
Dow Chemical
Gary Carinci
TMR Stainless
Tim Cheek
International Truck & Engine Corporation
L. Chen
Engineered Materials Solutions
Desmond C. Cook
Old Dominion University
Larry Craigie
American Composites Manufacturers
Association
Craig Darragh
The Timken Company
Subodh Das
Kenneth deSouza
Dofasco, Inc.
John B. Dion
BAE Systems
David Dombrowski
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Richard W. Drisko
John DuPont
Lehigh University
Henry E. Fairman
Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants
Robert Filipek
AGH University of Science and Technology
John J. Goetz
Thielsch Engineering
Jeffrey A. Hawk
U.S. Department of Energy Albany
Research Center
M. Swyn Hocking
Imperial College London
Merv Howells
Honeywell
Dennis Huffman
The Timken Company
Russell H. Jones
U.S. Department of Energy
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Don Kelley
Dow Chemical
Don Kim
Dale Kingseed
David Kolman
U.S. Department of Energy
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Roger A. LaBoube
University of Missouri-Rolla
Lionel Lemay
National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association
William LeVan
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute
Scott Lillard
U.S. Department of Energy
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Graham McCartney
University of Nottingham
Karthik H. Obla
National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association
Toby V. Padfield
ZF Sachs Automotive of America
Steven J. Pawel
U.S. Department of Energy
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
G. Louis Powell
Y-12 National Security Complex
Raul Rebak
U.S. Department of Energy
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Michael Renner
Bayer Technology Services GmbH
Elwin L. Rooy
Elwin L. Rooy and Associates
B.J. Sanders
BJS and Associates
Mark Schilling
William L. Silence
Donald Snyder
Atotech R&D Worldwide
David L. Sponseller
OMNI Metals Laboratory, Inc.
Karl P. Staudhammer
U.S. Department of Energy
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Oscar Tavares
Lafarge North America Inc.
Michael E. Tavary
Dow Chemical
John Tundermann
Elma van der Lingen
MINTEK
David J. Willis
BlueScope Steel
Roger Wildt
RW Consulting Group
Gregory Zhang
Teck Cominco x

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© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G)
Corrosion of Ferrous Metals ................................................................ 1
Introduction to Corrosion of Ferrous Metals
Jay W. Larson ...................................................................................... 3
Industry Overview ................................................................... 3
Steel Products and Characteristics .......................................... 3
Role of Corrosion .................................................................... 3
Corrosion of Carbon and Alloy Steels
Corrosion of Wrought Carbon Steels
Toshiaki Kodama ................................................................................. 5
Atmospheric Corrosion ........................................................... 5
Aqueous Corrosion .................................................................. 7
Soil Corrosion .......................................................................... 8
Corrosion in Concrete ............................................................. 9
Boiler Service ........................................................................ 10
Corrosion of Wrought Low-Alloy Steels
Thomas G. Oakwood ......................................................................... 11
Corrosive Environments Encountered in the Use of
Alloy Steels ....................................................................... 11
Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance of Low-Alloy
Steels .................................................................................. 11
Corrosion of Low-Alloy Steels in Specific End-Use
Environments ..................................................................... 13
Corrosion of Weathering Steels
F.B. Fletcher ...................................................................................... 28
Copper-Bearing Steels ........................................................... 28
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels ........................................... 28
Atmospheric Corrosion Testing ............................................ 28
Estimating Atmospheric Corrosion Behavior of
Weathering Steels .............................................................. 29
Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance of Weathering
Steels .................................................................................. 29
Corrosion Behavior under Different Exposure
Conditions .......................................................................... 30
Case Histories and Design Considerations ........................... 30
Corrosion of Metallic Coated Steels
C. Ramadeva Shastry ........................................................................ 35
Zinc-Base Coatings ............................................................... 35
Aluminum-Base Coatings ..................................................... 37
Zinc-Aluminum Alloy Coatings ............................................ 38
Aluminum-Zinc Alloy Coatings ............................................ 38
Corrosion of Organic Coated Steels
Hiroyuki Tanabe ................................................................................ 40
How Paint Films Deter Corrosion ......................................... 40
Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by
Organic Coatings ............................................................... 40
Design of Steel Structures for Coating ................................. 40
Paint Systems for Bridges ..................................................... 41
Prepaint Processing ............................................................... 41
Differences between Prepaint and Postpaint ......................... 41
Part Design Consideration in Coated Steel Sheet ................. 41
Selection Guideline ............................................................... 42
Advantages of Prepainted Steels ........................................... 42
Corrosion of Cast Irons
Thomas C. Spence ............................................................................. 43
Basic Metallurgy of Cast Irons ............................................. 43
Influence of Alloying ............................................................. 43
Influence of Microstructure ................................................... 44
Commercially Available Cast Irons ...................................... 44
Forms of Corrosion ............................................................... 45
Resistance to Corrosive Environments ................................. 46
Coatings ................................................................................. 48
Selection of Cast Irons .......................................................... 49
Corrosion of Cast Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Raymond W. Monroe ......................................................................... 51
Atmospheric Corrosion ......................................................... 51
Other Environments .............................................................. 53
Corrosion of Stainless Steels
Corrosion of Wrought Stainless Steels
John F. Grubb, Terry DeBold, James D. Fritz ................................. 54
Identification Systems for Stainless Steels ............................ 54
Families of Stainless Steels ................................................... 55
Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance ..................................... 57
Effects of Composition .......................................................... 58
Effects of Processing, Design, Fabrication, and External
Treatments ......................................................................... 58
Forms of Corrosion of Stainless Steels ................................. 62
Corrosion in Specific Environments ..................................... 63
Corrosion in Various Applications ........................................ 70
Corrosion Testing .................................................................. 75
Corrosion of Cast Stainless Steels
Malcolm Blair .................................................................................... 78
Composition and Microstructure ........................................... 78
Corrosion Behavior of H-Type Alloys .................................. 79
Corrosion Behavior of C-Type Alloys .................................. 81
Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty Products ................ 89
Introduction to Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty Products
Paul Crook ......................................................................................... 93
Copper ................................................................................... 93
Nickel .................................................................................... 93
Titanium ................................................................................ 93
Aluminum .............................................................................. 94
Specialty Products ................................................................. 94 xi

© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G) www.asminternational.org
Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
G. Kaufman ........................................................................................ 95
Pitting Corrosion ................................................................... 95
Solution Potentials ................................................................. 96
Effects of Composition and Microstructure on
Corrosion ........................................................................... 97
Corrosion Ratings of Alloys and Tempers .......................... 101
Galvanic Corrosion and Protection ..................................... 101
Deposition Corrosion ........................................................... 104
Intergranular Corrosion ....................................................... 104
Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... 105
Effect of Stress-Intensity Factor .......................................... 106
Exfoliation Corrosion .......................................................... 110
Corrosion Fatigue ................................................................ 111
Erosion-Corrosion ............................................................... 112
Atmospheric Corrosion ....................................................... 112
Filiform Corrosion ............................................................... 114
Corrosion in Waters ............................................................. 114
Corrosion in Soils ................................................................ 117
Resistance of Anodized Aluminum .................................... 118
Effects of Nonmetallic Building Materials ......................... 119
Contact with Foods, Pharmaceuticals, and
Chemicals ........................................................................ 120
Care of Aluminum ............................................................... 121
Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys
Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys
Arthur Cohen ................................................................................... 125
Effects of Alloy Composition ............................................. 125
Types of Attack ................................................................... 127
Corrosion of Copper Alloys in Specific
Environments ................................................................... 131
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Copper Alloys in Specific
Environments ................................................................... 151
Protective Coatings .............................................................. 154
Corrosion Testing ................................................................ 154
Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys
Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys ..................................... 164
Alloys Resistant to Aqueous Corrosion
Paul Crook, Jim Wu ........................................................ 164
High-Carbon Co-Cr-W Alloys ............................ 164
Low-Carbon Co-Cr-Mo Alloys ........................... 165
High-Carbon Co-Cr-Mo Alloys .......................... 166
Low-Carbon Co-Mo-Cr-Si Alloys ...................... 166
Age-Hardenable Co-Ni-Cr-Mo Alloys ................ 166
Product Forms ..................................................... 166
Aqueous Corrosion Properties
Paul Crook ....................................................................... 166
Hydrochloric Acid ............................................... 167
Sulfuric Acid ....................................................... 167
Phosphoric Acid .................................................. 167
Hydrofluoric Acid ................................................ 168
Nitric Acid ........................................................... 168
Organic Acids ...................................................... 168
Salts ..................................................................... 168
Seawater .............................................................. 169
Alkalis .................................................................. 169
Environmental Cracking
Paul Crook ....................................................................... 169
Applications and Fabrication
Steve Matthews, Jim Wu .................................................. 170
Hardfacing with the High-Carbon Co-Cr-W
Alloys .............................................................. 171
Welding of Wrought Cobalt Alloys .................... 172
Alloys Resistant to High-Temperature Corrosion
Dwaine Klarstrom ........................................................... 172
High-Temperature Corrosion Properties
Dwaine Klarstrom, Krishna Srivastava .......................... 172
Oxidation ............................................................. 172
Sulfidation ............................................................ 173
Carburization ....................................................... 173
Corrosion by Halogens ........................................ 174
Corrosion by Molten Salts ................................... 175
Applications and Fabrication for High-Temperature Service
Lee Flower, Steve Matthews ........................................... 175
Forming and Annealing ....................................... 175
Welding Characteristics ...................................... 175
Corrosion of Low Melting Metals and Alloys
Corrosion of Tin and Tin Alloys ......................................................... 177
Pure Tin ............................................................................... 177
Soft Solders ......................................................................... 179
Pewter .................................................................................. 181
Bearing Alloys ..................................................................... 181
Other Tin Alloys .................................................................. 182
Tin and Tin-Alloy Coatings ................................................ 182
Tinplate ................................................................................ 186
Corrosion Testing of Coatings ............................................ 188
Corrosion of Lead and Lead Alloys
Safaa J. Alhassan ............................................................................ 195
The Nature of Lead Corrosion ............................................ 195
Corrosion in Water .............................................................. 195
Atmospheric Corrosion ....................................................... 196
Corrosion in Underground Ducts ........................................ 197
Corrosion in Soil ................................................................. 199
Resistance to Chemicals ...................................................... 200
Tin-Lead Solder Alloys ....................................................... 203
Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys
Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys
Barbara A. Shaw, Ryan C. Wolfe .................................................... 205
Environmental Factors ........................................................ 206
Corrosion in Real and Simulated Environments ................. 207
Localized Corrosion Mechanisms ....................................... 211
Galvanic Corrosion .............................................................. 214
Protection of Assemblies ..................................................... 216
Protective Coating Systems ................................................. 220
Inhibitors .............................................................................. 222
Industry-Proven Protection Systems ................................... 222
Novel Magnesium Alloys with Improved Corrosion
Resistance ........................................................................ 224
Corrosion of Bulk Vapor-Deposited Alloys ....................... 225
Metal-Matrix Composites .................................................... 226
Corrosion of Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys
Corrosion of Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys
Paul Crook ....................................................................................... 228
Introduction to Alloys Resistant to Aqueous Corrosion
Paul Crook, Dwaine Klarstrom, Jim Crum .................... 228
Commercially Pure Nickel .................................. 228
Nickel-Copper Alloys .......................................... 229 xii

© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G) www.asminternational.org
Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys ................................ 229
Nickel-Chromium Alloys .................................... 230
Ni-Cr-Mo Alloys ................................................. 230
Ni-Cr-Fe Alloys ................................................... 231
Ni-Fe-Cr Alloys ................................................... 231
Product Forms ..................................................... 231
Aqueous Corrosion Properties
Paul Crook, Sabrina Meck, Jim Crum, Raul Rebak
Environmental Cracking
Applications and Fabrication
Alloys Resistant to High-Temperature Corrosion
High-Temperature Corrosion Properties
Applications
Brian Baker, Jim Crum, Lee Flower
....... 231
Hydrochloric Acid ............................................... 231
Sulfuric Acid ....................................................... 233
Phosphoric Acid .................................................. 234
Hydrofluoric Acid ................................................ 234
Hydrobromic Acid ............................................... 235
Nitric Acid ........................................................... 236
Organic Acids ...................................................... 236
Salts ..................................................................... 236
Seawater .............................................................. 237
Alkalis .................................................................. 238
Raul Rebak ...................................................................... 238
Commercially Pure Nickel .................................. 238
Nickel-Copper Alloys .......................................... 238
Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys ................................ 239
Ni-Cr-Mo Alloys ................................................. 239
Ni-Cr, Ni-Cr-Fe, and Ni-Fe-Cr Alloys ................ 240
Brian Baker, Paul Crook, Lee Flower, Mark Rowe ....... 241
Petrochemical and Refining ................................ 241
Chemical Processing ........................................... 241
Power Industry ..................................................... 241
Fabrication ........................................................... 241
Dwaine Klarstrom ........................................................... 243
Dwaine Klarstrom, Krishna Srivastava .......................... 244
Oxidation ............................................................. 244
Carburization ....................................................... 244
Metal Dusting ...................................................... 246
Sulfidation ............................................................ 246
Corrosion by Halogens ........................................ 247
Corrosion by Molten Salts ................................... 248
............................... 248
Petrochemical and Refining ................................ 248
Heating and Heat Treating .................................. 249
Aircraft Gas Turbines .......................................... 250
Power Industry ..................................................... 250
Corrosion of Reactive and Refractory Metals and Alloys
Corrosion of Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Ronald W. Schutz ............................................................................. 252
Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance ................................... 252
Forms of Corrosion and Related Test Methods .................. 253
Corrosion in Specific Media ................................................ 260
Expanding the Corrosion Resistance of Titanium .............. 284
Appendix 1: General Corrosion Data for Unalloyed
Titanium .......................................................................... 286
Appendix 2: General Corrosion Data for Titanium
Alloys .............................................................................. 290
Corrosion of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys
Te-Lin Yau, Richard C. Sutherlin .................................................... 300
General Characteristics ........................................................ 301
Variables Affecting Corrosion ............................................ 302
Pitting .................................................................................. 306
Crevice Corrosion ................................................................ 307
Intergranular Corrosion ....................................................... 307
Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... 307
Delayed Hydride Cracking .................................................. 308
Effects of Surface Condition ............................................... 309
Galvanic Corrosion .............................................................. 309
Microbiologically Induced Corrosion ................................. 309
Erosion-Corrosion ............................................................... 310
Fretting Corrosion ............................................................... 310
Effects of Tin Content in Zirconium ................................... 310
Corrosive Environments ...................................................... 311
Effects of Fabrication on Corrosion .................................... 318
Protection Measures ............................................................ 319
Industrial Applications of Zirconium and Its
Alloys .............................................................................. 320
Safety ................................................................................... 322
Conclusions ......................................................................... 322
Corrosion of Niobium and Niobium Alloys
Richard C. Sutherlin, Ronald A. Graham ....................................... 325
Niobium Alloys ................................................................... 325
Mechanisms of Corrosion Resistance ................................. 325
Applications ......................................................................... 333
Corrosion of Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys ..................................... 337
Mechanism of Corrosion Resistance ................................... 337
Corrosion in Specific Media ................................................ 337
Hydrogen Embrittlement, Galvanic Effects, and Cathodic
Protection of Tantalum .................................................... 348
Corrosion Resistance of Tantalum-Base Alloys ................. 348
Corrosion of Hafnium and Hafnium Alloys
D.R. Holmes ..................................................................................... 354
Production ............................................................................ 354
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Hafnium ................ 354
Aqueous Corrosion Testing of Hafnium and Hafnium
Alloys .............................................................................. 355
Corrosion Resistance of Hafnium ....................................... 356
Applications ......................................................................... 358
Corrosion of Beryllium and Aluminum-Beryllium Composites
Warren J. Haws ............................................................................... 360
Health and Safety ................................................................ 360
Effects of Impurities and Composite Composition ............. 360
Corrosion of Beryllium in Air ............................................. 360
Aqueous Corrosion of Beryllium ........................................ 362
Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... 363
High-Temperature Corrosion .............................................. 363
In-Process, Handling, and Storage Corrosion Problems and Procedures ................................................................. 363
Corrosion-Protection Surface Treatments and
Coatings ........................................................................... 365
Corrosion of Uranium and Uranium Alloys
Jennifer A. Lillard, Robert J. Hanrahan, Jr.
.................................. 370
Aqueous Corrosion .............................................................. 370
Atmospheric Corrosion ....................................................... 375
Environmentally Assisted Cracking .................................... 379
Protective Coatings and Surface Modification .................... 380
Storage of Uranium ............................................................. 381
Environmental, Safety, and Health Considerations ............ 382 xiii

© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G) www.asminternational.org
Corrosion of Precious Metals and Alloys
Corrosion of Precious Metals and Alloys
Gaylord D. Smith ............................................................................. 385
Silver .................................................................................... 385
Gold ..................................................................................... 388
Platinum ............................................................................... 390
Palladium ............................................................................. 392
Rhodium .............................................................................. 395
Iridium ................................................................................. 396
Ruthenium ........................................................................... 398
Osmium ............................................................................... 399
Anodic Behavior of the Noble Metals ................................ 400
Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys
Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys
X. Gregory Zhang ............................................................................ 402
Applications of Zinc ............................................................ 402
Corrosion Performance ........................................................ 403
Corrosion in Waters, Solutions, Soils and Other
Environments ................................................................... 409
Corrosion Forms .................................................................. 411
Corrosion of Specialty Products
Corrosion of Brazed and Soldered Joints
Manish Dighe .................................................................................. 418
Fundamentals of Corrosion of Joints .................................. 418
Corrosion of Soldered Joints ............................................... 418
Corrosion of Brazed Joints .................................................. 418
Role of Proper Brazing Procedures in Minimizing
Corrosion ......................................................................... 420
Corrosion Resistance of Particular Brazing Alloy Systems 420
Thermal Spray Coatings for Corrosion Protection in Atmospheric and
Aqueous Environments
Seiji Kuroda, Andrew Sturgeon ....................................................... 422
Coating Types ...................................................................... 422
Aluminum Coatings and Zinc Coatings .............................. 422
Thermal Spray Application Methods for TSA and TSZ
Coatings ........................................................................... 423
Field Exposure Tests of TSA and TSZ Coatings ................ 425
Application History of TSA and TSZ Coatings for
Corrosion Prevention ....................................................... 426
Dense Barrier Coatings by High-Velocity Spraying
Processes .......................................................................... 427
The Future Use of Thermal Spray Coatings ....................... 429
Corrosion of Thermal Spray Coatings at High Temperatures
Tapio Ma¨ntyla¨, Mikko Uusitalo ...................................................... 430
Oxidation ............................................................................. 430
Hot Corrosion ...................................................................... 431
Corrosion-Resistant Coatings in Boilers ............................. 431
Waste Incinerators ............................................................... 432
Erosion-Corrosion in Boilers ............................................... 433
Corrosion of Electroplated Hard Chromium
Allen R. Jones .................................................................................. 434
Corrosion of Chromium Electrodeposits ............................ 434
Optimizing Corrosion Resistance ........................................ 434
Duplex Coatings .................................................................. 440
Corrosion-Resistance Data .................................................. 440
Applications ......................................................................... 440
Corrosion of Clad Metals
Robert Baboian ................................................................................ 442
The Cladding Process .......................................................... 442
Properties of Clad Metals .................................................... 443
Designing with Clad Metals ................................................ 443
Designing Clad Metals for Corrosion Control .................... 443
Corrosion-Resistant Powder Metallurgy Alloys
Barbara Shaw .................................................................................. 447
Evaluating the Corrosion Resistance of P/M Alloys .......... 447
P/M Stainless Steels ............................................................ 454
Influence of Processing Parameters on the Corrosion
Resistance of P/M Stainless Steels .................................. 457
P/M Superalloys .................................................................. 468
Corrosion of Amorphous Metals
John R. Scully, Ashley Lucente ....................................................... 476
Synthesis of Metallic Glasses .............................................. 476
Devitrification and Structural Relaxation ........................... 477
Mechanisms of Corrosion Resistance ................................. 478
Corrosion Behavior of Fully Amorphous and Partially
Devitrified Metallic Glasses: A Historial Review .......... 478
General Corrosion Behavior of All Classes of
Amorphous Alloys ........................................................... 480
Localized Corrosion Behavior of All Classes of
Amorphous Alloys ........................................................... 482
Environmental Cracking Behavior ...................................... 485
Conclusion ........................................................................... 486
Corrosion of Intermetallics
P.K. Datta, H.L. Du, J.S. Burnell-Gray .......................................... 490
High-Temperature Corrosion of Intermetallics ................... 490
Aqueous Corrosion .............................................................. 504
Corrosion of Cemented Carbides ........................................................ 513
Effect of Composition on Properties ................................... 514
Applications of Cemented Carbides .................................... 515
Selection of Cemented Carbides for Corrosion
Applications ..................................................................... 516
Corrosion in Aqueous Media .............................................. 516
Oxidation Resistance of Cemented Carbides ...................... 522
Saw Tips and Corrosion ...................................................... 523
Coating of Cemented Carbides ........................................... 523
Special Surface Treatments ................................................. 524
Corrosion of Metal-Matrix Composites
L.H. Hihara ..................................................................................... 526
Background .......................................................................... 526
Parameters Affecting MMC Corrosion ............................... 526
Corrosion of MMC Systems ................................................ 531
Corrosion Protection of MMCs ........................................... 538
Other Concerns .................................................................... 539
Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic Materials ................ 543
Introduction to Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic
Materials
David C. Silverman ......................................................................... 545
Thermosetting Resins and Resin-Matrix Composites ......... 545
Elastomers ........................................................................... 545
Rubber Linings .................................................................... 545
Protective Coatings .............................................................. 546
Ceramics and Refractories .................................................. 546
Concrete ............................................................................... 546
Performance of Refractories in Severe Environments
James P. Bennett, Kyei-Sing Kwong, George Oprea,
Michel Rigaud, Stephen M. Winder ............................................ 547
Background and Theory ...................................................... 547
Testing ................................................................................. 551 xiv

© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook, Volume 13B, Corrosion: Materials (#06508G) www.asminternational.org
Corrosion of Steelmaking Refractories ............................... 551
Refractories for Glass-Melting Applications ...................... 554
Refractories for Aluminum Smelting and Refining
Applications ..................................................................... 557
Chemical-Resistant Masonry for Corrosive Liquid
Environments ................................................................... 560
Performance of Ceramics in Severe Environments
Nathan S. Jacobson, Dennis S. Fox, James L. Smialek,
Elizabeth J. Opila, Christopher Dellacorte, Kang N. Lee .......... 565
High-Temperature Oxidation and Corrosion of
Silica-Forming Ceramics ................................................. 565
Oxidation of Precursor-Derived Ceramics, Composites, and Non-Silica-Forming Ceramics .................................. 571
Corrosion of Oxide Ceramics .............................................. 572
Environmental Barrier Coatings .......................................... 572
Effects of Oxidation and Corrosion on Mechanical
Properties ......................................................................... 574
High-Temperature Wear of Advanced Ceramics ................ 575
Environmental Performance of Concrete
William C. Panarese ........................................................................ 579
Types and Causes of Concrete Degradation ....................... 579
Addressing Durability with the Prescriptive Approach ...... 583
Addressing Durability with the Performance
Approach ......................................................................... 584
Sustainability ....................................................................... 586
Degradation of Protective Coatings
Kenneth B. Tator ............................................................................. 589
Molecular Composition of a Polymer ................................. 589
Environmental Effects Resulting in Coating
Deterioration .................................................................... 591
Environmental Performance of Thermosetting Plastics and Resin
Matrix Composites
Terry W. Cowley .............................................................................. 600
Fabrication of FRP Equipment ............................................ 600
Resins and Their Resistance to Various Environments ...... 600
Curing Thermosetting Resin Types .................................... 602
Environmental Performance of Rubber Linings
Larry DeLashmit ............................................................................. 605
Commonly Used Polymers .................................................. 605
Industrial Applications ........................................................ 607
Environmental Performance of Elastomers
Jim Alexander, Pradip Khaladkar, Bert Moniz, Bill Stahl,
Tommy Taylor .............................................................................. 608
Factors Governing the Performance of Elastomers ............ 608
Factors Affecting Chemical Resistance .............................. 610
Performance Evaluation ...................................................... 612
Failure Analysis ................................................................... 615
Elastomer Failure Modes .................................................... 615
Elastomer Material Identification ........................................ 617
Quantifying Performance .................................................... 617
Global Cost of Corrosion .................................................................. 619
Global Cost of Corrosion—A Historical Review
R. Bhaskaran, N. Palaniswamy, N.S. Rengaswamy,
M. Jayachandran ......................................................................... 621
United States of America .................................................... 621
United Kingdom .................................................................. 622
Australia .............................................................................. 623
Japan .................................................................................... 623
Canada ................................................................................. 623
Germany .............................................................................. 624
Poland .................................................................................. 624
South Africa ......................................................................... 624
Czechoslovakia .................................................................... 624
Belgium ............................................................................... 624
Netherlands .......................................................................... 624
Sweden ................................................................................ 624
Finland ................................................................................. 624
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ...................... 624
Kuwait ................................................................................. 624
India ..................................................................................... 625
Basque Region ..................................................................... 625
Global Direct Cost of Corrosion ......................................... 625
Global Indirect Cost of Corrosion ....................................... 625
Global Cost of Corrosion .................................................... 626
Gallery of Corrosion Damage .......................................................... 629
Gallery of Corrosion Damage
Peter Elliott ..................................................................................... 631
Reference Information ...................................................................... 647
Periodic Table of Elements ................................................................. 649
Crystal Structure .................................................................................. 651
Density of Metals and Alloys .............................................................. 658
Reference Electrodes ........................................................................... 662
Overpotential ....................................................................................... 663
Electrochemical Series ........................................................................ 665
Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys in Seawater ............................. 672
Compatibility Guide ............................................................................ 673
Corrosion Rate Conversion ................................................................. 675
Metric Conversion Guide .................................................................... 676
Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................................. 679
Index .................................................................................................... 682 xv

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