International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)
Thermal Design and Development of Intercooler
Nilesh Pawar#,
#
DPES Dhole Patil College of Engineering, Wagholi, Pune, India
Address
Abstract— Air delivered to the induction- manifold
provided the boost-pressure ratio is 1.6:1 or more, as
from the turbocharger is subjected to reserve-flow
a lower operating pressure will not raise the charge
pressure pulsation and turbulence, and results in
temperature to such high values.
considerable amount of heat. Now engine power is
The function of the intercooler, is to
dependent principally upon the mass of air drawn
transfer heat from the compressed charge to another
into the cylinder per cycle, and increasing the
source which is at a lower temperature, such as the
charge pressure ratio alone will not permit the
engine’s cooling system, or directly to surrounding
maximum quantity of charge to enter the cylinder. In
atmosphere.
fact, the true measure of power potential is the
density of the charge in the cylinder and this relates
directly to the temperature of the air charge about to
enter the cylinder. The lower the charge temperature
at given constant pressure the smaller will be its
volume and hence more air charge is able to enter
the cylinder. Heat –exchangers of this kind are
capable of reducing a charge temperature of 120oC
to something like 60oC. Air to air heat exchangers
are not attached to the engine and are most
effectively positioned in front of the radiator if space
permits. The air-to-air intercooler is more popular
than the air-to-liquid intercooler because it is able
to bring down the air-charge temperature to much
Fig. 1 Operation of turbocharger and location of
o
o
Charge Air Cooler
lower values of around 60 C as opposed to 85 C.
Detail design process of charge air cooler is
There are two types of heat exchangers in common
illustrated. It is the rating design where we have
use. These are:
determined the thermal performance of charge air
1. Air to liquid and
cooler. These analytical results are then compared
2. Air to air
with test results.
Key
Words—Intercooler,
Charge
air
II. THERMODYNAMICS OF CHARGE AIR
cooling,Thermodynamic, Thermal design
COOLING
I. INTRODUCTION
CHARGE AIR COOLER
The thermodynamic relationships between
Air delivered to the induction- manifold
the density, pressure and temperature ratios for
from the turbocharger is subjected to reserve-flow
different
compressor
efficiencies
are
pressure pulsation and turbulence, and results in
straightforward.
Intake
charge
air
densities
shown
in
considerable amount of heat. Now engine power is
the
fig
are
hard
to
obtain
without
charge
air-cooling.
dependent principally upon the mass of air drawn
The effect of charge air-cooling on density ratio is a
into the cylinder per cycle, and increasing the charge
function of the effectiveness of the charge air cooler
pressure ratio alone will not permit the maximum
and the pressure loss from compressor discharge to
quantity of charge to enter the cylinder. In fact, the
intake manifold.
true measure of power potential is the density of the
The effectiveness is defined as the ratio of
charge in the cylinder and this relates directly to the
temperature drop of charge air across the cooler to
temperature of the air charge about to enter the
maximum temperature potential available for
cylinder. The lower the charge temperature at given
cooling.
constant pressure the smaller will be its volume and
hence more air charge is able to enter the cylinder.
It is essential that where the output
o
temperature from a supercharger may reach 120 C
and this remains uncooled when delivered to the
engine, then the power lost could be as high as 38 %.
Intercooler, which reduces the delivered air charge
o
temperature to around 60 C can raise the engine
power by as much as 20 %. However, the
incorporation of an intercooler is only justified
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T2 T3
T2 T1
E =
Where
T3: Intake manifold temperature
T2: Compressor discharge temperature
T1: Ambient temperature , which is assumed to be
the same as compressor inlet temperature
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In case of an air-to-air charge air cooler,
where ambient air is the cooling medium, above
equation directly applies. In cases where water is
used as intermediate cooling medium, the overall
effectiveness is composed of the charge air cooling
effectiveness and the corresponding radiator
effectiveness. In either case, since the ultimate heat
sink is the ambient air, equation is the reasonable
measure of the system effectiveness. The pressure
loss from compressor discharge to intake manifold
could be expressed as a percentage of compressor
discharge pressure.
Simplified performance curves of a
turbochargercompressor
2.1
80
2
70
Abs Temp. T2/T1 and density ratio
1.9
60
1.8
Density
1.7
1.6
60
1.5
70
80
1.4
1.3
Temp
air-cooling in trucks, farm equipment, marine units
and other applications.
b. Reduced thermal loading:
Experiments and calculations of piston
temperature have shown in fig.4 the reduced
temperature level in piston could put it in the
favorable portion of the strength vs. temperature
curve. Thus, conventional aluminum pistons could
be used in high output, charge air-cooled. Where as
in non- charge air-cooled engine iron or gallery
cooled pistons may be necessary.
It has been observed by some authors that when a
charge air cooler is used, the decrease in thermal
loading and heat rejection to the coolant offsets the
heat rejection to coolant in the charge air cooler. The
net result is reduced thermal loading of the
components at essentially the same total heat
rejection to the coolant.
c. Reduced exhaust emissions:
It has been well established that the peak
cycle temperature is a primary independent variable
in NOx formation. Figure demonstrates the effect of
intake manifold temperature on NOx at constant
injection timing. Depending on the compression
ratio of the engine, 100 ºF reductions in intake
manifold temperature. For temperature near 3300 ºF,
where the rate of NOx formation is believed to very
high, this magnitude of temperature reduction is very
significant. Therefore, charge air-cooling is
considered to be an essential part of diesel engine
configurations to control NOx emissions. The other
important aspect of exhaust emissions is unburned
hydrocarbons.
1.2
650
1.1
TOP
RING
600
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Perssure Ratio P2/P1
3.5
COMBUSTION
BOWL
550
Piston Temp. oF
1
500
Fig.2: Simplified performance
turbocharger compressor.
curves
of
a
Thus, the basic thermodynamic advantage
of charge air-cooling is that it provides cooler air at
higher density to the engine. The lower charge air
temperature results in lower peak cycle temperature
and lower turbine inlet temperature.
III. ADVANTAGES OF CHARGE AIR-COOLING
a. Increased Output:
This is often the main reason for charge aircooling. Since the more air at lower temperature is
available for combustion, more fuel can be burnt
resulting in more BHP. Since this is the most cost
effective way of increasing the power of given
engine, many engine designers have utilized charge
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450
PIN
BOSS
400
350
300
50
100
150
200
250
300
Intake manifold Temp. oF
Fig.3: Effect of intake temperature on piston
Temperature
HC emissions are known to be the most sever at idle
and light load conditions. In these modes, the
turbocharger is operating at very low operating
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International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)
20
INJECTION TIMING
31º BTDC
BSNOx GSM (HP-HR)
15
26 oBTDC
10
19 o BTDC
5
0
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
INTAKE MANIFOLD TEMP . oF
450
Fig.4: Effect of Charged Air intake temperature on
Exhaust emission
d.
Reduced engine fuel consumption:
Charge air-cooling has a measurably
favorable effect on engine brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC). Fig shows the temperature on
the BSFC ratio (Which is the BSFC/BSFC of a nonCharge air-cooled engine) at various BSNOx levels.
This fact reinforces the need for a well-refined Charge
air cooling system.
1.2
BSFC RATIO =
BSFC / (BSFC OF NON-CHARGEAIR
COOLEDENGINE)
BSNOx RATIO
1.1
BSNO2 = GMS/(BHP-HR)
1
0.9
0.8
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
INTAKE MANIFOLD TEMP. ºF
Fig.5: Effect of intake manifold on Engine fuel
consumption.
e.
Increased altitude capability:
One of the major limiting factors that the
engine designer is faced with is the exhaust
temperature at high altitude operation of the engine.
This is especially true at peak torque conditions
where the air /fuel ratio is low ant the turbine inlet
temperature could reach or exceed the material used
in the turbine casing or exhaust manifold. State of the
art materials limit the maximum turbine inlet
temperatures to 1350 ºF with few excursions past
1400 ºF. When the intake charge air temperature is
reduced by 100 ºF, the exhaust temperature will be
reduced by 100 ºF.
1110
1090
TURBINE INLET TEMP, ºF
pressure ratios. Therefore, the compressor discharge
temperature is close to the ambient temperature. It is
advantageous to warm the charge air to above 140
oF in these modes for HC control. In this context,
the water-cooled charge air cooler will help to heat
the air going to cylinder. This charge air warm up
feature is expected to play an imported role in the
proposed transient emissions conformance. This
cycle places greater importance on part load
operation compared to the present 13-mode cycle. In
order to meet the anticipated emissions levels on the
transient cycle, a fine tuned advanced charge air
cooling system is considered necessary. Another
consideration in deciding the level for a warm-up
feature is white smoke. White smoke control is
highly dependent on the type of engine combustion
system. In general, warm air clears white smoke
o
quickly. Intake manifold temperature of 140 F at 32
o
F ambient will help considerably in white smoke
control.
0.11
0.09
0.07
1070
1050
1030
1010
990
110
130
150
170
190
INTAKE MANIFOLD TEMP ºF
Fig.6: Turbine Inlet temperature Vs Intake manifold
temperature
Depending on the engine parameters such
as compression ratio and valve events, the exhaust
temperature reduction could be greater than 100 ºF. Fig
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International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)
shows that for typically heavy-duty engine. Thus,
Charge air-cooling provides a much needed safety
margin in exhaust temperature during altitude
operation.
f.
Charge Air Cooling as an aid in reducing
turbocharger requirements:
For a given intake manifold air density, use
of a charge air cooler results in a lower turbocharger
pressure ratio. When the charge air cooler
effectiveness is high, the compressor efficiency
becomes less critical to achieve a given intake air
density. This could result in significant practical gains.
The state-of –the-art compressor could be produced
economically when the efficiency is about 70%. When
a higher efficiency (~80%) is needed, the problem
becomes very complicated.
Another area where the charge air cooler could be
advantageously used is to aid the compressor
requirements in altitude operation. Fig shows a typical
compressor map with the engine ―operating diamond‖
superimposed upon it. It is clear from a fig that when a
charge air cooler is used the compressor pressure ratio
needed to meet altitude requirements is significantly
reduced. In addition, the ―surge margin‖, which is an
indication of how close to the surge line the
compressor would operate, is improved with the use of
a charge air cooler. It is clear that the addition of
charge air cooler would enable the designer to move
the operating diamond to left of compressor map,
which is in the direction of higher efficiency. It should
be emphasized that the addition of charge air cooler
should be accompanied by rematching the
turbocharger to the engine in order to realize maximum
benefits.
69
COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO.
3.2
NO CHRGE AIR
COOLER 63 K
1200 FT ALTITUDE
WITH CHARGE AIR
57 K
2.4
2100
K
1500
2
45
K
1000 FT
39
1.6
33
1.2
200
400
600
800
Increasing fluid-flow velocity can increase
the heat transfer rate per unit of surface area, and this
rate varies as something less than first power of the
velocity. The friction power expenditure is also
increased with flow velocity, but in this behavior that
allows the designer to match both heat transfer rate and
friction (pressure-drop) specification, and it is this
behavior that dictates many of characteristics of
different classes of heat exchangers.
If the friction power expenditure is high, we
can reduce flow velocities by increasing the number of
flow passages in the heat exchanger. This will also
decrease the heat transfer rate per unit of surface area,
but according to the above relations, the reduction in
heat transfer rate will be considerably less than the
friction-power reduction.
Increasing the surface area, which in turn also
increases the friction-power expenditure, then makes
up the loss of heat transfer rate but only in the same
proportion as the heat transfer area is increased.
3.6
2.8
IV. THERMAL DESIGN OF CHARGE AIR
COOLER
THEORY
The design of a heat exchange involves a
consideration of both the heat transfer rates between
the fluids and the mechanical pumping power
expended to overcome fluid friction and move the
fluids through the heat exchanger. For a heat
exchanger, operating with high-density fluids the
friction power expenditure is generally small relative
to heat transfer rate, with result that the friction power
expenditure is seldom of controlling influence.
However, for low-density fluids such as gas it is very
easy to expend as much mechanical energy in
overcoming friction power as is transferred as heat.
And it should be remembered that in most thermal
power systems mechanical energy is worth four to ten
times as much as its equivalent in heat.
1000
1200
AIR FLOW ,CFM ºR,29.38'' HG
Fig.7: Effect of Charge air cooler on compressor
In gas –flow heat exchangers the frictionpower limitations generally force the designer to
arrange for moderately low mass velocities, and low
mass velocities together with the low thermal
conductivities of gases (low relative to most liquids),
results in low heat transfer rate per unit of surface area.
Thus, large amount of surface area becomes the typical
characteristic of gas flow heat exchangers. Gas-to-gas
heat exchangers may require up to ten times the
surface area of condenser or evaporator or liquid –toliquid heat exchanger in which the total heat transfer
rates and pumping power consumption is comparable.
These considerations have led to the
development of many ways to construct heat transfer
surfaces for gas-flow applications in which the surface
area density is large such surfaces will be referred as
the compact heat transfer surfaces.
―Operating Diamond
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The effective way to increase surface area density is to
make use of secondary surfaces, or fins, on one or both
sides of surfaces. The low friction power requirement
characteristic of high density fluids, together with the
relatively high thermal conductivity of fluids, results in
high convection heat transfer rates in any optimum
design (high convection conductance). If fins are
employed the high heat transfer rate must be conducted
along the fins, and the conduction resistance may
destroy all or most of the advantage of extra surface
area gained.
In compact gas-to-gas heat exchangers, large area
density is desirable on both fluids side, and method for
accomplishing this objective with fins is illustrated by
the plate-fin arrangement. The heat exchanger is built
up as a sandwich of flat plates bonded to
interconnecting fins. The two fluids are carried
between alternate pairs of plates and can be arranged in
either counter flow or cross flow, which provides an
added degree of flexibility in this arrangement.A
compact surface has small flow passages and
convection conductance h always varies as a negative
power of hydraulic diameter of the passage. Thus
compact surfaces tend, by their very nature, to have
high conductance. This leads to high performance
curves on the heat transfer- friction power plot, despite
the influence of small hydraulic diameter on the
friction power.
ASSUMPTIONS:
To analyse the thermal performance of
CAC the following assumptions are made.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
DESIGN PROCEDURE OF CAC:
COREGEOMETRY THEORETICALLY CALCULATED:
Input
1.
Geometry
2.
Core width
Height
H
B
= 0.272 m
= 0.456 m
Th = 0.05 m
4. Number of tubes Nt = 13
Fluid Properties
3.
Core thickness
5.
Minor diameter of tube
D min or =0.005 m
Iterate
as
Necess
ary
6.
Iterate as
Necessary
Surface
Basic Data
Fin
Efficiency
Sizing
problem
Major diameter of tube
Dmajor =0.08
Compute
G & Re
Є – NTU
Rating
Problem
No heat loss to surrounding, i.e.,
heat transfer takes place fluid to
fluid only.
No phase change of fluids.
Fluid properties are evaluated at
their mean operating temperature.
Airflow distribution is uniform
across CAC core.
The amount of coolant flow in
each tube is constant.
Flow rates and fluid properties are
constant throughout the pass.
Fouling factor are as per standards.
m
7.
Tube thickness Tt =0.0005 m
8.
9.
Header thickness HPT =0.02 m
Thermal conductivity (Aluminum)
Kmaterial =206 W/m-k
10. Outside fin height Fh =0.012m
11. No fin length of tube= 0.005 m
Pressure
Drop
Optimizatio
n
12. Outside Fins pre decimetre FDMo=40
FPMo= 400)
13. Outside fin thickness Fto =0.00012 m
Lpo =0.00108 m
14. Outside louver pitch
(Outside Fins per meter
Output
Llo =0.011 m
16. Outside louver height Lho =0.0002
m
17. Inside Fins per Decimeter FDMi
=28.6
( Inside Fins per meter FPMi=286)
18. Inside Fin Thickness Fti 0.00015m
15. Outside louver length
Fig.8: Design procedure of CAC.
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International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)
19. Inside Fin Depth Fdi =0.05 m
20. Efficiency of fan
=80 %
21. 21. Efficiency of pump
=80 %
V. CFD RESULTS
Apart
from
routine
experimental
development, recent years have seen a rapid growth of
computer simulation of heat transfer phenomenon .
One of the major concerns of CAC designer is air is
heat transfer medium on both sides which has low heat
carrying capacity which enables the use of secondary
heat transfer surface on both sides. The key to
improving both performance measure which generally
lie in making changes in CAC geometry. The CFD
analysis that is a numerically solution provides a new
tool for design and optimization. Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) can be a great help in analyzing the
geometry changes and analyze the design and to do the
optimization. In this case of CAC, prediction of Charge
air flow patterns is very important. With this approach
of CFD, it is possible to simulate the real CAC
behavior (internal flow and external heat exchange)
and to get information for the designer to improve both
the CAC performance and also its efficiency.
Here a CAC core (tubes and louvered fin
arrangement) is considered to find out its thermal
performance and temperature profile in tubes, in
surrounding air and velocity profile of air.In this
analysis of CAC, we have to do the analysis in two
different regions as
Air Side analysis.
Charge air Side analysis.
This airside analysis is generally done into
the fin area. The air is flowing across the radiator
between the free flow area of the tubes and fins. We
can consider the one zone of the radiator core as the
complete core is of bigger size, assuming the
symmetry and air drawn by the fan is uniform. There
will be some deviation of results, but as considering
the time, it is not so big deviation. Also we can do the
analysis in 2-D or 3-D models as naturally there is
more accuracy in 3-D models. And Charge air side
analysis is generally done between tube regions. This
charge air is flowing through the tubes. The heat is
transferred from charge air to inner tube wall and fins
by the convection. The respective material properties
of charge air are specified. And the respective
boundary conditions are given and finally solution is
obtained. Here we consider the incompressible steady
state analysis for the simulation.
louvered fins it is not possible to model the air side of a
heat exchanger in detail. Therefore porous media is
used for the core of the heat exchangers to simulate the
pressure drop. The porous media provides resistance to
air flow which is dependent on the local flow velocity.
Two permeability coefficients, which have to be
defined, are obtained by pressure drop measurements
of the individual components on a component test
setup.
SIMULATION STEPS OF CAC
While simulating the
following steps are involved.
radiator
model
1.
louvered
GAMBIT 2.2.30
Preparation of CAC core (Tube +
fin package) model using
2.
Grid generation.
3.
accompanied by
different zones.
Meshing
the
model
defining
with
4.
Import mesh file into Fluent.
5.
Selection of type of Solver.
6.
Insertion of energy options.
7.
Selection of materials and setting
various properties values.
8.
Setting the operating conditions.
9.
Fixing the boundary conditions.
10.
Interfacing.
11.
convergence.
Monitoring
their
for
12
Initialize the solution.
13.
Iterations.
14.
Post-Processing.
15.
Modification of Model.
solution
Heat exchangers typically have a complex
geometry; it is not feasible to represent all geometrical
details of a heat exchanger, e.g. the fin geometry, in a
CFD analysis. Due to the complex geometry of
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International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)
Contour of Total pressure on Charge air side
Contour of density on Charge air side
VI. TEST RESULTS
Parameters
Specification
Core dimensions (mm2)
272 X 456
Finned height (mm)
446
No. of tubes / Type (+/-)
13+
System depth (mm)
50
Tube dimensions (mm3)
50 X 8 X 0.5
Type of fin on air side
louvered
Spacing (mm)
20
Fin density on air side (fi/dm)
30/40
Fin thickness on air side (mm)
0.12
Type of fin on CA-side.
lance offset
Fin density on CA-side (Ri/dm)
0.286
Fin thickness on CA-side (mm)
0.15
No of fins / tube
14
Results
Net weight (Kg)
1.69
Q (KW)
9.54
Air side pressure drop (Pa)
229
Charge Air side Pressure drop (Pa)
800
Contour of Z-Velocity on Charge air side
Note
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Charge air temperature.
130 ºC
Pressure
2 bar
Mass flow rate
510 Kg/h
Cooling Air temperature.
46 ºC
Mass flow rate
7 kg/m2s
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18
16Rejection (Kw)
Heat
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
2
Heat Rejection
Cooling Air Side pressure drop
4
6
8
Ram Air Speed (m/s)
10
12
Similar manufg. 65.3 mm Deep core
Design 50 mm Deep core
800
Pressure
Drop (Pa)
700Side
Cooling Air
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
2
4
6
8
Ram Air Speed (m/s)
Design CAC 50 mm deep core
Graph: 1 Heat rejection in core Vs Cooling
(Ram) air speed.
The graph shows the variation of heat
rejection of charge air in core against the velocity of
cooling air i.e. the speed of vehicle at constant mass
flow rate of charge air (540 Kg/h). The hyperbolic
nature of graph shows that initially heat rejection
increases rapidly with cooling air velocity, and
becomes steady at higher velocity.
We have compared the results of designed
CAC with other manufacturer of similar CAC.To
obtain the comparable heat rejection in core the similar
design requires Almost 30% more surface area.
Graph 2 shows the variation of Charge air
pressure drop against cooling air velocity at constant
mass flow rate of charge air (540 Kg/h). It shows that
pressure drop is more at low velocity of cooling air.
And it is evident from the graph that it is constant at
higher speed of cooling air.
Charge Air Side pressure Drop
6000
Charge
Air Side Pressure
5000
4000
Drop (Pa)
3000
2000
10
Similar manufg. 65.3 mm deep core
Graph: 3 cooling airside pressure drop Vs
Cooling air velocity
VII. CONCLUSION
With the advances in Automobile
technology the power requirement from the vehicle are
increasing. The power output of vehicle can be
increased by two ways
(1) By increasing the size of combustion
cylinders and burning the more fuel.
(2) By supplying more air in existing
cylinders so that we can burn more fuel to obtain more
power.
By second way, we can use CAC to
increase the density of charge air supplied to cylinder.
We have Designed CAC, which has fins on
both sides since cooled and cooling medium is air. Our
design has almost 30% less heat transfer area
compared to other suppliers of CAC for comparable
heat duty. The theoretical-model Computer-code (VB
Program) has been developed for simulation of
pressure drop and temperature distribution. The
Computer model has been developed in VISUAL
BASICS, because it is user-friendly tool.
The test model is developed with
aluminium
fins and aluminium tubes, which gives
0
somewhat lower performance than copper fin and brass
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
fin assembly, but this copper brass assembly requires
Ram Air Seed (m/s)
more cost than aluminium fin and tube assembly. Also
Design50 mm Deep Core
Similar manufg. 65.3 mm Deep Core there are some good qualities of aluminium as it is
light weighted, strong, reliable, and corrosion resistant.
Also this test model is developed with Nocoloc brazing
Graph: 2 Charge airside pressure drop Vs
process.
Cooling air velocity.
1000
The graph 3 shows the variation of cooling
air pressure drop Vs velocity. The parabolic nature of
graph shows the pressure drop is less at low velocities
of cooling air.
ISSN: 2231-5381
Then wind tunnel test results of that
radiator are compared with theoretical results. These
results are having good agreement.
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Also CFD modelling provides analysis of
airflow and temperature distribution for different
velocities. A significant advantage of using CFD
modelling for practical heat transfer problem derives
from the case with which a wide range of operating
conditions can be simulated effectively.
REFERENCES
A: BOOKS
[1] HeinzHeisler, ―Vehicle and Engine Technology‖, 2nd
Edition.Society of Automotive Engineers Inc,1998
[2] Robert N. Brady, ―Modern Diesel Engine‖, Prentice Hall
Publications,1996
[3] W.M. Kays and A.L. Landon, ―Compact Heat
Exchangers‖, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
[4]Sadik S. Kakac, ―Heat exchanger Selection, Rating and
Thermal Design‖
[5]Dr. T. kuppan, ―Heat exchanger design handbook‖.
[6]Holman J. P., 1981, Heat Transfer, Fifth Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
B: PAPERS
[1] In KwangYoo, Kenneth Simpson, Myron Bell and
Stephen Majkowski―An Engine Coolant Temperature Model
and Application for Cooling System diagnosis‖, SAE Paper
no. 2000-01-0939.
[2] Matthew Brusstar, Mark Stuhldreher, David Swain and
William Pidgeon―High Efficiency and Low Emissions from
a Port-Injected Engine with Neat
Alcohol Fuels‖, SAE
Paper no. 2002-01-2743.
[3] ―Engine Charge Air Cooler Nomenclature‖, SAE
Standard J 1148 MAY2004.
[4]R.R. Sekar, ―Trends in diesel engine charge air cooler‖,
SAE Paper no.820503.
[5] Eric R. Dillen and Ralph L. Webb, ―Rationally based
heat transfer and friction correlations for the louver fin
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ISSN: 2231-5381
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