Diploma of Environmental Monitoring & Technology
Study module 1
Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Air pollution monitoring
Completion Record
Student name
Type your name here
Available marks
63
Final mark
Marker to enter final mark
Completion date
Marker to enter date.
cffet.net/env
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
INTRODUCTION
2
The definition of air pollution
4
THE ATMOSPHERE
5
Stratification of the Atmosphere
Factors Likely to increase the Levels of Air Pollution
The Protection of the Environment Operations Act
7
8
8
MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
9
Transportation-Combustion Sources
Stationary (Industrial) Sources
Fugitive Emissions and Other Sources
10
11
15
HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
16
Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health
Interactions between pollutants and synergism
Susceptible parts of the Human Body
Effects of specific chemicals
16
16
17
17
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
21
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON BUILDINGS AND MATERIALS
22
ASSESSMENT TASK
24
ASSESSMENT & SUBMISSION RULES
28
Answers
Submission
Penalties
Results
Problems?
28
28
28
28
28
RESOURCES & REFERENCES
29
References
Resources
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
29
29
Page | 1
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Introduction
The Earth is surrounded by an envelope of gases which provide many functions including,
protection from harmful radiation, moderating the surface temperature and providing a
medium (which we call air) that allows organisms to exchange gases in order to survive
(breathing). Any substantial change in the nature or contents of the atmosphere has a direct
consequence on how well the atmosphere performs these tasks.
Air is of fundamental significance to our existence. If the quality of the air we breathe is
degraded then our health will directly suffer and our standard of living decrease. This is one
of the great paradoxes of modern society. In general the higher the degree of sophistication
of society (some might call this civilisation), the lower the quality of the air that they are
exposed to. Indeed the lifestyle and extent of civilisation of societies on the Earth directly
relate to the type of atmospheric degradation which is present.
Historically air pollutants of greatest concern have been total suspended particulates (TSP),
and oxides of sulfur, but as our processing industries become more sophisticated the list of
significant pollutants grows. Now we commonly include oxides of nitrogen and
photochemical oxidants (smog & ozone) as routine pollutants, and often include particulate
lead, asbestos, mercury, sulfuric acid and many others that require careful monitoring.
Concern over the atmospheric concentrations of substance not normally considered
pollutants have also become much greater in the latter part of the twentieth century. A
good example of this is CO2. The levels of this gas have increased by as much as 5% over the
last two decades of the twentieth century.
Most of this is thought to be due to the combustion of fossil fuels. This has been targeted as
a major environmental problem by most of the world’s nations and strategies have been put
in place to reduce the amount being discharged into the atmosphere. It is expected that the
levels of CO2 in the atmosphere will peak around 2040 – so the problems associated with
degradation of the atmosphere in general will take a long time to fix. This needs to be
considered by nations that are emerging as economic powers.
The Earth’s atmosphere has never been completely pure. It has always contained waste
materials from many natural sources such as bushfires, decay from plant and animal life,
and windblown dust particles to mention a few sources. Pollutants also arise from
unexpected natural sources.
For example rainforests are regarded as essential for the health of the atmosphere in that
they remove CO2 and replace it with O2. For this reason they are thought of as the Earth’s
lungs (along with ocean phytoplankton). Rainforests and other types of forests also produce
natural hydrocarbon products however, which can undergo photochemical oxidation to
produce pollutant haze – which we would term air pollution. This formation of wastes is
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 2
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
part of the cycling and recycling of matter in natural ecological systems. Wastes released
into the atmosphere are diluted and dispersed in the air, and are processed and recycled
through a variety of natural physical, chemical and biological mechanisms. For example,
many particles of waste are removed by settling or are washed out by rain. Many gaseous
wastes are oxidised to form particles, which then settle out or are washed out while others
are converted to other gases in the atmosphere or absorbed by plants or other soil microorganisms. In this way the atmosphere is continually cleaned of these substances.
Atmospheric problems are made worse when weather conditions such as a lack of rain or
wind cannot disperse pollutants. This not only holds them in the air, increasing human
exposure, but also allows them to undergo chemical reactions to produce secondary
pollutants that are often far more dangerous than those substances from which they were
made.
The residence time of waste products in the atmosphere before they are broken down or
brought back to the ground varies between a few hours and many years. Air pollution
problems occur whenever any of these normal functions of the atmosphere are disturbed or
overloaded.
Indeed natural pollutants may pose a serious threat to air quality when they are generated
in large amounts near human settlements. Examples of this include dust storms, bush fires
and volcanic eruptions. Natural pollution generally has a low impact on human wellbeing as
the levels of pollutants associated with most natural pollutants are relatively low, the
sources are generally well separated from large human populations and natural forces
responsible for the pollution occur at infrequent intervals.
One major exception to this rule is the biogenic emission of photochemically active
hydrocarbons such as isoprene, -pinene and other terpene molecules. These natural
hydrocarbons play a major role in the formation of photochemical smogs, and are major
contributors to haze. This is especially a problem in Australia where heat produces large
amounts of eucalyptus haze from gum trees.
This does not mean that pollution from man-made sources is not a problem. A closer look at
air pollution will show that dispersal of pollutants is a very important consideration – as the
atmosphere is not homogeneous. This means that pollutants tend to concentrate in specific
areas – most of which are near where large human populations reside. This means that
pollutant levels around residential areas are often much greater than would be expected in
ambient air. Natural sources on the other hand are in general more evenly spread, but there
are exceptions such as extremely high levels of dust and acidic gases associated with
volcanic activity.
Man's activities (also called anthropogenic) release heat, gases, aerosols and other wastes
into the atmosphere. These are particularly significant in that our wastes are discharged in
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 3
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
such high concentrations that we overload the natural dispersal, dilution and recycling
systems on a local, regional and global scale which causes damage to plants, animal life, and
materials.
The ecological systems themselves are degraded, and the services they provide are reduced.
In addition to this overload due to increased concentrations of waste products in particular
areas, we are now releasing quantities of new or previously rare substances into the
environment. Very little is known about the dispersal processes and the passage through
ecological systems of these substances. Many are resistant to degradation, some are
cumulative and harmful.
The definition of air pollution
Air pollution is not an easy thing to define. The World Health Organisation defines air
pollution as;
“Air is polluted when one or several pollutants are present in the atmosphere at such a
concentration and for so long a time that they are harmful to man, animals, plants or
material property, cause harm or reduce well-being or disturb appreciably its application”.
Whilst this is fairly complete in its cover, it is also very complex – hence simpler definition
are often used. The definition of air pollution for legal purposes is defined in the NSW
Protection of the Environment Operations Act as;
“any deviation from the natural combination of gases in our atmosphere”.
What this definition fails to mention is that the natural combination of gases in our
atmosphere must be taken as dry air at sea level. This is necessary as it is not possible to
quantitatively define pure air because it will change according to altitude and location. This
also means that theoretically air pollution can also arise from the removal of gases from the
atmosphere. Neither of the definitions listed above completely cover other factors that we
might also call pollution such as the release of energy, radiation, odour or noise.
Most air pollution concerns are associated with ambient air, that is air that is outdoors and
free flowing – hence most control programs focus on ambient air pollution, but significant
pollution now occurs in occupational environments which are indoors. Especially important
here are the effects of cigarette smoke which may contain large amounts of carbon
monoxide and extremely toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 4
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
The Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere is approximately 160 kilometers deep, but 95% of its air mass lies
within 20 kilometers of the surface. Moving up from the earth’s surface the density of the
atmosphere decreases rapidly and the air “thins”. Hence the atmosphere is neither uniform,
nor static in nature. Its characteristics vary widely with altitude, season, location and solar
flare activity.
Air within a few kilometers of the earth’s surface will typically contain the components
shown in table 1.1.
The most obvious conclusion that may be drawn from this table is that the pollutants with
which we have the most problems make up an extremely small part of the atmosphere.
Figure 1.1 shows sulfur dioxide to be the air pollutant produced in the greatest amount by a
long way, yet it forms an insignificant proportion of the atmosphere (a fortunate thing from
our point of view). The figures in Table 1.1 are distorted somewhat by the fact that in
polluted city areas these % concentrations will change markedly for some pollutants.
A few other important facts should be stated about the data in Table 1.1. The
concentrations of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen and xenon
remain essentially constant. These gases are fairly inert and play little or no role in
atmospheric chemistry.
Element
Total Mass in the
Atmosphere (x1012
tonnes)
% (by volume) in the
atmosphere
nitrogen
78.08
3900
oxygen
20.95
1200
argon
0.934
67
carbon dioxide
0.035
2.5
Neon
0.0018
0.065
Helium
0.00052
0.004
Methane
0.00015
0.005
Krypton
0.0001
0.017
Carbon Monoxide
0.00001
0.0006
Ozone
0.000002
0.0003
Nitrogen Dioxide
0.0000001
0.000013
Sulfur Dioxide
0.0000001
0.000018
water
0.1 – 5 (normal range 13)
Varies according to
location
Table 1.1 – Typical constituent concentrations of the atmosphere
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 5
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Even though it is the most abundant gas, nitrogen has little effect on major atmospheric
processes or to the sustenance of life forms. It does however, serve as a precursor for other
species such as NO3-, as well as amino acids and nucleic acids (amongst others) which are
essential for life.
Nitrogen reacts with oxygen – the second most abundant gas in the atmosphere to form
oxides of nitrogen (NOx). These include NO, NO2, N2O4 and N2O. The NOx compounds in the
atmosphere are found in trace levels and their concentration varies with place and time of
day. Nitrous oxide (N2O) was thought to remain constant in atmospheric concentration, but
synthetic fertiliser compounds containing nitrogen have been found to increase the amount
of nitrification by soil bacteria, which has in turn increase the amount of N 2O being
generated by natural sources.
As the great majority of species on Earth use an oxidative metabolism, it comes as no
surprise that oxygen is the most important atmospheric gas for the nurturing of life. Its
significance as an atmospheric gas goes far beyond sustaining life however. Oxygen is also
present in the atmosphere as ozone (O3), which exists in high concentrations in the upper
atmosphere and acts as a heat and radiation shield for the planet – maintaining fairly
constant temperatures that allow life to exist.
At 0.035%, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is very low compared to
molecular oxygen or nitrogen. It is still of enormous significance however as it is the raw
material used by plants for carbon fixation to produce the compounds used for energy by
almost all forms of life. It is also a significant greenhouse gas – which serves to keep the
planet warm.
Water vapour is the most variable of all atmospheric components (varies from 0.1 –
30,000ppm), but it is also of huge significance. Water rapidly changes phase from liquid to
gas or solid in response to atmospheric conditions. This means that it allows the transport of
energy around the planet. Water vapour also condenses to form clouds that are responsible
for the Earth’s albedo – the ability of the Earth to radiate sunlight back into space – which is
another factor in controlling the Earth’s surface temperature.
The atmosphere also contains trace gases produced from biological or geological processes.
These include ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.
Ammonia, methane and hydrogen sulfide are primarily produced by bacterial
decomposition, whilst carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide are produced mostly by
geological processes.
To help understand the significance of air pollutants requires an analysis of what a person
breathes.
The average person breathes 20,000 litres of air per day, 995 of which is nitrogen or oxygen.
The other 1% is a mixture of gases and particulates, many of which might be termed
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 6
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
pollutants. This means that we breathe as much as 200litres of pollutants per day!
Stratification of the Atmosphere
As we move away from the Earth’s surface the temperature drops (as well as the pressure).
This causes stratification – or layering of the atmosphere The lowest layer of the
atmosphere is known as the troposphere, and extends to an area of between 10 and 16
kilometres above the earth. This is where our weather and almost all of our pollution
problems occur. Its composition fairly homogeneous due to the weather producing
circulating air masses that allow constant mixing. 95% of the atmosphere’s air mass is found
in the troposphere. The upper troposphere has a temperature of -56ºC.
At the top of the troposphere is the tropopause layer. It serves as a barrier to prevent water
vapour rising much higher as it causes ice formation. Water vapour cannot pass through it. If
it did, it would photodissociate in contact with ultraviolet radiation, and the hydrogen would
be lost to space. The tropopause separates the stratosphere from the troposphere.
Above the tropopause layer is the stratosphere, between 10 and 50 km above the earth..
Moving up in this layer we find the temperature rises, and may reach up to -2ºC., The ozone
layer is within the stratosphere, and reaches levels of up to 10ppm in the middle of the
stratosphere. The stratosphere can reach temperatures of up to -2C due to the absorption
of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone.
The mesosphere is above the stratosphere, covering an area of between 50 and 85km
above the earth. At 85km the temperature is -92C. Above the mesosphere is an area called
the exosphere where molecules and ions can be lost to space.
An area extending far into space is called the thermosphere, an area of high temperatures
(1200C) due to the absorption of radiation from space.
Figure 1.1 – The layers of the atmosphere
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 7
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Factors Likely to increase the Levels of Air Pollution
Certain conditions help make air pollution worse. Basically these are factors which prevent
air circulation, and concentrate air effluent into areas. Examples of these include;

calm conditions

low level emission sources

temperature inversions

high buildings and narrow streets
By contrast other conditions are known to lower air pollution levels in general. These are
those conditions that encourage circulation or remove pollutants from the atmosphere.
Examples include;

windy or turbulent conditions

high levels of vegetation

high level emission sources such as smoke stacks

rain
The Protection of the Environment Operations Act
This act specifies all legal requirements for the control of air pollution in NSW. It attempts to
reduce air pollution by prescribing standards for emission of pollutants. These are generally
linked to accepted world health standards used in other countries.
Some premises are licensed under the act to pollute. This does not mean that air pollution is
encouraged, rather it is a means of controlling emission from major sources such as power
stations etc.. These premises are charged a fee for a licence to discharge pollutants, the
levels of which are carefully monitored. Any contravention of the licence means that the
company responsible will be charged in the Land & Environment Court and generally fined.
Accepted Levels of Major Air Pollutants
These vary significantly from country to country, so the values listed in Table 1.2 should only
be used as guidelines. For the most up to date information on accepted pollutant levels you
should consult the NSW EPA.
Air Pollutant
CO
NO2
Acceptable Level
1 hour ave. 30ppm (60ppm detrimental)
8 hour ave. 9ppm (20 ppm detrimental)
1 hour alert level 150ppm
1 hour ave. 0.12ppm (0.25ppm detrimental)
8 hour ave. 0.06ppm (0.15 ppm detrimental)
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 8
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
NH3
HNO3
SO2
H2S
Photochemical
oxidants (as O3)
Respirable particles
2.5um
PM10 Respirables
Atmospheric Lead
Benzo[]pyrene
Benzene
Fluorine
MSS025009A
1 hour alert level 0.50ppm
1 year 0.03ppm
Ground level conc. 0.83ppm (0.6 mg/m3)
Ground level conc. 0.067ppm (0.17 mg/m3)
1 hour ave. 0.20ppm (0.34ppm detrimental)
8 hour ave. 0.06ppm (0.11 ppm detrimental)
1 day ave. 0.08ppm
1 year ave. 0.02ppm
1 hour alert level 0.50ppm
Ground level conc. 0.0001ppm (0.00014 mg/m3)
1 hour ave. 0.10ppm (0.15ppm detrimental)
4 hour ave. 0.08ppm (0.15ppm detrimental)
8 hour ave. 0.05ppm (0.08 ppm detrimental)
1 hour alert level 0.25ppm
24 hour ave. 25 ug/m3 (240mg/m3 detrimental)
1 year ave. 8 ug/m3 (80mg/m3 detrimental)
1 day ave. 50g/m3
3 month ave. 1.0 g/m3
1 year ave. 0.50g/m3
1 year ave. 5.0ng/m3
1 year ave. 10.0ng/m3
Ground level conc. 0.033ppm (0.067 mg/m3)
Table 1.2 – Accepted levels of major air pollutants. See the following website for details;
http://www.environment.gov.au/resource/national-standards-criteria-air-pollutants-1-australia
Major Sources of Air Pollutants
The number of different types of pollution sources in modern society is almost endless.
Hence in this chapter we will look at only the most significant sources of air pollutants. For
convenience pollutant sources can be grouped into mobile or transportation sources, and
stationary sources. Approximately 50 - 70% of all air pollution arises from transportationcombustion sources, 15-25% from heavy industrial stationary sources and as much as 25%
from other stationary sources.
Table 1.2 lists the major sources of pollution in the USA during the late 1980’s. It provides
estimates of the amounts emitted of the five most significant air pollutants. Levels in
Australia will vary somewhat, but as our social demographics are similar to the United States
these are also a good estimate of the approximate break up of pollutants sources. Note
however that the total amount emitted in Australia will be far less than those in the USA.
One pleasing aspect is that there has been a significant reduction in the amounts of CO and
hydrocarbons when compared to the previous decade, whilst the levels of other pollutants
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 9
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
has been steady or shown only a slight increase.
Emissions (106 tonnes / year)
Source
CO
Particles
H/C’s
NOx
SOx
Total
%
40.7
7.2
1.4
1.8
6.0
2.3
8.4
10.3
0.9
16.4
57.4
38.0
44.9
29.7
Industrial
Processes
4.7
2.5
8.3
0.6
3.1
19.2
15.0
Solid waste
disposal
1.7
0.3
0.6
0.1
0
2.6
2.0
7.1
61.4
48.0
1.0
7.0
5.5
2.4
19.6
15.3
0.1
19.5
15.3
0
20.4
15.9
10.6
127.8
8.3
Transport
Stationary fuel
combustion
Miscellaneous
Total
%
100
Table 1.2 – Estimated emission of 5 primary pollutants in the USA
Transportation-Combustion Sources
There are many different types of transportation sources, not all of which are significant
sources of pollution. Unfortunately the most important transportation sources at present
are major polluters.
Motor vehicles are a very significant source of pollution. They produce many different
pollutants including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen,
lead particulates and even small amounts of oxides of sulfur. Motor vehicle exhaust
accounts for 40% of all hydrocarbon air pollutants and 90% of all nitrogen dioxide.
Additionally the pollutants from motor vehicles can react in the atmosphere to form
different and even more reactive (and dangerous) pollutants such as photochemical smog.
Many trucks run on diesel fuel. Whilst this is more economical it is also a source of very
dangerous hydrocarbons and is a major source of the extremely carcinogenic polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH’s).
Lead is rapidly decreasing in significance as a pollutant from motor vehicles as more and
more use unleaded fuels. IN the USA the introduction of unleaded fuel in 1978 produced a
reduction in atmospheric lead over the next decade of 94%. A similar reduction is expected
in Australia. Additionally vehicles running on unleaded fuels emit lower levels of oxides of
nitrogen and sulfur as the catalytic converters in the exhaust systems help to reduce these.
Aircraft and trains are less significant sources of pollution compared with road transport
vehicles. Aircraft run on kerosene, which is burnt fairly efficiently, but as they fly very high in
the atmosphere the pollutants – most of which are hydrocarbons – are spread and diluted in
the upper atmosphere.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 10
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Many trains now run on electricity, and hence contribute very little to air pollution. The
discharge associated with high voltage electrical cables used to power them can however,
give off ozone, which is very toxic and a powerful oxidising agent. Despite this electric trains
are probably the most environmentally friendly forms of mass transport systems available in
modern society.
Stationary (Industrial) Sources
Again these are many and varied in nature. Some of the more important sources include

furnaces - and their combustion of carbonaceous fuels

boilers

ovens and dryers

process systems which produce volatile chemicals, gases, etc
Solvent Evaporation
Solvent evaporation can come from solvent-based paints, leaking pipe joints, maintenance
work involving the dismantling of pumps or breaking of pipelines, spills, unloading /loading
procedures and contaminated ground. Solvent vapour is an important part of
photochemical pollution (see photochemical smog).
Stack emissions
The emission of waste gases, fumes, vapours and smokes to the atmosphere are usually by
the use of a smoke stack or chimney. A backyard incinerator, or even a whole city or
industrialised area could also be thought of as a stack emission to the atmosphere.
Although such emissions are usually the waste products of combustion, many waste solvent
vapours are vented to the atmosphere in this manner.
The stack emission becomes a plume in the atmosphere. The plume is an area of
concentrated waste emissions that slowly become diluted with the other atmospheric
gases. How this dilution happens will depend on a number of factors:

Nature of the waste emission
Toxic emissions will need to be very dilute if they are allowed to be vented to the
atmosphere.

Volume of the waste
Is the emission constant or only at certain times in the process. For example, pottery kilns
will only vent waste products when the kilns are operating. Coal-fired electrical generating
plants will vent waste products all the time.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 11
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution

MSS025009A
Local topography
Many cities in the world are located in delta areas surrounded by hills or mountains.
Melbourne, Sydney, Los Angeles and Mexico City are examples of cities located in delta
areas. During periods of low wind and cooler temperatures, these cities suffer from
photochemical smog.

Prevailing climate
The direction of prevailing winds is important with stack emissions. The area the wind takes
the emissions may be affected by photochemical smog, acid rain or fallout of pollutants.
Queenstown, in the south-east of Tasmania is a famous example of the effect of stack
emissions. The smelter emissions created a "fan" of bare hills in the direction of the
prevailing wind. This fan continues for some miles beyond Queenstown.
Emissions from aluminium smelters also are linked with fluorine damage to plants and
animals in a "fan" made by the prevailing wind.

The Existing Atmosphere
In very polluted cities, the introduction of more stack emissions may not be desirable.
Large coal-fired electrical plants are built in country areas, where the waste gases can be
vented to clean air. If these plants were built in urban areas, the photochemical smog will be
much worse. If photochemical smog is already a problem, the introduction of more waste
gases must be done carefully, or where possible avoided entirely. Any new waste gases may
react strongly with the photochemical smog. An example would be sulfur dioxide.
The effects of plumes are considered local within 500 metres of the stack, and regional
beyond this.

Plume behaviour
The mixing or dispersion of the waste gases and products into the atmosphere is called
plume behaviour. In stable air, and where the vertical movement of the plume is slow, a
fanning plume is produced. This wide, shallow, spreading plume is very common after calm
clear nights.
A temperature inversion limits the rise of the plume into the upper atmosphere. The
following diagram shows normal air movements, and a temperature inversion. A layer of
warm air limits the rise of the plume into the upper atmosphere, and creates a higher
concentration of polluted air at lower levels. This plume exists for several hours.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 12
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Figure 1.2 - A Fanning Plume
In windy conditions the plume can swirl up and down. This is a looping plume, and is
common in the afternoon. Moderate and strong winds are formed on sunny days creating
unstable conditions. This plume exists for several hours.
Figure 1.3 – A Looping Plume
With moderate winds and overcast days, the plume may become a coning plume. This
plume is wider than it is deep, and is elliptical in shape. This plume exists for several hours.
Figure 1.4 – A Coning Plume
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 13
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
The fumigating plume is short-lived (fraction of an hour), but reaches the earth's surface.
Fumigating plumes occur when the conditions move from stable to more unsettled. A
fanning plume might have developed overnight under stable conditions. As the day heats
up, unstable air is produced. This unstable air affects the fanning plume, causing the plume
to move vertically up and down. These plumes can cause localised pollution. Fumigating
plumes become looping or coning plumes as the air conditions stabilise.
Figure 1.5 – A Fanning Plume
Where the plume is above the inversion layer, it becomes a lofting plume. Normal wind
direction and speed will disperse the plume into the atmosphere without effect from
ground warming or cooling.
Figure 1.6 – A Lofting Plume
A number of factors are used to establish the amount of stack emission allowed, and its
concentration to the atmosphere. These include:

smoke stack (chimney) height,

local topography,

temperature,

emission rates,
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 14
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution

chemical reactivity, and

existing air pollution problems
MSS025009A
Increasing the height of smoke stacks results in the emission of pollutants higher up in the
atmosphere. In theory this means that the pollutants will be more diluted by the
atmosphere if and when they return to the ground – hence the effect on those closer to the
stack is decreased compared to if the emission occurred at a lower height, or at ground
level. Whilst this is true it also means that the pollutants are spread over a much greater
area with taller stacks, and more individuals may be affected. In general however, higher
stacks allow emission of higher levels of pollutants.
Some types of topography harbour pollutants better than others. In general areas in low
valleys surrounded by mountains, with little wind are not conducive to natural removal of
pollutants. Hence lower pollution levels can be tolerated in these areas. By contrast open
flat areas with high levels of prevailing wind allow rapid dispersal of pollutants.
High temperature emissions will rise to a higher level into the atmosphere. This may mean
that the pollutants will go up into the atmosphere, away from the local area under most
conditions, whilst low temperature emissions may fall rapidly, and blanket the area
surrounding the stack. High rates of emission or emission of highly toxic or highly reactive
species require lower limits to be set on the emission source.
Fugitive Emissions and Other Sources
Fugitive emissions are those which escape from a process rather than being discharged.
These often have serious consequences because their levels are not monitored and they are
untreated when entering the atmosphere. There are many sources of fugitive emissions
including:

industrial sources (particulate fluorides from aluminium smelters)

small business (e.g. dry cleaning)

agriculture (e.g. dust from ploughing)

natural sources (e.g. volcanoes, forest fires)
Often fugitive emissions are the result of poor maintenance of plant and equipment and can
be eliminated by standard operating procedures that involve timed maintenance and quality
control checks, but some are almost impossible to control (such as those from natural
sources). An example of the former is the particulate and gaseous fluoride emissions from
aluminium smelting. These are emitted unintentionally when the casting areas of aluminium
potlines are opened or incorrectly sealed. Standard operating procedures that ensure that
the casts are sealed greatly reduce the problem.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 15
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Health effects of air pollution
There have been many reports of death, illness and environmental damage caused by air
pollution. This chapter describes the more important effects of major air pollutants and
explains how they interact with each other and the environment.
Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health
In general specific sections of the public are most affected by air pollution. Those individuals
already suffering from diseases of the cardiorespiratory system such as asthmatics and
smokers are far more likely to be affected than those individuals who are healthy.
Pollutants generally act on the surfaces of the respiratory system, causing chronic
respiratory and cardiovascular disease. They may also alter important body functions such
as oxygen exchange in the lungs, or oxygen transport in the blood. Irritant pollutants may
lead to irritation and long term damage to eyes, nose, throat and other wet surfaces of the
body. Deposition of particulate matter in the alveoli of the lung is quite serious as removal
can be slow. Soluble particles will be transferred to the blood. One of the most important
particles man encounters in the atmosphere is H2SO4, which irritates the mucous
membranes and leads to bronchial constriction.
Most of the gaseous effects are more acute than chronic (as opposed to the particulate
pollutants). SO2, O3 and NO2 are all pulmonary irritants, and may lead to congestion,
oedema and even haemorrhage. NO, H2S and CO are asphyxiant gases. These combine with
haemoglobin molecules to prevent oxygen transfer around the body. These molecules bind
far more successfully to haemoglobin than does O2. Many of the organic gas pollutants such
as acrolein (1-propenal) as well as those gaseous pollutants mentioned above produce eye
irritation.
Other chronic diseases related to air pollution include lung cancer, emphysema, chronic
bronchitis and asthma. In addition air pollution can have serious effects on acute diseases
such as the common cold. In the following sections each major pollutant’s specific effects on
human health and is examined. Synergistic effects are also considered.
Interactions between pollutants and synergism
Ambient air is a complex mixture of gases and particulate matter. In such a mixture it is
likely that there will be interaction between the components to modify the physiological
effects of others. This may occur in several ways. For example, one pollutant may affect the
site of deposition of another as is the case with sulfur dioxide.
Due to its great solubility in water, sulfur dioxide is normally be removed in the upper
respiratory system – where it has a corrosive effect. When sulfur dioxide is
adsorbed/absorbed onto particles, it can however, be transported deep into the pulmonary
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 16
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
system, where irritation and corrosion may occur. Thus, the particles may amplify the effect
of sulfur dioxide. Also, harmful aerosols such as sulfuric acid can be produced by the
interaction of gaseous pollutants in the warm moist environment of the lung.
Interaction between pollutants may result in effects that may be additive, synergistic, or
antagonistic. Additive effects are those which occur when the exposure to several pollutants
produces an effect equal to the sum of the effects of the pollutants acting alone. Synergistic
effects are those where the sum of the effects of two or more pollutants is greater than the
combined effect. Antagonistic effects refer to the situation where one pollutant lessens the
effect of another pollutant. The great majority of pollutant effects are additive.
Susceptible parts of the Human Body
All forms of air pollution (gases, liquids and particulates) can damage human health. There
are three main routes by which they enter the body:

absorption through the skin

ingestion, and

inhalation
Of these the latter is by far the most important as we exchange large amounts of
atmospheric gas every day through our lungs. All forms of air pollutants can enter the lungs,
but at this point it is probably appropriate to describe the structure of the human
respiratory system, which allows us to exchange air with the atmosphere.
All of the air passages have a coating of mucus and are also lined with tiny branch like
structures called cilia, which constantly move in an upward fashion to remove any solid
material that enters the lungs.
Injury to the respiratory tract occurs when chemicals enter the lungs and cause direct
damage to the lung tissue, or when the lungs trap material and allow it to be transferred to
the bloodstream where it may affect any organ in the body.
Effects of specific chemicals
Carbon Monoxide
High levels of carbon monoxide are a major concern since the gas preferentially and
irreversibly binds to haemoglobin in the blood forming carboxyhaemoglobin. The net effect
is thus a reduction in the blood's capacity to carry oxygen. Carbon monoxide has a higher
affinity (200 times greater) for haemoglobin than O2, and also tends to remain more tightly
bound.
Reduction in the levels of CO in car emissions have been associated with changes in the
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 17
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
design of the exhaust system, whereby oxidation catalysts, such as Pd and Ru, promote
further reaction with excess air to carbon dioxide. Uncontrolled emissions average 3.5% CO:
current design rules limit emission to 1.0%. Under specified testing procedures, this is
equivalent to 24.2 g/km.
Sulfur Compounds
Sulfur compounds include the very corrosive sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide produce very similar effects as both are very corrosive,
whilst hydrogen sulfide produces similar effects to CO in that it can lead to anoxia when
present in high concentrations – a situation which is very rare in ambient air.

Sulfur Dioxide and Particulates
Analysis of the effects of sulfur dioxide are complicated by the fact that it is often associated
with particulate pollutants – so the direct effects of each individual pollutant are difficult to
separate. They are often produced by a common source, such as the combustion of coal,
hence high SO2 levels are often associated with high particulate matter levels often forming
sulfate aerosols.
Sulfate aerosols present a more significant threat to health than do sulfur dioxide emissions
alone. These are produced when acidic particles are formed by the reaction of water with
ash and SO2, to give SO42- and H+. Particles from aerosols are just the right size to be
retained in the lungs so cause maximum physiological damage.

Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere has its primary effect on the respiratory tract, producing
irritation and difficulty in breathing. It affects most strongly those people who already have
respiratory problems. Children are known to suffer increased frequency of infection upon
prolonged exposure to sulfur dioxide – but true long term effects of exposure are not well
understood.
Because of its solubility in water, SO2 is almost entirely removed in the mouth, throat, and
nose through normal breathing. Less than 1% of inspired SO2 reaches the lung tissue
(alveoli). Although exposure of the lower airways and alveoli to SO2 increases considerably
during exercise, the principal effect of SO2 exposure is to alter the mechanical function of
the upper airway.
Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitric oxide is a relatively non-irritating gas and is thought to pose little threat to health at
normal ambient levels. Its importance lies in the fact that it is rapidly oxidised to NO 2, a gas
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 18
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
of much greater toxicity.
Whilst SO2 is rapidly absorbed in the fluids in the upper respiratory tract, NO 2 is less soluble
and generally penetrates deep into the lung leading to tissue damage. Exposure to acute
high levels leads to effects such as pulmonary oedema.
The lowest NO2 exposure level shown to cause physiological change is 0.5ppm at which
adverse effects included the destruction of cilia, alveolar tissue disruption, and obstruction
the respiratory bronchioles. Exposures at higher levels can lead to severe tissue damage.
Minor respiratory problems are caused by brief exposures at levels below 5ppm.
At levels below 100ppm, exposure leads to prolonged, but non-fatal inflammation of lung
tissue. Higher levels are generally toxic. There is also evidence that NO2, can damage
respiratory defence mechanisms, allowing bacteria to proliferate and invade lung tissues.
Another health problem linked to nitrogen oxides is that they are precursors for pollutants
that form photochemical smog.
Hydrocarbons
Most hydrocarbons are relatively nontoxic at the ambient levels found in normal
atmospheres. They are however key reactants in photochemical smog formation. Where
they undergo complicated reactions in the atmosphere with O2, O3, NOx, SOx and other
components to form photochemical smog (see following section) which is very deleterious
to human health. They reduce visibility, have unpleasant odours and cause skin and eye
irritation at higher levels. Some are carcinogenic, such as benzo[]pyrene.
Hydrocarbon air quality standards are not based on the health effects of hydrocarbon
chemicals, but rather an attempt to reduce photochemical smog formation.
Ozone & Photochemical Smog
Ozone is one of the most toxic pollutants regulated under ambient air quality standards. It
may cause significant physiological and pathological changes in both animals and humans at
exposure concentrations that are within the range of those measured in polluted ambient
environments.
O3 may cause significant lung function changes even with exposures in the 0.10-0.40ppm
range of for 1-2 hours The changes are transient; and lung function appears to return to
normal after the exposure is stopped. Lung function changes are concentration dependent
and increase with increasing depth of breathing. Such changes have been reported for
healthy adolescents and young adults. There is no evidence, however, that smokers, older
adults (over 55), asthmatics, or individuals with chronic obstructive lung disease are more
responsive to O3 exposures.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 19
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Particulate Matter
Particulate matter exhibits toxic effects due to the direct irritant action of particles (such as
sulfuric acid) and substances that are readily adsorbed to the large surface area of small
particles. The concentration of adsorbed substances may be considerably greater than in
the ambient atmosphere. Adsorbed substances of particular concern include SO x, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, zinc and mercury.
The PAH and heavy metals tend to predominate in the small respirable particles.
The health consequences of atmospheric particulate matter depend on its ability to
penetrate respiratory defence mechanisms. These are adequate to remove inhaled particles
in excess of 10m, but particles smaller than can enter and be deposited in the respiratory
system. These are described as "inhalable particles". Particles less than 2.5m are called
"respirable"; they can enter pulmonary tissue and be deposited there. Particles larger than
2.5m are removed in the upper respiratory system.
Lead
Depending on the level of exposure, individuals may develop symptoms of acute or chronic
lead poisoning. The most affected organs are the blood, the brain, the kidney, the nervous
system and the reproductive system.
Symptoms of acute lead poisoning include shock, anaemia, nervousness, and irreversible
kidney and brain damage.
Lead has been shown to interfere with the maturation and development of red blood cells.
It does so by inhibiting enzymes involved in haemoglobin synthesis. Blood lead is much
higher in smokers than non-smokers. Atmospheric lead does not lead to acute intoxication,
but rather is a chronic problem.
Asbestos
The name asbestos refers to number of minerals which are compressed together to form
fibrous materials. Particulate asbestos is a considerable community health problem due to
its past use as a construction and insulating material.
Medical evidence suggests that inhalation of the fibres causes the lung disease asbestosis –
which is characterised by scarring of the lower lungs and lowered breathing function. It is a
common disease in those exposed to asbestos for long periods. Some forms of asbestos are
responsible for causing lung cancer and mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body
cavity).
Asbestos fibres are chronic toxins with very long latency periods. Once the fibre is inhaled it
has the potential to cause cancer for the rest of the individual’s life. It is estimated that
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 20
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
between 25-50% of all individuals have asbestos in their bodies.
Fluoride
Gaseous fluorides damage vegetation and if ingested in sufficient quantities the bones and
teeth of animals eating these plants.
Environmental Effects of Air Pollutants
When developing standards for the assessment of air pollution the emphasis has always
been on controlling the effects on human beings, with all other effects being treated as of
much lesser importance. Air pollutants do have significant effects on plants, buildings and
other animals and these should also be considered when developing standards to assess
environmental harm from air pollution.
Plants are often the first to show damage associated with increased ambient levels of air
pollution. The effects of SO2, HCl and HF have been reported as early as the middle of the
19th century. The most severe damage seems to have been associated with high levels of
SO2 and heavy metal particulates associated with mining and smelting, but many other
pollutants such as NO, Cl and NH3 are now known to cause direct toxic effects on plant
tissue.
The problems of acid rain and photochemical smog were first suggested as major
environmental problems by their actions on plants.
Air pollutants may injure plants in several ways– with some effects being subtle, but others
clearly visible. Visible effects normally involve identifiable changes in the leaf structure such
as chlorophyll destruction (chlorosis), tissue death (necrosis) and pigment formation. Subtle
effects include inhibition of growth and lowered rates of photosynthesis.
Plant tissue damage may be either acute or chronic. Acute exposures to high levels of
pollutants generally lead to necrosis. Chronic injuries result from intermittent or long term
exposures to lower levels of pollutants, with chlorophyll destruction or chlorosis being the
most common symptoms of injury.
Different pollutants produce differing symptomatic effects on plants and this can be used as
an indicator as to the possible presence raised levels of certain pollutants. These are
discussed in more detail in the paragraphs below.
Particulate Materials
Particulate dusts may cause injury to vegetation both directly and indirectly. Direct effects
such as those for cement kiln dust include a variety of plant responses, such as;

reduction in yield and growth without visible injury,
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 21
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution

increase in disease incidence,

severe injury to leaf cells,

suppression of photosynthesis, and

death of trees.
MSS025009A
The injury may result from the deposition of a thick crust that suppresses photosynthesis
and/or alkaline toxicity when alkaline solutions are produced when dusts are present in free
moisture. Ecological studies of forest communities affected by the deposition of limestone
dusts have shown significant changes in tree growth and species composition. Changes in
dominant tree species and the decrease in herbaceous vegetation are particularly evident.
There are indirect beneficial effects from soil neutralisation by alkaline dusts. Atmospheric
aerosols near urban areas may significantly elevate lead levels in both soil and vegetation.
The uptake of lead by roadside plants results in no apparent visible injury. Heavy metal
aerosols generated by nonferrous metal smelters may, however, have significant plant
effects.
The severe devastation of vegetation and denudation of the landscape around smelters is
likely due to aerosol-derived heavy metal contamination of the soil and subsequent
accumulation of phytotoxic levels by plants. There is evidence of this in the hills around
Queenstown in Tasmania. This heavy metal problem is exacerbated by high concentrations
of SO2, which occur simultaneously with metal aerosol emissions. Growth of vegetation
around smelters that have ceased operation is still suppressed for many years after their
closure
Acid Deposition
Acidic particles which fall onto plants or soil in which they grow can cause significant
changes in plant wellbeing. These can result in necrotic lesions of the upper leaf surface,
which is followed on subsequent exposures by tissue collapse on both surfaces.
An indirect effect is the deposition onto soil, which affects soil pH. The effects here may be
positive or negative depending on the makeup of the soil.
Effects of Air Pollutants on Buildings and Materials
Air pollution is renowned for soiling building surfaces, clothing and other articles. This is
generally a result of smoke particles adhering to the surface in question, but there are many
other more sinister effects.
Air pollutants significantly affect many non-biological structures and materials. These effects
cause economic losses in billions of dollars each year. Most important are effects on metals,
carbonate building stones, paints, textiles, fabric dyes, rubber, leather, and paper. In
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 22
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Western Europe, which is a repository for many monuments of history and fine works of art,
air pollutant-induced damage has been incalculable. Because these cultural treasures are
irreplaceable, their preservation from the destructive effects of airborne contaminants
poses a significant challenge to scientists.
Materials can be affected by both physical and chemical mechanisms. Physical damage may
result from the abrasive effect of wind-driven particulate matter impinging on surfaces and
the soiling effect of passive dust deposition. Chemical reactions may result when pollutants
and materials come into direct contact. An example of this is the reaction of lead in older
paint materials with sulfurous materials (particularly H2S) from air pollution to produce the
unsightly lead sulfide black streaks on buildings.
Metal Corrosion
Metal corrosion in industrialised areas represents one of the most costly effects of
atmospheric pollutants. Since corrosion is natural we tend not to recognise the role that
pollutants play in accelerating this process. As the ferrous metals, iron and steel, account for
about 90% of all metal usage, pollution-induced corrosion on these metals is of particular
significance. The acceleration of corrosion in industrial environments is associated with high
levels of atmospheric SO2 and particulate matter pollution is very significant. Oxidants, such
as ozone, inhibit the effects of SO2 by producing a more corrosion-resistant product.
Rubber and Fabrics
Another important material damaged by pollution is rubber, which is attacked by ozone.
This leads to cracking, which is an economically significant problem. Fabrics such as nylon
are also affected by air pollution. These tend to disintegrate upon prolonged exposure to
the air. Bleaching and discolouration may also occur.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 23
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Assessment task
This section provides formative assessment of the theory. Answer all questions by typing
the answer in the boxes provided. Speak to your teacher if you are having technical
problems with this document.

Type brief answers to each of the questions posed below.

All answers should come from the theory found in this document only unless the
question specifies other.

Marks shown next to the question should act as a guide as to the relative length or
complexity of your answer.
1. Provide a definition for the term ‘air pollution’. Explain why it is difficult to define. [4mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
2. Which key piece of NSW legislation acts to control pollution from existing activities?
[2mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
3. Briefly explain the following statement;
“Although natural pollutants are far greater in volume than anthropogenic pollutants, it
is anthropogenic pollutants that pose the greater harm to the planet” [5mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 24
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
4. List four atmospheric conditions that are likely to help levels of air pollution low. [4mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
5. List four atmospheric conditions that are likely to help keep levels of air pollution low.
[4mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
6. Identify four significant layers of the atmosphere. Which of these is most important for
air pollution studies? Why? [6mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
7. Visit website 1 (found in the resources section on the last page) and list the six criteria
air pollutants. Briefly discuss why you think these six pollutants are more important than
all of the other chemicals in Table 1.2 above. [6mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
8. List three categories of pollutant sources. [3mk]
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 25
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
9. Briefly discuss what makes transportation the most detrimental source of pollution to
ambient air quality? [4mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
10. Emissions from stationary sources can be diluted by several factors. Briefly list and
describe three of these factors. [6mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
11. What is meant by the term ‘fugitive emission’? Provide an example of a common fugitive
emission. [3mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
12. For three of the six criteria air pollutants, state the statutory limit and briefly explain the
potential health consequences if these limits are exceeded. [6mk]
Click here to enter text.
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 26
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Assessor feedback
13. What are the potential health effects of pollutants (generally) on plants? How does this
have an effect of the whole of the ecosystem? (note that this requires some prior
knowledge of primary productivity ecology). [4mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
14. What are two significant effects of air pollutants on buildings and materials? Which
chemical air pollutant would you claim to be the worst? [4mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
15. Of all the possible particulate air pollutants, mineral fibers are considered the worst for
our health. What key type of fiber is the worst, and what health issue does it create?
[2mk]
Click here to enter text.
Assessor feedback
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 27
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Assessment & submission rules
Answers

Attempt all questions and tasks

Write answers in the text-fields provided
Submission

Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer
using the file name format of;
Yourname-APM-SM1

email the document back to your teacher
Penalties

If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date, it
may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results

Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email
fully graded with feedback.

You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked
work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;

www.cffet.net/env/contacts
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 28
APM Study module 1 – Introduction to air pollution
MSS025009A
Resources & references
Unless specified otherwise, the references and resources listed below are for interest only.
You are not expected to purchase, download or otherwise read these resources unless the
question you are answering specifically requests that you do so. Most of the resources here
are either available from your campus library, or directly from the teacher.
References

Australian-Standards. (Various dates). AS/NZS 3580 Methods for sampling and
analysis of ambient air (entire series). Canberra: Standards Australia.

Bates, G. (2010). Environmental Law in Australia. Australia: LexisNexis-Butterworths.

Baukal Jr, C. (2004). Industrial Combustion Pollution and Control. New York, USA:
Marcel Dekker.

Burden, F. E. (2002). Environmental Monitoring Handbook. McGraw-Hill
Professional.

Colls, J. (2002). Air Pollution. England: Talyor & Francis.

Manahan, S. (2000). Environmental Chemistry. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers.

Manly, B. (2009). Statistics for environmental science and management. Boca Raton:
Taylor & Francis Group.

Schuenemeyer, J. E. (2011). Statistics for Earth and Environmental Scientists. New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Seinfeld, J. P. (2006). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to
Climate Change, 2nd Ed. Hoboken, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Vallero, D. (2008). Fundamentals of Air Pollution, 4th Ed. Burlington, USA: Academic
Press.

vanLoon, G. W. (2011). Environmental Chemistry: a global perspective. New York:
Oxford University Press.

Workplace Health and Safety Act 2011. (n.d.).

Workplace Health and Safety Regulation 2011. (n.d.).
Resources
Websites
1. http://www.environment.gov.au/resource/national-standards-criteria-air-pollutants-1-australia
Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Version 1.0 30/05/2016
Page | 29