Environmental Monitoring &
Technology
Certificate 4 - Trainee Learner Resource
Environmental Fieldwork
Study Module 5 – Field Testing
cffet.net/env
Environmental Fieldwork
Study Module 5
Assessment details
Purpose
This subject covers the ability to site and set up basic ‘ground level’ meteorological
equipment and collect and record reliable data. It also includes the ability to assess data
quality, interpret significant data features and use the data to ensure the validity of air and
noise monitoring measurements.
Instructions
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Read the theory section to understand the topic.
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Complete the Student Declaration below prior to starting.
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Attempt to answer the questions and perform any associated tasks.
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Email, phone, book appointment or otherwise ask your teacher for help if required.
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When completed, submit task by email using rules found on last page.
Student declaration
I have read, agree to comply with and declare that;
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I have read and understood the SAG for this subject/unit…
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I know the due date for this assessment task…
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I understand how to complete this assessment task…
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I understand how this assessment task is weighted…
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I declare that this work, when submitted, is my own…
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Details
Student name
Type your name here
Assessor
Marker’s use only
Class code
EF
Assessment name
SM5
Due Date
Total Marks Available
43
Marks Gained
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Final Mark (%)
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Marker’s Initials
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Date Marked
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Weighting
This assessment contributes 5% to the overall mark for this subject
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Introduction
Taking samples is only one aspect of fieldwork. There are a variety of field tests that need to
be performed in the body of water itself. The reasons for this depend on the parameter
being measured, and the purpose of the data. These include the following:
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sensory examination for colour, odour, taste, clarity, and
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turbidity
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pH
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temperature
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dissolved oxygen
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electrical conductivity
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Field spectrophotometer tests
o Nitrate
o Phosphate
Sensory Examination Tests
Tests such as odour, colour, and taste must take place on site as transport can rapidly
change these. Colour and odour are highly descriptive, and taste may not be appropriate
(especially for sewage samples). The following paragraphs give brief details of these field
procedures. Note that sensory tests are subjective, and two people can give different results
due to their sensory capabilities (i.e. colour blindness).
Odour
Odour tests must be performed extremely rapidly as some odours (e.g. H2S) rapidly
dissipate. Odours are normally categorised according to strength (i.e. strong, very strong,
weak) and type (musty, fishy, aromatic, swampy).
Colour
Colour tests are normally carried out by simple inspection and terms such as colourless,
weakly coloured, brownish, green etc. are used. If more precise definition of colour is
required then colourimeter tubes and a comparator may be used, or if it needs to be very
accurately defined - the tristimulus spectrophotometric method can be used. The latter
involves the use of a high quality spectrophotometer and a series of charts, which define
colour in terms of its dominant wavelength, hue, purity and luminance.
Taste
Taste tests are normally only carried out on drinking waters. Words such as tasteless, bitter,
salty, metallic, repulsive (Oops! Forgot that one was sewage!) and astringent are often used
as descriptors. Other words such as weak and strong may be included. If more detailed
descriptors are required then Taste evaluation tests such as the Flavour Threshold Test, the
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Flavour Rating Assessment or the Flavour Profile Test may be used. These require panels of
people and flavour standards and so are difficult to conduct in the field!
Clarity
Clarity refers to the ‘transparentness’ of water, and is normally tested by lowering a white
and black disc - known as a Secchi Disc - into the water until it is just visible. The length to
which it has been lowered is read off a rope or pole and this is quoted as clarity or visibility.
Field test probes
The current best practice for measuring key field variables in surface waters is to use multiparameter field probes and meters. These are specially designed to use in the field and are
built around the principles of;
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Scientifically valid
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Cheap to purchase and operate
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Convenient to use
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Simple to operate (lower technical skill required)
Simply put, they combine a variety of sensors into one ‘head’, sometimes called a sond. The
sensors are connected to a meter for display and data storage purposes. The figure below
shows a Horiba U52 which is what we currently use on campus.
Figure 5.1 - Example of a multi-parameter field probe and meter unit. This is the exact model
that we use at TAFE (along with several others). From http://www.horiba.com/. Accessed
8/9/13.
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Whether part of a sond, or as a lone probe, the most common probe sensors are explained
below;
Temperature
Measurements of air and water temperature at a field site are essential for water-quality
data collection. Determination of dissolved-oxygen concentrations, conductivity, pH, rate
and equilibria of chemical reactions, biological activity, and fluid properties relies on
accurate temperature measurements.
“Temperature is a measure of warmth or coldness of a substance with reference to a
standard value.”
Accurate air- and water-temperature data are essential to document thermal alterations to
the environment caused by natural phenomena and by human activities. Water
temperature can be subject to environmental regulation and monitoring by various and is a
common parameter for the discharge of water from power stations.
“A thermometer is any device used to measure temperature, consisting of a
temperature sensor and some type of calibrated scale or readout device.”
Liquid-in-glass (LIG) thermometers and thermistor thermometers are commonly used to
measure air and water temperature. Both types are used in field surveys as we use the LIG
type to calibrate or check the sensor type.
The unit for temperature in Australia is degrees celcius, °C.
Thermometers and other temperature-measurement equipment must be calibrated before
each field trip and checked (quality control) on site. Each temperature instrument must
have a log book in which all calibrations and repairs are recorded, along with the
manufacturer make and model and serial or property number (see later sections for
example record sheets).
Alcohol thermometers are recommended for water measurements in the field.
Thermometers for field use must not be mercury filled. Before making temperature
measurements, check the type of liquid-filled thermometer being used.
A thermistor thermometer is an electrical device made of a solid semiconductor with a large
temperature coefficient of resistivity. An electrical signal processor (meter) converts
changes in resistance to a readout calibrated in temperature units. Thermistors are
incorporated into digital thermometers, individual-parameter instruments (such as
conductivity and pH meters), and multiparameter instruments used for surface-water and
ground-water measurements.
Liquid-in-glass and thermistor thermometers can become damaged or out of calibration,
especially as a consequence of thermal shock or extended exposure to direct sunlight. It is
important to be familiar with and to follow the manufacturer’s instructions for use and care.
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Temperature measurement
Air temperature, in addition to water temperature, should be measured and recorded
whenever water-quality samples are collected. Water temperature must always be
measured in situ and in a manner that ensures that the measurement accurately represents
the intended sample conditions. Before measuring air or water temperature:
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Inspect the liquid-in-glass thermometer to be certain that the liquid column has not
separated. Inspect the glass bulb to be sure it is clean.
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Check that batteries are fully charged for thermistor thermometers or temperature
sensors incorporated into other field meters.
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To prevent erroneous readings caused by direct solar radiation, stand so that a
shadow is cast on the site for temperature measurement.
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Read the temperature to the nearest 0.5°C for liquid-in-glass and 0.2°C for
thermistor readings—try not remove the sensor from the water.
The reported surface-water temperature must be measured in situ.
Do not measure temperature on subsamples from a sample compositing device.
Measure temperature in such a manner that the mean or median temperature at the time
of observation is represented.
pH
This parameter refers to the levels of acidity or basicity of waters. It is an intrinsic chemical
property of any aqueous solution and is therefore very important to environmental waters
as it defines the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ (and hydroxide ions, OH- after
calculation).
Note that basicity and alkalinity are often confused to be the same thing. They are not.
Alkalinity refers to a solutions ability to neutralise acidity.
“pH is a mathematical notation defined as the negative base-ten logarithm of the
hydrogen-ion activity, measured in moles per liter of a solution”
pH is important in almost all phases of water and wastewater treatment. Marine organisms
are very sensitive to pH changes, and biological control requires either pH control or
monitoring. In water treatment pH is important in ensuring proper chemical treatment as
well as in disinfectant and corrosion control. Mine drainage often involves the formation of
sulfuric acid, which is extremely detrimental to marine life.
The measurement of pH is now carried out almost universally by a pH electrode, although it
can still be estimated reasonably well with indicator papers. Typical values for clean neutral
waters are 6.5 to 7.5 although these may be changed by other factors such as carbonate
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content (more alkaline - up to 9.5), or tannins and other polyphenols from button grass
(more acidic – down to 5.5).
It is important to note the difference between high basicity, which is manifested by a high
pH, and high alkalinity – which is the capacity to accept H+. That is pH is an intensity
measure, whilst alkalinity is a capacity measure.
pH is reported on a scale that most commonly is shown to range from 0 to 14. Note that this
is a logarithmic interpretation of the true concentration of hydrogen ions.
Figure 5.2 – Construction of a pH probe. USGS
Electrical Conductivity
This is a measure of the total amount of conductive species in solution, in particular ions.
This parameter is normally only used to monitor wastewaters from power stations, mine
tailings and desalination plants. It is also used in chemical laboratories to monitor the purity
of distilled water.
“Conductivity is a measure of the electrical conductance of a substance normalized to
unit length and unit cross section at a specified temperature.”
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Measurement is carried out using a standard conductivity meter, which works by passing a
current between two identical platinum electrodes, normally 1 cm apart. Solutions which
are highly conductive pass current easily, whilst those that show little conductivity do not.
Conductivity is a very useful indicator of possible pollution. As it gives some indication of the
dissolved mineral concentration of water it can serve as a pointer to the possible existence
of ionic pollutants in water systems. It can also be used to estimate the levels of total
dissolved solids in a sample. This involves multiplying the conductivity by an empirical factor
(varies between 0.55 and 0.9 depending on the water components and the temperature)
which gives an answer in mg/L. This is the basis for meters that estimate total dissolved
solids – they are just conductivity meters.
The conductivity measurement reported must account for sample temperature.
If using an instrument that does not automatically temperature compensate to 25°C, record
the uncompensated measurement in your field notes, along with the corrected conductivity
value. Use correction factors supplied by the instrument manufacturer.
Figure 5.3 – Schematic of a typical conductivity sensor. Note that they can take all shapes
and sizes.
Surface-water conductivity should be measured in situ, if possible; otherwise, determine
conductivity in discrete samples collected from a sample splitter or compositing device.
Filtered samples may be needed if the concentrations of suspended material interfere with
obtaining a stable measurement.
Report routine conductivity measurements to three significant figures, whole numbers only,
in microsiemens per centimetre (μs/cm) at 25°C.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
“Dissolved oxygen refers to molecular diatomic oxygen gas that is dissolved in water”
The presence of DO in aquatic systems is necessary for the survival and growth of many
aquatic organisms and is used as an indicator of the health and geochemical quality of
surface-water and groundwater systems. In many instances this is probably the most
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important test of water quality, as all marine organisms depend on oxygen for survival.
Saturation level for oxygen is only 9.09mg/L (at 20°C) and decreases rapidly with increasing
temperature, hence thermal pollution can quickly deplete dissolved oxygen reserves.
Oxygen normally reaches water via diffusion from the atmosphere, or is produced in situ by
photosynthetic marine species such as algae.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is affected by many factors, including
ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, and ion activity (ionic strength of the water
body). Accurate dissolved oxygen (DO) data are essential for understanding and
documenting effects on environmental water resources that result from natural phenomena
and human activities. This test is normally carried out using a dissolved oxygen probe, or the
Winkler Dissolved Oxygen Test, which is a wet chemical method.
The dissolved oxygen probe is essentially a miniature polarograph whose potential is fixed
to measure only oxygen half waves in water. It contains a special gas permeable membrane
through which the oxygen permeates and a tiny gold electrode for the reduction process.
The cell is usually temperature compensated.
Testing DO
The method is flow-dependent, requiring that an adequate flow of water at approximately
0.5 meters per second (m/s) passes across the membrane.
Manual stirring is required when making handheld measurements in waters that are static
(no flow) or the DO will be consumed and you get a false negative reading. DO is reported in
mg/L.
Use of an additional stirring mechanism fitted to the sensor or sonde is needed for discrete
or continuous measurements at sites with slow or stagnant waters.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP, Redox or Eh)
The ORP attempts to provide a measure of the water bodies electron activity, but note that
this is fraught with technical and theoretical limitations, and is quite a contentious
parameter in the real world – some scientists think it does provide relevant data, and some
don’t. Who are we to argue, manufacturers make the probe, so we’re going to teach it to
you!
ORP measurements go by many names, ORP, redox and Eh to name a few. Chemists use the
terms interchangeably – get used to it!
ORP is a measure of the equilibrium potential, relative to the standard hydrogen electrode,
developed at the interface between a noble metal electrode and an aqueous solution
containing electro-active redox species. In other words, it tries to measure electron activity!
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Figure 5.4 – Different types of ORP electrode.
ORP is reported as a voltage, typically in millivolts e.g. 225 mv. A positive mV indicates an
oxidized environment where as a negative mV indicates a reduced environment.
Field spectroscopic tests
Not every test performed in the field is achieved by a probe or electrode, there are many
other analytical techniques that can be employed, with spectroscopic analysis being the
other most common type.
“Spectroscopy is the science of light interacting with matter. When the interaction can
be described quantitatively (by Beer’s Law or similar), spectroscopic techniques can be
employed as an analytical tool.”
This technique is used worldwide and manufacturers have designed many useful and simple
to use field spectrophotometers, an example of a typical field kit can be seen in the figure
below;
Figure 5.5 – Field spectrophotometer kit. From HACH.
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As to the type of parameter that can be tested by these field kits, the possibilities are almost
endless – there are literally hundreds of different chemicals and parameters that can be
tested. Each manufacturer will offer different ones, but anything that is considered a
pollutant can be measured by one of these. We shall discuss the measurement of turbidity,
nitrate and phosphate.
Turbidity
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended matter, such as clay, silts, organic and inorganic
particulates, plankton and other microscopic organisms. It is an expression of the scattering
and absorbance of light rather than being transmitted straight through the water body. It is
not easily correlated with concentrations of suspended matter as it also depends on the
colour, shape and size of the particles. For example black particles greatly increase turbidity
readings.
“Turbidity is an expression of the optical properties of a liquid that causes light rays to
be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through a sample.”
Turbidity may be determined by filling a clear glass container to approximately 2/3 full,
shaking thoroughly, and then comparing against a black then white background. More
precise definitions are obtained by comparison to a series of SiO2 suspensions between 1
and 0.1 g/L with the aid of photometric equipment. Descriptors used include clear, turbid,
opaque, etc.
Figure 5.6 – This is a fish in turbid water, an example of the cloudiness that turbidity is a
measure of.
Laboratory based and portable meters to measure turbidity are now also available, and
these are rapidly replacing all other methods. Most rely on the use of nephelometry or light
scattering. The instruments generally contain a light source and photoelectric detectors,
are called NTU’s or nephelometric turbidity units. Standards are available for calibrating
these devices accurately. They normally consist of silicate particles suspended in gels –
which gives them a long lifetime and prevents settling of the particles.
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Settleable matter refers to sedimentable components. This test should be carried out as
soon as possible after sampling to avoid errors due to flocculation.. Typically it is measured
by obtaining 1L of sample in a device called an Imhoff sedimentation glass. The container is
sealed and rotated at intervals of 50 and 110 minutes, then the amount of sediment read
off after 2 hours of standing.
Nitrate (as nutrient)
Nitrogen is tied up in biological systems mainly in amino acids and amines (known as organic
nitrogen). Metabolism of these compounds yields ammonia. These nitrogen compounds are
considered an indicator of recent pollution.
Aerobic decomposition of these compounds leads to the formation of nitrite, then nitrate
ions. Hence high nitrate and low ammonia concentrations indicate pollution has occurred
some time ago.
The level of nitrate in solution is determined by colorimetric techniques such as the sodium
salicylate method, ion selective electrode or ion chromatography.
Figure 5.7 – Different forms of nitrogen in the environment. Most of these can be measured
quite accurately by a field spectro kit.
The nitrate ion selective electrode has the distinct advantage of allowing determination on
site, which may provide more reliable results (although knowledge of interferent species in
solution is required).
Normal levels of nitrate in natural waters vary between 0.1-10mg/L. Nitrate in drinking
water above these levels poses an immediate threat to health – especially in young children.
Excessive levels can result in a condition known as “blue baby syndrome” which if untreated
can be fatal.
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Phosphates
The greatest source of inorganic phosphorus is synthetic detergent, whilst organic
phosphorus is derived from food and human waste. All forms of phosphorus in nature
eventually revert to inorganic phosphorus, or orthophosphate (PO43-), which can be used
again by plants to make new high-energy compounds.
Natural waters normally contain phosphorus compounds at levels below 0.1mg/L. Factors
such as soil erosion and effluent discharge raise these levels significantly.
Because phosphates have been implicated as the main culprit in eutrophication (the slow
‘death’ of a water body be sedimentation), measurement of total phosphate has become an
important measure of water quality.
Phosphate level is gauged by colorimetric determination using methods such as the
vanadomolybdophosphoric acid method (most suited to concentrations in the range 120mg/L). Phosphorus can now also be detected by ion chromatography, and ion selective
electrode. The former is likely to become the standard method of choice in the near future.
Reporting results
All field testing procedures and results are required to be reported in the format outlined in
the DQO and sampling plan. The figure below is an example of a field reporting form.
Figure 5.8 – Example of a field reporting form.
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Assessment Task
After reading the theory above, answer the questions below. Note that;
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Marks are allocated to each question.
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Keep answers to short paragraphs only, no essays.
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Make sure you have access to the references (last page)
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If a question is not referenced, use the supplied notes for answers
Answer the following questions
1. Generally speaking, why are some field tests an obligate requirement (i.e. why can’t they
be performed back at the lab)? 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
2. What is meant by the term ‘sensory test’? 1 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
3. What problems are associated with sensory tests? Why are they prone to error? 2 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
4. What is the difference between colour and clarity? 4 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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5. Identify two items used to measure temperature. 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
6. Why is temperature such an important field parameter? 3 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
7. Briefly explain the importance of the following tests in relation to what they indicate in
the field; 6 mk
a. pH
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
b. Conductivity
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
c. Dissolved oxygen
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
8. What is a ‘sond’? 2 mk
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Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
9. What is meant by the term ‘turbidity’? 1 mk
Type your answer here
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10. How does a high turbidity indicate possible pollution from sediment? 2 mk
Type your answer here
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11. What does ORP stand for? 1 mk
Type your answer here
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12. What does ORP actually measure? How is it relevant as a field test? 6 mk
Type your answer here
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13. What is ‘spectroscopy’ 2 mk
Type your answer here
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Leave blank for assessor feedback
14. Identify three tests that can be measured using a field spectroscopic kit. 3 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
15. For the three tests identified above, briefly explain the environmental importance of the
parameter. 6 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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Assessment Submission
Answers
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Attempt all questions and tasks
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Type your answer into the text fields provided.
Submission
Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer using the
file name format of;
name-classcode-assessmentname
Note that class code and assessment code are on Page 1 of this document.
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email the document back to your teacher
Penalties
If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date (located on
the cover page), it may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results
Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email fully
graded with feedback.
You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;
www.cffet.net/env/contacts
References
Note that some of these resources might be available from your teacher or library
Bates, G. (2010). Environmental Law in Australia. Australia: LexisNexis-Butterworths.
Bratram, J. E. (1996). Water Quality Monitoring - A Practical Guide to the Design and
Implementation of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes. New
York?: UNEP/WHO.
Burden, F. E. (2002). Environmental Monitoring Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional.
CFFET. (2012). Practical Laboratory Skills - supplementary results sheet. Newcastle: Hunter
TAFE.
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EPA, N. (1996). Environmental Guidelines: Solid Waste Lanfills. Chatswood: Environmental
Protection Authority.
EPA, S. (2007). EPA Guidelines: Regulatory monitoring and testing - water and wastewater
sampling. Adelaide: Environment Protection Authority (South Australia).
ESDSC. (1992). National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development. Canberra:
Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Populations and Communities.
Ferrier, R. C. (2010). Handbook of Catchment Management. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Hauer, F. R. (2007). Methods in Stream Ecology, 2nd Ed. Burlington: Academic Press.
Jorgensen, S. E. (2005). Handbook of Ecological Indicators for Assessment of Ecosystem
Health. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Manahan, S. (2000). Environmental Chemistry. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers.
Newton, A. (2007). Forest Ecology and Conservation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
StandardsAustralia. (2004). AS/NZS ISO 14001:2004 Environmental Management Systems:
Requirements with guidance for use. Australia: Standards Australia.
U.S.GeologicalSurvey. (Variously dated). National field manual for the collection of water
quality data: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water Resources Investigation,
book 9, chaps. A1-A9. available online at http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A.
vanLoon, G. W. (2011). Environmental Chemistry: a global perspective. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Vogel, A. (1987). Vogel's textbook of quantitative inorganic analysis, 4th Ed. London:
Longman Group Limited.
Workplace Health and Safety Act 2011. (n.d.).
Workplace Health and Safety Regulation 2011. (n.d.).
Other resources
If they exist, the items listed below are for general information only. If you know of a good
resource that other students might find useful let your teacher know and we shall add it to
the list.
http://www.epa.gov/QUALITY/dqos.html
Where to get help
Contact your teacher if you run into any trouble this unit. You would be surprised how
flexible we are at accommodating your needs, but communication is the key. If you don’t let
us know you are having trouble, we may have trouble trying to help you.
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