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Cover photo:
A stand of red alder at Cascade Head Experimental Forest
near Otis, Oregon. The trees are from 14 to 20 inches in
diameter.
(U.S. Forest Service photo 325534)
USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-161
Red Alder: A Bibliography With Abstracts Compiled by
Charles F. Heebner, Natural Resources Research Technician Division of Forest Land Management, Department of Natural Resources Olympia, Washington and Mary Jane Bergener, Business Management Assistant Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture Olympia, Washington Published in 1983 by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Portland, Oregon Abstract
Heebner, Ch arles F . ; Bergener, Mary Jane .
Red alder : a b i bl i ogr aphy wi th
ab s t rac t s . Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 1 6 1 .
Portl and, OR : U . S. Departmen t o f
Agr icul ture, For e s t S e rv i ce, Pac i f i c
Nor thwe s t Fore s t and Range Expe r iment
S t at i on ; 1 9 8 3 . 1 8 6 p .
Th i s b i bl i ogr aphy l i s t s 6 6 1 references
to world l i terature through May 1 9 7 8
contai n i ng i n format i on about red alder
( Al n u s rub r a Bong . ) . Included are
publ i c at i on s about i t s taxonomy, b i o l ogy
and s i lv i c s , chemi c al and phys i c al i n f o r­
mat ion about i t s wood and f i ber, s tud i e s
o n i t s n i trogen-f i x i ng proper t i e s , and
reports o n i ndu s t r i al u s e s and e conom i c
con s i derat i on s . Sources o f c i te d pub l i ­
c at i on s a r e s c i en t i f i c j ournals, t r ade
publ i c at i ons, s pe c i al repo r t s , and pop­
u l ar books . Ab s t rac t s or annotat i on s
are i nc l uded f o r many r e ferenc e s .
Subj e c t mat ter and author i ndexes are
i nc luded .
Keyword s : Red alder, Alnus rubra,
b i bl i ogr aph i e s ( f o r e s t ry ) .
Introduction
Th i s b ib l i og raphy c on t a i n s c i tat i o n s
o f l i terat ure conta i n i ng i nformat i o n
about r e d alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . ) . I t
i s the re s ult of organ i z i ng references
c o l lected for s everal red alder proj e c t s
and i s o f f e re d a s a n a i d t o add i t i on al
s tudy on r ed alder .
Our s e arch c overed all i ndex i s s u e s
o f B i ologi cal Ab s t r ac t s , Chem i c a l
Abs trac t s , Fores try Abs t r ac t s , and
S c i en c e C i ta t i on I ndex . We u s ed computer
b i bl i ogr aphic s e r v i c e s to obta i n c i t a­
t i o n s from BIOS I S REVIEWS , CAB , CAIN ,
CHEMCON , PAPERCHEM , and CRIS data b a s e s
from t h e t ime of the i r e s tabl i shment
through May 1 9 7 8 . There were no art i c l e s
about r e d alder i n the j ournal Al i s o .
B i bl i ogr aphie s o f mo s t paper s c i ted here
were checked for art i cle s not i n c luded
i n the above s e arch procedure .
Our s e arch was des i gned to e xc l ude
art i c l e s abou t i nd i v idu al fun g i and
d i s e a s e s attacki ng red alder and about
p alynology , the s tudy of pollen s t r a­
t i graphy ; however , s ome c i tat i on s t o
b o th a r e i nclude d . Fun g i a n d d i s e a s e
a r e adequ a tel y c overed i n t h e works of
B r owne ( 83) , Hep t i ng ( 23 7 ) , Peace ( 4 45 ) ,
and Shaw ( 51 1 , 5 12 , 5 1 3 , 5 1 4 ) , e ach of
wh i c h prov i d e s further references t o
o r i g i n al p ape rs . We i nc lude art i c l e s o n
red alder out s i de fores try to broaden
t h e s cope of u s e fulne s s and t o i ncrease
t h e numb e r of poten t i al u s e r s .
c i t at i on s wi thout abs trac t s or anno­
t ations are p apers of l e s s e r importance
or pape r s not seen by us but author i ta­
t i vely c i t ed by o the r s . The s e are i n­
c luded be c au s e o f the i r po ten t i al value
to reader s . Re ferences are l i s ted alpha­
b e t i cally by author . A subj e c t mat ter
i ndex i s i ncluded .
A c opy o f mo s t c i ted works i s o n
f i le at e i ther the For e s try S c i en c e s
Laboratory , 3 6 2 5 9 3 r d Avenue S . W . ,
Olymp i a , Wash i ngton 9 8 5 0 2 , o r the Fore s t
Land Manageme n t Cente r , Departmen t of
Natural Re s ou rc e s , Olymp i a , Wash i ngton
98504 . All are read i ly acc e s s i bl e i n
maj or l i brar i e s o r through the USDA
Fore s t Service WESTFORNET i nformat i on
s y s tem .
We wi l l appre c i ate hear i ng o f
add i t i onal doc ume n t s about r e d alder
publ i shed before May 1 9 7 8 .
Acknowledgments
Th anks are e xtended to Boyd C . W i l s on ,
Washington state De partmen t of Natural
Re s ource s ; Dean S . DeB e l l and Arland S .
H arr i s , Fore s t S e rv i c e , U . S . Department
o f Agr i cultur e ; John C . Gordon , Oregon
s t ate Un i ver s i ty , for permi s s i on to u s e
the i r per s onal l i brari e s ; and t o S h i rley
Beel i k , Was h i ngton State L i b rary , and
The lma Sameth , Un i vers i ty of Was h i ngton
Fore s try L i b r ary , for the i r as s i s t anc e .
Spe c i al thanks to Dean S . DeBell and
Con s tance A . Har r i ngton for the i r help
with the s ubj e c t i nde x .
I
ABBREVIATIONS
A
BA
BI
CFH
CA
FA
PO
EO
NO
SO
WO
2
ABSTRACTOR
Author
B i olog i c al Ab s t ra c t s
B i olog i c al Index
Char l e s F . Heebner
Chem i c al Abst rac t s
Fores try Abstracts
Plant Breedi n g
Ab s t r ac t s
Rev i ew of App l i ed
Entomology .
Ser i e s A
Re v i ew o f Plant
Pathology
So i l s and Fer t i l i ze r s
Weed Ab s t r act s
1 . Abbe , Ern s t C .
19 3 5 . Stud i e s i n the phylogeny o f
t h e Bet ulaceae . I . Floral and i n­
flores cence anatomy and mor phology .
Bot . Gaz . 9 7 ( 1 ) : 1-67.
"A s t udy o f the morphology and vascu­
l ar i z a t i o n of the cymules and florets o f
64 s pp . and var s . o f t h e Betulac e ae from
e ac h of the genera and subgenera i nd i ­
c at e s the fol lowi ng :
( 1 ) The morphology
and anatomy o f the c ymule s and florets
h a s been notably mod i f i ed by dor s i vent ral
or l ateral concre s c ence , shorte n i ng of
i n ternode s , pre s s u res wi th i n the ament ,
and reduc t ion j ( 2 ) the b i c arpellary ova­
r i e s owe the i r transve r s e or d i agonal
o r i en t at i on to the i r deri vat i o n from the
anc e s tral tr i -·c arpe llary anc e stor , wh i l e
the s t ami nate florets i n s ome s pp . s t i l l
are tr ime rou s j ( 3 ) the full c omplement
o f brac t s is pre sent i n the p i s t i l late
cymules of <::,�� i nu s , 9 s tl'..Y.QP.s i _ , and
Os rya, the adax i al tert i ary bract i s
l o s t f rom the s t ami nate and p i s t i l l ate
cymu l e s o f mo s t s pec i e s o f Alnu s . Both
adax i al and abax i al te rt i ary bracts h ave
been l o s t from the s t ami nate cymul e s o f
Betu l a , Coryl u s , Carpi nus , O s trya , and
from the p i sU l l ate c ymul e s o f Betula .
The s e condary bracts h ave been l o s t ,
wh i le the tert i ary pers i s t , i n the p i s ­
t i l l ate c ymules o f Corylu s . All brac t s
but the p r imary h ave been lo s t i n the
s t am i n ate cymules of O s t ryops i s .
(4)
The s t ami nate cymule i s 3-f l owe red i n
all genera o f the f ami ly . The p i s t i l­
late cymule i s 2-flowe red by s uppre s s i on
of the s e condary floret in all genera
except Betul a , in wh i ch all 3 florets
are pre s en t .
( 5 ) The pe r i go n is pre s e n t
i n t h e p i s t i l l ate florets o f Carpi nus ,
O s t rya , Corylus , o s tryops i s , and i n the
s t am i n ate flore t s o f Alnus and Betul a j
i t i s obs ole scent i n the p i s t i l l ate flo­
rets o f Alnu s and Betul a j it is com­
pletely l o s t from the s t am i n ate florets
of Carpi nus , Coryl u s , and O s t ryops i s .
The ovary i s i n f e r i o r throughout the
fami ly . " ( BA )
2 . Abbe , Ern s t C .
Stud i e s i n the phylogeny of
1938 .
the Betulaceae . I I . Extreme s i n
the r ange o f var i at i on o f floral and
i n flore s c en c e mor phology . Bot . Gaz .
9 9 ( 3 ) : 4 31-46 9 .
"Cymules and florets who s e c omple x i ty i s
gre ater o r l e s s than the ave r age i n the
Betulaceae are de s c r i bed . The more c om­
plex c ymul e s inc l ude : the s e co ndary
med i an f l oret in p i s t i l l ate Alnus and
Carpi n u s j adax i a l quaternary florets i n
p i s t i l late Alnu s , and adax i al te rt i ary
brac t s in p i s t i l late Alnus . . . . The mor e
compl e x florets i nc lude the pre s ence o f
t r i -c arpellar y p i s t i l s i n Alnu s , Betula ,
and O s tryops i s j a h e x ame rous per i gon and
androec i um in s t am i n ate Aln u s and three
ovule per c ar pe l in Alnus . . . . " ( BA )
3 . Abrams , L . , and Roxana S . Fer r i s .
1940 . Illus trated flora of the
Pac i f i c s t ate s . Vo l . 1 .
538 p .
S t anf ord un i v . Pre s s , S t anford ,
Cali f .
4 . Akkerman s , Anton i u s D i rk Lou i s .
1 9 7 1 . N i trogen f i x at i on and nodu­
l at i o n of Alnus and H i ppoph ae under
n atural cond i t i o n s . Ph . D . thes i s .
Un i v . Le i den , The Ne therlands . 8 5 p.
De tai led d i s c u s s i o n of procedures and
techn i qu e s for s tudy i ng n i trogen f i x at i o n
b y alder i n f i el d and i n l aboratory .
Cover.s both N-15 and acetyle ne-reduc t i on
methods .
( CF H )
3
5 . Alban , Dav i d H .
1 9 6 9 . The i nfluence o f we s te r n hem­
lock and we s tern redcedar on s o i l
propert i e s . S o i l S c i . Soc . Am .
Proc . 33 ( 3 ) : 4 5 3-45 7 .
" S o i l s beneath very o l d wes tern h emlock
( Ts uga hete rophyl l a ( Raf . ) Sarg . ) and
we s te r n redc edar ( Thuj a pl i c ata Donn )
t ree s at three s i t e s on Wa s h i ngton and
I daho were c ompared . The s i t e s d i ffered
in c l i mate and parent mate r i al s , but
were s imi lar to the e x tent that we s te r n
h emlock a n d we s tern redcedar dom i nated
the ove r s tory . The A2-B2 sequences wer e
g e n e r a l l y mor e s trongly developed under
h emlock than under cedar . At two o f the
three s i te s c o n s i de rable mi x i ng o f the
organ i c and mi neral s o i l h o r i z o n s h ad
o c curred unde r c edar , but much le s s s o
u nder h eml oc k . Be low the top 1 5 c m of
m i neral s o i l no large morpholog i c al
d i fferenc e s were obse rved be twe e n pro­
f i le s under cedar and hemloc k . S o i l pH ,
' e xchangeabl e ' C a , c at i on-exchange
c apac i ty , base s aturat i on , and the total
we i ght o f organ i c h o r i zons we re greater
under c edar than under heml oc k . S o i l N ,
C , Mg , and K we r e generally h i gher under
c e dar than under hemlock but the d i ffer­
e n c e s were not large . The d i fferences
b e twee n s o i l propert i e s under hemlock
and cedar , as we l l as the depth to wh i c h
the s e d i f fe re n c e s occu rred , var i e d from
o n e property to anothe r , and f rom s i te
to s i te . " ( A )
6 . Allan , G . G . , C . S . Chopr a , J . F . Fr i edho f , R . I Gara , M . W . Magg i , A . N . Neog i , S . C . Robe r t s , and R .
M . Wi lk i n s . 1 9 7 3 . Pe s t i c i d e s , pollut i o n and polyme r s . Chem . Technol . 4 ( 3 ) : 1 7 1- 1 7 8 . "Ways o f reduc i ng pe s t i c i de appl i c at i o n s
u s i ng controlled r e l e a s e f o rmul at i on s ,
the chemi s try o f the c on t rol led releas e
4
from the polymeric mat rix and the advan­
tages and appl i c at i on s of po lyme r i zed
controlled release pe s t i c i d e s are re­
v i ewed . I n f i e ld tr i al s , e s ter c omb i n a­
t i o n s o f 2 , 4-DB wi th bark we re s ynthe­
s i zed ; the po l yme r i zed pe s t i c ide r e s i s t s
o x idat i on i n the s o i l t o 2 , 4-0 ( wh i c h i s
more tox i c t o c o n i f e r s than 2 , 4-08 ) and
had an extended durat i o n of e f fect i ve ­
ne s s . The polyme r i zed 2 , 4-DB controlled
Alnus rubra wi thout harming Doug l a s - f i r
( P s eudo t s uga men z i e s i i ) . " ( WO )
7 . Al l an , G . G . , A s t r i d Lac i t i s , Fu-me i
L i u , J-h Lee , and P . Mauranen .
1969 . F i be r s urfac e mod i f i c at i on .
Pt . I I . Mod i f i c at i on o f l i gn i ferous
wood and bark f i be r s u s i ng a
d i chloro-s-tr i a z i ne . Hol zfor s c hung
23 ( 6 ) : 198-202 .
"The appl i c at i on of the fundamental s o f
t h e reac t i ve dye chemi s try or i g i nally
developed for tex t i l e s i s propo s ed as a
new general approach to the surface
mod i f i c at i on o f wood f i be r s . The re­
act i v i t i e s of a var i e t y o f l i gnaceou s
wood and bark f i be r s with a d i halogeno­
s -t r i az i ne f i be r reac t i ve dye have been
compared under cond i t i on s compat i bl e w i t h
current board and paper manufactur i ng
tech n i que s . D i fferences i n the extent
of reac t i on are a s c r i bed to the morpho­
l og i c al character i s t i c s of the f i be r and
to the type and amount of i t s l i g n i n or
pheno l i c group c ontent . The dyed f i ber s
c o n t a i n a reac t i ve monochloro-s-tr i az i ne
mo i e ty the chlo r i ne atom of wh i ch however
could not be d i s plac ed by e i ther pheno­
late or th i ophenolate an i o n s . Th i s i n ­
h i b i t i on o f the chlo r i ne di s plac ement i s
attr i buted to a c omb i n at ion o f s ter i c
e f f e c t s due to t h e f i ber mas s and the
e lec troki net i c repul s i on s occas i oned by
the s ul fon i c ac i d groups i nc i dentally
pre s e n t as part of the s tructure of the
reac t i ve dye molecu l e . " ( A )
8 . Al l an , G . Graham , Chetan S . Chopr a ,
and Rober t M . Rus s e l l .
1 9 7 2 . Contro l l ed release p e s t i c i de s .
Part 3 . S e l e c t i ve s uppre s s i o n of
weeds and dec i duous bru s h i n the pre­
s ence of con i fe r s . Int . Pe s t Control
14 ( 2 ) : 1 5 , 1 7 -20 .
"In the USA reaffore s tation wi th c on i fe r s
i s nat i onally r e t arded b y the root compe­
t i t i o n of f ered by weeds and by the mor e
r ap i dly growi ng dec i duous bru s h and no
s at i s factory herb i c i de s e l e c t i ve l y t o x i c
t o the s e c ompet i to r s h a s h i therto been
developed . The s ynthe s i s of such a
mate r i al has now been ach i eved by the
chemical r e act i o n of 2 , 4-DB with c ommi­
nuted bar k to afford a controlled r e l e a s e
herb i c i de polymer c omb i n at i o n . The mac­
romolecular herb i c i de der i vat i ve at s pe­
c i f i c appl i c at i on leve l s d i d not damage
Doug las-f i r ( P s eudo t s uga menz i e s i i ) s eed­
l i n g s and yet had the apab i l i t y of e rad­
i c at i ng e s tabl i s hed we s tern red alder
( Alnus rubra) s eedl i n g s wh i l s t s imul tane­
ously i nh i b i t i ng weed s e ed germi nat i o n
a n d growth for an ent i re growing s e a s on .
The s e l e c t i v i ty o b s e rved i s attr ibuted
to the release o f 2 , 4-DB f rom c omb i nat i o n
w i th t h e bark polyme r s at a controlled
r ate wh i c h i s s u f f i c i ently s l ow for i t s
abs orpt i o n b y all p l an t s t o occur before
enzym i c degradat i o n t o the generally
phytoto x i c 2 , 4-0 c an take plac e in the
s o i l . " ( WO )
9 . All i s o n , G . W . , and R . E . Breadon .
1960 . T imbe r volume e s t imates f rom
aer i a l pho tograph s . B . C . For . Serv o
For . Surv . Note 5 , 2 5 p . Dep . Lands
and F or . , V i ctor i a , B . C .
10 . Al tman n , Th .
1940 . D i e erle a1s verwa1d .
For s t arch i v 1 6 ( 6 / 7 ) : 9 2-9 3 .
"Large areas nf p i ne fore s t i n the
Nuremberg Re i ch swald we re ki lled by the
p i ne looper in the 1890 ' s and the young
s tands e s t abl i shed o n the s ame areas
were l argely de s troyed by P anal i s f l amme a
when about 30 years old . P i ne monocul­
ture accounts for the s ever i ty o f the
damage . To avo i d such lo s s e s i n the
future , p i ne , spruc e , and alder wer e
mi xed i n t h e r e c e n t plantat i o n s . Both
red and wh i te alder grew v i gorou s l y o n
t h e coarse s andy s o i l where i t w a s plowed
deeply , l imed , and c l e ared of compe t i ng
vegetat i o n . The alder created f avorable
cond i t i on s for the con i fe r s , wh i ch pro­
m i s e t o make a h i ghly produc t i ve fore s t ,
r e s i s t ant to i n s e c t attack . Black locu s t
and Canad i an popl ar we re a l s o tr i ed a s
nurse tree s , but s uf fered from f ro s t and
drough t . B i rch was almo s t as good as
alde r , but was heav i l y browsed by deer . "
( BA )
1 1 . Amchem Produ c t s , Inc .
1960 . Ami trol , benzac , and comb i na­
t i on s of both for control of woody
p l ant s . Tec h . Serv o Data Shee t ,
Ambler H- 7 9 , 5 p .
"Pre s e n t s a l i s t , c omp i led f rom publ i shed
and unpubl i shed wor k , o f wood plants s u s ­
cept i ble ( i . e . , k i l l o f 8 5% o f the s tem ,
w i th l i tt l e o r no regrowth after 2 grow­
i ng s e a s on s ) to var i o u s rates o f Ami zo1
( 90% a c t i ve water-s oluble formulat i on o f
ami tro1 ) , Benzac 1 2 8 1 ( 2 lb . / g al . t r i ­
ethylami ne s a l t o f 2 , 3 , 6-TBA ) or a m i x­
ture o f the two . Re s u l t s from unpub­
l i shed work we re : Acer macrophyl1um and
Rubus s pp . suscept i ble to Ami zo1 4
Ib . / 100 gal . ; R. spe c t ab i l i s , Alnu s
rubr a .
. mac rophy1 1um , Sal i x s pp . , T s uga
heterophy1la , and Ab i e s grand i s s u s c e p­
t i ble to Benzac 1281 4 1b . / 100 gal." ( FA )
5
1 2 . Amchem Produc t s , Inc .
1 9 6 2 . o i l - s ol ubl e ami ne s of 2 , 4-0
and 2 , 4 , 5-T for the control of woody
plan t s and broadleaf weeds . Tech .
S e rv o Data Shee t , Ambler E-162 , 1 5 p .
"Volat i l i t y s tud i e s compar i ng var i ous
l ow-vo l at i le e s te r , ac i d and water- and
o i l- s o luble ami n e formulat i on s of 2 , 4-0
and 2 , 4 , 5-T are summa r i zed , and method s
o f app l i c at i on to var i o u s weed and bru s h
s pec i e s u s ed i n compar i s o n s of d i fferent
o i l-s o l uble and s t andard formulat i on s of
2 , 4-0 and/or 2 , 4 , 5-T and fenoprop are
g i ven . Tabl e s g i ve data o f the degree
of control o f a wide r ange o f d i fferent
we ek , brush and tree s pe c i e s obtai ned by
the u s e of the o i l-soluble ami ne formula­
t i on s . The tree and brush s pe c i e s i n­
c luded Sas s afras alb i dum , QQercus
boreal i s , Q. mar i l and i c a , Q. f alcat a , Q.
s te1lat a , Q. alb a , Prunu s s erot ina ,
Nys s a sylvat i c a , L i r i odendron
t u l i p i fera , Ac e r rubrum , Rob i n i a
p s eudo acac i a , Frax i n u s ame r i c an a , Q.
i l i c i fo l i a , Hamamel i s v i rg i n i an a , Rubu s
s pp . , Mal u s s pp . , Cornus f lor i da , Q .
pan i c u l at a , Ulmu s ame r i c an a , Carya s pp . ,
S ambu c u s c an aden s i s , Crataegu s s pp . ,
S a l i x s pp . , V i burnum s pp . , Rhu s g1abr a ,
P i nu s ponde ro s a , P i c e a s i tchens i s ,
P opu l u s s p . , P s eudo t s uga t ax i fo l i a ,
T s uga h e terophy1 l a , Alnus rubr a ,
Gualthe r i a shal10n , Maho n i a aqu i fo 1 i um ,
C e anothus velu t i nu s , Ab i e s grand i s ,
Rubus leuc odermi s , Rubus spe c t ab i l i s ,
L i qu i d ambar s tyrac i f lua and Tamar i x
pentandra . The r e s u l t s o f volat i l i ty
s tud i e s i n d i c ated that at h i gh temper­
atures the o i l- s oluble ami ne formula­
t i on s we re con s i derably le s s volat i l e
t h an the l ow-volat i le e s te r s , and wer e
o f about t h e s ame vo l at i l i ty as the
water- s o luble ami ne s . I n three tr i al s
i n wh i ch low r a t e s and s pray volume s
were u s ed , the o i l-soluble ami ne s d i d
n o t appear to b e a s e f f ec t i ve as the
l ow-vo l at i l e e s ters , and approx imated to
the wat e r - s oluble ami ne s in e f f ect . The
r e as o n s for th i s we re not apparent .
Aga i n s t woody p l an t s , the gre ater effec-­
6
t i vene s s of o i l - s ol uble ami ne s when con­
cent rated around the roo t-c ollar zone ,
c ompared wi th apply i n g them as s tem­
fol i ag e s prays , was noted . I t was con­
c luded that the o i l-s oluble am i ne s o f f e r
maj or advantages over water- s oluble
ami nes . They c an be u s ed i n o i l , o i l /
water , and wate r c arr i e rs , and , at h i gh
tempe ratures , the o i l-so luble am i ne s o f
phenoxy compounds c an b e e x pected to s how
only low volat i l i ty hazard s , compared
wi th s t andard formulat i o n s . " ( FA )
13 . Ame r i can Fores try As s o c i at i on .
19 7 3 . AFA ' s s o c i al reg i s ter o f b i g
tre e s . Am . For . 7 9 ( 4 ) : 21- 7 4 .
Large s t red alde r near Gard i n e r , Oregon ,
found by Franc i s K immey of Vene ta ,
Oregon , i s 1 5 feet i n d i ame ter at breast
h e i ght , 9 9 feet h i gh , wi th a s pread o f
7 6 feet .
( CFH )
14 . Ame r i c an Plywood A s s o c i at i on .
1 9 7 4 . U . S . Product S t andard PS 1-74
for cons truc t i on and i ndu s tr i al
plywood wi th typ i c al APA grade-­
t r ademarks . 3 5 p . Prod . S t and .
Sec t . , Natl . Bur . Stand . , Tacoma ,
Wa s h .
De s c r i be s manuf actur i ng s t andards for
plywood . Red alder is ac ceptable and i s
i n terchangeable wi th all s pec i e s wi th i n
group 3 .
( CFH)
1 5 . Ande r s e n , H . E .
1 9 5 5 . Alder control on cutover
areas . Al a s ka For . Re s . Cen t . Te ch .
Note 2 5 , 1 p .
"Alder on a deep alluv i al flat , logged
in 1 9 5 4 , was tre ated by po i s on i n g wi th
NH 4 su1phamate , appl i ed in cups at
8- i n . i n terval s round the root c o l l ar
or , for small e r tree s , by f e l l i ng and
po i s o n i ng the s tump s . Tre atment was on
22 June , and at the end of 2 months the
c amb i um was dead in prac t i c al l y all
tree s . No v i able s eed was produced by
the tre ated tree s . " ( FA )
1 8 . Andrews , H . J . , and R. W. Cow1 i n .
1940 . Fore s t r e s ource s of the
Dougl as-f i r reg i on . u . s . Dep .
Agr i c . M i s c . Pub1 . 389 , 169 p . u . s .
Gov . Pr i n t . Of f . , Was h i ngton , D . C .
Conta i n s two red alder volume tables .
( CF H )
16 . Ander s on , B . G . , and R . G . Frashour .
1 9 5 4 . s t i c ker s t a i n i n one- i n c h red
alder lumber . For . Prod . Re s . Soc .
J . 4 ( 3 ) : 133-13 5 .
"Exper iments showed that s t a i n deve lop ing
at s t i c ke r cros s i n g s i n a i r-dry i ng 1 i nch
Alnu s rubra could be prevented by s te am­
i ng the s t i ckered l umber beforehand , and
that th i s tre atment a l s o gave a de s i r able
and u n i form colour i n the t imbe r after
f i na l dry i ng . Opt imum tre atment appeared
t o be 1400 F . dry-bulb temperature and
40 F . we t -bulb depres s i on and a m i n imum
s te am i n g t ime of about 18 hours . Th i s
method al lows full advan tage to be taken
of a i r-dr y i n g dur i ng the s ummer wi thout
l o s s c au s ed by s t a i n or unde s i r able
c o lour , and a r educ t i on of 2-4 days i n
total ki l n i ng t i me . " ( FA )
1 7 . Ande r s o n , B . G . , and R . G . Frashour .
1 9 5 4 . s t i c ker s t a i n i n one- i nc h red
alder lumbe r . Rep . Oreg . For . Prod .
Lab . D-3 , 6 p .
"Exper iments s howed that s t a i n develop i n g
at s t i cker c ro s s i ng s i n a i r-dry i ng 1- i n .
Alnu s rubra could be prevented by s te am­
i ng the s t i c kered lumber beforehand , and
that th i s tre atment al s o gave a de s i r able
and u n i form colour i n the t imbe r after
f i nal dry i ng . Opt imum tre atment appe ared
t o be 140 0 F . dry-bulb temperature and
4 0 F . wet -bulb depre s s i o n and a m i n i mum
s team i n g t ime o f c a . 18 h r . Th i s method
allows full advant age to be taken of a i r­
dry i ng during the s ummer wi thou t lo s s
c au s ed b y s t a i n o r unde s i rable colour ,
and a reduc t ion of 2 - 4 days i n total
k i l n i n g t ime . " ( FA)
19 . Angulo , A . F . , C . van D i j k , and A .
Qu i s pel .
1 9 7 6 . Symb i ot i c i nterac t i on s i n
non-legumi nous root nodule s . I n
Symb i o t i c n i trogen f i xat i o n i n
plant s , p . 4 7 5-483 . P . S . Nutman ,
ed . Cambr i dge Un i v . Pre s s , England .
A gene ral d i s cu s s i on o f the b i ology o f
t h e alder root endo phyte . The l i fe
cyc l e , probable me thod of i n f e c t i on s ,
and te chn iques for cult i va t i on o f the
root endophyte are covered .
( CFH )
20 . Ap sey , T . M i chae l .
1961 . An evalu at i on o f c r own wi dth s
o f open-grown red alder as an a i d t o
the pred i c t i on of growth a n d y i e l d .
B . S . F . thes i s . Un i v . B . C . , Vanc ouve r . 6 7 p . "The g rowth and y i e ld of Alnu s rubra was
s tud i e d , and c rown-width/d . b . h . r e l at i on­
s h i p s we re determi ned for both ( 1 ) open­
and ( 2 ) c l o s e-g rown tree s . It was s h own
that , for both ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , mo s t o f the
var i at i on i n c r own w i dth was accounted
for b y d . b . h . , and a c rown-wi dth y i eld
table was developed . Several mu1 t i p1e­
regre s s i on equat i o n s wer e de r i ved to
prov i d e e s t imat e s of rad i al g rowth , ( a )
1-5 years ago , and ( b ) 6-10 years ago .
It was found that for ( 1 ) mo s t of the
var i at i on i n r ad i a l growth ( a ) was ac­
counted for by the var i ables total age
and r ad i al growth ( b ) . For ( 2 ) , however ,
mo s t o f the var i at i on i n r ad i al growth
( a ) was accounted for by the var i ab l e s
d . b . h . and 1 0 l i ve crown . " ( FA )
7
21. Arkwr i ght , Pete r .
1963 .
Know your t imbe r . Woodwork i ng
Ind . 2 0 ( 1-3 ) : 4 5 , 89 , 1 5 1 .
" Rock e lm ( Ulmus thomas i i ) ; Opepe
( S ar c o c eph alus d i der r i ch i i ) ; and We s tern
Red Alder ( Alnus rubra ) . 1t ( FA )
2 2 . Atk i n s o n , W i l l i am A . , and W i l l ard I .
Ham i l ton .
1 9 7 8 . The value o f red alder as a
s ou r c e of n i trogen i n Doug l as - f i r /
alder mi xed s t ands . I n ut i l i z at i on
and management o f alder , p . 3 3 7 -3 5 1 .
Dav i d G . B r i g g s , Dean S . DeBe l l , and
W i l l i am A . Atki n s o n , c omp i lers . USDA
For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 .
Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portl and , Oreg .
ItNumerous s t ud i e s of forest fer t i l i z at i on
h ave demo n s trated that Doug las-f i r s tands
i n the P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t and Br i t i s h
Columb i a g row bet ter when fert i l i zed wi th
n i troge n . S i nc e the long-term outlook
f o r f e r t i l i zer s upply and c o s t i s uncer­
t a i n , f o r e s t e r s s hould be e x am i n i ng al­
t e rnat i ve s for ma i n t a i n i ng and i ncreas i ng
f o re s t product i v i ty . S everal n i trogen­
s u pply i ng s pec i e s o f plan t s e x i s t , of
wh i ch red alde r i s the mo s t i n tere s t i ng .
Alder n o t only i mparts s i gnif i c ant
amo.u nts o f n i t rogen t o the fore s t s o i l ,
but a l s o i s a tree o f i nc re a s i ng value
for wood produ c t s . 1t
ItTh i s paper e x am i n e s the econom i c
value o f alde r both as a s ource of
n i trog e n and for i t s wood value . Three
approaches are taken :
( 1 ) An economi c
an aly s i s i s made o f e x i s t i ng r e s e arch
plot data on the W i nd R i ver Exper i mental
Fores t . Re s u l t s are contras ted wi th the
alt ern at i ve o f art i f i c i al fert i l i z at i on .
( 2 ) I n ve s t i gat i on s o f the n i trogen sup­
ply i n g c apab i l i t y of red alder reveal
that r e l at i vely f ew alder s are needed i n
order t o s u pply Dougl as - f i r wi th i t s
8
n i trogen needs .
( 3 ) A gene r al model i s
propo s e d for evaluat i n g alder ' s place i n
Dougla s -f i r fore s t management . Data r e ­
qu i remen t s a r e i dent i f i ed . 1t ( A )
23. Atterbu ry , Toby .
1 9 7 8 . Alder characte r i s t i c s as they
affect ut i l i z at i on . I n ut i l i zat i o n
and man agement o f alde r , p . 7 1-81 .
Dav i d G . B r i g g s , De an S . DeBe l l , and
W i l l i am A . Atk i n s on , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S t n . , Portland , Oreg .
ItThe ut i l i zat i on of red alder in the
Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t i s t i ed to i t s loca­
t i on , y i eld , t ree s i ze , and wood proper­
t i e s . Up to the pre s ent t ime , con i fe r s
have been ut i l i zed and managed becau s e
they are more pro f i table . When the older
s t ands o f l arge c o n i f e r s are harve s ted ,
alder may become fully ut i l i zed on i t s
own med t s . It ( A )
24 . B abe r , A . A . , and G . L . McCal l .
"Kre n i telt - a new brush con­
1974 .
trol agen t . We s t . Soc . Weed S c i .
Proc . 2 7 : 4- 5 .
ItFol i ag e s prays o f Kren i te ( ammo n i um
ethyl c arbamo yl ph o s phonat e ) made after
the ma i n flush o f annual g rowth has
hardened , e l imi nate unwan ted brush wi th­
out uns i ghtly d i s c o lorat i o n . Leaf fall
o f s u s c e pt i bl e pl an t s occurs normally i n
the autum but subs equent bud deve lopment
i s prevented or s everely l imi ted and
s tems and roots eventually d i e . Effec­
t i ve rates range f rom 4-8 l b / ac re ( ae r i al
appl i c at i on ) and f rom 2-6 l b / acre ( g round
appl i c at i on ) . S u s c e p t i ble bru s h plan t s
i nc lude Acer c i r c i n atum , Aln u s rubra ,
Rubu s s pe c t ab i l i s , Quercus s pp . ,
Euc alyptus s pp . , and Sequo i a
s empervi rens . Herbaceous plan t s and
broad-le aved evergreens are not
affected . It ( WO )
2 5 . B aird , P . K . , J . S . Martin , and D .
J . Fahey . 19 5 5 . Bond and magazine book p ape r s and milk-c arton paperbo ard f rom old­
growth Dougl a s -fir and red alder pulps . USDA For . Serv o For . Prod . Lab . Rep . 2042 , 13 p . Madison , Wis . tlExperime n tal proce s s e s t ried at Madison
point to the pos sibility o f c ommercial
applic ation o f Douglas-Fir bleached
s u lphate pulp , with or without Red-Alder
pulp ( g roundwood , chemiground , or neutral
s u l phite ) . tI ( FA )
26 . Bake r , William J .
1 9 5 1 . Some factors involved in the
promotion o f alder-u s ing indu s trie s
in Til l amook , Oregon . Oreg . For .
Prod . Lab . Spec . Rep . 1 , 3 5 p . Sch .
For . , Oreg . St ate Co l I . [ Univ . ] ,
Corvalli s .
27. B alci , A . N .
1964 . Phys ic al , chemic al , and hydro­
l ogic al prope rtie s of certain we s tern
Washington fore s t floor type s . Ph .
D . thesis . Univ . Wash . , Seattl e .
206 p .
tlTwo maj o r type s --( a ) mor , ( b ) du f f
mul l--from 5 maj or are a s of o ld-growth
conife r o u s fore s t s wer e s tudied . Dis ­
(1)
tinct dif f erenc e s observed were :
Total weight and depth we re greater for
( a ) then for ( b ) .
( 2 ) Ignition los s e s
o f ( a ) we re significan tly greater , be­
c au s e ( b ) has a higher mine r al dilution
due to a gradual t r an sition of the H
( 3 ) ( a ) h ad
l ayer to the Al horizo n .
highe r mois t ure cons tan t s and lower bulk
den s itie s then ( b ) .
( 4 ) I n the s ame
r ain fall condition s , the hydrogr aph for
( a ) had mQre gentle s l op e s o n both as­
cending and rece s sion period s ; the s h ape
of the hydrogr aph was affected by the
depth of the f o r e s t floor .
( 5 ) Concen­
tr atio n s o f N , P , and K were higher in
( b ) , and total C , s pecific condu c t an c e ,
and C/N r atio s in ( a ) . The s e charac t e r­
i s tic s are believed to be indicative o f
dif f erential decompo sition rate s , l e ach­
ing of element s and age of fore s t floor .
( 6 ) ( a ) was more acid than ( b ) . Rain fall
o f 1 5 cm/hour was tran smitted at the s ame
rate in ( a ) and ( b ) , and both type s h ad
a highe r e f fec tive s aturation c apacity
at the s t e ady- f l ow s t age under 15 cm than
under 2-3 cm r ain /hour . In a s tudy from
October to May in ( c ) a young Red Alder
s tand and ( d ) Douglas Fir , the fore s t
floor o f ( c ) decompo s e d more r apidl y and
there wer e greater monthly f luc tuatio n s
i n the elemental compo s ition of ( c )
leachate s ; ( c ) fore s t floors imparted a
much d arker c o lour to the n atural wat e r s
than ( d ) , but l e achates of both wer e
coloured f ar above permis sible limits
for dome s tic u s e . The pH o f the s ur face
water was low for ( c ) , and l e achates f rom
( c ) had higher c oncentratio n s of N , P , K ,
C a , Mg and tannin and lignin compounds .
The magnitude o f e lemental release from
the fore s t floor of ( c ) wa s K > Ca > Mg >
N > P , and that of l e aching o f nutrie n t s
beyond t h e 1 5 -cm level was C a > M g > K >
N > P . " ( FA)
2 8 . Balci , A. N .
1 973 . Physical , c hemical and hydro­
l o gical prope rtie s of certain we s te r n
Washington fore s t floor type s .
I s tanbul Univ . Orman Fak . Yayin . 200 ,
159 p .
"The full ve r sion o f work already noticed
from a dis s e r tatio n ab s t ract on the ch ar­
acteris tic s of the fore s t floor under
old-growth conifer s tands and a 30-ye ar­
old Alnus rubra s t and , and inc luding a
brief general review o f the mor phol ogical
c l a s sific ation and propertie s o f for e s t
floor and humus type s . " ( FA )
9
2 9 . Barbe r , Pau l , Marv i n Nobl e , and
Juel Sheldon .
19 7 8 . Buyer ' s per s pect i ve on publ i c
ag ency t imbe r s al e procedure s f o r
alde r .
( Ab s t r . ) I n Ut i l i z at i on and
man ag emen t of alde r , p . 83 . Dav i d
G . B r i ggs , Dean S . Debel l , and
Wi l l i am A . Atki n s on , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Ran ge Exp . S t n . , Portl and , Oreg .
3 0 . Barret t , R . E .
19 3 2 . New coleoptera from
Cal i forn i a . Pan-·P ac . Entomo1 .
8 ( 4 ) : 1 7 1-1 7 2 .
" Dendro i d e s pac i f i c u s ( p . 1 7 1 ) , breed i ng
i n trunk o f Alnu s rubr a , al s o i nhabi ted
b y P1atycerus oregonen i s ; Tamnoch i l a
s onorana ( p . 1 7 1 ) , und e r b ark o f Pro s opi s
j u 1 i f 10ra glandu l o s a ; Aphod i u s spar s u s
s s p . s ha1do n i ( p . 1 7 2 ) , i n ne s t s o f wood
r a t , Neo toma . " ( BA )
3 1 . Bec k i n g , J . H .
19 6 5 . In v i t ro c u l t i vat i on o f alder
root-nodule t i s s ue contai n i ng the
endophyte . Nature 207 ( 4999 ) : 8 8 5 -88 7 .
"Though culture i n v i tro of root-nodule
t i s s ue contai n i ng the endophyte was s uc­
c e s s ful , the ma i n obj e c t o f the i nve s ­
t i g at i on--cul ture o f t h e e f f ec t i ve nod­
u l e-endophyte of Alnu s glut i no s a i n s ym­
b i o s i s w i t h i t s h o s t i n v i t ro--was not
ach i eve d . The root-nodule t i s s ue grown
i n v i tro and cont a i n i n g i t s endophyte i s
a s impl e r s y s tem than that obt a i ned i n
l eguminous s ymb i o s i s . " ( FA )
32 . Becki ng , J . H .
1966 . Interac t i on s nutr i t i one11e s
p1antes-ac t i nomyc e te s .
[ Nut r i t i onal
i n terac t i o n s between plants and
ac t i nomy c e t e s . ] Rapp . Gen . Ann .
I n s t . Pas teur ( P ar i s ) Supp1 .
111 : 2 11-246 .
[ I n French . Engl i s h
s ummary . ]
"The pres ent report revi ews the ava i l able
i nformat ion about non-leguminous plan t s
wh i ch have the c apac i t y t o f i x mo lecular
n i trogen . Many unpub l i shed r e s u l t s ob­
t a i ned by the author are i nc luded .
"An enumerat ion i s g i ven of the nod­
u le-bear i n g non-legumi nous pl an t s , the
nodul e-be a r i ng hab i t s w i t h i n each group ,
the c ro s s - i noculat i o n groups and the b i o­
l og i c al func t i on of the root nodule s .
"A b r i e f s urvey i s g i ve n o f the b i o­
chemi c al character i s t i c s o f the root nod­
u l e s , the nodule morphology and cytology .
A morpho l o g i c al and cytolog i c al d e s c r i p­
t i on o f the endophyte i s g i ven . Exper i ­
men t s are de s c r i bed for t h e i s olat ion o f
the endophyte w i t h the a i d o f root-nodule
t i s s ue culture s . " ( A )
3 3 . Becki ng , J . H .
1968 . N i trogen f i xat i on by non­
legumi nous plant s . Dutch N i trogen
Fert . Rev . 1 2 : 4 7 - 7 4 .
34 . Becki ng , J . H .
19 7 0 . Franki aceae fam . nov .
( Ac t i nomycetale s ) wi th one new c om-­
b i nat i o n and s i x new s pe c i e s o f the
genus Frank i a Bruncho r s t 1886 , 1 7 4 .
Int . J . S ys t . Bacter i o1 . 2 0 ( 2 ) :
201-220 .
"The purpo s e o f th i s publ i c at i on i s to
propo s e a new taxonom i c tre atment o f an
important g roup ()f bacter i a , wh i ch pro-­
duce nodu l e s on the roots of non­
l egumi nous d i cotyledon s . The root nod­
ule , produ c t of the s ymb i o s i s of h o s t and
10
b acter i a , i s abl e to f i x atmo s pher i c n i ­
trogen . A s i ngle f ami l y , a s i ngle genu s ,
and ten s pe c i e s are recogn i zed . " ( A )
3 7 . Bene , John .
1 9 5 0 . Douglas f i r s ub s t i tutes for
the B r i t i s h Columb i a p l ywood
i ndus try . B . C . Lumbe rman
34 ( 8 ) : 4 9-50 , 145 .
3 5 . Becki n g , J . H .
1 9 7 2 . De be teken s i s van de rode e l s
( Al n u s rubra) voor d e teelt van de
dou g l a s s par ( P s eudo t s uga men z i e s i i ) .
[ The role of the red alder ( Alnus
rubra ) i n the cult i va t i on o f the
Dou g l as-f i r ( Ps eudo t s uga men z i e s i i . ]
Ned . Bosbouw T i j d s chr . 44 ( 5 ) : 13 2-1 3 7 .
[ I n Dutch . ]
"Th i s pape r . . . d i s c u s s e s the pos s i b i l i ty
of u s i ng Hemlock and Cedar and other
con i fe r s , tro p i c al harwoods , and , i n
more detai l , s ome We s t Co a s t hardwoods
( Popu l u s t r i choc arpa , Betula papyr i fera
var . occ i denta1 i s , Ac e r mac rophy1lum and
Alnus rub r a ) for p lywood . T h e i mpor tance
o f hardwoods in the veneer i ndustry i s
emphas i ze d .
( FA )
"Re v i ews e x pe r i ence i n the USA and d i s­
c u s s e s the de s i r ab i l i ty of tr i al s of m i x ­
ture s o f ! . t"ubr a and . menz i e s i i i n
Europe . " ( FA )
3 6 . Behm , R . D .
Develop i ng new alder marke r s .
1978 .
In U t i l i z at ion and management o f
alder , p . 1 5 7 -161 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBe l l , and W i ll i am A .
Atki n s on , comp i l e r s . USDA For .
S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW--7 0 . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range EXp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"At t i tude toward alder w i l l play an im­
portant role i n i t s future . Alder mu s t
b e recogn i zed a s a spec i e s wh i ch produ c e s
a po s i t i ve contr i bu t i on to t h e local
economy . The alder image c an be improved
by drop p i n g the wo r d 'red' from i t s n ame
and by promot ing i t as an alternate to
other woods rather than a cheap sub s t i ­
tute . The at t i tUde o f prospec t i ve buyers
o f alder will improve as the local i ndus­
try improves del i very , qual i ty contro l ,
and promo t i onal e ffor t s . " ( A )
38 . B e r g , Alan , and Allan Doerks e n .
1 9 7 5 . Natural fert i l i z a t i on of a
he av i ly t h i nned Dougl as - f i r s t and by
unders tory red alde r . For . Re s . Lab .
Re s . Note 5 6 , 3 p . Oreg . State
Un i v . , Corval l i s .
"De s c r i b e s the natural e s t abl i s hmen t of
Aln u s rubra under a 62-year-old
P s eudot suga menz i e s i i s t and i n Oregon
after a he avy th i nn i ng in 1 9 5 5 . Growth
of the !. rubra unders torey was r ap i d ,
bu t e x ami nation i n 1 9 7 2 s howed that the
ove r s torey c anopy was c lo s i ng and many
of the under s torey tree s we re dead . So i l
anal y s e s s howed that a den s e unde r s tory
o f !. rubra added c a . 7 80 l b total N / ac re
i n the top 6 i nche s . I t i s sugge s ted
that ! . rubra could be i n troduced e i ther
naturally or art i f i c i ally to i ncreas e
the N content of the s o i l i n s im i l ar
cond i t i on s . " ( FA )
11
3 9 . Berg , Alan B . , ed .
1 9 7 2 . Manag i n g young fores t s i n the
Dougl a s - f i r reg i on . Vol . 3 . Sch .
For . Pap . 7 3 4 , 224 p . Oreg . s t ate
Un i v . , Corvall i s .
"These p r i n ted proceed i ng s i nc lude 8
tech . rept s . by d i f ferent auth or s , des­
c r i p t i on s o f s everal f i eld tr i p s ( to
pulp and l umber co s . , govt . f ores try
agenc i e s , and the W i l l amette Natl .
F ores t ) , a banquet addres s on f o re s ter s '
relat i on s wi th the publ i c and a f i na l
d i s cn . ses s i on o n the managemen t o f
young t imber s t ands . The tech . presenta­
t i ons dealt wi th management o f Douglas­
f i r in Europe , the role o f alder i n im­
p rov i n g s o i l fert i l i ty and growth of
a s s ocd . t rees , regulat i o n o f s o i l organ­
i sms ( c ontrol o f Por i a wei r i i ) by red
alder , econom i c s and market i ng of alder ,
admi n . of th i n n i ng contrac t s and o f
p art i al-cut s ales , e on . gu ides f o r i n­
tens i ve fore s t managemen t , and forester s '
approaches to the marking of trees for
t h i nn i ng . A good s ubj ect i ndex i s
appended . " ( FA )
4 0 . Bergman , s t u art I .
19 4 9 . Lengths o f hardwood f i ber s
and ves s el s egmen t s : A s t at i s t i c al
an a ly s i s of 49 hardwoods i nd i genou s
to the un i ted states . Tapp i
32 ( 11 ) : 494-498 .
" Up to 4 s amples of each of 49 i nd i genou s
hardwoods were macerated and the lengths
of f i bres and ves sel s egmen t s were mea­
s u red . The res u l t s were t abul ated , the
woods b e i n g c l as s i f i ed ac cord i ng to
f i bre and ves sel-segment length . The re­
s u l t s s how that :
( 1 ) the d i f ference be­
t ween average lengths of f i bre and ves sel
s egmen t s of 2 s amples of the s ame s pec i e s
m a y b e g reater than the c orres pond i n g
d i f ferences for 2 s amples from d i f feren t
s pec i e s ; ( 2 ) wi der s ampl i ng i s neces s ary
before a mean and s t andard dev i at i on for
12
l engths in a p ar t i cular s pec i e s c an be
obtai ned--s amples f rom d i fferent parts of
the s ame tree and f rom trees from vary i ng
s i tes and d i s t r i c t s would be needed ; ( 3 )
there i s a h i gh degree of pos i t i ve cor­
relat i o n between the lengths of the f i ­
bres and those o f the ves s el s egment s . "
( FA )
4 1 . Bern t s en , Car l M .
1 9 5 4 . S ome res u l t s o f chem i c al de­
barki n g on s i tka s pruce , wes tern hem­
lock , and red alder . USDA For . Serv o
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
Stn . Res . Note 104 , 7 p . Portl and ,
Oreg .
"Out o f 4 chem i c a l s bru s hed on to b . h .
band g i rdles i n July-Augu s t , only und i ­
lu ted Na arsen i te g ave 100% k i l l for
s i tka and Hemlock ( 100 years old ) wi th i n
2 mon th s , bark bei ng read i ly removable
( except bel ow the g i rdle ) wi t h i n 1 year .
Alder bark , however , o f ten rema i ned
t i ght . A bas al s pray of Alder w i th 2 , 4-D
and 2 , 4 , 5 -T ( 2%) in d i esel o i l k i l led
s everal 30-year-old trees i n 2 year s and
the o ther s appeared to be dy i ng . " ( FA )
4 2 . Bern tsen , Carl M .
1 9 5 8 . A look at red alder--pure , and
i n mi x ture w i t h con i fers . Soc . Am .
For . Proc . 1 9 5 8 : 1 5 7 - 1 5 8 .
"Repor t s on test plots e s t abl i s hed i n
1 9 3 5 -3 7 i n mi xed s t ands aged 8- 1 2 year s .
In the control p l o t s ( 1 ) there were c a .
3000 s tems / acre ; ( 2 ) was t h i nned to 2000
s tems , and ( 3 ) to 733 s tems / acre of pure
Alder , and ( 4 ) to 1148 s tems / ac re o f pure
con i fers ( S i tka Spruce , Douglas F i r , and
Wes tern Hemloc k ) . At 30 year s , volumes
and c . a . i . ( i n bd . f t . ) were res pec t i ve­
ly : 2900 and 260 for ( I ), c a . 3300 and
260 for ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) , and 4300 and 400
for ( 4 ) . " ( FA )
4 3 . Bernt s en , Carl M .
1 9 6 1 . Growth and deve lopmen t of red
alder compared w i th c on i fe r s in 30­
ye ar-·old s t ands . USDA For . Serv .
Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp .
Stn . Res . Pap . 38 , 20 p . Portland ,
Ore g .
Tre atments we re as fol lows :
( 1 ) pure
alder , unthi nned ; ( 2 ) m i x e d alder­
c on i fe r , unth i nned ; ( 3 ) pure alde r ,
t h i nned from an alder-con i fe r s t and at
age 11 year s ; and ( 4 ) pure con i fe r ,
t h i nned f rom an alder-con i fe r s t and at
age 8 . Maj or r e s u l t s were : By age 29
year s , the s low- s t ar t i ng pure con i fe r
s t and had about equaled t h e volume of
the 32 -year-old , unth i nned , pure alder
s t and and had s u rpas s ed the y i eld o f the
t h i nned , pure alder and unth i nned alder­
c on i fe r s t ands . Yi eld o f the th i nned ,
pure alder s t and at age 31 was about 1 3
p e r c e n t l e s s than t h a t of t h e unth i nned ,
pure alder s t and . Y i e ld of the unthi nned
alder-con i fer s t and at age 2 9 was the
l owe s t of all the exper imental s t ands .
( CFH)
4 4 . Bern t s e n , Carl M .
1 9 6 1 . Prun i ng and e p i cormi c bran­
c h i n g in red alder . J . For .
5 9 ( 9 ) : 6 7 5 -6 7 6 .
"D i s s e c te d trunk s e c t i o n s showed that
prun i ng s c ar s on trunks o f red alder
t re e s ( Al n u s rub r a ) healed rapi dly , but
f ormat i on of c le ar wood was l imi ted by
developme n t o f e p i c ormi c branche s . Bud
s t r and s , o r i g i nat i ng in the leaf ax i l on
the ma i n s tem e longated r ad i ally wi th
e ach annual l ayer of wood . Bud-produc i n g
t i s s u e s at the term i n al po i nt o f the s e
s trands g ave r i s e to e p i corm i c branch
developmen t in r e s po n s e to a c e r t a i n
phy s i ol o g i cal r e l e a s e t r i ggered by the
p run i ng tre atmen t . " ( FA )
4 5 . Bernt s en , Carl M .
1 9 6 2 . A 2 0-year growth record for
three s tands of red alder . USDA
For . S erv o Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range Exp . Stn . Res . Note 219 , 9 p .
Portland , Oreg .
"Compares w i th y i e l d-table dat a the
growth be tween the 2 1 s t and 4 1 s t years
of natur a s tand v i z . ( a ) two s tands
released f rom a l i gh t ove r s torey o f
Dou g l a s F i r ( by g i rd l i ng ) , o n e only o f
wh i c h w a s then t h i nned , and ( b ) a pure
Alder s tand unth i nned . The volume o f
( b ) --4423 cu . ft . / ac re--at year 41 ex­
ceeded that o f the t abl e s . Th i n n i ng d i d
not s t i mulate growth and i t i s c on s i dered
that n atural t h i n n i ng could be r e l i ed
upon i n th i s i ntoleran t s pec i e s . " ( FA )
46 . B e s ley , L .
1 9 6 6 . Importanc e , var i at i on , and
me a s urement o f wood den s i ty and
mo i s ture . Woodland Re s . I nde x Pulp
and Pap . Res . I n s t . Can . 182 , 30 p .
"Rev i ews , i n r e l at ion to the SUbs t i tut i on
of we i ght me asurement for volume determ i ­
nat i on , s ome of t h e world l i terature o n
var i at i on i n wood den s i ty ( w . d . ) and
mo i s t ure content ( m . c . ) found in pulpwood
as del i vered to mi l l s , and as oc curr i n g
betwee n fore s t s tand s , tree s spec i e s , i n­
d i v i dual tre e s of the s ame s p ec i e s , and
var i o u s po s i t i o n s in the s ame tree . Val­
ues for 30 softwoods and 23 hardwoods , as
reported by s everal i nve s t i gator s , are
tabu lated , i n c lud i ng d i f ferences u p the
tree and r adi ally , at the s ame h e i ght ,
ac ro s s the s apwood and hear twood , and
acro s s the early and l ate wood o f i nd i ­
v i dual growth r i n g s . The e f f e c t s o f
s e a s o n on m . c . i n t h e s t and i ng tree , and
of t ime s i nc e cutt i n g on m . c . in the har­
ve s ted tree o r pulpwood , are al s o report­
ed . Some method s and i n s t ruments now i n
u s e for me asur i ng w . d . and m . c . are
b r i e f l y d i scu s s ed . F i nally , a sugge s t i o n
13
i s made for d i re c t conve r s i on , on a
per i od i c bas i s , of the wet we i ght o f
r ough wood to i t s ovendry equ i valent i n
u s able wood f i bre , u s i ng the average r a­
t i o s f o r d i f ferent s e a s o n s i n the year ,
and d i f ferent dry i ng per i ods , obtai ned
f rom t e s t s o n s ampl e d i s ks , and thu s
avo i d i ng the i n termed i ate s te p s o f
s e parately dete rmi n i ng bark we i ght , and
b a s i c dens i ty and m . c . of the wood . " ( FA )
4 7 . Betts; H . S .
1 9 6 0 . Amer i c an woods red alder .
Am . Woods , 4 p . USDA For . S e rv o
Wa s h i ng ton , D . C .
" D i s t r i but i on and growth , s u pply , produc­
t i on , proper t i e s and u s e s o f the follow­
Alnu s rubra
" ( FA)
ing:
4 8 . B i s hop , Dan i e l M . , Floyd A . John s o n ,
and George R . S t aebler .
1 9 5 8 . s i te curves for red alder .
USDA For . Serv o Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range Exp . Stn . Re s . Note 162 ,
7 p . Portland , Ore g .
"Th i s prel imi nary report presents s i te­
c l as s c u rves ( 6 0 to 120 ft . by 20-ft .
c l asse s ) f o r Aln u s rub r a , developed dur­
i ng y i e l d-table c o n s t r uc t i o n and based on
s tem analy s e s of 43 trees f rom a repre­
s e n tat i ve s pread of s i te cond i t i o n s in W .
W a s h i ngton . " ( FA )
49 . Bod i g , J .
1 9 6 5 . The e f f e c t o f anatomy on the
i n i t i al s tr e s s - s tr a i n r e l at i on s h i p
i n transve r s e c ompre s s i on . For .
Prod . J . 1 5 ( 5 ) : 19 7 -202 .
"Cont i nuou s l y recorded s tr e s s - s t r a i n
c urve s and photographs taken s imu ltane­
ou s l y at d i fferenct s t age s o f compre s s i on
o f four s pec i e s of d i fferent anatom i c al
character i s t i c s demo n s t rated the i mpor­
tance of anatomy and d i re c t i on of l o ad i n g
i n the determ i nat ion o f the s tr e s s - s t ra i n
relat i o n s h i p o f wood i n tran sver s e c om­
pres s i on . Expl anat i on s and theor i e s are
g i ven for the mechan i sms o f f a i lures i n
radi al and tangen t i al c ompre s s i on , for
the pre s ence or ab s ence o f max i mum s t re s s
po i n t s , and for the i n i t i al curvature o f
the s t re s s - s t r a i n curve s . The we ak l ayer
theory in r ad i al c ompre s s i on and the
s paced column behav i or in tangent i al c om­
pre s s i on has been d i s c u s s ed and i l l u s t ra­
ted . " ( A )
5 0 . Bollen , W . B . , C . S . Chen , K . C . Lu ,
and Robert F . Tarran t .
1968 . Effect o f s temf low prec i p i ta­
t i on on chem i c al and m i c rob i o l o g i c al
s o i l prope r t i e s beneath a s i ng l e
alder tree . I n B i ology o f alde r , p .
149-15 6 . J . M . Trappe , J . F .
Frankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and G . M .
H an s e n , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Stemflow f rom a red alder t r e e s had a
subs tant i ally greater concentrat i on o f
n i trogen and d i s s olved s o l i d s and s l i gh t­
ly lower pH than g ro s s r a i n f al l . On a
we i gh t / area bas i s , however , the contr i bu­
t i on of nutr i en t i o n s i n s temf low was
very small compared to that in g r o s s
r a i nfall or throughfal l . No e v i dence was
14
found to i nd i c ate that e n r i ched s temf l ow
affected chem i c al and m i c r ob i al proper­
t i e s of s o i l at a d i s tance o f only 2 feet
f rom the s tem . Re s u l t s o f th i s s t udy
support prev i ou s demon s t rat i on of a nar­
row ab s orpt i on area about the tree s tem
as the total s o i l area affec ted by s t em­
flow . " ( A )
5 1 . Bollen , W . B . , and K . C . Lu .
19 5 7 . Effect o f Doug l as-f i r s awdu s t
mul che s and i ncorporat i o n s o n s o i l
m i crob i al ac t i v i t i e s and plant
growth . So i l S c i . Soc . Am . Proc .
2 l ( l ) : 35-41 .
"G i ve s data on the decompo s i t i on r ate ,
measured by C 0 2 produc t i on i n s o i l
r e s p i rat i on t e s t s , and other chem i c al
dat a , i nc l u d i n g C/N r at i o s , for var i o u s
organ i c mate r i al s u s e d as mul ch e s and
fer t i l i ze r s , r e l at i ve f i gures for de­
c ompo s i t i on in one t e s t be i n g : wheat­
s t raw 48 , s awdu s t o f Red Alder 40 , of
Pondero s a P i ne , and We s tern Red Cedar
33 , of Douglas F i r 30 and of We s tern
Hemloc k 2 7 , Dou g l a s Fir r e s i n 3 0 , and
Douglas F i r bar k , 2 6 . Added N has tened
decompo s i t i o n of s Ub s tanc e s wi th a h i gh
C/N r at i o , though it generally depre s s ed
cumulat i ve evolut i on of C0 2 '
"Ow i n g to i t s low content i n both N
and ava i l able C , r e s ul t i ng i n s low de­
compo s i t i o n , Dougl a s F i r s awdu s t has a
l e s s depre s s i ve e f f e c t on p l ant growth
through i nduced N def i c i ency than was
c ommonly found i n s ub s tance s wi th h i gh
C/N r at i o s . At 10 tons / acre , i t s i gn i f­
i c antly i ncreased f i r s t c rop y i e ld s ,
though at 100 tons ( a 5 - i n . l ayer ) i t
depre s s e d them . Pondero s a p i ne s awdu s t
and Douglas F i r bark a t 1 0 ton s / acre
depre s s e d y i elds , but added N produced
i nc reas e s over untre ated crops in all
c a s e s . " ( FA )
5 2 . B o l len , W . B . , and K . C . Lu .
1 9 6 8 . N i trogen t r an s fo rmat i on s i n
s o i l s bene ath red alder and con i f e r s .
In B i ology o f alde r , p . 141-14 8 . J .
M . Tr appe , J . F . F r ankl i n , R . F .
Tarran t , and G . M . Hansen , eds .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Port l and , Ore g .
"Tran s format i on s o f n i trogen i n organ i c
mat ter i n the s o i l are e s s e n t i al t o plant
nutr i t i on becau s e n i trogen in the form
o f prote i n s and other organ i c c ompounds
i s not d i rectly ava i l able . The s e c om­
pounds mu s t unde rgo m i c rob i al decompo s i ­
t i o n t o l i berate n i trogen a s ammo n i um
( NH+ 4 ) and n i trate ( NO- 3 ) , wh i ch c an
then b e ab s orbed by p l an t root s .
"N i trogen trans format i on s , p ar t i c­
u l arly n i t r i f i c at i o n , are r ap i d i n s o i l s
under c o a s t al Oregon s t ands o f red alder
( Al n u s rubra Bong . ) ; con i fe r s - -Doug1as­
f i r ( P seudo t s uga men z i e s i i ( M i rb . )
Franco ) , we s tern hemlock ( Ts uga
heterophy1 1a ( Ra f . ) Sarg . ) and s i tka
s pruce ( i ce a s i tchen s i s ( Bong . ) Carr . ) ;
and m i xed s tands o f alder and c o n i fers .
N i t r i f i c a t i on i s e s pe c i al l y r ap i d i n the
F layer beneath alder s t ands de s p i te a
very l ow pH . The s e f i nd i ng s are f rom a
s tudy of con tr i but i o n s to the n i trogen
economy b y red alder c onducted at C a s c ade
H e ad Exper imental Fore s t near ot i s ,
Oregon . " ( A )
15
5 3 . Bollen , W . B . , and E . Wrigh t .
1 9 6 1 . Mic robes and nit rates in s oil s
f rom virgin and young- growth fore s t s
( e a s t and we s t o f the Cas c ade Moun­
t ains and along the U . S . Pacific
c o a s t ) . Can . J . Mic robiol .
7 ( 5 ) : 785-792 .
" Penicil lium s pp . p redomin ated in s amples
of for e s t s oi l s except occ asionally at
depths of > 3 in . , when Muc or and
Aspe rgillus s pp . we re s ome time s mo re
abundan t . Incub ation for 30 days at 2 8 0
C and 5 0% mois ture c apacity frequently
increas ed the % of Muc o r as we l l as of
Penicil lum s pp . Mucor s pp . we re consis­
tently mo re p redomin ant in s oi l s a s s ocia­
t e d with Alder than in other c o a s t al
s oil s . Mucor and Aspergil l u s s pp . al s o
appeared o f ten in s oil f rom s t ands of
Ponde ro s a Pine g rowing E . o f the Cas­
c ades . The gr.eat e s t concent ration of N
a s N0 3 in unincubated s oi l s was f ound
in a young Red Alder s t and . S amp l e s o f
s oil f rom s t ands of virgin coas tal Red­
wood s howed no N0 3 - N . S oil s from
s t ands o f virgin Sitka Spruce , howeve r ,
s howed con siderable N0 3 conten t , which
increased markedly with incubation .
With few e x c e ption s , bacteria and ac tino­
myc e t e s we re mo s t numerous in the F s oil
h o rizon . Incubation g reatly inc re ased
these population s in mo s t s oil s . " ( FA )
5 4 . Bollen , Wal ter B .
1 9 5 3 . Mul che s and s oil c onditione r s :
carbon and nitrogen in farm and
for e s t produc t s . J . Agric . and Food
Chem . 1 ( 5 ) : 3 7 9-381 .
"The nitrogen content o f organic mat ter
u s ed as mul ches o r s oil conditioners not
only in f luence s r ate and extent of their
de c ompo s ition and humidific ation but al s o
det ermine s the available nitrogen re­
l e a s ed or required . Data on the c arbon­
nitrogen ratio of such mate rials are
therefore e s sential for decompo sition
16
s tudie s and for predic ting additional
nitrogen requirements for optimum mic ro­
bial ac tivitiy . C arbon-nitrogen valu e s
are al s o indicative o f B . O . D . a n d pollu­
tional pot ential s o f or ganic was t e s
dumped into s t reams . Carbon-nitrogen
val ues were determined for 55 ag ric ul­
tural and fore s t was te s u s ed on s oils in
the Pacific Nor thwe s t . All coniferous
wood was te s are similar in containing
appro ximately 5 0% c arbon and lit tle
nitroge n . Hay and s t raw average 45%
c arbon and a l s o are low in nitrogen .
Young plan t s and l eguminous material s
are higher in nit rogen , decompo s e re adi­
ly , and liberate nitrogen in available
form . Wood , s t raw , and simil ar re sidu e s
o f wide c arbon-nit rogen ratio decompo s e
s l owl y , demanding available nitrogen in
inve r s e proportion to resis tan t c ompo­
nents . with much lignoce llulo s e and
little wate r-soluble subs tance p r e s en t ,
the c arbon-nit rogen ratio is of s e con­
dary importance in controlling microbial
decompo sition . " ( A )
5 5 . Bollen , Wal ter B . , Chi-Sin Chen , Kuo
C . Lu , and Robert F . Tarrant .
1 9 6 7 . Influence o f red alder on
fertility o f fore s t s oil : Mic robial
and chemic al effec t s . Oreg . For .
Re s . Lab . Re s . Bull . 1 2 , 6 p . Ore g .
S t ate Univ . , Corval lis .
"A detailed s t udy o f ways in which Alnu s
rubra contribu te s to the fertility of a
fore s t s oil . Microbial and chemical
char ac teris tic s of the s oil we re deter­
mined at s e asonal interva l s f rom April
1962 to March 1963 in s t ands of ( a ) pure
Alder , ( b ) pure conifers and ( c ) an
Alder / c o nifer mixture , in Cas c ade Head
Expe rimental Fore s t on the Oregon coas t .
Mould s we re more numerous in the F l ayer s
than in the All horizon , and u s ually lo­
we s t under ( b ) . Numbers o f bacteria
( inc luding S t reptomyc e s s pp . ) wer e high
under ( b ) and low under ( c ) , with peaks
i n Septemb e r i n the F l ayers o f ( a ) and
( b ) ; chan g e s under ( c ) were mo s tly smal l .
S t reptomyc e s s pp . ( wh i ch produce an t i ­
b i ot i c s ) were mo s t prom i nent under ( c )
at all s e a s on s ; atten t i on i s drawn to
the po s s i bl e impo r t ance o f th i s in re­
l at i on to i nh i b i t i o n o f fungal p athogens
o n con i fe r root s . The lowe s t pH value s
we re u s ually found i n s o i l s under ( a ) ,
and the h i ghe s t i n the F l ayer unde r ( b ) .
The pH o f All hor i zons wa s generally
h i gher than that of F laye r s and mor e
var i able s e as onally , t h e h i gh e s t valu e s
be i ng recorded i n July . N i t r ate N and
ac i d i ty wer e always h i gher under ( c )
than ( b ) , i nd i c at i n g the greater proba­
b i l i ty o f i nh i b i t i on o f root-ro t s and
s o i l-borne d i s e a s e s i n ( c ) . Exchange­
able Ca was l e s s abundant in s o i l under
( a ) and ( c ) than under ( b ) . More l i tter ,
w i th a n ar rower C/N rat i o , was c on t r i bu­
ted by ( a ) , partly becau s e o f an abundant
under s torey . N t r an s format i on s we re v i g­
orous i n all the s o i l s ; total N wa s
greater under ( a ) and ( c ) than under ( b ) .
A b r i e f s u rvey of the l i terature i s g i ven
in the append i x . " ( FA )
5 6 . Bond , G .
1 9 5 5 . An i s otop i c s tudy on the f i x­
at i on of n i trogen a s s o c i ated wi th
nodulated plan t s of Alnus , Myr i c a ,
and H i ppophae . J . Exp . Bot .
6 ( 1 7 ) : 303-311 .
5 7 . B ond , G .
1 9 5 6 . Ev i dence for f i x a t i o n o f n i ­
trogen b y root nodu l e s o f alder
( Al nu s ) under f i eld cond i t i on s . New
Phyto l . 5 5 ( 2 ) : 1 4 7 - 1 5 3 .
5 8 . Bond , G .
1964 . I s otop i c i nve s t i g a t i o n s o f
n i trogen f i x at i on i n non-le gume root
nodule s . Nature , Lond .
204 ( 4 9 5 8 ) : 600-601 .
"Ear l i e r expe r ime n t s showed that when 10'10
of N i s present in the supp l i ed atmo s ­
phe re ( to t al pre s s ure 1 atm) f i xat i on i s
de t ached nodu l e s o f Alnu s , Casuar i n a ,
Myr i c a , and H i ppoph ae i s depre s s ed i f
In a further e xper i ­
the
o f 0 i s > 20 .
men t w i th cas u ar i n a nodule s , the extent
of th i s i nh i b i t i on by 0 in the pres ence
of i n c re a s ed gaseous N was i nve s t i g ated .
Re s u l t s wi th 10% N we re s im i l ar to tho s e
already reported . wi th 30% N , the i n­
h i b i tory e f fect of i nc reas i n g 0 ten s i on
was con s i derably m i t i g ated. Th i s could
be e xp l a i ned by c ompe t i t i on between 0
and N at s ome s t age i n the f i xat i o n pro­
c e s s . other aspec t s unde r i nve s t i gat i o n
a r e t h e N-f i x i n g c apac i ty o f exc i s ed and
of homogen i zed nodule s , and the path o f
tran s l o c at i on o f f i xed N i n t h e nodula­
ted plant ( i t i s tentat i vely sugges ted
that th i s normally o c c u r s through the
xylem , at l e a s t in Alnus and H i ppophae ) . "
( FA )
59 . Bond , G .
1 9 6 7 . F i xat i o n o f n i trogen by h i gher
plan t s other than legume s . Ann . Rev.
Pl ant Phys i o l . 18 : 1 0 7 - 1 2 6 .
Rev i ew of the taxonomy , cytology , and
ecology of n i t rogen-f i x i ng root endo­
phytes. D i s c u s s e s prac t i cal and ecolog i ­
c al a s pec t s . Has s eparate s e c t i on s on
myc orrh i z al plan t s and leaf bacter i a .
( CFH )
De s c r i be s apparatus for determi n i ng N
f i xat i on o f i ntact Alnus glu t i no s a root
nodu l e s in the f i e ld . Re s u l t s s how that
f i eld root nodu l e s regul arly f i x n i tro­
gen .
( CFH )
17
60 . Bon d , G .
1 9 7 0 . F i x at i on o f n i t rogen i n non­
legume s wi th Al nus -type root nodules.
In N i trogen nut r i t i on o f the plan t ,
p . 1-8 . E . A . K i rby , ed . Ag r i c .
Chem . Symp . Leeds 2 . Waverly Pre s s ,
Leeds Un i v . , England .
"Casuar i n a , Elaeagnus and other ang i o­
s p e rms po s s e s s root nodu l e s i nhab i ted
e i ther by Rh i zo b i um o r f i l amentous
bacte r i a , the s e n odule type s s howi ng many
phy s i ol o g i c al and b i o log i c al r e s em­
bl anc e s . The N-fix i ng non-legume s , e . g .
Al n u s j orullen s i s , Dryas drummond i i and
Myr i c a c o rd i fo l i a , are con s i dered to be
o f great e c ol o g i c al and economi c impor­
tance in prov i d i n g N i n reg i on s occupied
by natural vegetat i on . " ( FA )
6 1 . Bond , G .
19 7 1 . Root-nodule format i on i n
non-legumi nous ang i o s perms . Plant
and So i l Spec . Vo l . 1 9 7 1 : 31 7-324 .
"Inves t i g at i on s i n progre s s , as part o f
t h e IBP , have c on f i rmed or e s tabl i s hed
the f i x at i on o f N by a number o f non­
le g umi nous s pec i e s , i nc lud i ng Alnus
j o r ullen s i s , Myr i c a c o rd i fo l i a , and .
pi l u l i fera . Informat i on i s g i ven o n
d i u rnal var i at i o n s i n the r at e s of N
f i x at i on o f s ome non-le gume s , w i th the
re s ults of analy s e s of the ami no- ac id
( FA )
c ompos i t i on of the nodu l e s .
II
18
6 2 . Bond , G .
1 9 7 4 . Root-nodule s ymb i o s e s wi th
ac t i nomycete-l i ke organ i sms . In The
b i ology of n i t rogen f i x at i on ,
p . 342-3 7 8 . A . Qu i s pel , ed .
North-Holland Publ . Co . , Ams terdam .
Red alder i s among the s pec i e s d i s c u s s ed
i n relat i on to n i trogen f i x a t i on by root
nodule endophyte s .
( CFH )
63 . Bond , G .
1 9 7 6 . The r e s u l t s o f the IBP s urvey
of root-nodule format ion in non­
legumi nou s ang i o s pe rms . I n s ymb i o t i c
n i trogen f i x at i o n i n plant s ,
p . 443-4 7 4 . P . S . Nutman , ed .
Camb r i dg e Un i v . Pre s s , Eng l and .
L i s t s s pe c i e s o f Alnus and other non­
legumi nous genera found to have root
nodules in a wo rldwi de s u rvey in 1 9 6 7 .
( CFH )
6 4 . Bond , G . , W . W . Fletch e r , and T . P .
Ferg uson .
1 9 5 4 . The deve lopmen t and fun c t i o n
of the root nodu l e s of Alnu s , Myr i c a ,
and H i ppophae . Plant and So i l
5 : 309--3 2 3 .
Report of work w i th Alnus glut i no s a . I n
alnus , t h e optimum p H for g rowth o f nod­
ul ated plan t s i s lower than for nodule
i n i t i at i on. The e f f e c t of ammo n i um­
n i trogen i n the culture solut i on was to
i nc rease plant and nodule deve lopment ,
but the rat i o of nodule we ight to plant
we i ght was decreas ed .
( CFH )
6 5 . Bongard , He i n r i c h Gu s t av .
1833 . Ob s e rvat i on s s u r l a vege t a­
t i on de l ' i l e de si tcha . Akad . Sc i .
st . Peters b . Mem . S c i . Math . Phys .
Nat . S e r . 6 11 : 1 19-1 7 7 .
The or i g i nal de s c r i pt i on o f red alder as
a s pe c i e s .
( CFH)
6 6 . Borden , J . H
and W. F . Dean .
1 9 7 1 . Ob s ervat i on s on E r i ocarnpa
ovata L . ( Hymenopter a :
Tenthred i n i d ae ) i nf e s t i ng red alder
i n s outhwe s tern B r i t i s h Co lumb i a .
J . Entomol . Soc . B . C . 68 : 26-28 .
.
•
"Obs ervat i on s on the b i ology o f E r i o c ampa
ovata ( L . ) on Alnu s rubra i n B r i t i sh
Columb i a i nd i c ated that in th i s prov i nce ,
a s i n Quebe c , the s pec i e s i s b i vol t i ne
and parthenogene t i c and overwi nters as a
prepupa . I n B r i t i s h Columb i a , the f i r s t­
i n s t ar l arvae wer e found to emerge on the
l ower s i d e s of the leave s and to pas s
t h rough 6-7 i n s t ars rather than the 5-6
r e c or de d in Quebe c . I t was noted that
defol i at i o n of the tree characte r i s t i c ­
ally l e f t o n l y t h e m i d r i b and ma i n s econ­
d ary ve i n s and that in l imi ted areas
small tree s m i ght be completely defo l i a­
ted . " ( EO )
6 7 . Bornebu s c h , C . H .
1943 . H . For s ke 1 1 i ge B l adarters
Forhold t i l Oms ae tn i ngen i Skovj ord .
[ The i n fluence of leave s o f d i f­
ferent spec i e s on decompo s i t i on i n
the forest s o il . ]
( Ab s t r . ) For s t l .
For s g s vae sen Dan . 1 6 : 2 6 5 - 2 7 2 .
[In
Dan i sh . German s ummary . ]
68. Bracke t t , M i chae l .
19 7 3 . Not e s on tar i f tree volume
c omputat i o n . State Wash . Dep .
Re s our . Re s ou r . Manage . Rep . 24 ,
26 p . Olymp i a , Was h .
69 . B r amhall , G . , Comp i ler .
1 9 6 6 . Wood mar i ne p i l i ng s ympo s i um .
I I . Tran s c r i pt of s ympo s i um held at
the Un i ve r s i ty of B r i t i s h Columb i a
o n May 30 , 1966 . For . Prod . Lab .
I n f . Re p . VP-X-9 , 108 p . Vancouver ,
B. C.
"A c o l l e c t i on of 9 pape r s , w i th d i s c u s­
s i on on each , compr i s i ng : Mar i ne borer s
i n B . C . coas tal wat e r s . . . : Pro cu rement
and tre atment o f mar ine p i l i ng . . . : Ef­
fect o f i n c i s i ng on pene trat i on o f c r eo­
s ote i n We s tern Hemlock p i l e s . . . j A com­
par i s o n of the as s ay and mul t i pl e bor i n g
me thod s of i n s pec t i ng Douglas F i r mar i ne
p i l i n g . . . j Mar i ne e xposure t e s t s of
pre s su re-t reated Doug l a s F i r and Southern
p i ne . . . j Comb i n ati'on tre atme n t s for ma­
r i ne p i l e s . . . ; Imme r s i on s tud i e s on cop-­
per chrome ar s enate ( Bo l i den K-33 s al t s )
i n Pac i f i c coast wat e r s . . . [ tabulates
and d i s cu s s e s re s ul t s ( generally prom i s ­
i ng ) o f tr i al s o f t imbe r and p o l e s o f
Alnus s p . , . . . at d i fferent local i t i e s
along t h e coas t ] ; Leach i n g rates and
thre shold values of wood pres e rvat i ve s
i n mar i ne expo sure blocks . . . ; and Prob­
l ems and t e ch n i ques i n p i l e d r i v i ng . . . "
( FA )
7 0 . B r ay s h aw , T . C .
1 9 6 0 . Key to the nat i ve tree s of
Canada . Can . Dep . For . Bul l . 1 2 5 ,
,43 p .
"Inc ludes ( 1 ) general key t o the tree s ,
( 2 ) general key to dec i duous trees i n
winter , ( 3 ) s e parate keys t o the
genera . . . Alnus . . . . " ( FA )
19
7 1 . Bray s h aw , T . C .
1 9 7 6 . Catk i n bear i ng plants
( Ament i ferae ) o f B r i t i s h Columb i a .
Occas . Pap . B . C . Prov o Mus . 18 ,
1 7 6 p . V i c tor i a , B . C .
7 2 . B r i gg s , Dav i d G . , and Jame s S .
B e the l .
1 9 7 8 . The poten t i al for i ntegrated
ut i l i z at i on of alde r . In ut i l i z at i o n
a n d management o f alde r , p . 163- 1 7 3 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBe ll , and
Wi l l i am A . Atki n s o n c omp i lers . USDA
For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
" In at temp t i ng to evaluate ut i l i zat i o n
p o s s i b i l i t i e s from fore s t s t ands , we are
o f ten confronted wi th an array of data
t h at i s e i ther i n the wrong un i t s o f mea­
s u reme n t or h a s i napprop r i ate ut i l i z at i on
a s sumv t i o n s bu i l t i n . Ecolog i s t s can of­
t e n provide b i omas s data ; but th i s i s
u s ually expre s s ed i n terms of total
we i g h t s I) f c rown s , s tems , and roots w i th
l i ttle regard to components u s e ful to
man . The fore s te r s ' tool s are log rul e s ,
volume table s , and y i e ld tabl e s ; but
t h e s e are o f l imi ted value becau s e they
o f ten i nc o rporate f i xed and s omewh at
a r b i t rary as s umpt i on s concern i ng produc t
m i x and manufac t ur i ng parameters .
"What i s needed i s a method that
v i ews the s t and in terms of i t s bas i c
u n i t s , the tre e s , and o n the bas i s o f
'
t h e s i ze s and s h apes o f trees c an apply
r e levant manufac tur i ng req u i rements to
obta i n e s t imates of product outpu t .
S u ch an approach i s de s c r i bed and i l­
l u s trated whe re an alder s t and i s be i n g
c o n s i de red for convent i onal s awlo g s and
p u l p , l o g s SHOLO and pul p , and a mi xture
of the two . " ( A )
20
7 3 . B r i gg s , Dav i d G . , Jame s S . Bethe l ,
and Ger ard F . S chreude r .
1 9 7 8 . An appro ach for compar i ng the
relat i ve value o f alder wi th other
s pec i e s f rom f o r e s t to end produc t .
In ut i l i z at i o n and management of
alde r , p . 3 5 -46 . Dav i d G. B r i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBe l l , and W . A . Atk i n s o n ,
comp i lers . USDA For . S e rv o Gen .
Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Range Exp . St n . , Portl and ,
Oreg .
"Compar i ng alder as a renewable s pe c i e s
w i th other s pec i e s depends o n a thorough
analy s i s o f a var i e ty of techn i c al and
economi c data from the s y s tem for growing
trees through the i r end u s e . All too
f requent ly , det a i l and components o f the
s y s tem are ove r looked i n po l i c y an alys i s
becau s e a c on s i s tent and c omprehens i ve
format o f appropr i ate data i s not ava i l ­
able .
"What i s needed i s a framework that
i ncorporat e s d i ve r s e i n forma t i on on the
techn i c al , economi c , l abor , energy , and
envi ronmental a s p e c t s o f produc t i on s y s ­
tems , c aptures tho s e ch arac ter i s t i c s
important t o pol i cy dec i s i o n s , and thu s
f ac i l i t at e s the s tudy o f the role o f
alder as a s ource o f mater i al s i n c om-­
par i s on to c ompe t i ng alterna t i ve s .
"Th i s paper expl a i n s the Re ference
Mate r i al s Sys tem ( RMS ) adapted by the
Nat i onal Ac ademy o f Sc i e n c e s ' Commi ttee
on Renewable Re s ources for Indu s t r i al
Mate r i al s . RMS i s sugge s ted for u s e i n
exami n i ng the c omplex i s s u e s concern ing
alder management and ut i l i z at i on . " ( A )
7 4 . Br i gg s , Dav i d G . , Dean S . DeBel l ,
and Wi l l i am A . Atk i n s on , Comp i l e r s .
1 9 7 8 . Ut i l i z at ion and management o f
alder . USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech .
Rep . PNW- 7 0 , 3 7 9 p . , i l l u s . Pac .
No rthwe s t For . and Range EXp . S t n . ,
Portland , Oreg .
Proceed i n g s o f a s ympo s i um held at Ocean
Shore s , Was h i ngton , Apr i l 2 5 - 2 7 , 19 7 7 .
Con tr ibutors are c i ted e l s ewhere i n th i s
b i b l i ogr aphy .
( CFH)
7 5 . B r i l l , W i n s ton J .
1 9 7 7 . B i olog i c al n i trogen f i xat i o n .
S c i . Am . 23 6 ( 3 ) : 6 8-81 .
A popular account of the b i ology and
c hemi stry of n i trogen f i x at i on .
( CFH)
7 6 . B r i t i s h columb i a Departmen t o f Lands
and Fore s t s .
1 9 5 3 . Chemi c al treatment o f s t and i n g
tree s as a method of debarki ng . I n
Report of t h e Fore s t Serv i c e 19 5 2 ,
p . 38-39 . V i ctor i a , B . C .
"Na 2 HAs 0 3 ki lled T s uga heterophyl la
and Alnus rubra more qu i c kly and e a s i ly
than NH 4 s Ulphamate . Only Alder was
k i lled by E s t eron ( 2 , 4 , 5 - T ) . Doug l as F i r
d i d not r e s pond we l l t o any o f the s e
chemi c al s . Loo s e n i ng of the bark on the
whole s tem was found only on I .
heterophyl l a a f t e r tre atment wi th
arsen i te . " ( FA )
7 7 . Br i t i s h Columb i a Fore s t Serv i ce .
19 4 7 . Yield table s . 3d pr i n t .
p . 42-43 . V i ctor i a B . C .
7 8 . Br i x , H .
19 6 6 . Errors i n me asurement of leaf
water poten t i al of s ome woody plan t s
wi th t h e S c h ardakow dye method .
Dep . For . Can . Pub1 . 1 1 6 4 , 11 p .
Ottawa .
"The S c h ardakow dye me thod g i ve s too l ow
e s t imates of leaf wate r potent i a l s for
Douglas-f i r , b i g1eaf mapl e , and red
The total error could amount to
alder .
-12 . 5 , -6 . 5 , and - 5 . 0 atmo s pheres for
turg i d leave s of the three plants re­
s pe c t i vel y . Con tami nat i on o f test s olu­
t i o n s f rom cut c e l l s i s the maj or s ource
o f erro r , but solute uptake by the l e ave s
from the t e s t s olut i o n s contr i butes to
the total error . B y exclud i ng the con­
centrat ion changes occurr i ng dur i ng the
f i r s t o ne-hal f hour o f t i s s ue equ i l i br a­
t i o n the total error could be reduced to
-7 . 5 , -2 . 4 , and - 1 . 6 atmo s pheres for the
three plan ts . The error i s mo s t l i kely
small e r for leaves h av i ng a lowe r water
poten t i al . " ( A )
7 9 . Brockman , C . F r ank .
19 5 9 . Red alder ( Alnus rubra
Bong . ) . Arbor . Bull . 2 2 ( 2 ) : 5 0- 5 1 ,
5 9 . Arbo r . Found . , Seattle , Wash .
80 . Brough , Sherman G .
19 7 4 . Treme 1 l a globo spo r a , i n the
f i e ld and in cultur e . Can . J . Bot .
5 2 ( 8 ) : 1 8 5 3-1860 .
"Treme l l a globospo r a Re i d i s de s c r ibed
from 3 2 collec t i ons made in B r i t i s h
Columb i a . The fungus grows d i rectly from
wi th i n pe r i the c i a o f s pec i e s of Val s a and
D i aporthe found , in th i s s tudy , on ho s t s
belong i ng to s even Ang i o s pe rm genera and
three of Gymnosperm. S i ngle- s pore i s o­
l at e s were made from bas i d i oc arps s e lec­
ted to repre s e nt as many var i ables as
21
p o s s i b l e ; both c ol o r s ( ye l low and wh i te )
o f the bas i d i oc arp , prox i m i ty o f po s i t i on
o n a s i ngle twi g ver s u s c on s i derable d i s ­
t ance be tween s i te s , both genera of
pyrenomycete hos t , four genera o f s eed
p l an t s , and collec t i o n dates f rom January
t o September . Compat i b i l i ty t e s t s i nd i ­
c ated a s i ngle s pe c i e s wi th a mod i f i e d
t etrapolar mat i n g s y s tem t yp i c al o f t h e
genus Treme l l a . Selec ted d i karyo t i c i s o­
l ates we re grown in l aboratory cult ure
o n s imple med i a , and fert i le bas i d i o­
c arps we re produced . Var i at i o n in s i ze ,
c olor , and cons i s tency o f bas i d i oc arps
i n culture was c ompared wi th tho s e i n
f i eld c o l l ec t i on s . Cl amp connect i on s ,
b r anch i ng f rom the c l amp c e l l , and other
m i cros truc tures produced in c ulture are
a l s o d e s c r i bed . No reac t i on o f I .
globo s po r a t o Val s a c u l tures o r s te r i ­
l i zed Val s a peri the c i a and extracts wa s
o b served . " ( A )
8 1 . Brown , George W . , and James T .
Kryg i e r .
19 7 1 . Clear-cut logg i ng and s ed iment
produ c t i on in the Oregon Coast Ran ge .
Wate r Re s our . Re s . 7 ( 5 ) : 1189-119 8 .
I
" Repo r t s r e s u l t s of an II-year s tudy i n
t h ree small c at c hme n t s wi th Douglas F i r /
Alder fore s t cover to determine the e f­
f e c t o f road con s t r uc t i on , c lear fell i n g
and logg i ng , and s l a s h burn i ng on s e d i ­
ment p roduc t i on . Road c o n s truc t i on and
s l ash burn i ng c au s e d s u b s t an t i al i nc reas­
es i n s ed iment produ c t i o n dur i ng a 4-ye ar
p e r i od , whe reas f e l l i ng and yard i ng d i d
n o t . Conc lu s i on s about the s i gn i f i c anc e
o f a l l except v e r y l arge changes i n s ed i ­
ment produ c t i on are l im i ted becau s e o f
annual var i at i o n s w i t h i n t h e be tween
c at chmen t s . " ( FA )
8 2 . Brown , K . J . , and J . N . McGovern .
1 9 5 3 H i gh-y i eld cold s oda pulps and
produ c t s from s everal wood s . Pap .
Ind . 3 5 ( 1 ) : 66-69 .
"Hardwoods such as as pen ( I ) , b i rch ( I I ) , red alder ( I I I ) , sweet gum ( IV ) , cot ton­
wood ( V ) , red ( VI ) and wh i te oak ( VI I ) and mi x t s . o f I I I and VI o r VI I could be pulped by the ' c old soda proc e s s ' (VI I I ) wh i c h ent a i l s s te ep i ng 1 . 5 - 2 hrs . at atm . pre s s ure and room temp . wi th s o l n s . contg . 20-100 g . NaOH/ l . , r e s ul t i ng i n chem . c o n s umpt i on of 5-8% ( on the dry­
wood bas i s ) . S ome hemi cellulo s e s are l o s t , but there i s l i ttle i f any l o s s i n l i g n i n o r a-c e l l ulo s e . The s o f tened c h i p s are f i be r i zed in an attr i t ion mi ll . Yi elds range from 88 to 9 0% and the r e ­ s ul t i ng pul p s c o u l d b e bleached s at i s f ac ­ tor i ly to a b r i ghtne s s o f 6 5 - 7 0% . B l e ached pulps from I we re apparently s u i table for u s e in p r i n t ing pape r s o f t h e groundwood type ( but further p r i nt­
i ng t e s t s are req u i red ) . Corrugat i ng boards w i th h i gh flat-crus h-re s i s tance could be made f rom I , I I I , and IV . At the s ame y i eld , I , I I , I I I , and V pulps are s t ronger than tho s e from IV , VI , and VII . W i t h i n l i m i t s of the proces s , the
pulp s t rength i nc r e a s e s wi th decreas i n g
y i eld .
The s t rength al s o i nc r e a s e s as
the pulp s are proc e s sed to lower free­
ne s s . B ark adve r s ely af fec t s VIII and
lowe r s pulp and board qual i ty . Softwoods
( l i ke j ac k p i ne and hemlock ) are not
s at i s f acto r i l y pulped by VI I I . " ( FA )
8 3 . Browne , F . G .
1968 . Pe s t s and d i s e a s e s o f forest
plantat i on trees . 1 , 33 0 p .
Cl arendon Pre s s , Oxford .
B rowne c omprehen s i ve ly de s c r i b e s an imal
p e s t s , pathogen i c v i r u s e s , bacter i a ,
fung i , and h i gher plants found o n fore s t
plantat i on tre e s throughout the B r i t i s h
Commonwe alth . Spec i e s l i s t i ng prov i de s
c ro s s -reference to pe s t s . No general
i ndex . Exten s i ve b i bl i ography .
( CFH )
22
84 . Browne , J . E .
1 9 6 2 . s t andard cub i c - foot volume
t able s for the conwerc i al tree
s pe c i e s o f Br i t i s h Columb i a , 1 9 6 2 .
1 0 7 p . B . C . For . Serv o For . Surv .
and I nventory D i v . , V i c to r i a , B . C .
8 5 . Bruce , Dav i d , Robert O . Curt i s , and
Caryanne VanCoever i ng .
1 9 6 8 . Development o f a s y s tem of
t aper and vo lume t ables for red
alde r . For . S c i . 14 ( 3 ) : 339-3 5 0 .
"An e s t imat i n g equat ion wa s der i ved for
red alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . ) , expre s s i n g
r at i o o f s quared upper s tem d . i . b . to
s qu ared dbh ou t s i de bark as a fun c t i o n
o f dbh , t o t al he i gh t , and t h e 3 / 2 , 3rd ,
3 2 nd , and 40th powers of relat i ve he i gh t .
Th i s equat i on fo rmed the bas i s for a sys­
t em of t ab l e s and equat i on s wh i ch pro­
v i de s e s t imat e s of tree volume for var i ­
o u s comb i nat i ons of prod i c t un i t s , u t i l i ­
z at i on l im i t s , and s i ze c l as s e s o f mate ­
r i al . The me thods used should also be
appl i c able to other s pe c i e s . " ( A )
8 6 . Bryan t , Ben S . , and Judson Wonderly .
1964 . An econom i c analys i s of the
hardwood i ndus try of we s t e r n
Wa s h i ng to n . 101 p . I n s t . For .
Prod . , Un iv . Was h . , Seattle , and Bus .
and Econ . Re s . D i v . , Was h . S t ate Dep .
Comme r . and Econ . Dev . , Olymp i a .
A repr i n t o f the mas te r ' s the s i s s ubm i t­
t ed by John H . Grovey ( 08 ) . D i s c u s s e s
h i s tory and growth of h ardwood l umber
i ndus try of we s tern Wa s h i ngton . Includes
var ious s t at i s t i c s on consump t i o n p r i c e s
and harve s t s . Compare s phys i c al proper­
t i e s and u s e s of Nor thwe s t hardwood s .
( CF H )
8 7 . Bubl i t z , Wal ter J . , and Tommy D .
Far r .
1 9 7 1 . Pu l p i n g charac ter i s t i c s o f
b i g 1eaf maple ( Ac e I' mac rophyl1um
Purs h . ) . Tapp i 5 4 ( 10 ) : 1 7 16-1 7 20 .
" B i gleaf maple i s a hardwood that g rows
prol i f i cally i n the c o a s t range of the
Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t , and there i s an e s ­
t i mated 3 b i l l i o n board f e e t of th i s
s pec i e s growi ng i n Oregon alone . The
pulpwood poten t i al o f th i s s pec i e s wa s
i nve s t i gated for four proce s s e s : kraf t ,
Magne f i te , sem i chem i c al , and ref i ne r
groundwood . B l e ac h i ng t r i al s we re
condu c t ed on the kraf t , Magne f i te , and
ground wood pulps . s u i t able qual i ty
unble ached pul ps c an be made i n good
y i elds by the kr aft and Magne f i te pro­
c e s s e s , and these pulps may be read i l y
bleached to 7 0-80 b r i ghtne s s by s t andard
bleac h i ng tech n i que s . wi th the except i on
of the ref i ner groundwood pul p , the
s t rength proper t i e s of the bleached and
unbleached pulps compare qu i te favorably
wi th tho s e of other hardwood market
pUlps .
The r e f i ner groundwood i s weak
and has low s c atter i ng powe r . The Con­
cora cru s h i ng s t rength of NSSC pulp ,
howeve r , i s e x c e p t i onally h i gh for the
h i gh y i eld of that pul p , wh i ch sugge s t s
that b i gleaf mapl e would make a n out­
s t and i ng corrug at ing med i um pulp . "
[Tabular c ompar i s on wi th s t rength
proper t i e s of other s pe c i e s i nc lud i n g
red alder . ] ( A )
88 . Calder , J . A . , and Roy L . Taylor
1968 . Flora o f the Queen Charlotte
I s l ands . Part 1 . Systemat i c s of
the vascular plant s . Can . Dep .
Ag r i c . Mon . 4 , 6 5 8 p . ottawa .
Ecology and d i s t r i bu t i on o f red alder i n
the Queen Char lotte I s l ands i s g i ven .
There a l s o i s an exte ns i ve d i s c u s s i on of
botan i c al h i s tory , phys i ography , geology ,
( CFH )
c l i mate , and plant c ommun i t i e s .
23
8 9 . Calder , J . A . , and Roy L . Taylor .
1 9 6 8 . Flora o f the Queen Charlotte
I s l ands . Part 2 . Cytolog i c al
a s p e c t s o f the vas cular plan t s .
C an . Dep . Ag r i c . Mon . 4 , 148 p .
ottawa .
C hromo s ome number o f f i ve collec t i ons o f
r e d alder are reported a s 2n=28 . Methods
and mate r i al s s ec t i o n de s c r i b e s f i eld
c o l le c t ion and l aboratory determi nat ion
of chromo s ome numbe r .
( CFH )
9 0 . C al l i er , A .
1 89 2 . tib e r d i e i n Schle s i e n
vorkommenden Formen d e r Gattung
Alnus . Jahresbe r . der Sch1e s i s chen
Ges . fur Vater1 . Cul t . 6 9 ( 2 ) : 7 2-85 .
9 1 . C al l i e r , A .
1904 . Gattung Alnus . In
I 1 l u s t r i e r t e s H andbuch der
L aubho1zkunde Jena . C . K .
Schne i de r , ed . Vo l . 1 , p . 119-1 3 6 ;
Vol 2 , p . 8 5 7 -891 .
9 4 . Came ron , P . J . , and W . G .
We l l i ngton .
19 7 5 . Effe c t s of the plant growth
regUlator i ndolebutyr i c ac i d on the
growth , developmen t , and reproduc­
t i on o f the we s tern tent cater­
p i l l ar , Ma1 acosoma c a1 i forn i c um
pluvi a1e ( Le p i doptera :
Las i oc amp i d ae ) . Can . Entomol .
1 0 7 ( 1 2 ) : 1339-134 2 .
"In l aboratory exper iments i n Br i t i s h
Columb i a , the synthe t i c plant-growth
regUlator i ndolebutyr i c ac i d added at
0 . 1 g / l i tre to the water i n wh i c h was
kept cut fol i age of red alde r ( Alnus
ubra) on wh i ch l arvae o f Mal aco s oma
c a l i forn i cum pluv i ale ( Dyar ) were reared
delayed pupat i on , caused a reduc t ion i n
the we i g h t o f the pupae , and h i nde red
the last l arval moult . Larvae fed o n
treated fol i age when very young gave
r i s e to adults that produced more e g g s
and a h i gher proport ion o f v i able ones
than the untreated control s . Tre atment
of older l arvae produced an t i gonado­
troph i c e f fec t s . " ( EO )
95 .
9 2 . Call i e r , A .
1 9 1 1 . D i agno s e s formarum novarum
gener i s Alnus . Fedde Repe r t .
Sperc i e rum Nov . Reg n i Veg . 24 8 / 2 5 0 ,
X . B and , p . 2 2 5 - 2 3 7 .
9 3 . Call i er , A .
1 9 1 8 . Alnus Formen der europa i s chen
H e rbar i e n und Garten . M i t t . Dtsch .
Dendrol . Ge s . 2 7 : 38-18 5 .
24
C ar s ten s e n , John P .
1961 . Glu i ng character i s t i c s of
s o f twood veneers and s econdary
we s tern h ardwood s . For . Prod . J .
11 ( 7 ) : 313-3 1 5 .
" D i s c u s s e s the mod i f i c at i ons i n
formul at ions and techn iques nece s s ary
when u s i ng prote i n or synthe t i c res i n
glues , normall y formu lated for Doug las­
f i r , for We s tern P i ne s , Sequo i a , We s tern
Red Cedar , We s tern Hemlock , We s t ern
Larc h , s i tka Spruc e , true F i r s , Red
Alde r , Pac i f i c Hadrone and Tan Oak . " ( FA )
9 6 . Chamberla i n , Char l e s T .
19 2 7 . Ob s e rvat i o n s on the tre atment
of hay fever i n the Pac i f i c Nor th­
we s t : F i fty-three c a s e s . Ann .
Oto l . Rh inol . Laryngo l .
36 : 1083-109 2 .
"1 .
Appro x imat ely 9 5 per cent o f
all hay f ever i n Oregon i s of the e arly
o r midsumme r type , c au s ed by the po l l e n s
o f t h e gras s e s .
"2 .
The c u t aneous or s c ratch me thod
o f t e s t i n g pat i en t s for the i r po llen re­
a c t ions i s s at i s f ac tory i f performed
c arefully and wi th un i form techn i c .
"3 . The gly e r i n s aturated s o d i um
chlor i d s o lut ion method of extrac t i n g
pollens g i ve s a more potent preparat i on ,
both for t e s t ing and for treatme n t , than
the 12 per cent alcoho l i c normal s al i ne
e xtract .
4 . More i nt en s i v tre atment by u s e
o f more potent po llen extrac t s , g i v i ng o f
mor e frequent do s e s , and a larger f i nal
do s e , g i ves better end r e s u l t s in h ay
fever treatmen t s .
5 . The comb i n i ng o f s everal pol­
l e n s , e s pe c i al l y i s from d i fferent groups
of plan t s , in a t re atme nt prepar a t i o n i s
n o t adv i s able , and may be a factor i n
f a i lure t o secure s at i s fac tory r e s u l t s
i n s ome c as e s .
6 . A thorough survey o f the botan­
i c al flora of a l o c al i ty mu s t be made ,
and the hay f ever plants , wi th the i r
d i s t r i bu t i on and dat e s o f po l l i n at ion
known , before one c an hope to obt a i n the
b e s t po s s i b le r e s u l t s in h ay fever work . "
( A)
9 7 . Chambers , Char l e s J .
1 9 7 4 . Emp i r i c al y i e l d tables for
predom i nan tly alder s tands i n
we s tern Wash i ng ton . Was h . state
Dep . Nat . Re sour . DNR Re p . 3 1 ,
7 0 p . Olymp i a , Wash .
developed for pure h ardwood and mi xed
h ardwood-c on i f e r s t ands , u s i ng total age
and 5 0-year s i te i ndex c urve s . Den s i ty
expre s s ed as percent normal basal area
( PNBA ) was added to i nc r e a s e accurac y .
I t was conc luded that there was no s i g­
n i f i c an t d i fference in cub i c volume , top
and s tump ( CVT S ) be twe en pure h ardwood
and m i x e d h arwood-con i fer s t ands on DNR
l ands i n We s te rn Wash i ngton . Pure , even­
aged h ardwood s t and and s tock t able s ,
wi th volume by log po s i t i o n by DBH
c l a s s e s , we re cons tructed , based on 3 6
h ardwood po i n t s . Hardwood s t ands i n
t h i s report are a s s umed t o b e predom i ­
nantly alder s t ands . " ( A )
9 8 . Chang , Yi ng-Pe , and Raymond L .
M i tchell .
1 9 5 5 . Chemi c al compo s i t i on o f
common North Amer i c an pulpwood
barks . Tap p i 3 8 ( 5 ) : 3 1 5 -3 2 0 .
"Componen t s determi ned i n 9 s o f twood and
15 h ardwood barks we re as follows : ash ,
extrac t i ve s , ' l i gn i n ' , me thoxyl i n
' l i gn i n ' and bark , and the amount and
c ompo s i t i on of the r educ i n g s ugars pro­
duced from extrac t i ve-·free bark by 7 2"10
H 2 S0 4 ' The hot-water e xtrac t was
t e s ted qual i t a t i vely for t an n i n s by two
me thod s . Solub i l i ty of bark i n 1% NaOH
and the amount of prec i p i tate obt a i ned
by ac i d i fy i ng the al kal i ne extract were
also determined . Heat o f c ombu s t i o n
values wer e me asured f o r 8 s o f twood and
12 h ardwood barks . Mo s t of the barks
c on t a i n relat i vely l arge amounts of ash ,
e x t r ac t i ve s , ' l i gn i n ' and mater i al s ol­
uble in 1% NaOH . The h i gh solub i l i ty i n
alkal i , e xceed i ng 5 0% for s even barks ,
s ugge s t s a poten t i al me ans for u t i l i z i n g
t h e s e b arks . Apparent trends i n the r e ­
l at i on of chem i cal c ompo s i t i o n to phy s i ­
cal s t ruc t ure o f bark are d i s cu s sed
(A)
br i e f l y .
It
"Y i e ld t ables based on 1 7 4 pe rmanent
p o i n t s loc ated i n We s tern Wa s h i n g ton we re
25
99 .
Chen , Chi-s i n .
1 9 6 5 . Inf luence of i n t erplanted
and pure s t ands of red alder ( Alnus
rubra Bong . ) on m i c rob i al and chem­
i c al character i s t i c s o f a coastal
f o re s t s o i l i n the Doug l as-f i r re­
g i on . Ph . D. t h e s i s . Ore g . state
Un i v . , Corval l i s . 164 p .
" G i v e s the r e s u l t s o f a s t udy on the d i s ­
t r i bu t i on of moulds and bacte r i a , pH val­
u e s , c o n t e n t s o f N , s u l phate , pho s phate ,
and e x c h angeable H and c at i on s , the de­
g ree of ammon i f i c a t i on and n i t r i f i c at i on ,
and the s -o x i d i z i ng power i n the var i o u s
h o r i z o n s o f s o i l s unde r Alde r , con i fer s ,
and mi xed Alde r s and c on i fers , and the
dry mat te r , NH 4 _ ' N03 _ and Kj eldahl
N in c anopy r a i n fall and s tem flow . "
( FA)
1 00 . Cheng , Ch i Shan .
1 9 4 9 . The s o ak i ng tre atment of
black cottonwood and red alder
fence pos t s in pentachlorophenol .
J . For . 4 7 ( 8 ) : 6 5 1-65 2 .
" A report on i nve s t i g at i on s i n to cold­
and ho t - s o ak i n g pre s e rvat i ve tre atments
of s e asoned B l ac k Cottonwood [ Populus
t r i choc arpa J and Red Alder [ Alnus rubra J .
Round po s t s c an be suc c e s s fully treated
b y s o ak i n g in unheated 5% pentachloro­
phenol / d i e s e l - o i l s o l u t i on , so long as
the de pth o f the s o lu t i on is not l e s s
t han t h e h e i gh t o f tre atment de s i red .
I n c i s i ng the po s t s doubled the depth of
r ad i al pene trat i on i n Red Alder and i n­
c reased i t by about 10% i n Bl ack Cotton­
wood . A reduc t i on i n retent i on is pos s i ­
b l e i n i nc i sed po s t s o f these s pe c i e s
b e c au s e the u n i form r ad i al pene trat i o n
obtai ned make s i t unnec e s s ary to rely o n
e nd penet rat i o n . No s i g i n i f i c ant d i f­
f erence c ould be found be tween hot and
c old- s o aki ng . " ( FA )
26
101 . Chow , S .
1 9 7 2 . Thermal reac t i on s and i ndus­
t r i al uses of bark . Wood and
F i be r 4 ( 3 ) : 130-138 .
"Demons trates that phenols i n Doug l a s
F i r and Red Alder bark c an be polymer­
i zed at t empe ratures above 200 deg . C .
and de s c r ibes how t h i s reac t i on c an be
u s ed to advan tage in the produ c t i o n of
mate r i al wi th h i gh o i l ab s o rp t i o n ( u s e f u l
e . g . for c l e an i ng up o i l s p i l l s ) , o r ad­
he s i ve - free bark c h i pboard s .
"Boards made i n th i s way were equal
i n i n ternal bond s t rength and bend i ng
s t rength to , and greater i n d i me n s i onal
s t ab i l i ty than , corre s pond i ng bark board s
manufac tured at lowe r temperatures and
cont a i n i n g 4 . 5% PF adhe s i ve s . " ( FA )
102 . Chow , S . , and K . J . P i c kle s .
1 9 7 1 . Thermal s o f ten i ng and degra­
dat i on of wood and bar k . Wood and
F i be r 3 ( 3 ) : 1 6 6-1 7 8 .
"The thermal soften i ng o f powdered wood
and bark of Ps eudo t s uga men z i e s i i and
Alnus rubra was s tud i ed over a range of
mo i s ture conten t s . S o f te n i ng o f oven­
dry s ampl e s beg i n s at 1800 C and ends at
about 5 00 0 C , wi th a max imum rate of
s o f ten i ng at 380 ° C . An i nc re a s e in m . c .
lowers the softe n i ng temperature owi n g
t o plas t i c i z at i on b y mo i s t ure . The
reac t ions occurr ing when wood and bark
are heated above 1800 C we re shown by
d i f fe ren t i al thermal analys i s , i n f ra-red
s pe c t r o s c opy and X-ray d i ffrac t i on to be
of two type s : depolyme r i z at i on de grada­
t i on of c arbohydrate s , and polyme r i z at i on
of e x t r ac t i ve s and l i gn i n c ompone n t s .
D i f fe rences i n thermal behav i our o f s o f t­
woods and hardwoods are noted .
The ex­
per ime n t s also i nc l uded mater i al s o f two
other con i f ers and two other h ardwoods ,
but r e s u l t s are g i ven i n det a i l only for
. me nz i e s i i and . rubra . " ( FA)
103 . C l ark , Donald H .
1 9 5 5 . Alder comes of age . Pac .
Co as t Hardwoods ( F al l ) : 6- 7 .
Nor t hwe s t Hardwood As s o c . ,
S e at tle , Wash .
D i s cu s s i on of prope r t i e s , u s e s , and
f u ture o f red alder as a c ommerc i al
s pec i e s .
( CI)'H )
104 . Clark , Donald H .
1 9 5 5 . Fore s t i ndu s t ry survey of
Lewi s Coun ty , Wa s h i ngton . New
Wood-Use S er . , l n s t . For . Prod .
C i rc . 2 9 , 33 p . Un i v . Wash . ,
Seat tle .
I n 1 9 5 5 , there was 98 m i l l i o n board feet
o f red alder in Lewi s County , Wa s h i ng ton .
Th i s was 5 8 percent of all hardwoods .
( CI)'H )
1 0 5 . C l ar k , Donald H .
1 9 5 6 . Alder for s ake s C i ndere lla
role . We s t . Cons erv . J .
1 3 ( 1 ) : 30- 3 1 , 51- 5 2 .
1 0 6 . Clark , Donald H .
1 9 5 6 . Hardwood t i mber i nventory
o f S nohom i s h coun ty . Wash i ngton .
I n s t . For . Prod . C i rc . 3 1 , 13 p .
Un i v . Wash . , Seatt l e .
1 0 7 . Clark , Donald H .
1 9 5 6 . Hardwoods o f f e r pul p i ng
r e s ource s . We s t . Con s e rv . J .
1 3 ( 6 ) : 20-2 2 .
con s i d e r s hardwoods and e s pec i ally red
alder as pUlpwood . D i s c u s s e s produc t i o n
me thod s , pulpwood spec i f i c at i ons , me as­
ureme n t , and ava i l ab i l i ty .
( CFH )
108 . C l ark , Donald H .
1 9 5 7 . Deve lopme n t s i n the u s e of
red alde r . For . Prod . J .
7 ( 1 1 ) : 1 7 A- 2 0A .
"Pac i f i c Coas t red alder , a fas t-grow i n g ,
aggre s s i ve tree , i s eme rg i n g from com­
me rc i al ob s cu r i ty i n to a pos i t i o n of d i s ­
t i n c t value i n the fore s t products f i el d .
I t has been added to s o f twoods as a de­
s i rable mate r i al for s everal types of pa­
per . Inc reased u t i l i z at i o n forec a s t s a
future demand that may equal the ava i l­
able s upply i n Oregon , Was h i ngton , and
Br i t i s h Columb i a . " ( A )
109 . Cl ark , J . B . , and G . R . L i s t er .
1 9 7 3 . A c omparat ive s t udy of the
photosynthe t i c ac t i on s pectra for
a dec i duous and four c o n i ferous
t ree s .
( Ab s t r . ) Plan t Phys i o l .
5 1 ( Suppl . ) : 20 .
s t at i s t i c al data r e s ul t i n g from a f i e ld
s u rvey of var. i ous hardwood types i n
S nohomi s h County , Wash i ng ton , USA , t aken
i n the s ummer of 1 9 5 5 . cont a i n s tables
and char t s of volume s of var i o u s spec i e s ,
mai nly red alder . Make s reconwendat i o n s
f o r man ag emen t , h arve s t , and marke t i ng .
( CI!'H )
27
1 1 0 . C l ark , John B . , and Geoff rey R .
L i s te r .
1 9 7 5 . Pho t o s yn thet i c ac t i on
s pe c t r a o f tre e s . I . Compar at i ve
pho tosynthe t i c ac t i on s pectra of
one dec i duous and four c o n i ferous
t re e s pec i e s as rel ated to the
photor e s p i rat i on and p i gment c om­
p l eme n t s . Plan t Phys i o1 .
5 5 ( 2 ) : 401-406 .
"Des c r i be s l aboratory s tud i e s i n wh i c h
me asuremen t s we re made o f the relat i ve
s pectral phot o s ynthet i c ac t i v i t i e s o f
2 - t o 3 -year-old f i eld-g rown s eedl i ng s o f
Alnus rubra ( a ) P s eudo t s uga menz i e s i i
. pungen s
( b ) , P i ce a s i tchen s i s ( c ) .
( d ) a n d . pungen s var . hoops i i ( e ) .
Compared w i th the red peak o f photo­
s ynthe t i c ac t i v i t y , the r e l at i ve rates
of net pho t o s yn t he s i s i n blue l i ght wer e
h i gh e s t for the dark-green broad leaf o f
( a ) , i nt ermedi ate f o r t h e green needle s
o f ( b ) and ( c ) , and lowe s t f o r the b1ue­
g reen and blue-wh i te needles of ( d ) and
( e ) r e s pe c t i vely . Le af form per se was
n o t re s pon s i bl e for these r e s ul t s . The
d i fferences we re more s ubt l e , r e s u l t i n g
f rom the d i f ferent i al operat ion o f var i ­
o u s phot o s ynthe s i s - s c reen i ng mec han i sms .
I t i s conc luded that the relat i vely
h i gh c aroteno i d/ c hlorophyll rat i o o f the
' green ' c o n i f e r s , as c ompared wi th ( a ) ,
i s r e s pon s i bl e for the i r r e l at ively lower
photosynthet i c act i v i ty i n blue l i gh t as
a r e s u l t of ab s o rpt i o n s c reen ing of the
c hlorophyll by the extra c aroteno i d s .
F o r the ' blue ' con i fer s , the add i t i onal
f actor o f leaf colour is also i nvolved ,
wh i ch d i f fe re n t i ate s them from the
' green ' con i fers . " ( FA )
28
1 1 1 . Clark , John B . , and G e o f f r e y R .
L i s te r .
19 7 5 . Photo s ynthet i c ac t i o n
s pec t r a ' of tre e s . I I . The
r e l at i on s h i p o f cut i c l e s tructure
to the v i s i b le and ultrav i o l e t
spectr al propert i e s o f needl e s
f rom four con i ferous spec i e s .
P l an t Phys i o l . 5 5 ( 2 ) : 4 0 7 - 4 1 3 .
"The relat i ve reflectance s pe c t r a o f nee­
dles of ( d ) and ( e ) that had been w i ped
to remove the blu i s h colorat i on from the
needle surfac e s , we re very s imi lar to
those for the n ormal ' green ' f o l i age o f
( b ) and ( c ) . Sc ann i ng elec tron m i c ro s co­
py o f surfaces o f unwi ped needl e s o f ( d )
and ( e ) reve aled a s ys t em o f wax f i l a­
men t s who s e c omplex i ty was corre l ated
wi th the degree of ultrav i o l e t and blue
reflectanc e . It i s conc luded that both
the blu i s h appe arance ( g l aucous b loom)
and the low relat i ve e f f i c i en c i e s of blue
l i gh t in pho t o s yn the s i s of ( d ) and ( e )
r e s u l t from the s e l e c t i vely enhanced re­
flect ion of blue l i ght c au s e d by the pre­
s ence of wax depo s i t s on the cut i c l e . "
( FA )
1 1 2 . Clark , Robert H . , and Harold R .
Offord .
1 9 2 6 . The t ann i n content o f
B r i t i s h Columb i an Alnus rubra .
Tran s . Roy . Soc . Can . 2 0 ( S e c t .
I I I ) : 14 9 - 1 5 2 .
"Alder be i ng immune to the at tacks o f the
t e redo th i s wood is exten s i ve l y u s ed for
p i l i ng . The authors i nve s t i g ated the
commerc i al pos s i b i l i ty o f e x t r ac t i n g t an­
n i n from the rema i n i ng por t i on s o f the
tree . An aly s e s showed a r i s e in the t an­
n i n content up to l ate fall when a sudden
drop oc curred after the s ap c e ased to
flow. Th i s var i at i on i s s im i l ar to that
o f the we s tern heml o c k . The m i n i mum tan­
n i n content of 2 . 7 9 percent occur red i n
January and the max i mum of 6 . 60 percent
in March . Th i s does not war rant a c om­
merc i al e x t rac t i o n at the pre s ent t ime . "
( CA )
1 1 3 . Cole , Dale W . , S . P . Ge s s e l , and
John Turner .
1 9 7 8 . Comparat i ve m i ne r al cyc l i n g
i n r e d alder and Douglas - f i r . In
Ut i l i zat i o n and management of
alde r , p . 3 2 7 -336 . Dav i d G .
B r i g g s , Dean S . DeBe l l , and
Wi l l i am A . Atk i nson , comp i lers .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"A c ompar a t i ve s tudy o f mi neral cyc l i ng
be tween s e c ond- growth fore s t s o f red
alder ( Alnu rubr a ) and Doug l a s -f i r
( P s eudot s uga menz i e s i i ) was made at the
Thompson r e s e arch s i te wi t h i n the Cedar
R i ve r water shed , we s tern Wa s h i ng ton .
Both s i te s have s imi l ar h i s to r i e s and
are adj o i n i ng on g l ac i al dr i f t mate r i ­
a l . The r ate o f eleme ntal cyc l i ng i s f ar
f a s ter i n alder than i n Dou g l as - f i r . The
red alder e c o s y s t em i s ac cumulat i ng 85 kg
h a-1 yr - 1 mo re n i trogen than the
Douglas - f i r , apparently through b i olog i ­
c al f i xat i o n . Greater perc e n t ages o f the
n u t r i en t s are s tored wi th i n the trees and
unders tory vege t a t i on i n the alder eco­
s y s tem, but the s e nut r i en t s rema i n w i th i n
the fol i age and fore s t floor two t o f i ve
t ime s longer in Douglas -f i r than i n
alder . Nu t r i ent l e ach i ng l o s s e s are
s l i ghtly h i gher wi th i n the alder eco­
s y s tem . Th i s s tudy helps c l ar i fy the
role of red alder in s e co nd-growth
f o r e s t s and prov i d e s i n s i gh t i n to the
manageme n t of th i s type of e c o s y s t em .
(A)
114 . Cole , Dale W . , and S t anley P .
Ge s s e l .
1 9 6 8 . Cedar River r e s earc h . A
program for s tudy i ng the pathway s ,
r ate s , and proc e s s e s o f elemen t al
c yc l i ng i n a fore s t e c o s y s t em .
con t r i b . I n s t . For . Prod . 4 , 5 4 p .
Seattle , Wa s h .
"De s c r i be s the exper imental area and i t s
vege t at i o n ( wh i ch i nc lude s three p r i n c i ­
p al types o f fore s t cove r :
a 3 5 -year-old
Douglas F i r pl an t at i on and natural s t ands
o f c a . 3 5 -year-old Douglas F i r and o f 21­
t o 28-year-old Alnus rubr a ) , the f i e l d
i n s trumentat ion , and t h e me thods u s ed f o r
record i ng and analys i ng t h e dat a , and
s ummar i ze s the r e s u l t s of s tud i e s under­
t aken so f ar o n ( 1 ) mineral and water
tran s f e r under natural-ecosys t em con­
d i t i on s and ( 2 ) the i n fluence of al ter i ng
the e c o s y s t em on the rates o f tran s f e r . "
( FA )
1 1 5 . Coll i ngwo od , G . H .
1 9 4 5 . Red alder ( Alnus rubra
Bong . ) . Am. For . 5 1 ( 3 ) : 1 26-12 7 .
General s i 1v i c al characte r i s t i c s o f red
alde r . ( CF H )
1 1 6 . Col l i ngwood , G . H . and Warren D .
Brush .
1 9 5 5 . Red alder Alnu s rubra
Bong . I n Knowi ng your t ree s .
p . 1 7 4-1 7 5 . Am . For . As s oc . ,
Wash i ngton , D . C .
The red alder s e c t i on i s a repr i n t o f an
art i c l e appear i ng i n Col l i ngwood ( 11 5 ) .
S im i l ar ar t i c l e s appe ar i n the 1964 and
1 9 7 4 ed i t i on s of "Know i ng your trees . "
( CFH )
29
1 1 7 . Commonwe alth Bureau o f So i l s .
1 9 7 1 . B i b l i o g r aphy on s o i l rela­
t i on s h i ps , nutr i t i o n and fert i l i ze r
o f alder ( Alnus s pp . ) . Ser . 1 4 5 5 ,
13 p . Harpenden , England .
A c o l l e c t i on o f 49 l i terature c i tat i o n s
w i th ab s t rac t s pert a i n i n g to t h e rela­
t i on s h i p between alder and s o i l fert i l­
i ty . Red alder i s one of the s pec i e s
d i s c u s s ed .
( CF H )
1 1 8 . Cooke , W i l l i am B r i dge .
1 9 5 6 . The genus Phleb i a .
Mycolog i a 48 ( 3 ) : 386-40 5 .
itA rev i s i on of the genus Phleb i a based on
1 5 60 c o l l ec t i on s in 25 herbar i a i s pre­
s ented . The commone s t s pp . , as i nd i c ated
by synonymy and numbe r of collec t i ons ,
are . r ad i at a and . alb i da . Novelt i e s
b as ed o n morpholog i c al var i at i on i nc lude
.
Phleb i a atk i n s o n i ana f rom New York ,
a rgen t i ne n s i s from A gent i n a ,
. celt idi s
o n Ce l t i s from I daho ,
. cys t i d i at a
J ackson on Alnus rub r a from Cal i forn i a ,
. subab i da i n Ab i e s magn i f i c a f rom
C al i fo rn i a ,
. c anade n s i s on Acer , etc .
f rom Ontar i o , and . murr i l l i i on P i nu
f rom F l o r i da . F i ve s pp . we re not ava i l­
able f o r s tudy and 9 s p . prev i o u s ly a s ­
s i gned to Phleb i a we r e exc luded . The
g enus PHAEOPHLEBIA i s propo s ed for .
s t r i go s o-zonata ( -Me ru l i n s s t r i go s o ­
z onat u s S c hn . ) wh i ch has 28 synonyms .
Tendenc i e s o f development w i t h i n the
g enus are noted , but i t i s sugges ted
t h at when 7 8% o f the s pp . treated are
r epre s ented by l e s s than 5% of the
s pec imens s t ud i ed , conc lus i on s are
d i f f i c u l t to make . 1 t ( BA )
30
119 . Corl i s s , J . F . , and C . T . Dyrne s s .
19 6 5 . A de t a i led s o i l-vegetat i on
s u rvey o f the Al s e a area i n the
Oregon Coas t Range . I n Fore s t- s o i l
r e l at i on s h i p s i n North Ame r i c a , p .
4 5 7 - 4 8 3 . Che s te r T . Youngbe r g ,
ed . Oreg . s t ate Un i v . Pre s s . ,
Corvall i s .
120 . Cowan , I . M .
1 94 5 . The ecolog i c al
relat i on s h i p s of the food of the
Columb i an black- t a i led dee r ,
Odo c o i leus hemi onus c olumb i anu s
( R i chardson ) , i n the c o a s t fore s t
reg ion o f southern Vanc ouver
I s l and , B r i t i s h Columb i a .
Ecol . Monog r . 1 5 : 109-139 .
"The c o a s t deer o f Br i t i sh Columb i a i s
pr imar i ly an i nhab i tant o f p i oneer fore s t
commun i t i e s . Logg i ng may be d i rec tly
r e s pon s i ble for produc i n g i mproved cond i ­
t i ons for th i s ungulate . Opt imum cond i ­
t i ons for coast deer occur where a roll­
i ng or broken terr a i n suppo r t s a d i ver s i ­
f i ed cover i n wh i ch young s e c ond- growth
fore s t s predomi nate but where blocks of
older t imber are i n tersper s ed . Current
refore s t at i on prac t i c e wi th Douglas F i r
( P s eudot s uga t ax i fo l i a ) plan ted a t ap­
prox imately 1 , 200 per acre prov i de s con­
d i t i ons under wh i c h max imum damage by
deer c an be expec ted . Where natural or
ar t i f i c i al seed i ng g i ve s r i s e to s e ed­
l i ng s i n exc e s s of 12 , 000 per acre , deer
damage is found to be un important .
"Exami nat ion of food plan t s i n the
f i eld and in de er s tomachs revealed that
6 7 per cent of the annual d i e t c on s i s ted
o f twi g s and leave s of trees and s hrub s
( 2 4 per cent con i fer brows e and 43 per
cent dec i duou s brows e ) . The mo s t impor­
tant woody spec i e s brows ed i n the Gold­
s t re am area we re Doug las F i r ( P s eudo t s uga
t ax i fo l i a ) , Alder ( Alnus rubr a ) , W i l low
( S al i x s p . ) and Cedar ( Thuj a pl i c a t a ) .
B rows i ng u pon s eedl i ng and s econd-growth
Douglas F i r was par t i c u l arly s evere on
i nfer i o r fore s t s i te s . Two type s of
Doug las F i r ( normal trees and ye llow
t re e s ) wer e noted among the n atural re­
geneat i on on southern Vancouver I s l and .
The l at t e r had a s i gn i f i c antly l owe r
palatab i l i ty than the former . S i nc e
We s tern Hemlock ( T s uga heterophyl l a ) i s
not brows e d by deer , i t i s sugges ted
that th i s s pe c i e s m i gh t be used for ar t i ­
f i c i al refore s t at i on i n areas where dee r
a r e abundant .
Tables are g i ven showi ng the rela­
t i ve p al a t ab i l i ty to deer of plants found
i n s o uthern Vanc ouver I s l and , and the e x ­
tent to wh i ch s pe c i e s i n t h e var i o u s c om­
mun i t i e s are ut i l i z ed- -·the i r abundance ,
per i od o f ava i l ab i l i ty , per i od o f u t i l i ­
z at i o n , and i mpo r tance a s deer food .
Douglas F i r ( as represented by young
t r ee s ) i s the mo s t impor t ant s i ngle food
i tem in the d i e t of the Columb i an bl ack­
t a i led dee r . " ( FA )
1 2 1 . Cow1 i n , Robert W . , and Robert M .
Fors ter .
1 96 5 . The t imber s i tuat ion and
outlook for northwe s t Oregon .
USDA For . S e r . Resour . Bull .
PNW-12 , 5 6 p . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Range Exp . S t n . , Portland ,
Oreg .
Con t a i n s volume and acreages for red
alder i n northwe s t Oregon .
( CFH )
Blac kberry leave s were mo s t h i ghly pre­
ferred so long as they we r e ava i l able .
Doug l a s F i r r anked h i gher i n preference
than mo s t common woody plan t s , wh i ch i n­
c luded Alnus rubra , Cory1 u s c al i forn i c a ,
and Acer c i rc i natum . " ( FA )
1 2 3 . Crouch , Glenn L .
1 9 6 8 . Cl i pp i ng of woody plan t s by
moun t a i n beave r . J . Mammal .
4 9 ( 1 ) : 1 5 1-1 5 2 .
"Shrubs and small tree s i n areas occup i ed
by Aplodont i a rufa often h ave bu shy ,
open , uneven c rowns or atyp i c al forms as
a r e s u l t o f c l i pp i n g of s tems and bran­
ches . Ac e r c i rc i n atum was the mo s t fre­
quently c l i pped plant in 1963 on 110
plot s ; other s pe c i e s damaged i nc luded
Aln u s rubra , Acer macrophyl lum , Corylus
cornuta and S al i x s p . " ( FA )
1 2 4 . Curt i s , Robert 0 . , Dav i d Bruc e ,
and Caryanne Vancoeve r i ng .
1 9 6 8 . Vol ume' and taper t ables for
red alde r . USDA For . S e rv o Re s .
P ap . PNW- 5 6 , 3 5 p . P ac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Por t l and , Oreg .
"Bas i c dat a u s ed cons i s ted o f tree mea­
suremen t data of Alnus rubra from Oregon ,
Was h i ng ton and B r i t i s h Columb i a , add i ­
t i onal data from Was h i ngton and Oregon ,
and data for t ables or i g i nally publ i s hed
in 1 9 2 6 ; a total of 4 7 3 tree s was ava i l­
able for analys i s . " ( FA )
1 2 2 . Crouch , Glenn L .
1 9 6 6 . Pre ferences o f black-t a i led
deer for n at i ve fo rage and Douglas­
f i r seedl i ng s . J . w i 1d1 . Man age .
30 ( 3 ) : 4 71- 4 7 5 .
"Cho i c e o f brows e by Odo c o i leus hem i onus
olumb i an u s i n a n e n c l o s u r e c arry i n g na­
t i ve vege t at i on and some planted Douglas
F i r was c l o s e ly related to the we ather .
31
1 2 5 . Curt i s , Robert 0 . , Donald J .
DeMar s , and Franc i s R . Herman .
19 7 4 . Wh i ch dependen t var i able i n
s i te i ndex-h e i ght- age regre s s i on s ?
For . Sc i . 20 ( 1 ) : 74-8 7 .
"Two regres s i o n s r e l at i ng he i ght and s i t e
i ndex c an be c alculated from s tem analy­
s i s d at a . s i te i ndex e s t imat i on curve s
obt a i ned by regre s s i ng s i te i ndex o n
he i gh t and a g e d i f fe r from h e i ght growth
c urve s obta i ned by regre s s i n g he i ght on
s i te i ndex and age . The f i r s t prov i de
e s t imates o f s i te i ndex for s t ands of
known pre sent age and he i ght , wh i l e the
s econd prov i de e s t imates of expected
h e i gh t at d i fferent age s for s t ands of
s pec i f i ed s i te i nde x . The trad i t i onal
t ype o f he i ght over age ' s i te i ndex
c urve ' does not pro v i de opt imum e s t i ­
mate s o f s i te i ndex . Mag n i tude and
pract i c al impo r tance of d i fferences
depend on the amount of une xplai ned
v ar i a t i o n present . Appropr i at e u s e s of
the two s y s t ems o f curve s and s ome
s ourc e s of b i as are d i s c u s s ed . " ( A )
1 2 6 . Dahms , W . G .
1 9 5 8 . Chemi cal control o f bru s h
a n d unde s i rable hardwoods o n
fore s t l and o f t h e Pac i f i c
Northwe s t .
( Ab s tr . ) Weed Soc .
Am. 1 9 5 8 : 29 .
"An ae r i al f o l i age spray o f 2 , 4-D or
2 , 4 , 5 -T controlled Alnus rubr a ; s ome s pe-­
c i e s o f Arc t o s t aphylo s and Ceanothus we re
k i lled , others res prouted j Cas t anops i s
c hrys ophyl l a , Quer c u s chrys o l epi s and
L l thoc arpus den s i florus we re l i ghtly dam­
aged . A bas al s pray was mo s t promi s i ng
for Rubu s spe c t ab i l i s , and a dorman t­
s e ason aer i al s pray for Ac er c i rc i natum ;
both s pe c i e s re s prouted after fol i age
s pray i ng . " ( FA )
32
1 2 7 . Darl i ng ton , C . D . , and A . P . Wyl i e .
1 9 5 6 . Chromo s ome atlas o f
f lowe r i n g plan t s . 2d ed . p .
1 7 9- 180 . MacMi llan Co . , New York .
Red alder has 28 ch romo s ome s ( n =1 4 ) .
( CFH )
128 . Daubenm i re , R .
19 5 2 . Fore s t vege t at i on o f
northern Idaho and adj ac ent
Was h i ngton , and i t s bear i ng o n
c o n c e p t s o f vegetat i onal
c l as s i f i c at i on . Ecol . Monog r .
2 2 : 301-330 .
1 2 9 . Daubenm i re , R .
1969 . Ecolog i c plant geography o f
t h e Pac i f i c Northwe s t . Madrono
20 ( 3 ) : 111-128 .
"The purpo s e o f th i s phytogeogr aph i c
s ke tch i s t o prov i de an i n troduc t i on to
the natural vegetat i on o f the Pac i f i c
Nor thwe s t for the u s e o f botan i s t s f rom
other areas who w i l l be atten d i ng the X I
Internat i onal B o t an i c al Congre s s i n
Seattle i n 1969 . Atten t i on w i l l b e cen­
tered on the State of Was h i ngton , w i th
s e condary emphas i s on the adj o i n i ng
areas . I f my f r i ends i n B r i t i s h Columb i a
feel that I have s l i ghted the i r Provi nce ,
th i s i s more a consequence of maps term i ­
nat ing a t the i n ternat i onal border than
o f any i n tent o f m i n e t o conf i ne att en­
t i on to the ' P ac i f i c Northwe s t ' --a na­
t i onal i s t i c and amb i guous though u s e ful
term , wh i ch I shall not try to def i ne !
"The v i s i tor , l i ke s ome o f u s e who
res i de here , may be appalled by the
s c arc i ty o f natural vegetat i on i n a
reg i o n wh i ch was opened up by wh i te ex­
plorers as l at e a s 1805 ( the Lew i s and
Clark e xp i d i t i on ) . Neverthele s s the
account i s centered on remnan t s o f
natural vegetat ion wi th t h e i n tent o f
hel p i ng the v i s i tor recog n i ze s ome o f
t h e common type s and see how they f i t
i nto a reg i onal pattern . " ( A )
1 3 0 . Dav i s , E . M .
1960 . Mach i n i ng proper t i e s o f red
alder and b i g1eaf mapl e . Wood­
Worke r , Ind i anapol i s 7 8 ( 1 1 ) : 10 - 2 5 .
" G i ve s br i e f r e s u l t s of recent U . S .
p l an n i n g , shap i ng , turn ing , bor i ng , and
mor t i s i ng t e s t s wi th Alnus rubra and
Ac e r mac rophyllum . " ( FA)
1 3 1 . Dav i s , E . M .
1 9 6 2 . Mach i n i ng and rel ated
characte r i s t i c s o f un i ted s t ate s
hardwood s . U . s . Dep . Agr i c . Te ch .
Bull . 1 2 6 7 , 68 p . Wa sh i ngton , D . C .
D i s c u s s e s and pre s e n t s tables of r e s po n s e
o f var i ou s woods to plan i ng , shap i ng ,
t u rn i ng , bor i ng , mor t i s i ng , s and i ng ,
s te am b i nd i ng , n a i l and sc rew s pl i t t i ng ,
s pe c i f i c g r av i ty , annual r i ng s per i nch ,
c ro s s gr a i n , s h r i nkage , war p , and change s
o f color .
( CF H )
1 3 2 . Dav i s , Margaret Bryan .
19 7 3 . Pollen e v i dence o f chang i n g
l and u s e around the shores of Lake
Was h i ngton . Nor thwe s t Sc i .
4 7 ( 3 ) : 1 33--148 .
" Pollen d i ag rams f rom near- surface s e d i ­
me n t s i n Lake Wash i ngton record changes
in the vege t at i on around the l ake s i nc e
t h e m i d-19th cent ury . The primeval c on i ­
f e r fore s t s produced a pollen a s s embl age
dom i nated by po llen from Douglas-f i r ,
c edar , and hemloc k , wi th m i nor amoun t s
o f pol len f rom p i ne , f i r a n d s pruc e .
S e d i ments 30-45 cm bene ath the s u r face
we r e depo s i ted dur i ng the early years of
s e t tlemen t around Lake Was h i ngton between
1 8 6 0 and 1890 . They record m i nor changes
in the vegetat i on as l i mi ted areas we re
l o gged . Dougl as -f i r was the maj or s pe­
c i e s cut at the t i me . Alder pollen re­
f l e c t s the f i r s t sharp i nc rease in alder
trees a s succe s s i on took place on d i s ­
turbed s i te s . A much greater i n c r e a s e
o f alde r fol lowed t h e i n te n s i ve log g i n g
operat i ons o f the 1880 ' s . The growth o f
Seattle and the cutt i ng o f s e c ond-growth
fore s t s in recent years have reduced the
amount of locally produced alder polle n .
The c h anges that s e rved as c ul ture i nd i ­
c ators i n the pollen d i ag ram f rom Lake
Wash i ng ton are i n tere s t i ng f rom the
theore t i c al po i n t of v i ew . I n Wa s h i ng­
ton , the logg i ng hor i zon i s cons p i cuous
becau s e the con i f e r s , wh i ch in th i s case
are poor pollen produc e r s , are t empor ar i ­
l y repl aced by a s uc c e s s i onal s pe c i e s
( red alder ) that i s a he avy pollen pro­
ducer . " ( BA )
133 . Dayton , Wi l l i am A .
1 9 3 1 . Importan t we s tern browse
p l an t s . U . S . Dep . Agr i c . M i s c .
Publ . 101 , 2 1 4 p . Was h i ngton , D . C .
1 3 4 . DeBe l l , D . S .
1 9 7 1 . Progre s s report o n red
alder s t udy . 6 p . Cent . Res . ,
C rown Ze l l e rbach Corp . , Cama s ,
Wash .
1 3 5 . DeBe l l , Dean S .
1 9 7 2 . Potent i al produc t i v i ty o f
den s e , young t h i c ke t s of r e d alde r .
Fo r . Res . Note 2 , 7 p . Crown
Zelle rbach Corp . , Cama s , Wash .
"Total above-ground produc t i on was evalu­
ated in 28 natural alder th i cke t s , aged
1 to 1 4 years . On a per acre bas i s , me an
annual produc t i o n var i ed f rom 3 to mor e
than 2 0 tons o f g r e e n wood per acre .
Such y i e l d s warrant pre l im i n ary t r i al s
of short-rotat i o n c ul tural s y s tems w i th
red alde r . " ( A )
33
136 . DeBe l l , Dean S .
1 9 7 5 . Short-rotat i o n cul ture o f
hardwoods i n t h e Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t .
Iowa State J . Re s . 4 9 ( 3 ) : 3 4 5 - 3 5 2 .
"In the late 1 9 60 ' s , i nn ovat i ve i deas on
s i lage wood wer e publ i shed . S i nc e then ,
i n ter e s t has been generated i n short­
rotat i on cul ture of hardwoods in the
Pac i f i c Northwe s t , and has been ac compa­
n i ed by expe r i ment at i on at tempt i ng to i n­
c re a s e y i elds f rom th i s type o f c u l ture .
Maj or factors i nc luded i n prog ramm i n g
the expe r ime n t s were s u i table s i t e s ;
r e l at i ve produc t i v i ty o f b l ac k cot ton­
wood and alde r ; cultural prac t i c e s i n ­
c l ud i ng weed control , fert i l i z at i on , and
o rgan i c amendme n t s and i r r i gat i on ; and
kraf t pUlp i ng of j uven i l e hardwoods . " ( A )
1 3 7 . DeBe l l , Dean S . , Robe r t F . Strand ,
and Donald L . Reukema .
1 9 7 8 . Short-rotat i o n produc t i on
o f red alder :
Some opt i o n s for
future fore s t managemen t . I n
ut i l i z at i on and management o f
alde r , p . 231-244 . Dav i d . G .
Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBe l l , and
Wi l l i am A . Atk i nson , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Many opt i on s are ava i l able to fore s te r s
who may wan t to con s i de r management o f
red alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . ) . Four
o p t i o n s are d i s c u s s ed in th i s paper--a
c o pp i c e s y s t em and three h i gh fore s t
s ys tems : pulpwood log , s aw-log and
peele r , and pulpwood log and s aw-· log
p roduc t i on . Copp i c e c an be grown on 4­
t o 6-year rotat i o n s and pulpwood logs
c an be produced in 10 to 1 5 years on
most s i te s . E s t i mated y i elds ( pe r acre
per ye ar ) o f these o p t i ons are about
double tho s e obtai ned in natural s t ands .
S aw l o g s and peelers c an probably be
grown i n 28 to 3 7 year s , and y i elds are
34
e s t imated t o b e about 4 0 percent h i gher
than tho s e l i s ted in normal y i eld tables
for w ll-s tocked s t ands . " ( A )
138 . DeBe l l . Dean S . , and Boyd C .
Wi l s on .
1 9 7 8 . Natural var i at i on i n red
alde r . I n U t i l i z at i on and
managemen t o f alde r , p . 1 9 3-208 .
Dav i d G . B r i gg s , Dean S . DeBe l l ,
and Wi l l i am A . Atki nson , c omp i le r s .
USDA For . S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . P ac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland . Oreg .
"An 8-year-old provenance t r i al exam i ned
r ac i al var i at i o n among 1 0 s ourc e s o f red
alder from Al aska , Br i t i s h Columb i a ,
Was h i ngton , Oregon and Idaho . The f a s t ­
e s t growi ng sources a r e f rom nor thwe s t ern
Wash i ngton , and Oregon al s o grew wel l .
The s lowe s t growe r s were from Juneau ,
Al aska , and S andpo i n t , Idaho- -they al s o
have t h e greate s t fro s t re s i s t ance .
"A s t udy o f phenotyp i c var i at i on
between and wi th i n e i ght s t ands was
conducted i n a small area we s t o f
Olymp i a , Was h i ng ton . Although the s t ands
were s e l e c ted to cover the range in s i te
cond i t i on s occurr i ng i n the are a , only
c rown width i ndex , branch i ng characte r-·
i s t i c s , and bark th i ckne s s showed s i g n i ­
f i c ant var i at i on be tween s t ands . Var i a ­
t i on from tree t o tree wi th i n s t ands ,
howeve r , was S U b s t an t i al for all t ra i t s .
"The r e s u l t s o f the s e s t ud i e s
sugge s t that i nd i v i dual tree s e l e c t ion
wi l l be a u s e f ul approach in alder im­
provement programs and that s uch programs
c an encompas s rather l arge areas ( or
breed i ng zones . " )
(A)
1 3 9 . DeFre i tas , Amant i no R . , and H arvey
D . E r i ckson . 1 9 6 9 . Propagat i o n o f molds on red alder roundwood--the i r effect on o i l s o ak treatme n t s . For . Prod . J . 1 9 ( 10 ) : 4 5 - 5 2 . "Growth o f four fun g i i nc l ud i ng Tr i cho­
derma s p . , Fu s ar i um s p . , G l i oc l ad i um
r o s eum , and Chae tomeum cochl i ode s was
s at i s f actory on the wood only when a
f lour i de s al t was present . Conc entra­
t i on s o f 1 . 5 to 3 . 0 percent were near
o p t i mum . other add i t ives t r i ed we re not
h e lpful . Tr i choderma s p . was the domi ­
nant fungus f rom a m i xture i noculat i on .
L i ght s te am i ng c aused only a sho rt-te rm
growth advan t age . Good fungal growth
produced twi c e the o i l ab s orpt ion o f
non- i nfected wood . Tr i ch germa was
u sually the be s t . Le av i ng i nner bark o n
b e fore i noculat i on c au s ed no real de­
c re a s e in o i l ab s o rpt i on after 4 weeks
of fungal growth . I t s eems unnec e s s ary
t o remove the i nner bark before i nocula­
t i on . Exploratory t e s t s i n d i c ated vac uum
i mpregn at i on was much more e f f e c t ive than
cold s o ak . The hyphae tr ave led through
all types o f c e l l s in the wood and even
p i erced f i ber wal l s . " ( A )
140 .
DeFre i t as . Amant i no Ramo s .
1 9 6 6 . s t imulat i on o f s everal mold
growth s on red alder and the i r
e f f e c t s o n co ld- s o ak tre atmen t .
M . F . thes i s . Co l I . For . Re sour . ,
Un i v . Wash . , Seattle . 9 1 p .
t e s ted . We s te rn Heml o c k , F i r s , Black
Cottonwood and we s tern Red Cedar h ave
been s u c c e s s fully t reated . Re s u l t s for
Douglas F i r are d i s appo i n t i ng . Bark
s eparat ion te s t s wi th Red Alder are
i nc omplete , but no s eparat i on had oc­
curred after 1 60 days . Future plans are
d i s c u s s ed , and add i t i onal i n format i on
i s g i ve n on c rew organ i zat i on and tre at­
ing techn i que s , s afety precau t i on s and
patent r i ghts . " ( FA )
142 . Det l i ng , LeRoy E .
1 968 . H i s tor i c al background o f
the flora o f the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t . Un i v . Oreg . Mu s . Nat .
H i s t . Bull . 1 3 , 5 7 p . Eugene ,
Oreg .
"The modern flora o f the Pac i f i c North­
we s t i s charac te r i zed by a s s o c i at i o n s
wh i ch s how af f i n i t i e s to floras now
occ upy i ng widely s e parated areas
( Euras i a , South and Central Ame r i c a ) and
to flo ras shown by paleo-botan i c al ev i ­
denc e t o have occup i ed all the s e areas ,
but part i cularly the Amer i c an We s t .
D i s t i n c t d i s t r i but i on pattern s , both i n
t ime and s pac e , man i fe s t themselve s .
The s e patterns are and have been i n­
fluenc ed by topograph i c and c l imat i c
changes from the Cretaceous t o the
pre s en t . Three pr i nc i pal sources of
a s s oc i at i ons are ev i dent :
evol u t i o n i n
s i t u j northern reg i on s as shown i n the
Arc t o-Ter t i ary Geoflora j we s tern Mex i c o
and t h e s outhwe s tern Un i ted s t ates a s
shown i n t h e Madro-Te r t i ary Geoflo r a . "
( 1\ )
1 4 1 . DeMo i s y , Ralph G .
1 9 5 2 . Progre s s report on chemi c a l
debark i ng . I n s t . For . Prod . C i r c .
1 9 , 4 p . Un i v . Wash . , Seattl e .
" Several methods o f g i rdl i ng the trees
and appl y i ng Na2 HAs 0 3 s o l u t i o n for
barki ng pulpwood s pe c i e s have been
143 .
D i ehl , Wi l l i am W .
1 9 5 5 . Val s ar i a megal ospora on red
alde r . P l ant D i s . Re p . 3 9 ( 4 ) : 3 3 4 .
35
1 4 4 . D i mock , Edward J . , I I , Enoch Bell ,
and Robert M . Randal l .
1 9 7 6 . Convert i ng brush and
hardwood to con i fe r s on h i gh s i te s
i n we s te rn Wash i ngton and Ore gon-­
progre s s , pol i cy , s uc c e s s and
c o s t s . USDA For . Ser . Re s . Pap .
PNW- 2 1 3 , 16 p . Pac . Northwe s t
For . and Range EXp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
" Eval u at e s opportun i t i e s , techn ique s ,
s u c c e s s and c o s t o f brushland reclamat i on
e f fo r t s for almo s t a 2 0-year per i o d .
Among newer techn ique s , s l ash-and-burn
and s p r ay-and-burn are cons i s tently more
s u c ce s s fu1--and more e conom i cal per e s ­
t abl i s hed con i fer--than mul t i ple-s pray
c onve r s i on s . " ( A )
1 4 5 . D i xon , D .
1961 . The se are the champ s .
For . 6 7 ( 1 ) : 40-46 , 48-50 .
Am .
1 4 6 . Dob i e , J .
1966 . Product y i eld and value ,
f i n anc i al rotat i o n s and b i olog i c al
r e l at i o n s h i ps o f good s i te Douglas
f i r . M . F . thes i s . Un i v . B . C . ,
Vancouve r . 141 p .
"Quan t i ty and value o f the a s s o r tment
y i eld of four natural s t ands ( age
6 3-14 5 ) o f Douglas F i r in Br i t i s h
C olumb i s were analysed , u s i ng l i near
p rogr amme techn i ques t o determine the
o p t imum a s s o r tment y i e lds f rom each
s t and . F i nanc i al rotat i o n s at two
l evel s of e s tabl i shed c o s t s and three
i n tere s t rates we re e x ami ned , and
mathemat i c al mode l s of the relat i on s h i p
b e twee n tree value , tree volume , and
b i olog i c al var i abl e s are pres ented . I t
was f o u n d t h a t t h e n e w value p e r c u . ft .
o f tree i nc reased wi th tree s i ze and
t h at , at the level of c o s t s and values
u s ed , it i s more pro f i table to produce
36
p i l i ng f rom small logs and plywood f rom
l arge trees rather than lumbe r . Opt imum
c onvers i o n returned for all s t ands wa s 5
cents / c u . ft . greater than the l umbe r
c onve r s i on return . F i nanc i al rotat i o n s
at 3 % c ompound i n tere s t on e s tab l i shment
c o s t s and on the value o f growi ng s tock
are 60-70 years for the s e s i tes . Many
b i o log i c al var i ables we re found to be
correlated wi th tree value and volume .
Comb i n at i o n s o f d . b . h . , butt-log grade ,
and crown c l a s s were the be s t 2- o r
3 -var i able mode l s for value pred i c t i on ;
tree d . b . h . and D 2 H gave s im i lar e s t i ­
mat e s o f bd . f t . and cu . f t . volume s . "
( FA )
1 4 7 . Doran , S amue l M . , Jos eph Buha1y ,
and Loren Curry .
19 7 1 . Red alder c o s t s and returns
for we s tern Wa s h i ngton . Coo p .
Ext . Serv . , Col1 . Agr i c . , Wash .
S t ate Un i v . S t udy EM 3461 , 33 p .
Pul lman , Wa sh .
"De s c r i b e s a s t udy to determine the i n ­
c ome and c o s t s normally a s s oc i ated w i t h
t h e produc t i on o f Alnus r u b r a t i mber i n
we s t ern Was h i ngton , and to determ i ne the
age ( fo r mo s t s i te s , c a . 5 0 year s ) at
wh i c h i t should be harve s ted for max i mum
pro f i t . " ( FA )
148 . Douglas , Dav i d .
1 9 5 9 . Journal kept by Dav i d
Douglas dur i ng h i s tr ave l s i n
North Ame r i c a 1823-1 8 2 7 . 3 6 4 p .
Ant i quar i an Pre s s Ltd . , New York .
Douglas f i r s t collec ted red alder ( pl an t
collec t i on #11 ) on Apr i l 8 , 1825 , on the
north shore o f the Columb i a R i ve r at
Cape D i s appo i ntment . H i s j ournal re­
veal s : " ( 1 1 ) Alnus s p . : a tree 5 0 to
7 0 feet h i gh ; may prove . glut i no s a ;
i t s s i ze occas i oned by the r i chn e s s o f
the so i l and f i ner c l imate ; mo s t place s
on the Columb i a ; Apr i l . " ( CFH )
1 4 9 . Douglas-f i r Second-Growth
Management Commi ttee .
19 4 7 . Management o f s e cond-growth
fore s t s i n the Douglas -f i r
reg i on . 1 5 1 p . Pac . Northwe s t
For . and Range Exp . S t n . ,
Portland , Oreg .
outl i ned . Re s e arch rema i n s to be c onduc­
ted on the part played by d i s e a s e s o f
th i s s pec i e s i n respect t o management . "
( A)
152 .
Report deals wi th regenerat i on and
manageme n t of Dougl as-f i r i n the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t , wi th red alder c on s i dered
m a i n l y a s a compe t i ng s pe c i e s ; howeve r ,
there i s a short d i s c u s s i on o f red alder
management .
( CFH )
1 5 0 . Dreyer , H . V .
1 9 2 8 . Skylde s rode l l e n s syge l i ghed
froets proven i en s ?
[ I s the s i c kl i ­
ne s s o f red alder due to the source
o f the s eed? ] Dan . Skovfore n .
T i d s s kr . 13 : 2 2 9 - 3 7 6 .
" Inve s t i g a t i on s con f i rm the bel i e f that
the s i c kl i ne s s o f alder in Denmark i s
due to the k i nd o f s eed and i t s or i g i n .
Nat i ve s eed produced healthy i nd i v i du al s ,
but imported seed produced s i c kly tree s .
Alder i s very valuable as an advanc e c rop
in i mpro v i ng the cond i t i on o f the s o i l
bec au s e o f i t s n i trogen- f i x i n g c ap ac i ty .
I t should be planted e s pe c i ally on l ands
wh i ch are not s u i table for a s h . " ( BA )
1 5 1 . Dr i ver , Charl e s H .
19 7 8 . Red alder management and
d i s e as e s . I n ut i l i zat i on and
man agement of alde r , p . 2 7 1- 2 7 2 .
Dav i d G . B r i ggs , Dean S . DeBell ,
and Wi l l i am A . Atki nson , c omp i le r s .
USDA For . Ser . Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Relat i ve l y l i t tle i s s pe c i f i c al l y known
about d i s e a s e s of red alder w i th r e s pe c t
t o man agement . The s t atus o f repo r t s i n
the l i t e r ature concern i ng the s ubj e c t i s
Duf f i e l d , John W .
1 9 5 6 . Damage t o we s tern
Was h i ngton fore s t s f rom November
1 9 5 5 cold wave . USDA For . Serv o
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp .
Stn . Re s . Note 129 , 8 p . Por t l and ,
Oreg .
A s urvey o f the damage , wi th maps showing
locat i on and relat i ve s eve r i ty o f damage .
( CFH )
1 5 3 . Eklundh , C .
1944 . Report on a lder , a s h and
e lm . I n Ar sberatte 1 s e over
For e n i ngens for vax t forad1 i ng av
sko g s t r ad verks amhet unde r ar
1943 .
[ Annual report on the work
of the As s oc i at i on for Forest Tree
Breed ing dur i ng the year 1943 . ]
Sven . P app T i dn . 4 7 , 38 p .
[ Suppl . ]
[ In Swedi s h . ]
"In s p r i ng 1943 , bottle g r af t ing o f Alder
s pe c i e s was c ar r i ed out for the f i r s t
t ime , and gave 2 5 per cent s u c c e s s .
Alnus glut i no s a was used a s s tock for
s c i on s of ! . glut i n o s a , ! . i nc an a , ! .
cordat a , ! . s ubcordat a , ! . rubra , ! .
h i r s u t a , and some Dan i s h mate r i al . The
method used w i th prom i s i n g re s u l t s i n
Denmark for ma i n tai n i ng a ' l i ve seed
s tore ' for valuable hyb r i d s eed was
t r i ed , graf t i ng ! . cordata s c i on s 10-15
cm . long in older s t ands of ! . glut i no s a
i n wh i ch trees about 1 5 cm . i n d i ame ter
had been cut to breas t h e i ght for use as
s tocks .
"Cro s s e s we re made w i th the bottle
grafts , grown in the i l l um i n ated green­
hou s e , of !. glut i no s a wi th ! . cordata ,
37
. i n c ana o r . rubra and o f
. s ub­
c o rdata w i th ! . glut i no s a o r ! . cordat a .
S ome f ru i t s wer e obtai ned and the s eed
w i ll be s own i n s pr i ng 1944 .
" In the vege t at ive propagat i on ex­
per ime n t s about 10 plus-var i an t s s e l e c ted
f rom two-ye ar-old plan t s w i th the great­
e s t average i nc rement were planted and
l ayered , the branches undergo i ng treat­
ment w i th hormone pas te o r s tr angulat i on
t o i nduce the format i on o f advent i t i o u s
roots . Good r e s ul t s were obt a i ned .
"One- and two-year-old colch i c i ne ­
t reated Alders were grown on i n pots to
o bt a i n e ar l y f lowe r i ng , or r a i s e d in the
arboretum , where s ome o f the plan t s were
s t rangulated . Inve s t i g at ion of the s to­
mata and chromo s ome number in the s e
s uppo s edly mi xoplo i d plants showed that
t he root-t i p c e l l s we re predomi nantly
d i plo i d , whe r e a s the var i at i on in the
s i ze of s tomata sugge s ted that the shoot
s ys tem had r e t a i ned i t s mi xoplo i d
c h aracter t o a greater extent . I t i s
h oped , by ve getat i ve propagat i on , t o
obt a i n p u r e tetrapl o i d s from s ome buds
o f the s e plants . " ( FA )
1 5 4 . E r i ckson , Harvey D .
1 9 5 7 . Wood supply and produc t i on
o f the pulp i ndus try i n the state
o f Was h i ngton . New Wood-Us e Ser . ,
In s t . For . Prod . C i rc . 3 2 , 38 p .
Un i v . Was h . , Seattl e .
Red alder i s growi ng i n importance as a
p u l p s pec i e s . I t pre s ently r anks number
four in pulp volume , c ompr i s i ng 3 1 per­
c ent of total .
( CFH )
1 5 5 . E r i ckson , Harvey D . , and Amant i no
R . DeFre i t a s . 1 9 7 1 . In fluence o f var i ou s mol d s and season i ng on vacuum l i ght-o i l tre atment o f round red alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . ) . For Prod . J . 2 1 ( 4 ) : 5 3 -5 8 . "Vacuum treatmen t for 4 5 or 7 5 m i n . o f
s pe c ime n s i nc ubated for 4 - 6 we eks after
i noculat i o n wi th one o f four fung i
( Tr i choderma harz i anum , Gl i oc l ad i um
ros eum , Chae tomi um cochl i o i d e s o r
Fu s ar i um s p . ) gave greater reten t i o n s
and penetrat i on s o f PCP i n l i ght o i l
than d i d s imi l ar treatment o f un i nocu­
lated controls that had been barked and
s tored green for 4 or 6 weeks . The re
was l i ttle d i f ference in the effect of
the d i fferent fun g i . Ab s o rpt i on s about
equal to tho s e for vacuum tre atment after
i nc ubat ion wi th the fung i were obt ai ned
i n wood barked immedi ately after cutt i n g
and then dr i ed . A mod i f i ed hot-and-cold
treatment of wood after i nC Ubat i on w i th
Tr i choderma was l e s s e f f ec t i ve than
vacuum tre atment . Vacuum tre atment o f
wood after 18 day s ' l aboratory s torage
before barki n g and dry i ng gave reten t i o n s
l i t t le better than a cold- s o ak tre atment
of wood i ncubated wi th Fu s ar i um , wh i c h
was the poore s t o f a l l t re atment s . " ( FA )
1 5 6 . E s au , Kathe r i ne , and Vernon I .
Cheadle .
1 9 5 5 . S i gn i f i c ance o f c e l l
d i v i s i o n s i n d i f ferent i at i ng
s e c ondary phloem . Ac ta Bot .
Neerl . 4 ( 3 ) : 3 48- 3 5 7 .
"Wi th reg ard to the frequency of ant i ­
c l i nal d i v i s i on s i n the phloem i n i t i al s
the 7 7 general i nve s t i gated by the
autho r s fall i n to 3 groups :
( 1 ) ant i ­
c l i nal d i v i s i on s none or i n f requent
38
( Ac e r . Rhu s . Berber i s . Ce1astru s . Alnus .
Quercu s . Ae scu1u s . Jag1an s . Lard i zaba1 a .
Gymnoc1adu s . Frax i nu s . pyrus . Prunu s .
Popu lu s , T i 1 i a ) ; ( 2 a ) ant i c l i nal d i v i ­
s i o n s c ommon and ma i nl y transve r s e or
s l i ghtly obl i que ( Bu xu s . Vi burnum ,
We i ge1 i a . Cerc i d i phy11um . C1ethr a .
Cornus . Rhododendron . Azar a . Hype r i c um .
Pau1own i a . A i l anthu s ) : and ( 2b ) ant i ­
c l i nal d i v i s i on s common and ma i nly
ver t i c al o r s trongly obl i que ( Annon a .
As i mi a . Mi che 1 i a . Paeon i a . and all 9
genera o f Laurac e ae used i n th i s s tudy ) .
The der i vat i ve s of the s e d i v i s i on s con­
s i s t e i ther o f s i eve element s w i th the i r
c ompan i o n c e l l s and parenc hyma c e ll s .
Frequently the d i v i s i on s r e s u l t i n s i eve
e l emen t s shorte r than the i r mother
c e l l s . " ( BA)
T. K. K i rk . and M .
1 5 7 . E s 1yn . W. E
J . E f f l and .
1 9 7 5 . Chang e s i n the chem i c al
compo s i t i on o f wood c au s e d by s i x
s o f t-rot f ung i . Phytopathology
6 5 ( 4 ) : 4 7 3- 4 7 6 .
.
•
"outer-xylem blocks of Alnus rubr a .
Populus b a l s ami fera and P i nu mon t i co1a
were e xpo s ed to s i x s o f t- rot fun g i i s o­
l ated f rom pulp-ch i p s torage p i le s , v i z .
Graph i um s p
Papu1 o spora
Monodi c tys sp
Th i e1 av i a
Pae c i 10myc e s s p
sp
terre s tr i s and A11e s cher i a s p . Samples
o f wood at d i fferent we i ght l o s s e s wer e
an alysed for l i gn i n and polys acchar ide s
( f 1ucan . xy1an and mannan ) . Polys accha­
r i de s we re depleted f a s t e r than l i gn i n
i n Alder and Poplar . L i gn i n was depleted
b y all the fung i . Graph i um s p . appeared
t o i nc r e a s e the mann an content of Alde r .
P i ne was not decayed s i gn i f i c antly by
Graph i um s p
Monod i c tys s p . and
A11e s che r i a s p . ; the other fun g i c aused
small we i ght lo s s e s . In P i ne . l i gn i n
was depleted f a s t e r than polys acchar i d e s
by Paec i lomyc e s and 1 . terre s tr i s . I I ( FA )
.
.
•
. •
. •
.
•
1 5 8 . E s penas . Le i f D .
1 9 5 1 . The s e as on ing o f Oregon
h ardwoods . Oreg . For . Prod . Lab .
I n f . C i r c . 6 . 3 5 p . Corvall i s .
Oreg .
" K i ln s chedul e s for green s tock are g i ve n
for : Red Alde r . Cot tonwoo d . Oregon Ash .
Oregon Maple . Myrtle ( C al i forn i a Laurel ) .
and Madrone . K i l n s chedu l e s for a i r­
d r i ed s tock are g i ven o r s ugge s ted for
Tan Oak . Ch inquap i n . C al i fo r n i a B l ac k
Oak . a n d Oregon Wh i te Oak . " ( FA )
1 5 9 . E s penas , Le i f D .
1 9 7 1 . Shr i nkage of Dougl as-f i r ,
we s te rn hemlock and red alder a s
a f f e c ted b y dry i ng condi t i on s .
For . Prod . J . 2 1 ( 6 ) : 44-46 .
"When s pe c ime n s were dr i e d at tempera­
tures f rom 90 to 2 3 0 ° F to g ive equ i l i ­
b r i um mo i s ture contents ( EMC ) o f 6 , 9 o r
12% ( 6% only a t 230° C ) . mo i s ture content
after e qu i l ibrat i ng at room temperature
decreas ed w i th i ncreas i ng d r y i n g tempera­
ture . Shr i nkage i nc re a s e d wi th i ncreas­
i ng dry i n g temperature and was greate s t
for the h i ghe s t EMC . Compared w i th
s h r i nkage at 90 ° C , s h r i nkage at 2 1 5 ° was
greater by 33% t angen t i al l y and 5 1%
r ad i al l y for Douglas F i r , 6 5 and 82%
r e s p e c t i vely for Heml o c k . and over 100%
for Alder when EHC was 12% throughout ;
at 6% EMC , the corre s pond i ng f i gu r e s
were 3 0 and 3 3% , 1 7 and 18% , and 41 and
49% . Increase i n s h r i nkage could not be
accounted for by d i fferenc e s in EMC .
Temper ature e f f e c t s were greater above
than below 1 5 0 ° C . " ( FA )
•
39
160 . Evan s , Harold J . , and Mark Kl i ewe r .
1964 . Vi tamin B 1 2 compounds i n
rel at i on t o the requ i remen t s of
c o lbalt for h i gher plan t s and
n i trogen-f i x i ng organ i sms . Ann .
N . Y . Acad . Sc i . 112 : 7 3 5 - 7 5 5 .
162 . Faegr i , Knut .
1968 . A note on the mar i t ime
fore s t l imi t in s outh-e a s t
Alaska . Arbok Un i v . Bergen
( Mat . -Naturv i te n s k . Se r . ) 196 8 ( 5 } ,
20 p .
Red alder root nodu l e s s how n i ne c obam i de
c oenzyme content of 2 4-62 m i c romo l e s per
g r am of fresh t i s s ue . That i s among the
h i ghe s t o f 1 5 s pec i e s reported . The
role of cobam i de coenzymes i n n i t rogen­
f i x i ng organi sms i s d i s c u s s ed . There i s
i n s u f f i c i en t ev i dence to determi ne wheth­
e r the f unct i o n of B 1 2-coen z yme s in N­
f i x i n g organi sms i s d i fferent from that
i n tho s e that do not f i x n i trogen .
( CFH )
"On the Alaskan c o a s t near Juneau , i n a
reg i on o f v i r g i n ( P i ce s i tchens i s ) /
P s uga hete rophyl 1a c l imax fore s t , a
narrow belt o f Alder f r i n g e s the con i fe r
fore s t towards t h e beache s , bu t i s absent
f rom the mo s t expo s ed s i t uat i on s , p r e s um­
ably becau s e o f w i nd ; on part o f th i s
Alder-free s t retch con i fe r s form the
ext reme l imi t of the vege tat i o n , bu t on
the headlands small meadows l i e be tween
the bare rocks and the fore s t edge ,
c ar r y i n g a f ew very uns tunted s i tka
S pruc e . Pollen analy s i s and rad i o
c arbon dat i ng s ugge s t that the s e meadows
are of c omparat i ve l y recent o r i g i n
( formed perhaps c a . 2 5 00 years ago ) and
that there h ave a l s o been f a i rly recent
chang e s i n fore s t c ompo s i t i on f rom Alnu s /
P i nus to s pruc e , po s s i bly owi ng t o in­
c reased w i nd s . The f i nd i n g s sugg e s t
that , unde r purely n atural cond i t i on s ,
there might a l s o be a very nar row un­
fores ted belt on very e xpo s ed s i t e s i n
We s tern Norway . " ( CA )
1 6 1 . Evan s , R . S .
1 9 7 4 . Energy plan tat i o n s - -s hould
we grow trees for powe r-pl ant fue l ?
We s t . For . Prod . Lab . I n f . Rep .
VP-X-129 , 15 p . Vancouve r , B . C .
"Exam i n e s the p r o s pe c t s of operat i ng a
p ower s t at i on u s i ng as fuel tree c rops
g rown o n a s u s t a i ned-y i e ld bas i s in
North Amer i c a . I t i s c alculated that
f o r mo s t reg i on s of North Amer i c a the
o utlook i s not promi s i ng , the l and area
requ i re d to s u s t a i n a 1 5 0 Mw powe r un i t
b e i ng f rom 240 t o more than 100 s q .
m i l e s , de pend i ng on the s pe c i e s . Cond i ­
t i on s i n the Pac i f i c nor th-we s t are more
f avourable , e s pe c i al l y for Red Alder
( Alnus rubra ) . the growth rat e of wh i c h
i s such that a power plant o f th i s s i ze
m i ght be s u s t a i ned by a plantat i o n o f 6 5
s q . m i l e s . Economi c c on s i derat i on s and
the u s e of fert i l i z e r s are not taken i nto
ac count . " ( FA )
40
163 . Fauro t , Jame s L .
19 5 7 . An econom i c analy s i s o f red
alder pulpwood logg i ng method s i n
we s te rn Was h i ngton . M . F . thes i s .
ColI . For . Re s our . , Un i v . Wash . ,
Seattle .
56 p .
Small s c al e logg i ng c o s t s o f red alde r
pulpwood are analyzed . Bucki ng , yard i ng ,
l o ad i ng , and hau l i n g factors are c o n s i ­
dered . The mo s t e c onom i c al oper a t i o n s
a r e wi th a three-person c rew cu t t i ng
16-foot l o g s and haul i n g them l e s s than
50 m i l e s . Alder pulpwood produc t i on i s
concluded to be economi c ally marg i n al .
( CFH )
1 6 4 . Fay , G i nny , Polly He s s i ng , Karen
Jacob sen , and Karen Oakley .
1 9 7 5 . Alde r-cedar fore s t . Am .
B i rd s 2 9 ( 3 ) : 7 6 4 .
R e s u l t s o f 24th w i n ter b i rd populat i on
c e n s u s . Done i n an alder-cedar fore s t
i n Thur s to n County , Wash i ngton , U . S . A .
Relat i ve tree frequency was 5 7 perc ent
red alder . Twenty s pe c i e s o f b i rd s were
o b s erved at rate of 8 5 7 b i rd s per s quare
k i lometer .
( CFH )
1 6 5 . Fay , G i nny , Polly He s s i ng , Karen
Jacob s e n , and Karen Oakley .
1 9 7 5 . Doug l a s -f i r fore s t . Am .
B i rd s 29 ( 3 ) : 7 6 4- 7 6 5 .
Re s u l t s o f the 24th wi nter b i rd popu l a­
t i on c e n s u s . Done i n a Dougl as-f i r
fore s t i n Thu r s ton County , Was h i ngton ,
U . S . A . Red alder c ompr i s ed 1 2 . 8 percent
o f tree s p ec i e s . Seventeen s pec i e s of
b i rd s o b s e rved at rate of 888 b i rds per
square k i l ome te r .
( CFH )
1 6 6 . Feddern , Edward T .
1 9 7 8 . Harve s t i n g o f red alde r .
I n U t i l i z at ion and man agement o f
alde r , p . 61-69 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBe l l , and Wi l l i am A .
Atki n s o n , comp i l e r s . USDA For .
Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 .
P ac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Por tlan d , Ore g .
"The h arve s t i ng and marke t i n g o f red
alder from the Oregon Co a s tal Count i e s
requ i r e s a company t o addre s s i t s e l f to
s everal maj or concerns before ente r i ng a
maj or program .
"A f ew o f the s e would be the ava i l­
ab i l i ty o f an e f f i c i en t contrac t ing
force , manpower , h arve s t i n g equ i pmen t ,
l abor and overhead c o s t s , and the avai l­
ab i l i ty of a cont i nu i ng marke t . Al s o ,
operat i ng s e a s o n s i n relat i o n s h i p w i t h
i nventory con t ro l , l ac k of demand f o r
all log grade s , s i z e s and s pe c i e s , c apa­
b i l i t i e s o f s awm i l l s to marke t r e s i duals
and adequate log s t or age f ac i l i t i e s . "
(A)
1 6 7 . F i eld , Nanc y , and Dav i d A . Manuwal .
1 9 7 3 . Clearcut i n Doug l as - f i r
fore s t . Am . B i rd s 2 7 ( 6 ) : 1003-1004 .
Re s u l t s o f a b i rd c e n s us on a c l e arcut
i n a Dougl as - f i r fore s t i n the C edar
River watershed , K i ng County , Was h i ng to n .
Regenerat i on was o c c u r r i n g with red alder
equal i ng 1 1 . 6 percent o f the s t and . Ten
s pec i e s were obs e rved at a den s i ty of
( CFH )
561 b i rds per s q u ar e k i lome te r .
168 . F i nn i s , J . H .
1 9 6 4 . Chemi c al f r i l l tre atment o f
alde r . We s t . We ed Control Conf .
Re s . Progr . Rep . 1964 : 4 7 .
"Alnus u ra , tre ated i n l ate Aug . w i th
d i c amba at 4 l b . / g al . und i luted w i t h an
aque o u s s olut i on o f NH 4 s ul ph amate at
1 lb . i n 1 p i n t wate r appl i ed to axe c u t s
spaced 4 i n . apart around the s tems , d i ed
by l at e Oct . " ( FA )
169 . F i nn i s , J . H .
1 9 7 0 . "Brown and burn" as a mean s
o f s i te p reparat i on . We s t . Soc .
Weed Sc i . Proc . 23 : 4 7 .
"The dense unders torey rema i n i n g after
logg i ng Alder ( Al n u s rubra ) s tands ( i n
coastal Was h i ngto n ) c an be de s i c c ated
wi th d i no s eb at 1 gal in 9 gal wat e r / ac re
and i g n i ted i n one mas s by 7 c an s o f
j e l l i e d petro l / ac re j o i ned b y pr imacord j
the r e s u l t i ng s e r i e s o f f l a s h f i re s
g i ve s a c l e an burn and f ac i l i tates
plant i ng . " ( FA )
41
1 7 0 . Fonda , R . W .
1 9 7 4 . For e s t s u c c e s s i on i n
r e l at i on t o r i ve r terrac e
deve lopmen t i n Olymp i c Nat i on al
Park , Was h i ngton . Ecology
5 5 ( 5 ) : 9 2 7 -942 .
liThe f l oodway zone o f the Hoh R i ve r ex­
h i b i t s four terrac e leve l s o f d i f fe rent
a ge s , f o rmed by ero s i onal ac t i v i ty o f
t h e r i ver o n valley f i l l s . The vege­
t at i o n in th i s valley i s in a long-term
s eral s equence a s s h own by the zonal
p attern in relat i on to ag i ng and deve l o p­
ment o f the s e l and s u r f ace s . Suc c e s s i on
s t ar t s on g ravel b ar s , wh i ch are domi na­
ted by Alnus rubra and S al i x s c ouler i an a .
The f o l lowi ng s equent i al fore s t c ommu n i ­
t i e s , a n d a s s o c i ated a g e s o f l and s u r­
f ac e s , are found : Alnus rubra on alder
f l at s ( 80-100 yr ) ; P i c e a s i tchen s l s -Ac e r
mac rophyl l um-Populus t r i chocarpa on
f i r s t terrac e s ( 400 yr ) ; P i c e a
s i tchen s i s -T s uga heterophyl l a on s econd
t e r r ac e s ( 7 5 0 yr ) j and T s uga heterophyl l a
o n th i rd te rrace s . The l atter repr e s e n t s
t h e c l i max c ommun i ty for t h e r i ve r ter­
r ace s ere , and it o c c u r s o n s ur f a c e s
e x po s e d by r e t r e at i ng P le i s tocene alp i ne
g l ac i e r s . The f i r s t three terraces are
d e r i ve d from Neo g l ac i al alluv i al f i ll s .
"There i s s t rong corre l at i on among
z onat i o n pattern s , f o re s t s u c c e s s i on ,
age o f terrac e s , s o i l mo i s ture , and s o i l
p r o f i l e development . Ava i l able s o i l
mo i s ture i s a n i mportant factor govern i ng
t h e z o n al s equence . The younger l and
s ur f ac e s are s i g n i f i c antly d r i e r than
the older terrac e s . P l an t s on alde r
flats and f i r s t terrac e s mu s t wi th s t and
g r e at e r mo i s t ure s tre s s than those of
s e cond and th i rd terrac e s . A s the l and
s urface age s , the s o i l pro f i l e develops ;
deeper , more mature s o i l s are found away
f rom the r i ve r .
liThe term ' Olymp i c r a i n fore s t ' i s
i n appropr i ately appl i ed to th i s vege t a­
t i on ; ' temperature mo i s t c on i f erous
f o r e s t ' i s more approp r i ate not only for
f o r e s t s i n the Hoh Valley , but al s o f o r
42
t h e r e s t o f t h e Olymp i c Mounta i n s and
vegetat i on along the northern Pac i f i c
(A)
coas t .
It
171 .
Fontno i re , Jean .
1 9 7 4 . Les aune s .
[ The alder s . ]
[ In
La Foret Pr i ve e Fr . 9 7 : 21-3 7 .
French . ]
172 .
Forbe s , Reg i n ald D . , Ed .
19 5 5 . Fore s t ry h andbook .
1 , 17 4 p .
Ron ald Pre s s Co . , New Yor k .
con t a i n s a r e d alder volume t able .
( CFH )
1 7 3 . For e s t Club , Un i ve r s i ty o f Br i t i s h
Columb i a .
1 9 5 9 . Fore s try h andbook f o r
Br i t i s h Columb i a . 2d ed . 8 0 0 p .
Vancouver , B . C .
Comp i l at i on o f u s e ful fore s try data
t able s and i n format i on , much o f i t
pert a i n i ng t o red alder .
( CFH )
1 7 4 . Fore s t Indus t r i e s .
19 7 2 . New dr i ve beh i nd red
alder . For . Ind . 99 ( 1 1 ) : 41 .
" Red alder , f o r many years s imply tole­
r ated by l and man ager s , h ad found i n­
c re a s i n g favor wi th furn i ture and nove lty
manufac ture r s . Produc t i on o f red alder
lumber in Was h i ngton and Oregon ro s e 5 0
m i l l i on bd ft between 1960 and 1 9 7 0 ,
f rom 200 m i l l i on to 2 5 0 mi l l i on . Though
u t i l i zed s i nce the l at e 1800 ' s , the
s pe c i e s d i d not really get go i ng unt i l
after WW I I . Four f ac t o r s we re the key
t o b roader u s e : Techno l o g i c al advanc e s
i n alder pulp i ng , g radual dec l i ne i n
qual i ty i n other h ardwoods on a nat i onal
s c al e ; e xp an s i o n o f ne arby marke t s ; and
p romo t i on e fforts by an organ i z at i o n of
Nor thwe s t hardwoo d produ c e r s and
l andown e r s .
" Red alder make s up about 7 0'10 o f
t o t al volume o f three p r i nc i pal hardwoods
in c o a s tal Oregon and Was h i ngton , follow­
e d by b i gl e af maple and c ot tonwood . USFS
data s h ow that about 8 9 2 , 000 acres of
c ommerc i al fore s t l and in the two s tate s
are predom i nantly alder s tand s .
"Pr i o r to WW I I , much alder was
s ol d o n a rough , green , m i l l-run bas i s
and a b ad reputat i o n r e s ulted . Produc­
t i o n s i n c e then has been mor e r i g i d , i n
m i l l s equi pped t o accurately s aw , k i ln ,
dry , and s urfac e the lumber t o
s pe c i f i c at i on .
S e l dom grow i n g at e levat i o n s above
2 , 5 00 feet , alder o f ten forms pure s t ands
o f up to s everal hundred acre s . I t doe s
b e s t along s treams and bot tom l ands . I n
s uch s tand s , the t imbe r may be c l ear­
boled for 5 0-60'10 o f i t s he i gh t . He i gh t s
o f 6 5 -100 feet a r e normal , though s ome
r e ach 1 3 0 feet . D i ameter ranges are f rom
1 8 to 2 4 i n . , wi th a max imum o f about 3 4
in.
"About 18 . 6 b i l l i on bd f t o f alder
i s ava i l able in c ommerc i al l y operable
s t ands , ne arly all we s t o f the C a s c ades
and about 6 510 on p r i vate l and . " ( A )
1 7 5 . For e s t Record , Fore s t ry
Commi s s i o n , Londo n , Un i ted Ki ngdom .
1 9 7 0 . T r i a l s o f s pe c i e s o n
peat s : Alder . For . Res . For .
Comm . , London Rep . 196 9 / 7 0 : 51- 5 2 .
and fert i l i z i n g w i th P and K. A s u b s e ­
q u e n t rev i ew o f i n fo rmat i o n o n th i s and
other Alnu s s p p . i nd i c ated , howeve r ,
that al though several s pe c i e s make r ap i d
i n i t i al growth o n ac i d peat s , a charac­
ter i s t i c dete r i or at i on t ake s place after
10-1 5 y e ar s , p robably owi ng to l ac k o f P
and K . Further work on the nut r i t i on o f
! . rubra has b e e n planned . " ( FA )
1 7 6 . Forr i stall , Floyd F . , and S . P .
Ge s s e l .
19 5 3 . S o i l propert i e s r e l ated to
fore s t cover type and produc t i v i ty
on the Lee Fore s t , Snohomi s h
County , Was h i n gton . S o i l Sc i .
Soc . Am . Proc . 19 ( 3 ) : 384-3 89 .
"Mechan i c al and chemi c al propert i e s o f
t h e for e s t floor and s o i l , and s o i l
mo i s ture content were exami ned for 5
p l o t s s tocked r e s pec t i vely wi th
P s eudo t s uga tax i fol i a , T suga
heterophyl l a , Thuj a pl i c ata and Alnus
rubr a , for each o f wh i c h s i te c l as s ,
number of tree s , b . a . , and volume and
growth per ac r e were determ i n ed . Depth
of hardpan layer was an important
c r i ter i on for produc t i v i ty rat i ng . The
domi nat i ng i n f luence s e emed to be s o i l
drai nage . " ( FA )
1 7 7 . Fowe l l s , H . A .
19 6 5 . Red alder ( Al n u s rubra
Bong . ) . I n s i lvi c s o f fore s t
trees o f the Uni ted S t ate s , p .
83-88 . U . S . Dep . Agr i c . Agr i c .
H andb . 2 7 1 . Was h i ngton , D . C .
"A des c r i p t i o n o f the s i lv i c al character­
i s t i c s of red alder . "
"Trees i n a s i ng l e plot o f Oregon Alder
( Alnus rubra) on a deep i n fe r t i l e peat
i n Suthe r l and have reached a he i ght of
c a . 2 m . i n two s e a s o n s after plant ing
43
1 7 8 . Frankl i n , Jerry F . , and C . T .
Dyrne s s .
1969 . Vege tat i on of Oregon and
Was h i ngton . USDA For . Serv o Res .
Pap . PNW-80 , 2 1 6 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Des c r i b e s and i l l u s t r a t e s maj or vegeta­
t i onal types found in Oregon and Was h i ng­
ton i nc l u d i n g fore s t type s , s te ppe and
s h rub- s teppe c ommun i t i e s , and s ubalp i n e
mo s i ac s . Succe s s i onal and envi ronmen tal
r e l at i on s h i p s o f the c ommun i t i e s are
d i s c u s s ed . An e x t en s i ve b i b l i og raphy
d i re c t s the reader to more detai led
s ource s . " ( A )
1 7 9 . Frankl i n , Jerry F . , and C . T .
Dyrne s s .
1 9 7 3 . Natural vegetat ion o f
Oregon and Was h i ngton . USDA For .
Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW-8 , 4 1 7
p . , i l l u s . Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range EXp . S tn . , Portland ,
Oreg .
"Maj or vege t a t i onal un i t s o f Oregon and
Was h i n g ton and the i r envi ronmental rela­
t i on s h i ps are de s c r i be d and i l l u s trated .
A f t e r an i n i t i al cons i derat i on o f the
v e ge t at i o n c ompon e n t s in the two S t ate s ,
maj or geograph i c areas and vegetat i o n
z o ne s are detai l ed . De s c r i pt i on s of
e ach vegetat i on zone i nc lude c ompo s i t i on
and s u c ce s s i on , as we l l as d i s c u s s i on o f
v ar i a t i on s as s oc i ated wi th envi ronmental
g r ad i e n t s . Three chapters t re at the
f o r e s t ed zone s found i n the two S t ate s .
Maj or emphas i s i s on the di s t i nc t i ve
me s i c t emperate fore s t found i n we s tern
Washi n g ton and northwe s tern Oregon . The
i n te r i o r valley fores t s , shrub l ands ,
and pr a i r i e s found b e tween the Coas t and
C a s c ad e Ranges i n we s tern Oregon are
t reated in a s i ng l e chapter as are
s ubal p i ne and al p i ne mo s i ac s o f tree­
domi nated and meadow c ommun i t i e s .
44
Unu s ual hab i t at s , such as areas o f
recent vul c an i sm , s erpe n t i ne s , and o c e an
s tr and , are i nd i v i dually de s c r i bed .
S o i l s , geology , and c l i mate are
c on s i de red in broad out l i n e in an e ar l y
chapter and i n greater de t a i l wi th i n
d i s c u s s i on s o f i nd i v i dual geogr aph i c
are a s and vege tat i on zone s . Append i c e s
are i nc l uded f o r def i n i t i on o f the
var i ou s s o i l type s , s c i ent i f i c and
common plant n ame s , and a s ubj e c t
i ndex . An exte n s i ve b i bl i ogr aphy i s
i nc luded to d i r e c t the reader to other
references . " ( A )
180 . Frankl i n , Jerry F . , C . T . Dyrne s s ,
Duane G . Moore , and Robert F .
Tarrant .
1968 . Chem i c al s o i l propert i e s
under coas t al Oregon s t ands o f
alder and c o n i fers . In B i ology of
alde r , p . 1 5 7-1 7 2 . J . H . T r appe ,
J . F . Fr ankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and G . M. Han s e n , eds . Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg . "Chem i c al s o i l prope r t i e s we re c ompared
under ( 1 ) adj acent 40-year-old red alder
( Alnus rubra ) , c o n i fer ( mai nly Doug l a s ­
f i r ( P s eudo t s ug a menz i e s i i » , and m i xed
s t ands and ( 2 ) adj acent 30-year-old
alder and con i fe r s t ands growing on the
Oregon c o as t . So i l s on all s i te s wer e
As tor i a-l i ke s o l s B r u n s Ac i d e s deve l oped
primar i l y from Eocene s i l t s t one . Organ i c
mat t e r , t otal n i trogen , and ac i d i ty wer e
s i gn i f i c antly g r e a t e r i n A hor i zons under
alder and mixed s t ands .
In All hor i zo n s
o f t h e older s t ands , organ i c content
under alder ave rage one-th i rd greater
than c o n i fer ( 3 9 vS . 29 percent ) , n i tro­
gen one-t h i rd greater ( 0 . 8 vS . 0 . 6 per­
cen t ) , and pH one un i t lower ( 4 . 3 v S .
5 . 3 ) . A hor i zo n s under c on i fe r s t ands
ave r age three t ime s r i cher i n b a s e s than
tho s e under alder s t ands . S im i l ar
d i fferenc e s , but o f a much smaller
magn i t ude , were ob s e rved i n the B
h o r i zo n s . Ob s e rved e f f e c t s o f alder on
a c i d i ty and base content d i s agree w i th
the generally held concept of hardwoods
as base c o n s e rver s . The s e e f f e c t s may
i nd i c ate greater produc t i on of ac i d
decompo s i t i on produ c t s i n the o rgan i c­
and n i tt'ogen- r i cher alder s o i l s . " ( A )
181 . Frankl i n , Jerry F . , and Anna A .
Pechane c .
1968 . Compar i s on o f vege t a t i o n i n
adj acent alde r , c on i fe r , and mi xed
alder-con i fe r commun i t i e s . I .
unde r s tory vege tat i o n and s t and
s t ruc ture . I n B i ology o f alde r ,
p . 3 7 -43 . J . M . Tr appe , J . F .
Frankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and G . M .
Han s e n , eds . Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range Exp . S tn . , Portland ,
Oreg .
"Vege tat i onal anal y s e s o f adj acent 40­
ye ar-old c o as t al Oregon s t ands o f red
alder , con i fers , and mi xed alder-c o n i fer
s h owed marked d i f ferences in c overage
and r i chne s s o f unde r s tory . Shrubby
s pe c i e s wer e c on f i ned ma i nly t o the pure
alder s t and , where they formed a den s e
l ayer . Herbaceous plan t s we re be s t
developed i n the alder mi xed s t ands and
ground-dwe l l i n g c ryptogams i n the mi xed
and c on i fe r s tands . D i fferenc e s i n
c anopy den s i ty , and , perhaps , i n nutr i ­
t i on prob ably ac counted f o r mo s t of the
c ontras t s . Although current regenera­
t i on of trees was un i formly ab sent ,
s uppre s s e d S i tka s p ruce s apl i ng s pe r s i s ­
t i ng i n the alder and mi xed s t ands could ,
by r e s pond i ng to future releas e , par t i al­
ly replace a dete r i orat i n g alder over­
s tory . " ( A )
182 . F r i e dman , Janet Patter s o n .
1 9 7 5 . The preh i s tor i c u s e s o f
wood a t the ozette archaeolog i c al
s i te . Ph . D . thes i s . Was h . state
U n i v . , Pul lman . 2 6 2 p .
"As a r e s u l t o f the remarkabl e pre s e rva­
t i on s i tuat i o n avai l able at the Ozette
Archaeolog i c al s i te i n Nor thwe s tern
Was h i ng ton State , worki ng in wood ,
generally con s i dered the maj o r techno­
log i c al component o f Nor thwe s t Coa s t
cultur e , c an be s tud i ed i n a n archaeolog­
i c al context . The current s tudy deals
wi th the i dent i f i c at i on o f wood s pe c i e s
ut i l i ze d i n the manufac ture o f s pe c i f i c
c atego r i e s o f wooden ar t i f ac t s b y the s e
abor i g i nal peopl e . Ev i dence i nd i c at e s
that they s e le c t i vely ut i l i zed a w i de
range o f ava i l able wood s , choo s i ng the
s pe c i e s w i th mechan i c al and other
proper t i e s be s t s u i ted to the needs
po s ed by a part i cu l ar type of art i f ac t .
They we re wel l aware o f the poten t i al i ­
t i e s o f the i r envi ronment , and u t i l i zed
i t knowledgeably . " ( A )
183 . F r i t z , Emanue l .
1 9 4 5 . Twenty year s ' growth on a
redwood s ample plot . J . For .
4 3 ( 1 ) : 30-3 6 .
"A I-acre s ample plot o f 8 5 -yr . -old
Sequo i a s empe rv i re n s on a h i gh s i te I ,
on wh i ch growth data h aye been recorded
for 20 yrs . , s hows the phenomenal y i e l d
of 2 2 3 , 03 4 board ft . , not i nc luding an
add i t i onal 21 , 400 board f t . accret i on o n
5 old-growth re s i du al redwoods and a
small amt . o f Alnus oregona . Dur i ng the
dec ade when the s t and was b e tw . 65 and
75 yrs . o l d , the pe r i o d i c annual growth
exceeded 5 , 000 bd . f t . per acre . " ( BA )
45
1 8 4 . Fro i devaux , Luc i en .
1 9 7 3 . The ectomycorrh i z a1
a s s o c i at i o n , Aln u s rubra +
Lactar i u s obscuratu s . Can . J .
For . Re s . 3 ( 4 ) : 601-603 .
itA l aboratory s tudy was made o f s ampl e s
o f roo t s o f ! . r ubra and s poroc arps o f
h . ob s c uratus both c o l l e c ted i n the
Coast Ranges of we s tern Oregon . The
mycorrh i zal a s s o c i at i on was conf i rmed by
c ompar i ng the mycorrh i zal mant l e w i th
the myc e l l i um at the base o f the s t i pe
o f the s poroc arp for mor phology , re­
a c t i on to chemi c al reagen t s , and auto­
f luore s c ence in long-wave ultrav i olet
l i ght . 1t ( FA )
1 8 5 . Fro i devaux , Luc i en .
1 9 7 5 . Aureobas i d i um pullulan s ( de
B ary ) Arn aud : An a s s o c i ate of
Alnu s rubra and Lactar i u s
obs curatus mycorrh i zae . Eur . J .
f o r . Patho l . 5 ( 2 ) : 1 24-12 7 .
It! . pul l u l an s w a s i s o l ated f rom 5 010 o f ! .
rubra and h . obscuratus myc orrh i zae
c o llec ted in we s tern Oregon in Nov . 19 7 2 .
I n l aboratory t e s t s , ! . pullulans had an
i nh i b i tory e f f e c t o n the growth o f the
root p athogen Fu s ar i um o xysporum . 1t ( FA )
1 8 6 . Furlow , John J acob .
1 9 7 4 . A s y s t emat i c s tudy of the
Ame r i c an s pec i e of Alnus
( Betulaceae ) . Ph . D . the s i s .
M i ch . s t ate Uni v . , Lan s i ng . 503 p .
ItThe genus Al nus con s i s t s of about 20
s pec i e s of shrubs and tree s , ma i nly o f
t h e Nor thern Hem i sphere , b u t extending
b e l ow the Equator i n to South Amer i c a
a long t h e Ande s . Although a wide array
o f s t ud i e s o f the genus dur i ng the past
70 ye a r s h ave produced an abundanc e of
new dat a , and th i s per i od has s een the
46
development o f d i fferent ph i lo s o ph i e s
concern i n g taxa i n general , there has
been no comprehen s i ve rev i s i onary e f fort
in that t ime . Cons equen tly current
tre atments o f Alnus suffer f rom a l ac k
o f up-to-date i n format i o n and un i f i ed
taxonom i c concept s . The s pe c i e s are
often var i able , and th i s h ad led to both
w i de s pread confu s i on in the tre atment of
taxa and a prol i ferat i on o f i nf r a s pe c i f i c
and spec i f i c name s . In add i t i on , whe r e
t h e geograph i c al ranges o f taxa ove r l ap ,
the p l an t s appear to hybr i d i z e read i ly ,
add i n g to the probl ems o f i dent i f i c at i on
and c l as s i f i c at i on .
ItFrom the r e s u l t s of the
palynolog i c al , anatomi c al , chemo s ys tem­
at i c , and nume r i cal t axonomi c s t ud i e s ,
as we l l as o rd i n ary obse rvat i on , i t i s
seen that the Ame r i c an taxa o f Alnus
group i nto three maj or c l u s t r s , wh i c h
are treated a s s ubgenera ( Alnus ,
Alnobetul a , and Clethrops i s ) . Four taxa
are regarded as c on s pe c i f i c w i th
Euras i an Alnus i n c ana s ub s p . rugo s a ,
! . i nc ana s ub s p . tenu i fo l i a , !. v i r i d i s
s ub s p . c r i spa , and ! . v i r i d i s s ub s p .
s i nu at a ) . The Lat i n Amer i c an taxa are
shown to c ompr i s e two s pec i e s , Alnus
acum i n ata and ! . j orullens i s , each o f
wh i ch i s s ubd i v i ded i n t o two var i e t i e s
( ! . acumi nata var . acum i n at a and ! .
acumi nata var glabrata on the one hand ,
and ! . j orullens i s var . j orullen s i s and
!. j orullens i s var f i rmi fo l i a on the
other ) .
ItSubgenera Clethrops i s and
Alnobetula are repre s ented by s i ngle
s pe c i e s i n Ame r i c a ( Alnus mar i t ima and
!. v i r i d i s , r e s pe c t i ve ly ) . Subgen u s
Alnus is c ompo s ed o f two o r more l e s s
d i s t i n c t groups o f t ax a , one repre sented
by the shrubby northern ! . i nc an a and ! .
s e rrulat a , and the other b y the Lat i n
Ame r i c an s pe c i e s and the l arge tree
s pe c i e s o f the northern and c entral
s ec t i on s of the we s tern part o f the
cont i nent ( Alnus rubra , !. rhomb i fol i a ,
and ! . oblongi fo l i a ) . The l atter group
i s reg arded as the mo s t primi t i ve s egment
of the genus in the New World . 1t ( A )
1 8 7 . Fye , Calv i n G
and Dav i d G .
B r i gg s .
1 9 7 8 . A c ompar i s on o f lumber
grad i n g rules for alder and
c ompe t i ng s pe c i e s . In ut i l i z at i on
and management o f alde r , p .
8 5 - 9 2 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S .
DeBe l l , and W i l l i am A . Atk i nson ,
c omp i lers . USDA For . Serv o Gen .
Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t
For . and Range EXp . S tn . ,
Por t l and , Oreg .
.
•
"Th i s paper conta i n s a compar i s o n o f
l umber grad i ng r u l e s and prac t i c e s f o r
r e d alder and compe t i ng s pec i e s i n the
h ardwood l umber t r ade such as b i rch ,
y e llow poplar , s o f t maple , and b l ac k
cherry . " ( A )
188 . Gar a , R . I . , a n d L . L . J ae c k .
1 9 7 8 . I n s e c t pe s t s o f r e d alder :
Pote n t i al probl ems . I n ut i l i z at i on
and management o f alder , p . 26 5-269 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBel l ,
and W i l l i am A . Atk i nson , comp i le r s .
USDA For . S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . s tn . , Portland , Ore g .
"Although i n s e c t problems of red alder
rece i ve l i ttle attent i on at pre s ent ,
concern about i n s e c t damage w i l l i n c r e a s e
w i th i ncreas i ng value and management o f
the s pec i e s . T e n t c ater p i l l ar s and s aw­
f l i e s appe ar to o f f e r the mo s t s e r i ou s
t h r e a t s t o i nten s i ve management ; defo l i ­
at i on b y the s e i n s e c t s could lead t o
d r as t i c reduc t i o n s i n growth o f heav i ly
i n f e s te d s tands . Chrysome l i d beetles ,
s uch as the alder flea bee tl e , c an a l s o
be de s t ru c t i ve a s both l arval and adul t
s t ages de f o l i ate alde r . Bark beetle
populat i o n s are normal ly l ow and damage
i s l imi ted ; howeve r , i nc reased h arve s t ,
i f acc ompan i ed by large amounts o f log­
g i ng s lash , c ould r e s u l t i n popUlat i on
bu i ld-up and subs equent attac k and
mor t al i ty of trees i n res i dual s t ands .
Ambro s i a bee t l e s attac k down l o g s and
c an degrade l umb e r unle s s removal and
ut i l i za t i on proceeds promptly after
fel l i ng . " ( A )
189 . G arman , E . H .
1 9 5 3 . Pocket g u i de t o the trees and
s hrub s o f B r i t i sh Columb i a . B . C .
For . Serv o Publ . B . 2 8 , 102 p .
V i c to r i a , B . C .
190 . Gerh ards , C . C .
1964 . L i m i ted evaluat i o n o f
phys i c al and mec h an i c al propert i e s
o f Nepal alder grown i n Hawai i .
USDA For . S e rv o Res . Note . FPL-036 ,
4 p . For . Prod . Lab . , Mad i son , Wi s .
"Hawa i i -g rown Alnus nepalen s i s , t e s ted
for ( a ) s h r i nkage , ( b ) bend i ng s trength ,
and ( c ) h ardne s s , was found to equal s am­
ples f rom Bengal i n ( b ) , and to exceed
them i n ( a ) and ( c ) . I t s modulus o f e­
l a s t i c i ty ( m . e . ) was l owe r . It was hard­
er than U . S . -grown Populus t remulo i d e s
and P i nu s pondero s a , but s o fter than
Alnus rubra . I t was c omparable to f .
tremulo i des in ( b ) , but l owe r in m . e .
Values for ( a ) i n the rad i al and t angen­
t i al d i re c t i on s were l ower than in !.
rubra and only s l i ghtly gre ater than i n
f . tremulo ides and P i nu s pondero s a . "
( FA )
47
1 9 1 . G e s s e l , S . P . , T . N . Stoate , and K .
J . Turnbul l . 1 9 6 5 . The growth behav i or o f Doug l as - f i r w i t h n i trogenous fert i l i ze r i n we s tern Was h i ngton . ColI . For . Re s ou r . Bull . 1 , 204 p . Seattle . Un i v . Wash
.
•
" A very detai led report ( 1 19 table s , 28
g r aphs , 17 maps ) of the l ay-out and re­
s u l t s to date ( 1 962 ) of long-term s tudy ,
i n i t i ated 1 5 years prev i ou s l y , to
i nve s t i gate the e f f e c t s o f art i f i c i al
f e rt i l i ze r s on immature Douglas F i r i n
we s tern Was h i ngton . N has been the one
ac t i ve l y s imul at i ng el ement s o far
d i s covered ; i t s e f f e c t s on c rown s i z e ,
h e i ght , d i ame ter , vo lume , fol i age , and
s o i l are dealt w i th . No attempt has
been made to determi ne the forms and
amount s of N req u i red to produce any
e f fec t , or the e c onomi c s of fert i l i z i n g .
An important i n terac t i on be tween we i ght
o f fert i l i ze r and s i te qual i ty res ulted
i n greater add i t i onal gross i nc rement
per un i t N on poor than on good qual i ty
c l a s s e s . " ( FA )
1 9 2 . G e s s e l , S . P . , T . N . S toate , and K .
J . Turnbul l . 1 9 6 9 . The g rowth behav i o r o f Douglas-f i r w i th n i t rogenous fert i l i ze r i n we s tern Wa s h i ngton . The s econd report . Un i v . Wash . I n s t . For . P rod . con t r i b . 7 , 119 p . Seattle , Was h . A h i gh l y var i abl e , improved growth rate
d i f f e r i n g be tween locat i on s generally
r e s u l t s f rom the appl i c at i o n o f n i trogen
f e rt i l i z e r to s e c ond-g rowth Dougl as-f i r
f o r e s t s . The reason f o r the var i at i on
i s unknown .
( CFH )
48
193 . Ge s s e l , S . P . , and J . Turne r .
1 9 7 4 . L i t te r produc t i on by red
alder in we s tern Was h i ngton . For .
Sc i . 20 ( 4 ) : 32 5-330 .
"Li tter p roduc t i on was me as ured w i th four
4 5 . 7 2 cm traps per s t and for 8 to 9
years i n s even 30-ye ar-old red alder
( Alnus rubra Bong . ) s t ands . Produc t i on
between years d i d not d i f f e r s i gn i f i c ant­
ly except for one in wh i c h buds and twi g s
were s eve rely damaged b y f ro s t the prev i ­
ous November . The wetne s s o f the s umme r
i n a g i ven year af fec ted t im i n g and am­
p l i tude o f the annual produc t i on peak .
Annual n i trogen re turn was from 80 to 200
'
kg ha-l yr -l . " ( A )
194 . Ge s s e l , S . P . , and John Turne r .
1 9 7 3 . L i tter product i on by s t ands
o f red alder i n we s tern Was h i ngton .
Con i ferous For . B i ome I n tern . Rep .
5 7 , 6 p . Un i v . Wash . , Seattle .
1 9 5 . Ge s s e l , S t anley P . , Kenneth J .
Turnbull , and F . Todd Tremblay .
1 9 60 . How to fer t i l i ze t r e e s and
me asure r e s pon s e .
67 p . Natl .
Plant Food I n s t . , Was h i ngton , D . C .
Gives a s i te i ndex c urve for red alder .
( CFH )
1 9 6 . Glendenn i ng , R .
1 9 2 8 . An i n te re s t ing Myzoc all i s
( Homopter a , Aph i d idae ) . Entomol .
Soc . B . C . Proc . 1928 ( 2 5 ) : 18-2 0 .
" . alni DeGee r was found by the author
on 2 w i de ly s ep arated ho s t pl ant s , nat i ve
alder ( Alnus oregon a ) and wi ld s t r aw­
berry ( Fragar i a glau c a ) . " ( BA )
1 9 7 . Glenn i e , Doug las W . , and John S .
Mo the r s he ad .
1 9 6 4 . Chemi c al s t ruct ure of l i gn i n
s u l fonate s . I . Preparat i o n o f
l i gn i n s u l fonates f rom red alde r .
Tapp i 4 7 ( 6 ) : 3 5 6-360 .
"H ardwood l i gn i n was treated under moder­
ate cond i t ions so as to prepare l i g n i n
s ul fonates for i s olat i ng and i dent i fy i ng
monome r i c and d i me r i c c ompone n t s . A
1 7 . 3-lb . s ampl e o f extrac t i ve-free wood
c h i ps from the outer IO-year growth of a
red alder bolt was cooked wi th aqueous
s o d i um b i s u l f i te in three s eparate and
s u c c e s s i ve s t age s of i nc reas i ng tempera­
ture . Pulp of wood qual i ty was obt a i ned
i n 49 . 9% y i eld w i th a c alculated removal
of l i gn i n of 86 . 7% . Compar i s on of the
u l t r av i ol e t ab s orpt i on characte r i s t i c s
f o r v i nylvan i llyl and v i ny l s y r i ngyl
s ul fonates indi c ated that for every two
gua i acyl un i t s there wer e present about
three s y r i ngyl un i t s in red alder l i gn i n
s u l fonate s . S imi l arly , one un i t i n
three was e s t imated to c o n t a i n a free
phenol i c hydroxyl group . S i nc e l i gn i n
s ul fonates obt a i ned i n the f i r s t b i ­
s ul f i te c o ok i ng s tate wer e prepared
under moderate c ond i t i o n s for s ulfona­
t i on and c ame by d i f fu s i on from e xtrac­
t i ve-free c h i p s from un i form wood of
recent growth , they we re con s i dered a
s u i table s ource for i s olat i on o f deri va­
t i ve s wi th l ow molecular we i ghts that
r e s embl e proto l i g n i n i n red alder . " ( A )
198 . Gordon , John C .
1 9 7 8 . B i ol o g i c al c ompone n t s o f
In
alder y i eld improvement .
u t i l i z at i on and management o f alder ,
p . 3 2 1-3 2 5 . Dav i d G . B r i gg s , Dean
S . DeBe l l , and Wi l l i am A . Atk i n son ,
c omp i l e r s . USDA For . Serv o Gen .
Tech . Re p . PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t
For . and Range EXp . S t n . , Portl and ,
Oreg .
" Although alder has not been e x t en s i ve l y
u s ed i n i ntens i ve fores try , i t s poten t i al
i s great . Two spec i e s , Aln u s rubra Bong .
and Alnus glu t i no s a ( L . ) Gaertn . , are
part i c ularly promi s i ng because of the i r
growth hab i t , ch arac ter i s t i c s , and hav i ng
been s tud i ed more than other alde r s . The
concept of ideal plant type , or i deo type ,
i s u s e ful i n determi n i ng the y i e l d
potent i al and t h e n e e d for improvement i n
s pec i f i c characte r i s t i c s o f c rop plant s .
When alde r s are c ompared to an i deo­
type for max i mum y i eld of f i be r , they f i t
we l l--rap i d j uven i le growth , e a s e o f veg­
e t at i ve propagat i on , c rown shape , growi ng
s e a s on ut i l i z at i on , n i trogen f i x at i on ,
m i c rob i ol og i c al relat i ons , gene t i c var i a­
t i on , and early f lowe r i ng are all po s i ­
t i ve . Charac ter i s t i c s wi th poorer f i t
are wat e r relat i ons , un i t-Ieaf-area rate
o f pho tos ynthe s i s , fecund i ty , and wood
propert i e s . The s e , howeve r , are s u s c ep­
t i ble to s ome gene t i c and c u l tural
improvement . Recent s t ud i e s have shown ,
for e x ample , that pho tosynthe t i c c apac i ty
and the ab i l i ty to f i x atmo s phe r i c n i tro­
gen are c losely related but that c on s i ­
derable gene t i c var i at i on e x i s t s i n both
charac t e r i s t i c s . " ( A )
49
1 9 9 . Gordo n , John C . , and R i chard B .
Hal l .
1 9 7 8 . Alder res earch out s i de the
Nor thwe s t : A br i e f overv i ew . In
ut i l i zat ion and management o f
alde r , p . 4 7 - 5 3 . Dav i d G . B r i ggs ,
Dean S . DeBe l l , and W i l l i am A .
Atk i n s on , c omp i le r s . USDA For .
S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 70 . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range EXp . S t n . ,
P o r t l and , Oreg .
" Over the past c e ntury Europeans have
done much cultural and phy s i ol og i c al re­
s e arch on Alnu s glut i no s a . Black alder
has al s o been s t ud i ed and used extens i ve ­
l y i n Europe and the Eas tern Un i ted
s t ates f o r l and rec l amat i o n . Mo s t phys i ­
o l og i c al r e s e arch o n bl ack alder has been
r e l ated t o i t s c apab i l i ty to f i x n i trogen
s ymb i o t i c al ly , al though some data on
photo- s ynthe s i s and tran s l oc at i on are
ava i l able . Other European alder s pe c i e s
t h at h ave rec e i ved atten t i on are Alnus
i nc ana and Alnus cordat a . The Nether­
l ands , German y , Sweden , F i nl and , and
Great B r i t a i n have alde r genet i c s or t re e
i mprovement programs at o n e or more loca­
t i ons . Mo s t o f the cultural s t ud i e s have
had as the i r obj e c t i ve the i n c re as ed u s e
o f b l a c k alder as a n i n tercrop or rota­
t i on crop wi th c o n i f e r s or poplar s . In
Great B r i t a i n there is renewed research
i n tere s t in Alnu s rubr a , as a wi ndbreak
s p e c i e s for the prote c t i on of con i f er
p l antat i on s , and as an amen i ty tree . " ( A )
2 0 0 . Graf , Ph i l l i p Edward .
1 9 7 4 . Succe s s i onal s t age s of red
alder in Bonner County , Idaho .
M . S . thes i s . Un l v . Idaho , Mo s c ow .
146 p .
" I n northern Idaho s eral popul at i o n s of
Alnus rubra are d i s j un c t from the maj or
populat i on s located we s t of the Cas c ade­
S i e rra ax i s . My obj e c t i ve was to prov i de
a s ynec olog i c al de s c r i pt i on o f plant
c onunun i t i e s a s s o c i ated wi th Alnus rubr a ,
50
e s pec i ally the s eral s t age s wh i ch are
dominated by Al nus rubra , and the r e s u l ­
t i ng c l i max a s s oc i at i on wh i c h l acks Alnus
rubra . Thu s , a s tudy of Al nus rubra
hab i t ats around Lake Pend Ore i l l e showed
that both Thuj a pl i c ata and T s uga
heterophyl l a a r e c l imax dom i n an t s . A l l
o f t h e Alnus rubra s uc c e s s i onal s t age s
s ampled are o n pote nt i al T s uga
heterophyl l a c l imax s i te s . The under­
s tory i s domi nated by the Pach i s t ima
myr s i n i te s vas c u l ar un i o n , wi th a
dom i n ance o f Polys t i chum mun i t um beneath
the s uc c e s s i onal s t ands o f Aln u s rubr a .
Early s u c c e s s i onal s tages are dom i nated
by pure Alnus rubra . Early s u c ce s s i onal
s t age s are dom i n ated by pure Aln u s rubr a .
Poten t i al c l i max plants are soon e s t ab­
l i shed beneath the Alnu s o ve r s tory .
Later i n the sere , T s uga hete rophyl l a
gradually overtops Alnus rubra , and near
c l imax only dead Alnus rubra i nd i v i duals
are pre s en t i n the s t and . I n contrast to
the Lake Pend Ore i l l e are a , other areas ,
wi th d i s j un c t populat i ons , further south
i n northern Idaho we re not g l ac i ated .
Th i s has r e s ulted i n le s s d i s j un c t s and
endem i c s occupy i ng the Lake Pend Ore i l l e
area . " ( A )
201 . Graham , R . D .
1 9 5 4 . Vapor dry i n g o f we s te rn
woods . Oreg . For . Prod . Lab . Rep .
D-2 , 11 p . Oreg . S t ate Un i v . ,
Corvall i s .
"De t a i led results for Douglas F i r ( 1- ,
2- , and 4- i n . ) and We s tern Hemlock
( 2- i n . ) and pre l imi nary r e s u l t s for
Redwood , Pac i f i c madrone , Red Alder and
Ponde ro s a P i ne are tabul ated . " ( FA )
202 . Grah am , Robert D . , and Donald J .
Miller .
1 9 6 3 . Serv i c e l i fe o f treated and
untre ated fence po s t s : 1963
progre s s report on the po s t farm .
Oreg . For . Prod . Lab . Prog . Rep .
13 , 24 p . Oreg . s t ate Un i v . ,
Corval l i s .
Informat i on on the e x pected u s e f u l l i fe
o f fencepo s t s . Red alder i s one o f the
s p e c i e s evaluated .
S imi lar i n format i o n
c an be f o u n d i n e arl i e r r e p o r t s i n th i s
series .
( CFH )
203 . Gram , K . , C . Muhle Lar s en , C .
Syrach Lar s en , and M . We s te rgaard .
1 9 4 1 . contr i b u t i o n s to the cyto­
genet i c s o f fore s t tree s . I I .
Alnu s tudi e s . K . Ve t . Hoj s k .
Ars s kr . 1941 : 4 4- 5 8 . Denmar k ,
Copenhagen .
"Aln u s glut i no s a , !! . i nc ana , !! . h i r s uta ,
!! . tenu i fo l i a , !! . tenu i fo l i a var .
o c c i de n t al i s , !! . rubra , and !! . cordata
h ad 2n
2 8 chromo s ome s . Tre e s c ul t i ­
vated under the name s !! . s ubcordat a , !! .
j apon i c a , and !! . o r i ental i s had 2 n
42 ,
and i n one i nd i v i du al o f !! . s ubcordata
2n
5 6 . Me i o s i s was regul ar i n the
d i pl o i d s , very i rregular in the t r i ­
p l o i ds , and regul ar--apart from the
f o rmat i on of s ome few tetrasome s - - i n the
t e t r aplo i d !!. subcordat a . The t r i pl o i ds
are r egarded a s hybr i d s be tween d i pl o i d
a n d te traplo i d s p e c i e s , and t r i p l o i d s
c U l t i vated i n var i ou s botan i c al garde n s
under s pe c i e s name s a r e e v i dently s pon ta­
neous hybr i d s grown under the name o f the
mother tree . Ac c o r d i n g to other authors ,
!! . j apon i c a and forms o f !! . glut i no s a are
a l s o tet raplo i d , as i s !!. s ubc ordata X !! .
glut i no s a ( !! . spaeth i i ) . Exper imentally
produced hybr i d s are l i s ted .
( FA )
=
=
204 . Gramovs ky , A . A .
1 9 2 8 . A rev i ew o f myzocal1 i s
s pe c i e s i nhab i t i ng Alnu s , wi th
de s c r i pt i on of a new s pec i e s
( Homoptera , Aph i idae ) . Ann .
Entomo1 . Soc . Am . 2 1 ( 4 ) : 5 46 - 5 6 5 .
"Keys to 4 s pp . o f Myzoc all.!.! i nhab i t i n g
Al nus , alate and apterous v i v i paro u s and
aptero u s ovi parou s W , and al ate rJrJ .
Rede s c r i pt i ons o f . aln i , alate* and
aptero u s * v i v i parous
, apterous
ovi parous
* , alate a * wh i ch i s known
in Amer i c a only f rom I l l i no i s , Oregon ,
and Br i t i sh Columb i a ,
. aln i fo l i ae , the
s ame s t age s * , on Alnus i nc an a , !!. rubr a ,
! . rugo s a , and !! . s errulata i n e a s te rn
un i ted S t ate s ;
. rhomb i fol i ae ( p . 5 5 5 ) ,
s ame s t ate s * , f rom Alnus rhomb i fol i a and
!!. i n c an a , Wi s con s i n ( type ) and Cal i ­
f o rn i a ; M . ps e udoaln i , alate v i v i parous
* . " ( BA )
205 . Gratkowski , H . , D . Hopki n s , and P .
Lauterbach .
1 9 7 3 . The Pac i f i c c o a s t and
northern Rocky Moun t a i n r e g i on . J .
For . 7 1 ( 3 ) : 1 38-143 .
D i s c u s s e s brush control i n the Pac i f i c
c o a s t and Rocky Moun t a i n areas .
( CFH )
=
206 . Grave s , Henry S .
1912 . Red alde r . Aln u s o regona
Nut t . U . S . Dep . Agr i c . S i lv i c al
Leaf! . 5 3 , 4 p .
2 0 7 . Greg s o n , P . G .
1948 . The management and ut i l i z a­
t i on o f red alde r . B . S . F . thes i s .
Un i v . B . C . , Vancouve r . 5 9 p .
51
208 . G robey , J'ohn Henry .
1964 . An e c onom i c analys i s of the
hardwood i ndus try of we s tern
Wash i ngton . M . F . the s i s . un i v .
Wash . , Seattle . 101 p .
Al though part o f the nat i onal hardwood
i ndu s t ry , the hardwood i ndustry of
Wash i ng ton is cons i dered on a reg i onal
b as i s . Growth i s e x pe c ted but at
p r e s e n t it i s underut i l i zed . Important
r e as o n s are i n terac t i o n w i th other
s e gme n t s of the local t imber i ndu s t ry ,
i mper f e c t i on s i n the c ompet i t i ve be­
h av i o r of r e s ource marke t s , and c e r t a i n
i n s t i tu t i onal factors .
( CFH )
2 0 9 . G rondal , Bror L .
1 9 18 . S e at tle shoe factory
u t i l i ze s red alde r . We s t coast
Lumberman 3 4 ( 3 98 ) : 2 1 .
De s c r i b e s a manufac t ur i ng proc e s s wh i c h
u s e s s e asoned r ed alder as s o l e s for
wooden shoe s .
( CFH )
2 1 0 . Grondal , Bror L .
1 9 5 6 . New proce s s barks alde r .
pulp and Pap . 30 ( 3 ) : 1 2 5 -126 .
A l der b ark i s almo s t c ompletely c ooked
away in the pulp i n g proces s , y i el d i ng
l i ttle pulp but requ i r i ng add i t i onal
c ooki n g l i q u i d and decreas i ng d i ge s te r
c apac i t y . Fresh green c h i p s wi ll float
i n wat e r wh i l e b ark part i c l e s s i nk .
Ch i p s w i th adher i ng bark w i l l e i ther
f lo at or s i nk depend i ng on the amount of
b ark p r e s en t . A propo s ed cleanup s cheme
i nvolve s s c reen i ng to remove f i n e s ,
r o l l i n g to l o o s e n bark , and f i nally , a
f l otat i on to s eparate ch i p and bark .
( CFH )
52
211 . Grondal , Bror L . , and P i otr Zenc zak .
1949 . Prolys i s o f wood : Re cent
deve lopments . Trend Eng . Un i v .
Wash . 1 ( 2 ) : 2 3-2 5 . S e at tl e , Wash .
"De s c r i be s smal l - s c ale pro1ys i s e x pe r i ­
men t s c arr i ed o u t f o r chec k i n g c l aims
put forward by S l avyan s ky . Attempts at
improv i ng the proc e s s of d i s t i l l i ng the
wood , wh i le imme r s ed in kero s ene , under
d i fferent temperatures and pre s s u re s ,
resul ted i n obt a i n i ng a h i gh propor t i on
o f s oluble tar and o f acet i c ac i d . Ex­
per iments we re c ar r i ed out wi th Douglas
F i r hear twood i n the form o f l arge and
small blocks and s awdu s t , and wi th Red
Alder blocks . Ke ros ene lo s s e s were
negl i g i ble . The charcoal obtai ned pre­
s e n t s a very e x tended i nt e r i o r s urface
are a . " ( FA )
212 . Gunthe r , Erna .
19 4 5 . Ethnobo tany o f we stern
Was h i ngton . Un i v . Was h . Pub l .
Anthropol . , 61 p . Seattle .
U s e s o f plan t s by nat i ve Ame r i c an s .
( CFH )
213 . Haard , R i chard T .
1 9 7 1 . The per i od i c i ty o f s pore
release f rom a con i fe r , a l i ve rwort ,
and a bracke t fung u s . Northwe s t
Sc i . 4 5 ( 3 ) : 183-18 7 .
"Two Kr ame r-Co l l i n s a i r s ampl e r s we re
used to observe hourly pollen release
f rom a tree of T s uga hete rophyl l a i n Mt .
B aker Nat i onal Fore s t , Wash . , at 3 5 0 0 ft
alt . for 10 days in May , 1968 . We l l de­
f i ned pe aks i n po llen releas e , c o i n c i d i ng
w i th the lowe s t d a i l y r . h . ( 2 9-43 ) were
noted on May 9 , 10 and 11 . Thuj a p1 i c ata
and Alnus rubra , grow i n g at c a . 500 ft
alt . in the s ame county , showed s im i l ar
patterns o f po llen release . At the Mt .
B ake r s i te , parallel observat i on s we re
made on s pore release f rom a l i verwort
and from the fungus Ganoderma applanatum :
the patterns for the s e d i f fered i nt e r s e
and from the pattern of pollen release
in I . heterophyl l a . " ( FA )
2 1 4 . Haddoc k , Ph i l i p G .
1949 . A problem c h i l d reforms :
New perspec t i ve s i n the management
of red alde r . For . Club . Q .
2 2 ( 2 ) : 9- 1 5 . Un i v . Was h . , Seattl e .
"A rev i ew o f the ex i s t i ng l i terature on
the management and ut i l i z at i o n o f Alnus
rubra in the Pac i f i c Northwe s t , where i t
i s the mo s t plent i ful and u s eful hardwood
s pe c i e s . " ( FA )
2 1 5 . Hagman , M .
19 7 5 .
Incompat i b i l i ty i n forest
tree s . R. Soc . London Proc . B .
188 , p . 31 3-3 2 6 .
" De s p i te the great importance for fore s t
t ree breed i ng , very l imi ted knowledge i s
yet ava i l able about the breed i ng s y s t ems
o f fore s t tree s . Where i ncompat i b i l i ty
has been s t u d i e d i n the hardwood s : pat­
terns have been observed wh i ch conf i rm
the general rules detected for other
ang i o s pe rms . Self- and i nter s pe c i f i c
i n compat i b i l i ty a t the level o f pollen
tube growth has been reported for exampl e
i n B e t u l a and Alnu s . I n Alnus one c a s e
o f u n i l at e r al i nters pec i f i c i nc ompat i b i l­
i t y has been found . S e l f- incompat i b i l i ty
h a s , s o far , not been reported f rom the
c o n i fers . I n t e r s pe c i f i c i nc ompat i b i l i ty
i n the form o f the arres tment of the pol­
len tube growth in the nuc ellus t i s s ue
has been obs erved in P i ce a and i s part i c ­
u l arly c le ar i n P i nus c ro s s e s be tween the
s ubgenera H aploxylon and D i ploxylon , but
a l s o wi th in the D iploxylon-group . The
nature of the i n c ompat i b i l i ty me chan i sm
i s s t i l l u nknown , but s e rolog i c al d i f fer­
ences r e l ated to the behav i our in the
c ro s s e s had been detected in b i rch and
p i ne pollen . It is suggested that the
complex pol y s ac char i d i c compo s i t i on of
the c e l l wal l s and membrane s m i gh t form
a s pe c i f i c s te reochemi c al bas i s for the
i n c ompat i b i l i ty react ion . The pre s ence
o f a comb i nat i on o f s e l f-po l l i n at i on ,
polyembryony and gene t i c l o ad i s d i s ­
cus s ed as an alternat i ve mechan i sm
f avour i ng outbreed i ng i n the Gymno­
s perms . " ( A )
2 1 6 . Hagman , Max .
19 6 7 . Genet i c mechan i sms affe c t i ng
i nbreeding and outbre e d i n g i n fore s t
t r ee s : the i r s i gn i f i c an c e f o r m i c ro­
evo l u t i on o f fore s t tree s pec i e s .
I n t . Union . For . Re s . Organ . 14th
Congr . Proc . , Mun i c h , Pt . I I I ,
S e c t . 22 , p . 346-3 6 5 .
"Rev i ews past s ud i e s on i n c omp at i b i l i ty
i n plan t s i n general and forest s pec i e s
i n part i c u l ar . The author h a s observed
that s e l f- i ncompat i b i l i ty in s ome s pec i e s
o f e tul and Alnus is due to a ret arda­
t i on in the growth of the pollen tube .
The i nf luence o f the s e f ac t o r s i n the
mi c ro-evolut i on o f s pec i e s is d i s c u s s ed . "
( FA )
2 1 7 . Hall , J . Al fred .
1969 . The pulp and paper i ndustry
and the Northwe s t . 61 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range EXp . S tn . ,
Portl and , Oreg .
D i s c u s s e s red alder as an unused or a
l i ttle-u s ed s pe c i e s i n the pulp and p aper
i ndus try .
( CFH )
53
2 1 8 . Hall , J . Alfred .
1 9 7 0 . Wood , pulp and pape r , and
people in the Northwe s t . 34 p .
P ac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
D i s c u s s e s alder as an unused or a 1 i tt1e­
u s ed s pe c i e s i n the pulp and p aper i ndus­
try .
( CFH )
2 1 9 . H al l , John W .
1 9 5 0 . The comparat i ve anatomy o f
t h e Betu1aceae . Am . J . Bot .
3 7 ( 8 ) : 662 .
"Anatom i c al evi dence i nd i c at e s that the
Betu1aceae are not pr imi t i ve , but are
moderately s pe c i al i zed . The trends of
s pec i al i zat i on are :
in the Butu1eae ,
f r om Alnus ( s c a1 ar i form perforat i on
plates w i th numerous n arrow bars ; op­
po s i te and alternate i n tervascular
p i t t i ng ) to Betula ( reduc t i on i n the
n umber o f bars and w i de n i ng o f the bars
in the perforat i on plates ; exclus i vely
alternate i n tervas c u l ar p i tt i ng ) ; thence
i n the t r i be Cory1 e ae t o Cory1us and
o s tryops i s ( s p i ral th i c ken i ng s i n the
v e s s el s ; f i bre-trach e i d s e x c l u s i vely ;
r educ e d number o f w i de bars i n the
s c a1ar i form perforat i on plate s ; heteroge­
neous r ay s ) to Carpinus ( marked tendency
t oward s imple perforat i on s ; homogeneous
r ays ) and to the mo s t advanced genus ,
o s trya ( s imple perforat i on s ; homogeneous
r ays e tc . ) . " ( FA )
2 20 . Hall , John W .
1 9 5 2 . T h e comparat i ve anatomy and
phylogeny of the But1aceae . Bot .
Gaz . 1 13 ( 3 ) : 2 3 5 -2 7 0 .
Twenty-four s pe c i e s o f Alnus were
s tud i e d . Only three of the four s e c t i on s
o f the genus are repre s ented . The wood
a natomy of the Betu1ac e ae was s t u d i e d
54
c omparat i ve l y t o e s t abl i s h the phylo­
gene t i c po s i t i on o f the f ami ly . The
Betulaceae i s more pr imi t i ve than the
Coryleae . Al nus is less s pe c i al i zed
than Betul a .
( CFH )
2 2 1 . Ham i lton , J . K . , and N . S . Thompson .
1 9 5 8 . A compar i s on o f the
c arbohydr ates o f h ardwoods and
s o f twoods . Pulp & Pap . Mag . C an .
5 9 ( 10 ) : 2 33-241 .
"Ho10ce11ul o s e s h ave been prepd . from a
no . o f h ardwoods and s o f twoods by the
chlor i te method and , i n c e r t a i n i n s t an­
c e s , by a new mi lder me thod employ i ng
C10 2 buffered to pH 7 . we s te rn red al­
der has been shown to conta i n a glucoman­
n an ( I ) w i th gluco s e : mannose
2 : 3 . The
i s o l at i on and i dent i f i c at i on of crys t .
0-a-4-0-methy1g1ucuronopyr ano sy1( 1 2 ) -0-a-D-xy10pyr ano sy1- ( 1 4 ) -D­
xylopyr ano sy1-tr i hydrate i nd i c at e s that
the 4-0-methy1gluc urono-xyl an ( I I ) of
th i s wood is s im i l ar to that f rom other
h ardwood s . The results o f pretre atment
and h i gh-st rength NaOH extn s . of var i ou s
ho1oce1lu1 o s e s i nd i c ate that mo s t of the
hemi ce11uloses are not chem i c al l y com­
b i ned wi th the cellulose of e i ther type
of wood . Though the cellulose of the
h ardwoods and s o f twoods are s imi lar i n
phys . and chem . propert i e s , i t would
appear that the i r nonce11u1o s i c polysac­
char i de s h ave s everal d i f ferenc e s . Hard­
woods c on t a i n 2 0-30% hemi c e 11u1o s e s ,
c on s i s t i ng mo s t ly o f I I wi th a h i gh
r at i o o f D-xy1ose ( I I ) to 4-0-me thy1­
D-g1ucuron i c ac i d ( IV) and small amts .
o f gluc o s e , arab i no s e , and manno s e wh i c h
l a s t appe ars t o b e as socd . w i th a h i ghly
i n acc e s s i ble I . Softwoods conta i n
1 5 -20% hemi ce11u1o s e s c on s i s t i ng mo s t l y
o f a d i f f i culty extrac t able I , small
amt s . o f 4-0-methy1g1ucuronoaraboxylan
h av i ng a lowe r rat i o o f III to IV , and
to a l e s s e r but s i gn i f i c ant extent s o l .
I , ga1ac tog1uc omannan s , and araboga1ac­
=
t an s . Trac e s o f rhamnose and glucuron i c
ac i d occur i n both hardwoods and s of t­
woods . " ( BA )
224 . Han smann , Eugene W . , and Harry K .
Ph i nney .
1 9 7 3 . Effec t s of logg i ng o n
pe r i phyton i n c o a s tal s t re ams of
Oregon . Ecology 5 4 ( 1 ) : 1 94-1 9 9 .
2 2 2 . H am i l ton , J . K . , and N . S . Thomp s on .
1 9 5 9 . A compar i s on o f the c arbo­
hydrates of hardwoods and softwood s .
Tapp i 42 ( 9 ) 7 5 2 - 7 6 0 .
"De s c r i be s part o f a s tudy on small
c atchme n t s , compar i ng the e ff e c t s of
c lear f e l l i ng and patch logg i ng on the
wate r qual i ty and b i olog i c al resourc e s
o f small c o as t al streams . The ove r s torey
on the c at chme n t s con s i s t ed ma i nl y of
P s e udo t s uga men z i e s i i and Alnus rubra . "
( FA )
" Compar e s the hemi c e llulo s e of hardwoods
( ma i nl y Alnus rubra , Arbutus menz i e s i i ,
L igu i dambar s tyr ac i f lua , Nys s a aguat i c a
and . sylvat i c a ) , and of s o f twoods
( T s uga heterophyl l a , Thuj a pl i c at a ,
P i nu s e l l i ot t i i , f . pal u s tr i s , e tc . ) ,
and pre s e n t s detai led t abulated r e s u l t s
o f r e s earch o n t h e behav i or o f hemi c e l lu­
l o s e s dur i n g var i ou s pul p i ng proc e s s e s .
The s e r e s u l t s i n d i c ate that the r e s i dual
e xtract i on-re s i s t ant s ugars wh i ch rema i n
a s s oc i ated wi th the c e llulo s e a s s hown
by hydrol y s i s , are not part of the c e llu­
l o s e but are due to i n acce s s i ble or
h i ghly i n s oluble polyme r s i nt imately
a s soc i ated wi th i t . " ( FA )
2 2 3 . Han s e n , Everett .
19 7 5 . Phe l l i nu s ( Por i a ) we i r i i rQot
rot i n Douglas-f i r-alder s t ands
10-1 7 ye ars old . USDA For . Serv o
Re s . Note PNW- 2 5 0 , 5 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range EXp . S tn . ,
Portl and , Oreg .
" Red alde r grow i n g i n even-aged mi xture
w i th Doug l a s - f i r d i d not reduce i n i t i al
l o s s e s to Phe 1 1 i nu s we i r i i 10- to 1 7 ­
year-old Dougl as-f i r plantat i on s . The
ab i l i ty of alder to reduce l ater lo s s e s
f rom l ateral s pread w i t h i n the s t and was
not e x am i ned . f . we i r i i i s c reat i ng
o pen i ng s i n the s e young s t ands wi th 3
percent o f the trees already dead i n one
c as e . The s ymptoms and d i s t i n gu i s h i n g
f e atures o f f . we i r i i i n fe c t i on on young
t r e e s are de s c r i bed . " ( A )
2 2 5 . Harge r , J . R . E .
1 9 7 3 . Damage to vege tat i on by
chlor ine gas . Int . J . Env i ron .
s t ud . 4 : 9 3-108 .
"The e f fec t s o f chlo r i ne g a s emanat i ng
from a f ac tory i n c au s i ng damage to
fol i age were t e s ted on Mal u s fu s c a ,
Populus t r i choc arpa , Rubus spe c t ab i l i s ,
Alnu s rubra and S ambuc u s r ac emo s a var .
arbore s c ens .
. r ac emo s a was the mo s t
s ucept i ble s pe c i e s .
( FA )
2 2 6 . Harrar , E . S .
19 5 8 . Hough ' s encyc lopaed i a o f
Amer i c an woods . Vol . 2 , 223 p .
Robert Speller & Son s , New York .
Volume 2 o f 16 volume s on propert i e s and
u s e s of Amer i c an woods . I n c l ude s botan­
i c al de s c r i pt i on of tree s , l e ave s ,
f lowe r s , and f r u i t s . Gro s s d i agnos t i c
f e ature s , m i c r o s c opy , and t abl e s o f phys­
i c al propert i e s o f wood are pres ented .
An ac companying atlas vo lume i nc l ud e s
t h i n s e c t i on s ampl e s o f wood i n rad i al ,
tangent i al , and transve r s e c ut s .
( CFH )
55
2 2 7 . Harr i s , Arl and S . , and Wi lbur A .
Farr .
1 9 7 4 . The fore s t ecosys tem o f
s outheast Al aska . 7 . Forest
e cology and t imbe r management .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 2 5 , 109 p . Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
ULarge-s c al e u s e o f the t i mbe r r e s ource
o f s o u theast Alaska began i n 1 9 5 3 after
long e f forts to e s t abl i s h a t imber in­
dustry . Deve lopment and pre s n t s t atus
of the i ndustry and present ' Ianagement
o f the t imbe r r e s ource are clummar i zed ,
s tre s s i ng the b i olog i c al bas i s for t im­
ber managemen t act i v i t i e s i n southeast
Alaska today . Ecolog i c al and s i lv i ­
cultural cons i derat i on s rel ated t o t imbe r
h arve s t , refore s t at i on , a n d s t and
deve l o pmen t are d i s c u s sed .
uPubl i shed and unpub l i shed i n for­
mat i on are brought together . Current
man agement prac t i c e s are d i s c u s s ed as a
bas i s for better unde r s tand i n g o f how
th i s i nformat i o n c an be helpful i n
man ag i ng the t i mbe r r e s ource and t o po i n t
out where r e s e arch i s needed . " ( A )
2 2 8 . Harr i s , K . F .
1 9 5 0 . Grow i n g good qual i ty s e cond
growth alder . B . C . Lumberman
3 4 ( 7 ) : 4 1 , 109-110 , 112 .
S ugge s t s mod i f i c at i on s o f European s i lv i ­
c ul t ural techn i ques that may b e appl i c a­
ble t o i ntens i ve management o f red alder .
G i ve s e s t imate s , i n t ime per acre , o f
var i o u s s i lvi cultural treatments .
( CFH )
2 2 9 . Hartman , Dav i d A . , Wi l l i am A .
Atk i nson , Ben S . Bryan t , and R i chard
O . Woodf i n . 19 7 5 . Conver s i on factors for the Pac i f i c Northwe s t fore s t i ndu s try : Convert i ng fore s t growth to fore s t produc t s . 112 p .
I n s t . Fo r . Prod . , ColI . For . Re s our . , Un i v . Wash . , Seattle . A collec t i on of tables o f wood y i e ld ex­
pre s sed i n c ub i c me asuremen ts . Engl i s h
and me t r i c un i t s are pre s ented .
( CFH )
230 . Hatton , J . V . , and K . Hunt .
1 9 7 7 . Phys i c al propert i e s of
s o f twood and h ardwood kr aft pulps
as a func t i on of bu l k . Tappi
60 ( 10 ) : 14 5 -14 7 .
"Dat a pre s ented substan t i ate e ar l i er
f i nd i ngs that bulk ( s pec i f i c volume ) c an
be u s ed i n place o f the Canad i an s tandard
freene s s ( CS F ) t e s t to charac t e r i z e pulp
phys i c al propert i e s . L i near regre s s i on
equat i on s were found for kr aft pulps o f
bal s am f i r , t amar ack , r e d alde r , beech ,
ye llow b i rch , and maple , wh i ch correlate
wide ranges o f bulk wi th CSF values for
bur s t factor , break i ng length , and tear
factor . It was obs erved that quadr a t i c
equat i ons would f i t the data s l i ghtly
bett er . Areas of c aut ion are i n d i c ated
wh i ch should be con s i dered before replac­
i n g CSF tests by bulk de term i n at i ons . " ( FA )
231 . Hatton , John V .
1 9 7 6 . The po ten t i al o f proce s s
control i n kraft pul p i ng o f hard­
woods relat i ve to s o f twoods . Tap p i
59 ( 8 ) : 48-50 .
"Appl i c at i on o f three - equat ion s e t s of
general form ( Y , P , K )
A - B [ ( log H )
( EA ) n ) , to kr aft pul p i ng data from
three s o f twood s pec i e s - - al p i ne f i r ,
bal s am f i r , and Douglas f i r- - and four
=
56
h ardwood s pe c i e s - -beech , hard mapl e , red
alde r , and yellow b i rch--revealed that
in hardwood kraft pul p i ng , proc e s s con­
t rol w i l l be more d i f f i cu l t to ach i eve
than for s o f twoods under normal opera t i ng
cond i t i o n s .
In the s e equat i on s e t s , the
three output var i abl e s--total pulp y i eld
( Y ) , s c reened-pulp permanganate number
( P ) , and s c r eened-pulp kappa ( K ) --are
r e l ated to the two maj or kraft pul p i ng
i nput var i able s o f H-factor ( H ) and
e f fe c t i ve alka l i appl i ed ( EA ) . A con­
s i s tent behav i or i al pattern observed
wi th i n the three-equat i on s e t s for
s o f twood s , pulped under a var i ety of
kraft proc e s s i ng cond i t i on s , is con­
f i rmed by relat i ve l y h i gh values o f r 2 ,
a me asure o f the goodne s s o f f i t o f the
d e r i ved equat i on s wi th the experimental
dat a . Thus , proc e s s control for kraft
m i l l proce s s i n g of s o f twoods should be
r e l at i ve l y s t raightforward . For hard­
woods , however , wi th the i r mo re var i able
chemi c al c ompo s i t i on , l e s s con s i s tency
i s observed wi th i n the three-equat i o n
s e t s , a n d t h e der i ved equat i o n s do n o t
f i t t h e exper imental d a t a as we l l as for
the s o f twood s . " ( A )
2 3 2 . Hawke s , Carl .
1 9 5 3 . Pl ane s release tree
plan t at i on . J . For . 5 1 ( 5 ) : 345-3 48 .
"De s c r i be s s uc c e s s ful oper a t i o n s i n
Oregon f o r the release o f 10-year-old
c o n i fer plant a t i o n s from Red Alder by
s pr ay i ng f rom the a i r w i th 2 , 4-0 at the
r a t e / acre of 2 lb . ac i d equ i valent mi xed
wi th 8 gal . water and 2 o z . s t i c ker­
s preade r . C o s t o f s pray i ng 1 000 acres
was $5- 1 5 / ac re . Alder was ki lled , W i l l ow
d i s c our aged , and l i ttle damage done t o
t h e other trees and shrubs . " ( FA )
233 . Hawley , L . F . , and Lou i s e E . Wi s e .
1 9 2 6 . The chemi s t ry o f wood .
334 p . Chern . Cat . Co . , I nc . ,
New York .
Tables on volume and an alys i s o f red
alder .
( CFH
234 . Haye s , Jame s .
1948 . ut i l i z i n g hardwoods from the
f arm . 2 7 th Annu . Wash . s t ate For .
Con f . Proc . , p . 20-2 2 . Seattle ,
Wash .
23 5 . H eeb i nk , T . B . 19 6 5 . Su i tab i l i ty o f s even we s t c o a s t spec i e s for palle t s . USDA For . Serv o Re s . Pap . FPL- 2 2 , 16 p . For . Prod . Lab . , Madi s o n , Wi s . "De s c r ibes te s t s o f d i f ferent type s o f pallet made from ( 1 ) P s e udot s uga
tax i fo l i a , ( 2 ) T s uga heterophyl l a , ( 3 ) L i thoc arpus den s i florus ., ( 4 ) Lar i x
occ i dental i s , ( 5 ) P i nu s pondero s a , ( 6 )
Populus t r i cho c arpa and ( 7 ) Alnus rubra ,
for res i s t ance to ( a ) bend i n g under
load , ( b ) d i stort i on when dropped on a
corner , and ( c ) damage when thrown about
in a revo l v i n g drum . The pe rformanc e of
( 2 ) was as good as ( 1 ) throughout , that
of ( 5 ) , ( 6 ) , and ( 7 ) was as good as ( 1 )
for ( b ) and ( c ) but i nf e r i or for ( a ) ,
and ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) we re i n f e r i o r to ( 1 ) i n
all r e s pe c t s . Compar at i ve t e s t s o f pal­
lets of ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 7 ) made from dry
and green l umbe r were inconc lu s i ve . " ( FA )
236 . Hende r s on , J . A .
19 7 0 . B i oma s s and compo s i t i on o f
the unders tory vegetat i on i n s ome
Alnus rubra s t ands i n we s tern
Oregon . M . S . thes i s . Ore g . state
Un i v . , Corval l i s . 64 p .
57
2 3 7 . H e pt i ng , George H .
1 9 7 1 . D i s e a s e s o f fore s t and shade
t r e e s of the un i ted state s . U . s .
Dep . Agr i c . Agr i c . Handb . 386 ,
6 5 8 p . Wash i ngton , D . C .
Th i s book d i s c u s s e s the pathology o f
t rees nat i ve to the un i ted states and o f
many s pe c i e s i n troduced for sh ade and
o rnamental purpo s e s . It de s c r i be s the
main character i s t i c s of a tree and i t s
patho gen s , then l i s t s mat e r i al s and
referenc e s helpful to a person d i agno s i ng
d i s e a s e s of a s pec i e s .
( CFH )
238 . Herfeld , H . , and E . Z i eger .
1 9 5 1 . F i c hten- , Ki efern- und
Erlenzapfen al s Ge rbmat e r i al i en .
[ Spruce , p i ne , and alder cones as
tann i ng mater i al s . ] Ge s amme l t e
Abh . Dtsch . Lede r i n s t . , Fre i berg ,
Germany , No . 6 , p . 6 5 - 7 5 .
" Re s u l t s of an i nve s t i g at i on i nto the
t ann i n content of Spruce cone s , both
f allen and gathered f rom the tree s ;
var i o u s por t i on s o f Spruce cones and
P i ne and Alder cone s ; wi th tables o n
r e s u l t s o f e x t r act i o n o f Spruce and
Alder cone s , and of c ompat l b i l i ty t e s t s
o f Spruce-cone extracts wi th vegetable
and s ynthet i c t anstu f f s . In th i s r e s pe c t
P i ne c o n e s we re found t o b e o f l i ttle
value , but cones o f Spruce and Alder
( Alnus glut i no s a , ! . i nc ana , ! . rubra )
could be advan t ageou s l y u s ed i n the
t ann i n g i ndu s t ry . " ( FA )
58
239 . Hethe r i ngton , J . C .
1964 . Brush control i n coas tal
B r i t i sh Columb i a . B . C . For . Serv o
Re s . Note 38 , 5 6 p . Vancouver .
"A s ummary o f the pr i n c i pl e s of chemi cal ,
me chan i c al , and b i olog i c al me thods o f
brush control and the r e s u l t s o f a s t udy
based on the e x am i nat ion of a l arge
number of c ommerc i al and expe r i me n t al
brush-control proj e c t s i n B r i t i s h
Columb i a . The control o f Alnus rubr a ,
Acer macrophyl l um , ! . c i rc i natum , Rubu s
spectab i l i s , pterd i um agu i l i num . and
Gaulthe r i a shallon by chemi cal mean s i s
d i s c u s s ed . Mechan i c al removal o f brush
by bulldoze r , by g i rdl i ng , and by cut­
t i ng , and the s i l v i cul tural charac ter­
i s t i c s of tree s pe c i e s planted in brush
are as are al s o cons idered . When po s s i -­
ble , c o s t s are g i ven for all tre atment s . "
( FA )
240 . Heus s e , C . J .
1969 . Modern po l len s pectra f rom
the Olymp i c Pen i n s u l a , Was h i ngton .
Bull . Torrey Bot . Club
9 6 ( 4 ) : 40 7 - 4 1 7 .
"In s amples f rom 5 2 s i te s i n d i f ferent
s ec tors and alt i t udinal zones betwe e n
s e a-level fore s t a n d alp i ne tundr a ,
pollen o f T s uga heterophyl l a and Aln
rubra was dom i n an t . Extra-zonal pollen
con s t i tuted part o f the depos i t s .
Var i at i on wi t h i n a zone was due to d i s ­
turbance s uch as logg i ng , f i re , etc .
The value o f the data for i n terpret i n g
N . Pac i f i c Ple i s tocene pollen pro f i l e s
i s d i s c u s s ed . " ( FA )
241 . Heus s e r , C . J .
19 74 . Quaternary vegetat i on c l imate
and glac i at i on o f the Hoh R i ve r
Valley , Was h i ngton . Geo l . Soc . Am .
Bull . 85 ( 10 ) : 1 5 4 7 -1 5 6 0 .
tiThe Hoh R i ve r valley , on the we s t s i de
of the Olymp i c Pen i n s ul a , i s about 90 krn
long and i s one o f the maj o r val leys
o r i g i n at i ng in the i n t e r i or Olymp i c
Moun t a i n s [USA ] . Pollen s t rat i graphy
and 14 C chronology of 3 bog cores i n
the l ower Hoh valley s how tundra a t low
e levat i o n s from 18 , 8000±800 yr B . P .
unt i l about 10 , 000 yr B . P . Holocene­
vegetat i o n is po rtrayed by 3 pollen
a s s embl age s : P i nus-Alnus-p i c e a­
P s eudot s uga-pterd i um ( 1 0 , 000 to 8000 yr
B . P . ) , P
i c e a-Ts uga- Alnus-P s e udot s uga­
Pterd i um ( 8000 to 3000 yr B . P . ) and Tus uga-Thuj a-Ab i e s ( 3000 to 0 yr B . P . ) .
The sequence imp l i e s a c l i mat i c trend
f rom a cool and relat i vely hum i d c l imate
i n the beg i nn i ng , t o i n c reas i ng warmth ,
then max imum warmth and lowe r humi d i ty ,
and f i nally to a cooler and q u i te hum i d
c l i mate at the c lo s e . The s equence al s o
r e f l e c t s the gradual replacement of open ,
s u c ce s s i onal fore s t c ommun i t i e s by a l ate
Holocene -age c l o s ed r a i n fore s t . Pollen
i n f lux i s l ow , generally l e s s than 1 5 00
g r a i n s cm-2 yr - l , exc ept around 8000
y r . B . P . , when values exceeded 5 000
cm-2 yr -l . Trac e s of tephra f rom
the erupt i on of Mount Maz ama , found i n
1 b o g s ect i on , mark a n ext reme Pac i f i c
c on t i nental l imi t f o r th i s ej e c t amen ta .
Refug i a on the Olymp i c Pen i n s ul a con­
t a i ned the s tock f rom wh i ch maj or
m i grat i o n s of plan t s northwe s tward along
the north Pac i f i c c o a s t took place
t oward the c l o s e o f Fraser Glac i at i o n
a n d dur i ng Holocene t ime . " ( BA)
242 . Heu s s e r , Calv i n J .
1960 . Late-Pl e i s tocene env i ronme n t s
o f no rth Pac i f i c North Amer i c a . Am .
Geogr . Soc . Spec . Publ . 3 5 , 308 p .
A c omprehens i ve d i s cu s s i o n of the vege­
tat i on , envi ronment , and chronology of
the Pac i f i c c o a s t of North Ame r i c a f rom
the late Ple i s tocene ( about 14 , 000 year s
ago ) to the present . Red alder was an
important s u c c e s s i onal component o f the
( CFH )
reg i on dur i ng th i s per i o d .
243 . Heus s e r , Cal v i n J .
1 9 7 3 . Envi ronmental s equence
fo llowing the Fraser advanc e o f the
Juan de Fuca lobe , Was h i ngton .
Qu at . Re s . 3 ( 2 ) : 284-306 .
"strat i graph i c palynology and r ad i ocarbon
chronology of two bogs and a l ake on the
nor thwe s te rn O lymp i c Pen i n s u l a s e rve to
record the envi ronme n tal s equence po s t ­
dat i ng t h e Fraser max i mum o f t h e Juan d e
Fuc a lobe . Wa s t age o f t h e l o b e i n the
termi nal area began before l 4 , 460±200
BP . D i fferen t i al downwas t i ng followed ,
and the l a s t remn an t s o f dead i c e
probably d i s appe ared s ome t ime before
9 , 380±180 BP . Abl at i on marg i ne became
suff i c i ently t h i c k i n the cour s e of
was t age for a veget at i on cover to bec ome
e s tab l i shed . Arboreal r ema i n s of th i s
cove r , found bur i ed i n t1 1 , date be tween
12 , 0 20±2 10 and 13 , 380±2 5 0 BP .
"Commun i t i e s of P i nu s contorta f i r s t
succe eded on deglac i ated s u rfaces dur i ng
the Vashon St ade . Envi ronmental cond i ­
t i on s we re comparable t o those preva i l i ng
in the modern s ubal p i ne fore s t , and
average July temperature s tood near 1 2 ° C .
Late r , dur i ng the Eve rson Inters tade
( 1 1 , 000-13 , 000 BP . ) , Alnus and P i cea
mul t i pl i ed as temperature i n creased
po s s i bl y to as much as 1 4 ° . Dur i ng the
Sumas S t ade ( 10 , 000-11 , 000 BP . ) , tempera­
ture wa s again c a . 1 2 ° C , the cooler
c l imate hal t ing was tage and the s pread
59
o f Aln u s and enabl i ng c ommun i t i e s o f
P i ce a , Tsuga heterophyl l a , and 1 .
merten s i an a t o temporar i l y ach i eve
s t ab i l i ty .
" Po s tglac i al envi ronme n t s through
the Hyp s i thermal ( c a . 3 , 000 BP ) we re
domi nated pr i nc i pally by Alnus . Alnu s ,
s ucc eeded i n turn by P i c e a , i nvaded the
l andsc ape , foll owi ng the rece s s i o n o f
a l p i n e g l ac i e r s and t h e r i s e i n elevat i o n
o f t h e s nowl i ne . For a t ime , as sugge s ­
ted by a p e a k o f Ps eudo t s ug a , tempe rature
may h ave reached c l o s e to 1 7 0 and annual
prec i p i tat i on l e s s than 7 60 mm . Arboreal
c ommun i t i e s were r e l at i vely open wh i l e
l i ght-requ i r i ng Pter i d i um r ema i ned con­
s p i cuous i n the record . After 3000 BP
d u r i n g Neoglac i at i on , c l i mate became
s u f f i c i ently cool and mo i s t to f avor the
developmen t of extens i ve , c l o sed c om­
mun i t i e s of T s uga , P i c e a , Thuj a , and
o ther hygroph i lous s pe c i e s . " ( A )
244 . Hewi tt , E . J . , and G . Bond .
1 9 6 6 . The cobal t req u i rements o f
non-legume root nodule plan t s . J .
E X p . Bot . 1 7 ( 5 2 ) : 4 80-491 .
"Exper iments wi th Casuar i n a
c unni nghami an a , Myr i c a gale and Alnus
glut i no s a c on f i rmed the n e c e s s i ty of Co
for proper growth o f nodulated plant s .
Under the cond i t ions o f the e xper iment ,
marked N-de f i c i ency s ymptoms appeared
d ur i ng the s econd growth s e ason when Co
was not s uppl i e d . The need for Co ap­
pears to be c on f i ned to the nodul e s . The
r e l at i onsh i p between the pre s ence of Co ,
v i tami n B 12 analogue s , and the growth
o f the endophyte and f i xat i on of atmo s ­
p he r i c N i s d i s c u s s ed . " ( FA )
2 4 5 . H i ldenbrand , Home r .
19 7 2 . Ec onomi c s and marke t i ng o f
alde r . I n Manag i ng young for e s t s
i n the Douglas-f i r reg i on , Vol . 3 ,
p . 5 3-61 . Al an B . Berg , ed . Sch .
For . , Oreg . s t ate Un i v . , Corval l i s .
2 4 6 . H i l l , Fred J .
1 9 7 8 . Trends and technolog i e s i n
s outhern hardwood s awmi l l s . I n
ut i l i z at ion and management of alde r ,
p . 111-121 . Dav i d G . B r i gg s , Dean
S . DeBe l l , Wi l l i am A . Atki nson ,
c omp i l e r s . USDA For . Serv o Gen .
Tech . Re p . PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Rang_ EXp . S tn . , Portland ,
Oreg .
"Th i s paper e x ami n e s s eve r al hardwood
s awmi l l s r ang i ng in c apac i ty from 5 MM
bd . ft . to 40 MM bd . f t . annual l y , and
d i s cu s s e s he relat i ve capi tal c o s t s ,
operat i ng c o s t s , and character i s t i c s o f
e ach f ac i l i ty . The paper further re­
l ated hardwood s awm i l l de s i gn to the
characte r i s t i c s o f the hardwood s aw­
t imber resource i n the Eastern Un i ted
states and explores the maj o r i ndus try
concerns o f ( 1 ) l ac k o f growth in hard­
wood l umbe r produc t i on , ( 2 ) redu c t ion i n
log s i ze and qual i ty , and ( 3 ) s h i f t s i n
end-use marke t s . The unc e r t a i n s upply
o f hardwood logs from small p r i vate
owne r s h i p , the l ac k o f marke t growth , and
the var i able earn i ngs h i s tory o f hardwood
operat i on s have d i s couraged mo s t l arge
c or porate i nve s tment to date . " ( A )
2 4 7 . H i l l s t rom , Wi l l i am A .
1 9 7 4 . Ch i p debark i n g o f s everal
we s tern s pec i e s . USDA For . Serv o
Re s . Note NC-1 64 , 4 p . North Cent .
For . EXp . S tn . , st . Pau l , M i nn .
"Compare s procedures for remov i n g bark
f rom ch i ps by compre s s i o n rolls followed
by ' drubb i ng ' ( t umbl ing and beat i n g ) the
60
mater i al and then s c reen i ng w i th o r wi th­
out an i n i t i al pre- s teami ng o f the ch i ps . T e s t s wi th four s pe c i e s are reported , u s i ng ch i p s f rom var i ou s par t s o f the t r e e s , i n c l ud i ng branches and fo l i age . B e s t bar k r emoval was obt a i ned w i th Alnus rubr a ( 90%) , followed by T s uga
heterophyll a and Ac e r mac rophyllum
( 60- 7 5% ) ; r e s u l t s wi th P s eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i were s l i ghtly poore r . Pre­
s te am i n g made l i t tl e d i fference to bark
r emoval , but the ' drubb i n g ' led to
appre c i able lo s s e s o f wood f i bre in .
menz i e s i i and . mac rophyl lum . After
s c reen i ng , and rej e c t i o n of the f i n e s ,
mo s t res i dual bark was found i n the
smal l e s t ( 3 / 16 i n s c reen ) ch i p mate r i al . "
( FA )
2 4 8 . H i tchcoc k , C . Leo , and Arthur
Cronqu i s t .
1 9 7 3 . Flora o f the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t .
730 p . Un i v . Wash .
Pres s , Seattle .
2 4 9 . H i tchcoc k , C . Leo , Arthur Cronqu i s t ,
Mar i on Ownbey , and J . W . Thomp s on .
1964 . Vas c ul ar plan t s o f the
Pac i f i c Northwe s t . Part 2 . 5 9 7 p .
Un i v . Wa sh . Pre s s , Seatt l e .
A maj or t ax onomi c reference to Pac i f i c
Northwe s t plants i n f i ve volume s ; red
( CFH )
alder is d e s c r i bed in volume I I .
2 5 0 . Hos i e , R . C .
1 9 7 3 . Nat i v e trees o f Canada .
p . C an . For . Serv . , Ottawa .
380
Red alder i s one o f the s pec i e s d i s u s s ed
i n a nonte c hn i c al manner . Range map and
photos i n c l uded . Volume cont a i n s s umme r
and w i n t e r key s to n at i ve C an ad i an tree s .
( CFH )
2 5 1 . Hoye r , Gerald , Wal ter Ferge rson ,
M i chael Newton , and Dav i d R . M .
S c ott .
1 9 7 8 . A c ompar i s o n o f red alde r ,
Doug l as-f i r , and we s tern hemlock
produc t i v i t i e s as rel ated t o s i te-­
a panel d i s c u s s i on . I n Ut i l i zat i on
and management of alde r , p . l 7 5 18 2 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBe l l ,
Wi l l i am A . Atki nson , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range EXp . s tn . , Portland , Oreg .
2 5 2 . Hoye r , Gerald E .
1966 . Tar i f acce s s tables for the
Pac i f i c Northwe s t--a c omp i l at i on .
118 p . Wash . State Dep . Nat .
Re sour . , Olymp i a .
2 5 3 . Hru t f i o rd , B . F .
1 9 7 8 . Red alder a s a pulpwood
s pec i e s . In ut i l i z at i on and
management of alde r , p . 135-138 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBel l ,
Wi l l i am A . Atki n s o n , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range EXp . s tn . , Portland , Oreg .
" I n th i s p aper I d i s c u s s the u s e of alder
as a pul pwood s pec i e s . Today mo s t alder
pulpwood i s procured as roundwood . De­
bark i ng of small and frequently c rooked
logs and s torage are i n d i c ated as
probl ems . Ch i p s are rarely s tored more
than a month a s they color rap i dly and
s t rength and y i e ld l o s s e s occur . U s e o f
alder i n a number of pUlp i ng proc e s s e s
i s d i s c u s s ed . Alder i s sugge s ted as the
be s t prospect for who l e tree ch i pp i ng i n
the Nor thwe s t . " ( A )
61
2 5 4 . H u f fman , J . G . , W . D . K i t t s , and
C . R . Kr i s hnamur t i .
1 9 7 1 . Effec t s o f alkal i treatment
and g amma i rr ad i at i on on the
c h em i c al c ompo s i t i on and i n v i tro
r umen d i g e s t i b i l i ty o f c e r t a i n
s pe c i e s o f wood . Can . J . An im .
S c i . 5 1 ( 2 ) : 4 5 7 -4 6 4 .
" Chan g e s i n the chemi c al compo s i t i on in
v i tro rumen d i g e s t i b i l i ty o f alder ( Alnus
rubra ) , Dougl as - f i r ( Ps eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i ) , poplar ( Populus t remu10 i de s ) ,
and s l udge ( a by-produc t o f the pul p i ng
proc e s s made up of s i lver f i r and
heml o c k r e s i due s ) wer e s tudied after
t re atment wi th NaOH and gamma i rr ad i a­
t i on . Treatmen t w i th alkal i i nc re a s ed
the percentage of c e l l u l o s e and ac i d
detergent f i be r ( ADF ) i n all s pec i e s o f
wood s tu d i e d , whe reas the ave rage ac i d
detergent l i gn i n ( ADL ) content was not
affec ted . Alka l i tre atment i ncreased
the in v i tro dry mat ter d i s appearan c e
( DMD ) o f alder and poplar , and i n c re a s ed
t he i n v i tro c e l lulo s e d i ge s t i o n o f
alde r , poplar and s l udge . S amples o f
the 4 s pe c i e s o f wood that we re exposed
t o 1 x 10 8 or 2 x 10 8 r ads o f gamma
i rr ad i at i on wer e l owe r i n cellulo s e , ADF
and ADL content than the untreated
s ampl e s , o r tho s e exposed to 1 x 10 6
o r 1 x 10 7 r ads . I n v i tro DMD ,
c e l l u l o s e d i ge s t ion and volat i l e fatty
ac i d produc t i on wer e h i gher i n s ample s
o f al l 4 s pe c i e s e x po s ed t o 1 x 10 8 o r
2 x 1 0 8 rads , than i n untreated
s ampl e s , or in tho s e exposed to 1 x 10 6
o r 1 x 10 7 r ad s . " ( BA )
2 5 5 . Hughe s , D . R . , S . P . Ge s s e l , and R .
B . Walker . 1 9 6 8 . Red alder def i c i e ncy s ymptoms and fert i l i ze r t r i al s . In B i o l ogy o f alder , p . 2 2 5 - 2 3 7 . J . M . Trappe , J . F . Frankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and
G . M . Hans en , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Range EXp . S tn . , Portland ,
Oreg .
62
2 5 6 . Hughe s , Dallas Robert .
Red alder de f i c i ency s ymptoms
1967 .
and fert i l i ze r t r i al s . M . F . thes i s .
Un i v . Wash . , Seatt l e . 144 p .
Pre sents def i c i ency gu i de l i ne s for N , P ,
K , Ca , and Mg developed i n red alder
s eedl i ng s grow i ng in s and med i um .
Fo l i ar percentages o f the s e e l emen t s
were determi ned as a i ds i n d i agno s i ng
def i c i enc i e s . Nodule frequency was
h i gher in low N tre atments . Def i c i ency
s ymptoms are i l lus trated with color
pho tograph s . Fert i l i ze r s tud i e s were
conducted wi th s eedl i ngs grow i ng i n
soi l .
( CFH )
2 5 7 . Hunt , I an S i ncla i r .
19 5 7 . Las propi edade s y u s o s de l a
[ P roper t i e s and
madera d e Alnu s .
u s e s of alder wood . ] I n s t . For .
Lat . Am . Bol . 23 , p . 29-42 . Mer i da ,
Venezue l a .
[ In Span i s h . Eng l i s h
s ummary . ]
"Ava i l able dat a on the propert i e s and
u s e s of the wood of the commerc i al l y
important spec i e s o f Alnus a r e d i s cu s sed
and s ummar i zed .
"The commerc i al u s e s are gove rned
by the natural occ urrence o f the spec i e s ;
apparently there have been no large s c al e
plant i ng of exot i c s pec i e s o f Alnu s , wi th
the except i on of A. Nepalen s i s in Hawa i i .
"The i nd i genous s pe c i e s i n comme r­
c i al u s e are A . rubra in Canada and the
U . S . A . , A . glut i n o s a in Engl and and
Europe , A . i nc ana in We s tern and Central
Europe , A . nepa1en s i s i n I nd i a , and A .
j orul1en s i s i n South Ame r i c a .
"A c ompar i s on i s made o f those
phy s i c al and me chan i c al prope r t i e s wh i ch
have been reported . There are s ome gaps
in the s e dat a , part i cular l y for A .
j orul lens i s .
It i s noted that the l owe s t
t e s t f i gures are shared b y A . nepale n s i s
and A . j o rul1en s i s , and the h i gh e s t by
A . glu t i n o s a and A . rubra .
"The l i terature c i ted g i ve s s ome i n­
d i c at i on o f the e x tent o f the knowledge
o f the prope r t i e s and appl i c at i o n s of the
wood of Aln u s in the var i ou s coun t r i e s
i n wh i c h t h e d i f ferent s pe c i e s occur .
"Tak i n g i n t o account the pre s ent
use o f Aln u s wood i n North Amer i c a ,
England and Europe , the u s e s t o wh i c h
the wood o f A . j orullen s i s could be put
to the greate s t advantage in the future
i n South Amer i c a would be : pre s e rvat i ve
t reated telephone and elec t r i c i ty pole s ,
t reated fence po s t s , treated m i n e prop s ,
t reated wood for rural bu i ld i ngs , boxes
and cas e s , patches and match boxe s ,
turned to nove l t y good s , and pulp and
p ape r . " ( A )
2 5 8 . Hun t , K . , and J . V . Hatton .
19 7 6 . Increased pulp produc t i on by
u s e of hardwoods i n s o f twood kraft
m i l l s . Pulp & Pap . C an .
7 7 ( 1 2 ) : 119-123 .
"The kraft pul p i ng of s i ngle s o f twood­
s i ngle h ardwood mi xtures of wh i te s pruce ,
we s tern hemloc k , or j ac k p i ne contai n i ng
u p to 2 0% by we i ght o f red alde r , yellow
b i rch , or t rembl i ng as pen i s e x ami ned i n
detai l . S i ngle hardwood- s i ngle s o ftwood
m i xtures c o ok mor e rap i dl y to a target
permanganate number , and g i ve h i gher pulp
y i elds and equ i valent pulp qual i ty com­
p ared wi th a s o f twood cooks alone under
the s ame cond i t i on s . Mi xed pulps also
beat f a s t e r . The re are no techn i c al
l im i t at i on s to the use o f small amounts
of hardwoods w i th s o f twoods to produce
unbleached or bleached market pulps . In
add i t ion to i ncreas ed pulp produc t i on ,
o ther bene f i t s e x i s t . " ( A )
2 5 9 . Hyt t i nen , A . , and E . R . Schafe r .
19 5 5 . Gr i nd i ng pretreated hard­
woods : Exper iments on quaking
as pen , sweetgum , red alde r , black
tupe l o , s ugar mapl e , red oak and
cotto nwood . Pul p and Pap . Mag .
Can . 5 6 ( 1 2 ) : 140-148 .
"Increas i ng the s eve r i ty o f the pre­
tre atment w i th neutral Na 2 S 0 3
i ncreased the s t rength and den s i ty o f
t h e p u l p b u t decreased the br i ghtne s s
and opac i ty o f i t s p apers . The chem i ­
groundwood pul p c o u l d probably be u s e d
for t h e s ame purpo s e s as t h e neutral
s ul ph i te s emi c hemi c al pul ps . The darker
pulps were eas i ly br i ghtened wi th
C a ( OC l ) 2 ' The s e chemi groundwood pulps
may po s s ibly prov i de ent i re or part
s ub s t i tutes for mech an i c al s o f twood
pulps i n news p r i n t and bood and towe l l i ng
papers , and al s o i n mi xture s wi th mechan­
i c al hardwood pulps , a s ubs t i tute for
softwood groundwood . De ta i l s of the pro­
pert i e s of the pulps , of t e s t shee t s , and
of exper iments in paper-mak i n g , are g i ven
for Populus tremulo i de s , Ligui dambar
s tyr ac i flua , Alnus rubra , Nys s a
sylvat i c a , Ace r s accharum , Que rcus s p . , and Populus s p . " ( FA ) 63
260 . Hyt t i nen , A . , and E . R . Schafe r .
1 9 5 5 . Gr i nd i n g pretreated
h ardwoods : Exper iments on quaking
aspen , sweetgum , red alde r , black
tupe lo , s ugar maple , red o ak , and
c o t tonwood . USDA or . Serv o For .
Prod . Lab . Rep . 201 5 , 12 p .
Mad i son , w i s .
"Exper ime n t s we re made wi th Populus
t remu10 i de s , Liqui dambar s tyrac i f lua ,
Alnu s rubr a , Nys s a sylvat i c a , Ace
s acch arum and Que rcus s p . The e f f e c t s o f d i f ferent pretre atment wi th neutral s ul ph i te solut i on s are de s c r i bed and t abulated . The r e s u l t s , in add i t i on t o the e as y bleach i ng , po i n t to t h e pos s i ­ b i l i ty o f s ub s t i tut i ng s emi chemi c al h ardwood pulp i n part or whol e , for mechan i c al s o f twood pulp for a var i ety of u s e s . " ( FA ) 2 6 1 . Irgens-Moller , H .
1960 . Automat i c control of
photoper i od . Ecology 41 ( 1 ) : 2 2 2-2 23 .
"Des c r i b e s me thods u s ed at Corval l i s ,
Orego n , for the automat i c control o f
photoper i od i n greenhouse stud i e s o n
P s eudot s uga t a x i fol i a and Alnus s p . The
plan t s are grown in s eparate compartments
o f growth chamber s . The s e c an be covered
or uncovered as requ i red by a me an s of a
small motor , controlled by an e l e c t r i c
t ime s w i t c h ( w i r i ng s y s tem s hown ) , wh i ch
moves a l i ght-proof c anvas be l t , mounted
o n ro l l e r s , in e i ther d i re c t i on .
Fluo r e s cent l amps are f i t ted i n the
c ompartments and c an be u s ed e i ther to
s upplemen t dayl i ght or to g i ve long-day
tre atment when the chambe r s are covered .
Tempe r ature i n the greenhouse i s only
p art i ally controlled , but i s kept con­
s t ant in all c ompartments even though
under var y i ng l i ght tre atmen ts . " ( FA)
64
2 6 2 . I s aac , Leo A .
1939 . Refore s t at i on b y broad c a s t
s e e d i n g w i th smal l-s eeded spec i e s .
USDA For . Serv o Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range EXp . Stn . Re s . Notes 2 7 ,
p . 9-10 . Portland , Oreg .
"Al though there was w i de var i at i o n i n
the r e s u l t s from the s e t e s t s wi th s eed
o f s i tka Spruc e , We s tern Red Cedar ,
We s tern Heml o c k , and Red Alde r , i t
appe ars that s at i s factory regenerat i o n
c an b e obt a i ned by broadc a s t s e e d i n g at
the rate of one or two pounds per acre ,
as long as the s e e d i n g i s done wi th i n
two years after s l as h burn i ng . I f p o s t ­
poned l o n g e r there i s a c on s i de rable
fall i n g off in i n i t ial germi n at i on and
in survi val . " ( FA)
263 . Ivan Bloch and As soc i at e s
( Indu s t r i al Con s u l t an t s , Portl and ,
Oreg . ) .
1964 . " We s te rn marke t s for r e d alder
f rom s pec i f i ed coun t i e s in Oregon
and Was h i ngton : A pre l im i n ary and
part i al exami nat i on prepared for
the U . S . Area Redeve lopmen t
Admi n i s t r at i on . 5 6 p . Portland ,
Oreg .
264 . Jackson , H . S . , and El i z abeth Ruth
Dearden .
1949 . Stud i e s of Canad i an
The l ephoraceae . I I I . S ome new
s pe c i e s f rom B r i t i s h Columb i a .
Can . J . Re s . , Sec . C . , Bot . S c i .
2 7 ( 4 ) : 147-15 6 .
"De s c r s . o f Pen i ophora r e s i llo s a , on
. un i c a , on Ab i e s
J c e a s i tchens i s ;
las i oc arpa ;
. i n u s i tata , on Populus
. ph1eb i o i de s and cort ic i um
t r i choc ar ;
t e s tatum , on p s eudo t s uga t a x i fol i a ; Q .
prae t e r i tum , on Alnus rubra : Q .
s eparatum , on Ab i e s grand i s ; Q .
quae s i tum , on P s eudo t s uga tax i fo l i a ; Q .
propi nquum , on Thuj a pl i c ata . " ( BA )
2 6 5 . J a i n , M . C . , and T . R . S e s hadr i .
1 9 7 1 . Tr i terpeno i d s from Alnu s
rubr a . I nd i an J . Chern .
9 ( 9 ) : 1026-10 2 7 .
"Taraxerone , lupeol and betul i n occur as
maj o r components and l upenone , taraxerol ,
a-s i t o s terol and the s omewhat rare c om­
pounds t araxeryl acetate and glutenone
o c c u r as the minor components in the
bark o f !. rubra . Except taraxerol and
t araxerone , the other s i x have been i s o­
l ated for the f i r s t t ime f rom ! . rubra .
The ac etone and alcohol extracts contai n
g luco s e , xylose and arab i no s e as free
s ugars and f a i rly good amounts of
l eucocyan i d i n . " ( A )
2 6 6 . Jaretzky , R .
1930 . Zur Zytolog i e der Fagale s .
P l an t a 10 : 120-13 7 .
2 6 7 . Jenki n s , J . H . , and F .
1 9 5 4 . The k i l n-dr y i ng
Columb i a lumbe r . For .
Can . Bull . I l l , 7 9 p .
B.C.
W . Guern s ey .
o f Br i t i s h
Prod . Lab .
Vanc ouve r ,
Comprehens i ve pre sentat ion of the general
p r i nc i pl e s of k i l n-dry i ng ; g i ve s det a i l s
f o r k i l n-dry i ng the c h i e f commerc i al
l umber s pe c i e s o f Br i t i s h Columb i a .
( CFH )
2 6 8 . Jepson , W i l l i s L i nn .
1909 . ! . rubra Bong .
In A flora of
Cal i fo rn i a , p . 3 4 7-349 . Cun n i ngham ,
Cur t i s , and We lch , San Franc i s c o ,
Cal i f .
269 . Jepson , W i ll i s L i nn .
1924 . ! . rubra Nutt . I n A flora o f
t h e e c onom i c plants o f C al i forn i a
f o r agr icul tural s tudent s , p . 7 0-7 1 .
As s o c . stud . Store , Be rkeley , Cal i f .
De s c r i b e s alder and g i ve s i t r ange and
u s e s in Cal i fo rn i a .
( CFH )
2 7 0 . John s o n , Floyd A .
19 5 5 . Volume tables for Pac i f i c
Northwe s t trees ( a comp i l at i on ) .
U . S . Dep . Ag r i c . Agr i c . Handb . 9 2 ,
112 p .
" G i ve s tables ( cu . f t . and bd . ft . ) f o r
P i nus pondero s a , P s eudo t s uga t ax i f o l i a ,
T s uga h e te rophyl l a , P i c e a s i tchens i s ,
Ab i e s amab i l i s , P i nus conto r t a , Alnu s
rubr a , Lar i x o c c i dental i s , Ab i e s
concolo r , ! . grand i s , Chamaecypar i s
.
l awson i ana , P i nus mont i c ola ,
l ambert i an a , Thuj a pl i c at a , L i bocedrus
decurre n s , Ab i e s proc er a , P i c e a
e ngelman n i i and Populus t r i choc arpa . "
( FA )
2 7 1 . John son , Floyd A . , R . M . Kall ande r ,
and P aul G . Lauterbach .
1949 . Volume tables for red alde r .
USDA For . Serv o Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range EXp . Stn . Re s . Notes 5 5 ,
10 p . Portland , Oreg .
"The tables are based on f i gures f rom
Oregon , Wa s h i ngto n , and Br i t i s h
Columb i a . " ( FA )
D e s c r ibes alder and g i ves i t r ange and
u s e s in Cal i forn i a .
( CFH )
65
2 7 2 . John s on , Floyd A . , and Norman P .
Worth i ngton .
1963 . Procedure for deve l o p i n g a
s i te i ndex e s t i mat ing s y s tem from
s tem anal y s i s data . USDA For .
Serv o Res . Pap . PNW-- 7 , 10 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range Exp . St n . ,
Portland , Oreg .
2 7 4 . Johnson , F rede r i c D .
1968 . Taxonomy and d i s t r ibut i on o f
nor thwe s tern alder s . In B i ology o f
alde r , p . 9-22 . J . M . Trappe , J .
F . Fr ankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and G . M . Hans en , eds . Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp . S t n . , P o r t l and , Oreg . "The procedure pre s ented i n th i s report
h a s been appl i ed s u c c e s s f ully to three
tree s pec i e s . I t i s s imple , d i re c t , and
apparently s t at i s t i c ally s ound . Perhaps
othe r s , faced w i th the problem of
deve l o p i ng s i te curve s from s tem data ,
( FA )
w i l l f i nd i t u s e ful .
"Synonymy , morpholog i c al feature s , and
d i s tr i but i on of the four nor thwe s tern
North Ame r i c an s pec i e s of Alnus - .
rhomb i fol i a ,
. rubra ,
. tenu i fo l i a ,
and . s i nuata - are outl i ned . Inc l uded
are d i s t r i but i on map s , a s ynopt i c v i ew
o f vege t at i ve charac ter i s t i c s , and
photos of buds and leave s . " ( A )
II
2 7 3 . Johnson , Frede r i c D .
1 9 6 8 . D i s j unct populat i o n s o f red
alder in I daho . In B i ology of
alde r , p . 1-8 . J . M. Trappe , J . F .
Fr ankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and G . M .
H an s e n , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Range EXp . s t n . , Portland , Oreg .
"Al n u s rubra Bong . , red alde r , has been
c o l l e c ted in s everal areas in northern
Idaho . Th i s i s the e a s tern l imi t of the
s pec i e s and appears to be a de f i n i t e
d i s j unct of the Pac i f i c coas tal d i s t r i ­
but i on . Deve l o pment i s cen tered i n three
ma i n areas and is shown on range maps
around Lake Pend Ore i l le , Bonner Co . ,
l ower Se lway-Lo c h s a R i ve r s , Idaho Co . ,
and North Fork Cl earwater R i ve r , Cl ear­
wate r Co . All o f the s e are a s are in the
we s t e r n redcedar-we s tern heml ock vegeta­
t i onal zone j obse rvat i on s on ecolog i c al
a s s oc i at i o n s are made . Probable hybr i d i ­
z at i on w i t h other alde r s i s reported . " ( A )
66
2 7 5 . John s on , He rman M .
1 9 1 7 . Alnus oregona : I t s value as
a fore s t type on the S i u s l aw
Nat i onal Fore s t . J . For .
1 5 ( 8 ) 98 1--98 7 .
"Although the Oregon alder has been com-­
mon1y con s i dered a weed tree and i n many
r e s pe c t s unde s i r able , th i s s t udy h a s
shown that i t has been and i s y e t o f
great value t o t h e S i u s 1aw Nat i onal
Fore s t . I t s func t i on as a nur s e crop to
the more valuable Dougl as-f i r i s maki ng
pos s i ble the r e s torat i on o f the valu ab l e
t imber wh i ch o n c e covered th i s reg i on .
I t i s rev i v i fy i ng the depleted s o i l ,
mak i ng pos s i ble the pro s pe rous c ommun i ­
t i e s s c attered along the c o as t . I t s
pres ence h a s made impo s s i ble the
e x t e n s i ve f i re s wh i ch forme rly devas ta­
ted th i s reg i on . Lastly , i t s value as a
commerc i al product i s be i n g real i z ed , and
i t may be expec ted that i n the n e ar
future i t w i l l deve lop an i ndus try o f
con s i derable extent . " ( A )
2 7 6 . John s on , He rman M . , Edward J .
Hanz l i k , and W i l l i am H . G i bbons .
1 9 2 6 . Red alde r o f the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t . I t s u t i l i zat ion , wi th
note s on growth and management .
U . S . Dep . Agr i c . Dep . Bull . 143 7 ,
46 p . Was h i ng ton , D . C .
ItA1nus oregon a i s the mo s t abundant and
c ommerc i a l ly the mo s t impor t an t h ardwood
i n Oregon and Was h i ngton .
It i s found
along the Pac i f i c Coas t from s outhern
C al i forn i a to s outheastern Al a s ka , rarely
mor e than 4 0- 5 0 m i l e s i nl and . It o c c u r s
at t h e l owe r al t i tude s i n pure s t ands i n
r ather small u n i t s , al s o i n m i xed s t ands
w i th Douglas f i r , we s tern hemloc k , we s ­
t e r n red c edar , and s i tka s pruc e . Other
h ardwoods a s s oc i at i ng with alder are
b i g1eaf maple , bl ack cot tonwood , Oregon
a s h , c as c ara , and Pac i f i c dogwood . The
merchantable s t and i s e s t imated at 7 5 0
m i l l i on b o ard f t . i n Oregon and 360
m i l l i on in Wa s h i ngton . The wood i s
mode rately l i ght , even-grai ned and s o f t
i n texture , and compared wi th oak i s
mode rately weak . I t we ighs 46 l b s . per
c u . f t . when green and 2 7 1bs . when
k i l n-dr i ed to 8% mo i s ture . It i s not
n aturally durable but presents no
s pe c i al d i f f i cu l t i e s i n s e a s on i ng .
About 13- 1 / 2 mi l l i on board feet was cut
in 1923 , o r only 0 . 2% o f the total cut
of h ardwoo d l umbe r in the U . S . A . Of
t h i s , 12 m i l l i on f t . was used in the
manufac t ure o f furn i t ure . Other
produ c t s we re wooden ware and novel t i e s ,
veneer f i x ture s , brus h and broom
h andle s , and general m i l l wo rk .
Exper ime n t s h ave i nd i c ated that i t i s
s u i t able for pul p i ng by the s oda
proc e s s . Con s i derable quan t i t i e s o f
round wood are u s ed i n maki ng ch arcoal
for gun powde r . Red alder grows f a i rly
r ap i dly for 5 0-60 yr s . Trees at 5 0 yrs .
o f age ave rage 1 6 . 0 i n . i n d i am . , 9 7 . 5
f t . tall , and c o n t a i n 5 2 c u . ft . ( 3 3 5
b o ard ft . ) . In 5 0 yrs . , pure alder
s t ands c an be expected to y i eld 1 5 -40 M
bo ard f t . to the acre . The bull e t i n
con t a i n s volume t able s for alder ( i n
bo ard f t . and cu . f t . ) and concludes
w i th a c l a s s i f i ed l i s t o f pre s en t and
po s s i b l e u s e s of the wood ; and a
d i re c t o ry of produc e r s o f alder log s ,
lumber , and other alder produ c t s i n
Oregon and Was h i ngton . 1t ( BA )
2 7 7 . J ohn s o n , R . L .
1 9 7 8 . Hardwood culture i n the
E a s tern un i ted state s . In
ut i l i zat i on and management o f
alder , p . 5 5 - 5 9 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBe l l , and W i l l i am A .
Atki n s on , comp i le r s . USDA For .
S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"Many h ardwood plantat i on s are be i ng e s tabl i shed i n the Eas t . Populus
de1to i de s , Platanu s occ i denta1 i s , Ligui damba s tyrac i f 1ua , and Jug1 an s
n i gra are the s pec i e s that h ave been
plan ted and s tudied mo s t . 1t ( A )
2 7 8 . John s son , He1ge .
1 9 5 1 . Lovt rad i n Sve n s k
Vaxt i forad1 i ng . Natur o c h Ku1tur ,
P . 795-799 .
[ In Swed i s h . ]
2 7 9 . John s s on , He1ge , and Aake Lj unge r .
1 9 5 9 . Betul a , Alnus , Fagus ,
Quer c u s , Frax i nus , Cas tane a ,
Jug1an s . Handb . der
Pf1anzenzuecht . Vol . 6 . 2d ed .
p . 806-81 8 .
[ In German ]
67
2 80 . Jone s , George Nev i l l e .
193 6 . A botan i c al s urvey o f the
Olymp i c Pen i n s ul a , Was h i ngton .
un i v . Wa s h . Publ . B i oI . , Vol . 5 ,
2 8 6 p . Seattl e , Was h .
A d i s c u s s i on o f the botan i c al features
of the Olymp i c Pen i n s u l a based on 10
years of f i e ld e x pe r i ence and a c om­
p i lat i on o f l i terature through 1 9 3 5 .
The zonal d i s t r i bu t i o n and geograph i c al
rel at i on sh i ps o f the vege tat i on and
h i s tory of botan i c al e x plorat i on are
d i s cu s s ed . Keys to f am i l i e s and s pec i e s
are i nc l uded . Red alder i s a c omponent
o f the Dougl a S- f i r s ubcl imax wi th i n the
t r an s i t i on zone .
( CFH )
281 . Jone s , J . R . I . L .
1 94 3 .
Some food plan t s o f
Lep i dopterous l arvae . L i s t 9 .
Entomol . Soc . B . C . Proc . 4 0 : 2 7 .
" The l i s t i nc l udes Ac ron i c ta ( Apatel a )
f uner al i s on Wi l l ow ( S al i x s couler i ana
and s ome ornamental s pe c i e s ) and C arol i n a
Poplar ;
. i l l i t a on Quercus robur and
. d i s tans doloro s a on Aln u s
Alnus rubra ;
r ubra ; Hal i s i dota maculata angu i l fera o n
S al i x hooke r i an a and . s c oule r i an a ;
Hyphan tr i a textor on S al i x l as i andra ;
Malac o s om [ a ] d i s s t r i a ero s a o n Alnu s
r ubr a ;
. pluv i al i s o n Prunu s emarg i n at a ;
Nadata g i bbo s a oregone n s i s on C a s t anea
s p . ; Phoe s i a portland i a o n Sal i x
. hooke r i ana .
. s c oule r i an a ,
l as i andr a ,
P opu l u s t r l ch o c arpa and E . t remulo i de s ,
P s eudothyat i r a cymatophoro i d e s o n
Crataegu s o xyac antha , Sco l i opteryx
l i bat r i x o n Sal i x las i andra ,
.
s c oule r i an a , Populu s t r i choc arpa and
Lombardy Poplar , and S c h i zura un i c orn i s
o n Crataegus oxyac anth a . " ( FA )
68
282 . Karche s y , Jos e ph J . , Murray L .
Laver , Douglas F . Baro f s ky , and
E l i s abeth Baro f s ky .
1 9 7 4 . Structure of oregon i n , a
n atural d i arylheptan o i d xylos i de .
J . Chem . Soc . Chem . Commun .
1 9 7 4 ( 16 ) : 649-650 .
"The s t ructure o f oregon i n , 3 - ( HO ) 2 C 6
H 3 ( CH 2 ) 2 COCH 2 CH ( OR ) ( CH 2 ) 2 C 6
H 3 ( OH ) 2 -3 , 4 ( R-xylo s yl ) , a d i aryl­
heptano i d xylo s i de extd . f rom Alnus
rubr a , was detd . from chem . and spec tral
data . " ( BA )
283 . Karch e s y , Joseph J . , Patr i c i a M .
Love l and , Murray L . Lave r , Dougl a s
F . Baro f s ky , and El i s abeth Bar o f s ky .
1 9 7 6 . Conde n s ed tann i n s from the
barks o f Alnu s rubra and P s eudot s uga
menz i e s l l . Phytochemi s try
1 5 ( 1 2 ) : 2009-2010 .
De s c r i be s i s olat i on and i dent i f i c at i on of
condensed tann i n s f rom red alder and
Doug las - f i r barks .
( CFH )
284 . Karc he s y , Joseph John .
1 9 7 5 . Polyphe nol s of red alde r :
Chemi s try o f the s t a i n i ng
phenomenon . Ph . D . the s i s .
Oreg . state Un i v . , Corvall i s .
ll2 p .
"A c old-acetone e x t r act of bark from
Alnu s rubra y i elded a conde n s ed tann i n
fract i on that d i d not con t r i bute t o the
s t a i n i ng phenomenon , and a d i arylhepta­
no i d xylo s i de . to wh i c h the name oregon i n
i s g i ven . Oregon i n was impl i c ated i n the
s t a i n i ng phenomenon through i t s ab i l i ty
to form orange-red colour s . Spectral
data and phy s i c al cons tan t s are g i ven
for the conde n s ed t ann i n frac t i on , for
oregon i n and for s even de r i vat i v e s and
r e l ated synthe t i c produc t s .
2 8 5 . Kel l e r , E . L . , J . S . Mart i n , and R .
M . K i ngsbury .
1 9 5 6 . Sem i c hemi c al pul p i ng
characte r i s t i c s of Pac i f i c c o as t
red alder , Dougl a s - f i r , we s tern
redc edar , and we s tern heml o c k .
USDA For . Serv o For . Prod . Lab .
Rep . 1912 , 2 5 p . Mad i s o n , Wi s .
2 8 6 . Kel lman , M . C .
1 9 7 0 . The v i able s e ed content of
s ome fore s t s o i l in c o a s tal Br i t i s h
Columb i a . Can . J . Bot .
48 ( 7 ) : 1383-13 8 5 .
"The upper 10 cm o f s u r face s o i l and
l i t te r beneath a c o n i ferous fore s t i n
c o a s tal B r i t i s h Columb i a was found to
c o n t a i n over 1000 v i able s eeds per s quare
mete r . Alnus rubra Bong . made up 68 . 9%
o f all v i able s eed , al though 18 other
s p ec i e s , mainly weedy and s e c ondary
t ype s , we r e recorded . " ( A )
2 8 7 . Kellman , M . C .
1 9 7 2 . Erratum : The v i able s eed
content of s ome fore s t s o i l i n
coas t al Br i t i s h Columb i a . Can . J .
Bot . 5 0 ( 7 ) : 1 639 .
"A correct ive note , re i dent i fy i ng as
Betula papyr i fe r a var . commutata the
s pe c i e s prev i ou s ly i den t i f i ed as Alnus
rubra . " ( FA )
2 8 8 . Kenady , Re i d M .
19 7 8 . Regenerat i on o f red alde r .
I n ut i l i zat i on and management o f
alde r , p . 183-191 . Dav i d G . B r i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBe l l , and Wi l l i am A .
Atk i n s on , c omp i l e r s . USDA For .
S e rv o Gen . Tech . Re p . PNW- 7 0 . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
P o r t l and , Oreg .
"Th i s paper b r i n g s together i n format i on
regard ing regenerat i o n of red alder
( Alnus rubra Bong . ) from publ i shed and
unpubl i shed s ourc e s . B a s ed o n th i s
e v i denc e , red alder doe s not appear to
be a d i f f i cult s pe c i e s to regenerate ,
e i ther natural ly or art i f i c ally . Th i s
s hould come a s n o s ur pr i s e to P ac i f i c
Nor thwe s t fore s t e r s . Red alder reaches
s e xual matu r i ty at around age 1 0 and
produc e s l arge quan t i t i e s of s eed an­
nual l y , wi th bumper crops about every 4
year s . Natural regenerat i on o c c u r s i n
open , d i s turbed areas where m i neral s o i l
i s e x po s ed . Seed l i ng s may reach 3 feet
in he i ght the f i r s t year , and grow t o 1 5
feet i n 5 year s . Alder s eedl i n g s h ave
been s u c c e s s fully grown in both bare
root and container nur s e ry s y s tems .
strat i f i c at i on o f s eed doe s not appear
t o be e s s ent i al for reasonable leve l s of
germ i n at i o n . P l antat i on s o f red alde r
h ave done we l l where reported . copp i c i ng
o f young alder i s po s s i ble and o f f e r s an
altern at i ve f i ber produc t i on s y s tem . " ( A )
289 . Kennedy , R . W . , and G . K . E l l i ot .
1 9 5 7 . S p i ral gra i n i n red alder .
For . Chron . 33 ( 3 ) : 238-2 5 1 .
"The o c currence and s ever i ty o f s p i ral
g r a i n in Alnu s rubra was i nve s t i g ated on
two s i te s , one poor and one med i um-good .
The c h ang i ng s p i ral was me a s ured at
bre a s t he i ght and at 10-f t . i n terva l s
above g round leve l . N o s t r a i ght-gr a i ned
tree was found on e i ther s i te , and it i s
conc l uded that the feature i s gene t i c al ly
controlled , though the amount o f s p i ­
r a1 i ty i s affected b y growth rate .
I nd i v i dual trees vary greatly , but the
gene r al s p i ral pattern i s the s ame- - an
i n i t i al r i ght s p i ral , followed by an
i n c re a s i n g left s p i ral . The pos s i b i l i ty
o f contro l l i ng growth r ate s o as to have
as l i t t l e s p i ral as po s s i bl e i n the
outer wood of the tree , i s d i s c u s s ed . "
( FA )
69
2 90 . Kennedy , R . W . , and G . I fj u .
1 9 6 2 . Appl i c at i on s of m i crotens i l e
t e s t i n g to th i n wood s ec t i on s .
T app i 4 5 ( 9 ) : 7 2 5 - 7 3 3 .
" De s c r i b e s three appl i c at i o n s of m i c ro­
t en s i l e te s t i ng :
( 1 ) a wood-qual i ty
evalu at i on o f Douglas F i r j ( 2 ) a t e s t o f
the e f fect o f i nc i p i en t decay , u s i ng 4
woods and 4 fung i j ( 3 ) a c ompar i s on o f
wood d e c ay and d i lute-ac i d hydrolys i s .
The s trength d i fferen c e s noted i n ( 1 )
were c orrelated with other chemi c al ,
phys i c al , and anatom i c al propert i e s of
the wood . The 16 fungus /wood s pe c i e s
c omb i nat i on s t e s ted i n ( 2 ) were r anked i n
o rder o f progre s s i ve l y greater s trength
l o s s per un i t we i ght lo s s i nto :
( i ) all
s pe c i e s ( Alnus rubra , Betula papyr i fera ,
T s uga heterophyl l a , and Ab i e s s p . ) dec ay­
ed by Polys t i c t u s ver s i color ( a ) j ( i i )
a l l s pec i e s dec ayed by Stereum
s angu i nolentum ( b ) and the con i fers o f
P or i a mon t i c o l a ( c ) and Lent i nu s lepideus
( d) :
( i i i ) the h ardwoods by ( c ) and
( d ) . Con tents o f holo- and -c e l lulo s e
determined f o r the dec ayed woods i nd i c a­
ted a far greater reduc t i on i n degree o f
p olymeri zat i o n i n woods rotted by ( c )
and ( d ) than i n woods dec ayed to compar­
able we i gh t l o s s e s by ( a ) and ( b ) . The
r e s i du al tenac i ty and holo-c e l l u l o s e
c ontent o f ac i d-treated woods were
s imi l ar to tho s e decayed by ( a ) to equ i ­
valent we i gh t l o s s e s . The mechan i c al
and chem i c al e f f e c t s o f ( c ) and ( d ) ,
p art i c ularly on the h ardwood s , were
d i s t i nc t f rom those o f weak a c i d
h ydrolys i s , wh i ch proc e eded i n a more
h e terogeneous f a s h i on through s e l ec t i ve
r emoval of the hemi c e l lulo s e s , and
c o n s equent reten t i on of the mor e
r e s i s tant -c e l lulo s e . tI ( FA )
70
291 . K i ng , A . D . , Jr . , W . L . S t anley , L .
Jurd , and F . P . Boyle .
1 9 7 1 . Wood ch i p m i c rob i olog i c a l
control wi th s ul fur d i o x i de . Tap p i
5 4 ( 2 ) : 26 2 .
"small s c al e exper iments wi th Alder c h i p s
treated wi th S 0 2 g a s t o g i ve uptake s
of 0 . 1 , 0 . 5 and 1 by we i ght and s tored
for 3 mon th s at 2 2 0 C . i nd i c ate that
c h i p s c an be e f f e c t i vely s te r i l i ze d by
tre atment with 0 . 5 or 1 S 02 ' The
ab i l i ty o f S0 2 t o s ter i l i z e as we l l as
to bleach sugge s t s that the pos s i b i l i ty
o f u s i ng i t econom i c ally i n c h i p s t orage
should be s tud i e d more i nt e n s i ve ly . tI ( FA )
292 . K i ng , Dav i d G . , A l Gras s , a n d Ken
Summe r s .
1 9 7 3 . Obs e rvat i o n s on the d i pper
in the Skag i t Val ley o f B r i t i sh
Columb i a . Murrelet 5 4 ( 2 ) : 16-19 .
D i s c u s s e s the d i s t r i but i on and number o f
t h e d i pper ( C i nc l u s me x i c an a ) i n the
lower Skag i t Valley in s outher B r i t i sh
Columb i a i n wi nter 1 9 7 0 . Red Alder i s a
maj or component o f the s t r e ams i de
banks .
( CFH )
293 . K i r s c h , R . K .
1 9 5 9 . Effect o f s aw du s t mulche s .
I . S o i l propert i e s . Oreg . Agr i c .
Exp . Stn . Tec h . Bull . 4 9 , 1 6 p .
"When Douglas F i r s awdu s t was appl i e d
wi th or w i thout fert i l i ze r s as a mul c h
or s o i l amendment , s trawberr i e s became
i nf e s ted with red- s tele d i s e a s e . S o i l
s ampl e s were taken after rotovat ing all
plot s , and sweet corn was planted to
determ i ne re s i dual e f fec t s . The r e s u l t s
o f analy s e s a r e pres ented . A further
s tudy of the effect o f Douglas F i r and
Alder s awdu s t on c e r t a i n phys i c a l s o i l
propert i e s i s summar i zed . II ( FA )
2 9 4 . K i tt s , W . D . , C . K . Kr i s hnamur t i ,
J . A . She1 ford , and J . G . Huffman .
1969 . U s e of wood and woody
by-produ c t s as a source of energy
in beef c at t l e r a t i on s . Adv . Chem .
S e r . 9 5 : 2 7 9-2 9 7 .
2 9 7 . Kl i ewer , Mar k , and Harold J . Evan s .
1 9 6 3 . Cobam i de coenzyme contents
o f s oybe an nodu l e s and n i trogen­
f i x i ng b acter i a in relat i o n t o
phys i olog i c al cond i t i on s . Plant
Phys i o 1 . 38 : 99-104 .
"The i nc or porat i on of s awdu s t i n beef
c at t le r a t i o n s h a s been i nve s t i g ated
u s i ng three approache s . In v i vo feed i ng
t r i al s wi th growing beef c at tle i nd i c ate
that there was n o apprec i able d i fferences
in the d a i ly we i gh t gain o f s teer when
alder s awdus t was s ub s t i tuted for hay i n
the i r rat i on s . When hemlock s awdu s t ,
s ubj e c ted to gamma r ad i at i on up to a
max imum o f 1 . 46 X 10 8 r ad i at i on , was
u s ed as a subs t r ate for i n v i tro rumen
f ermentat i on , percen tage dry matter
d i s appe arance and c e l lulo s e d i g e s t i o n
s h owed a s te ady i nc re a s e w i t h i ncreas i n g
i rr ad i at i on l evel s . T h e amount of
reduc i ng s ugars formed from i rradi ated
s awdu s t by i ncubat i o n wi th c e ll-free
e x t r ac t s of rumen m i c ro-organ i sms
f o llowed the s ame patterns as the i n
v i tro fermentat i on te s t s . " ( A )
"Nodule s s howed a gradual i nc r e a s e i n
the content o f the v i t ami n B 1 2 coenzyme
( I ) wi th age up to f lowe r i ng , and then a
decl i n e . The i nc re a s e i n I was paral1ed
by an i nc reas e in hemoglob i n . There was
a wi de range in I concn . in 5 s pe c i e s of
Rh i zob i um , but only small d i f ferenc e s
betwee n e f fec t i ve s tr a i n s o f the s ame
s pec i e s . Ineffe c t i ve and paras i t i c
s t rai n s o f R. me 1 i 10t i and R . j apon i c um
contai ned l e s s I than the e f f ec t i ve
s tr a i n s . I i n the s e s pe c i e s was markedly
i nc re a s ed with i nc re a s i n g Co in the
med i um , and one was pre s e n t when Co was
l ac k i n g . Azo tobac ter v i ne 1 an d i i re­
q u i red only 0 . 00 1 p . p . b . for normal
growth , and more Co was requi red when
N 2 was the s ource of N than when NH 3
was the s ourc e . " ( CA ) 2 9 5 . Kl i ewer , Mark , and H arold J . Evan s .
1 9 6 2 . B 1 2 coenzyme content of the
nodules from l egume s , alder , and
Rh i zo b i um me1 i 10t i . Nature
( Londo n ) 1 9 4 ( 4823 ) : 1 08-109 .
De s c r i be s procedure and g i ve s r e s u l t s of
extrac t i on s o f B 1 2 coenzyme s from root
n odule s .
( CFH )
2 9 6 . Kl i ewer , Mark , and H arold J . Evan s .
1 9 6 2 . Phy s i olog i c al s t ud i e s on the
B 1 2 coenzyme content of nodules
f rom legume s and alder o f Rh i zo b i um s pe c i e s .
( Ab s t r . ) In Procee d i n g s o f t h e plant phy s i ology meet i ng s , 1 9 6 2 . P l an t Phys i o l . 3 7 ( Suppl . ) : 6-7 . 298 . Kl i ewer , Mark , a n d H a r o l d J . Evan s .
1 9 6 3 . Ident i f i c at i on o f cobam i de
c o enzyme i n nodu l e s o f s ymb i on t s
and i s o l at i on o f t h e v i t am i n B 1 2
coenzyme from Rh i zob i um me 1 i 10t i .
P l an t Phys i o1 . 3g: 5 5 - 5 9 .
"Apprec i able amt s . of cobam i d e coenzyme
( I ) we re found i n the nodu l e s o f legume s
( al f al f a , soybean , pe a , bean , and red
c love r ) and a l s o in tho s e of the non­
legume s Alnus rubra and Ceanothus
ve1u t i nus . R . me l il o t i was grown on a
l arge s c ale and I was i s o l ated i n a
h i ghly pur i f i ed form . From s pe c tral
proper t i e s chromatogr aph i c behav i or , and
b i oI . ac t i v i ty i t was conc luded that I
was ( 5 , 6-d ime thylbenz imidazolyl )
c ombam i de . " ( CA )
71
2 9 9 . Knut s e n , S t anl ey Kenneth .
1 9 6 5 . Hydrolog i c proc e s s e s i n
th i rty- t o t h i rty- f i ve-year-old
s t ands of Doug l a s - f i r and alder i n
we s te rn Was h i ngton . M . F . thes i s .
Co l I . For . Resour . , Un i v . Was h . ,
Se attle . 1 6 7 p .
I n te rcept i on o f r a i n f al l for the per i od
J anuary 1 to Aug u s t 31 , 1964 , was 10
p e rcent f o r alder and 1 5 percent for
Doug l a s - f i r . Intercept i o n was s e a s onal ;
9 perc ent i n J anu ary-March and 13 percent
in July and Augu s t for red alder . Cor­
r e s pond i ng value s for Dougl as-f i r are 14
and 21 percent . Stemf l ow was l e s s i n
s ummer than w i n t e r , amount i ng to 2 . 7
pe rcent o f r a i nfall i n alder and 7
percent i n Douglas-f i r . other hydrolog i c
me a s ureme n t s are ava i l able .
( CFH )
3 0 0 . Kohnke , Helmut .
19 4 1 . The black alder as a p i oneer
tree on s and dune s and eroded l and .
J . For . 3 9 ( 3 ) : 333-334 .
3 0 1 . Koz ak , A . , and J . H . G . Smi th .
1966 . cr i t i c al analys i s of
mu l t i var i ate te hn i ques f o r
e s t i mat i ng t ree t aper sugge s t s that
s impler methods are be s t . For .
Chron . 4 2 ( 43 ) : 4 5 8-463 .
"Tr i als o f mul t i v ar i ate and other me thods
for analy s i s o f tree t aper are de s c r i bed .
It i s c o n c luded that u s e o f s impl e func­
t i on s , s ort i ng and graph i c al methods i s
adequate for many u s e s i n oper at i on s and
r e s e arch . " ( A )
72
302 . Koz l i k , C . J .
1 9 6 7 . E s tabl i s h i ng color i n red
alder l umber . Oreg . For . Prod . Lab .
Rep . D-8 , 11 p . Corvall i s , Oreg .
" St e am i n g Alnus rubra lumber at 2 1 2 0 F
and 100% r . h . , for 1 4 h r . before a i ror k i l n-dry i n g , e l i m i nated s t i cker s ta i n ,
prevented mot t l i ng , and produced a un i ­
form col our r ang i ng from wh i te ( s apwood )
to i vory ( heartwood ) . s t e am i n g a i r-dr i ed
lumber at 2 1 2 0 F and 100% r . h . f o r 4-24
hr . e l i m i n ated prev i ou s s t i cker s t a i n
and g ave a un i form , colour wi th i n s u ff i ­
c i ent mot t l i n g t o cause degrade , but the
boards l ac ked l u s tre . Forced- a i r dry i n g
o f lower grade s o f lumber was uneconom i c
i n the preva i l i ng we ather cond i t i on s ;
dry i ng c o s t was $ 5 -. 0 6 / 1 000 bd . f t . , and
add i t i onal ki ln dry i n g was req u i red . "
( FA )
303 . Koz l k , Char l e s J .
19 6 2 . Season i ng red alde r l umber .
Oreg . For . Prod . Lab . Rep . 0-6 ,
20 p . Corval l i s , Ore g .
"Te s t s we re made on red alder lumber to
s t udy the e f f e c t s on dry i ng t ime and
degrade o f var i ou s dry-bulb t emperature s ,
equ i l i br i um mo i s ture content ( e . m . c . )
condi t i on s , a i r ve loc i t i e s , and per i od s
o f f an-reve r s al , pre - s t re am i n g , and
cond i t i on i ng . Treatment s wer e j udged
f avourable i f they led to reduc t i on of
dry i n g t ime wi thout e x c e s s i ve i nc r e a s e
i n degrade . A s chedule i s det a i led f o r
dry i ng I - i n . lumber i n c a . 8 5 h r . ;
1-1 / 4- i n . lumber c an be dr i ed under the
s ame cond i t ions ( though more t ime i s
needed ) , but l-1I2-- i n . lumber should be
d r i ed by l e s s severe cond i t i on s t o avo i d
e x c e s s i ve deg rade . " ( FA )
3 0 4 . Kozl i k , Ch arle s J .
1 9 7 8 . S t ab i l i z i ng color and dry i ng
In ut i l i z at i on and
red alde r .
management of alde r , p . 93-101 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBel l ,
and W i l l i am A . Atki n s on , comp i le r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Te c h . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"A honey-brown color i s e s t ab l i s hed w i th­
out d i f f i c u l ty i n dry i ng fre s hly s awed
red alder lumber . but a redd i sh- t an to
redd i s h-brown color req u i red dry-bulb
t empe ratures about 185 0 F at 92-percent
r e l at i ve humi d i ty or h i gher . A wh i te o r
i vory c o l o r i s obtai ned b y s t e am i n g
f re s hly s aw o r part i al l y a i r-dr i ed l umbe r
at 2 1 2 0 F and 100-percent relat i ve hum i d­
i ty . The wh i te color may be ret a i ned
w i th a i r d ry i ng , but a honey-brown to
redd i s h-brown color requ i re s k i ln kry i ng
immed i at e l y after s e t t ing the color .
K i l n-dry i ng prac t i c e s depend on k i ln
c ap ac i ty , bo i le r c apac i ty . ava i l ab i l i ty
o f log s , log s torage . and c u s tomer s p e c ­
i f i c at i on s . I n i t i al dry-bulb tempera­
ture s range f rom 1 5 0 0 to 190 0 F . and
dry i ng t ime s for 4 / 4 lumb e r vary from 4
t o 6 days . Equal i z i ng for un i form i t y o f
f i nal mo i s ture content and cond i t i o n i ng
t o remove dry i ng s t re s s e s for remanu­
f actur i ng are i mportant s te p s in dry i ng
f o r both producer and c u s t omer . " ( A )
305 . Krueger , Kenneth W . , and Robert H .
Ruth .
1968 . Photo s yn the s i s o f red alder ,
Doug l as - f i r , s i tka s pr uc e . and
we s tern hemlock s eedl i ng s .
( Ab s tr . )
I n B i ology o f alde r . p . 2 3 9 . J . M .
Trappe . J . F . Frankl i n , R . F .
Tarrant , and G . M . Hansen , eds .
P ac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Mor e r ap i d growth by red alder s eedl i ng s
than b y a s soc i ated coas tal con i fe r s
c reate s i n tere s t i n the i r c omparat i v e
pho t o s ynthet i c behav i or . Seedl i ng s o f
t h e f o u r s pec i e s , prev i ou s l y grown under
l i ght and he avy s hade . wer e brought to
the l aboratory at i n terva l s dur i ng the i r
s e c ond growing s e as o n for me a s ur emen t of
pho t o s ynthet i c rate by i n f rared C02
analys i s at f i ve l i ght i n t e n s i t i e s .
"Pho t o s yn the t i c r ate s expre s s ed o n
a l e af-area b as i s d i d not d i ffer greatly
be twe e n s pec i e s up to s aturat i ng l i ght
i n tens i t i e s for the con i fer s . The con i ­
fers , e s pe c i ally we s tern heml oc k , r e ached
max i mum rates at lower l i gh t i n t e n s i t i e s
than d i d alde r . Grow i ng the four s pec i e s
unde r heavy s h ade tended t o decrease
s pe c i e s d i fferences i n pho t o s ynthet i c
r ate s .
"The d i s tr i but i on o f p l an t we i ght
betwee n phot o s yn the t i c and nonpho t o s yn­
the t i c t i s sue was generally s imi lar for
all s p ec i e s . Alder produced mor e leaf
area per un i t we i ght o f l e a f . howeve r .
I n the dar k , r e s p i rat ion rate per gram
of top was h i gh e s t for alde r .
"Greater c apac i ty to ut i l i ze h i gh
l i gh t i ntens i t i e s for photo synth e s i s
comb i ne d w i th more area per un i t we i ght
of l e a f and greater total l e af area per
s eedl i ng may c on t r i bute s u b s tant i ally to
alder ' s faster growth in h i gh l i ght
s i tu at i on s .
(A)
73
3 06 . Kruege r , Kenneth W . , and Robert H .
Ruth .
1969 . Comparat i ve phot o s ynthe s i s
o f red alde r , Douglas-f i r , s i tka
s pruc e , and we s tern hemlock
s eedl i n g s . Can J . Bot .
4 7 ( 4 ) : 5 19- 5 2 7 .
ttHore r ap i d growth by red alder than by
c o a s t al c on i f e r s pe c i e s may be e xplai ned
b y alder ' s greater fol i age s u r face per
u n i t f o l i age we i ght , greater total
f o l i ag e area per s eedl i ng , and h i gher
photos ynthet i c r ate at h i gh l i ght
i n tens i t i e s . Net phot o s yn the t i c rates
per un i t fol i age are s were s imi l ar for
red alder and the three con i fe r s up to
s aturat i n g l i gh t inten s i ty for the
c o n i fe r s . Re lat i ve we i ght o f phot o s yn­
t h e t i c and nonphotosynthet i c t i s sue was
a l s o s imi l ar for the four s pe c i e s .
Average max imum pho t o s ynthe t i c rates
me asured for the s e c o n i fers are
c ompar able to reported rat e s for woody
b road- l e aved s pe c i e s . tt ( A )
3 0 7 . Kuntze , otto .
1891 . Rev i s i o gene rum plant arum .
Wurzburg . p . 638-640 .
3 0 8 . Kurth , E . F .
1 9 5 0 . The c hemi c al analy s i s of
we s tern wood s . Part III . Tapp i
3 3 ( 10 ) : 5 0 7- 5 08 .
ttFour s pe c i e s of we s te rn h ardwoods ( Acer
mac rophyl lum , Alnus rubra , L i t,hoc arpu s
d e n s i f10rus , and Castanops i s
c hrysophyl l a ) and 4 s pe c i e s o f we s tern
s o ftwoods ( P i nu s contor t a var . 1at i f ol i a ,
C h amae cypar i s n ootkate n s i s , Ab i e s
grand i s , and Ab i e s procera ) h ave been
analysed for e t he r , alcohol and wate r
extrac t i ve s , holocellulo s e , l i gn i n ,
me thoxyl group , acetyl grou p , and a s h
c ontent . " ( FA )
74
309 . Kurth , E . F . , and Edwi n L . Becke r .
1 9 5 3 . The chemi c al nature of the
extrac t ives from red alde r . Tapp i
36 ( 10 ) : 461- 4 6 6 .
ttThe bark of Alnus rubra has been found
' . 010 o f extrac t i ve s , i t s
to cont a i n 24
wood 8 . 6% . The m a i n wh i te colouring
mat ters in the bark are alnul i n and
protalnul i n j the red colou r i ng matt e r s
a r e a phenol i c xyl o s i de , phlobat ann i n , a
t an n i n- c arbohyd rate compl e x , and
phlobaphene . The tann i n contents are
4 . 2% in the bark and 0 . 7 410 in the wood . tt
( FA )
310 . Lai , Yuan-Zong .
1966 . A s tudy o f the perac e t i c ac i d
o x i dat i on o f Douglas-f i r and red
alder woodmeal . H . S . F . the s i s .
Un i v . Was h . , Seattl e . 5 8 p .
Perac e t i c ac i d o x i d at i on of Douglas - f i r
and red alder woodme al r e s u l t s i n the
format i o n o f a water-s o luble l i gn i n
product . Y i e l d s are appro x imatel y 20
percent o f the dry wood mat e r i al . Red
alder woodme al i s mo re e a s i l y attac ked
by perace t i c ac i d . The analyt i c al
c ompo s i t i o n o f Dougl as- f i r perac e t i c
ac i d l i gn i n i s s imi l ar t o that o f red
alder l i g n i n .
An e l e c t roph i 1 i c aromat i c s ub s t i tu­
t i o n c an e x pl a i n the o x i dat i on of l i gn i n
b y perac e t i c ac i d . Gua i acyl and s yr i ngyl
u n i t s , with a free phenol i c hydroxyl
group , are converted to mucon i c ac i d
s t ructure . The ether i f ied un i t s proceed
to the format i on o f 1 : 4-benzoqu i none ,
and by further o x i dat i o n of th i s to the
fumar i c ac i d derivat i ve . Perac e t i c ac i d
l i gn i n s t i l l c ont a i n s s ome undegraded
aromat i c r i n g s .
Y i e l d s o f peri odote l i gn i n f o r
Dougl as - f i r a n d r e d alder preparat i on
we re approx imately 22 percent on the
bas i s o f dry wood mate r i al , and about 88
percent o f the l i gn i n i n i t i ally pre s en t
i n wood . Red alder peri odote l i gn i n i s
more e a s i l y att acked by perace t i c ac i d
than that o f Doug l a s - f i r l i gn i n .
( CFH )
3 1 1 . L ' All emand , Gordon .
1 9 6 5 . Red alder i s a preferred
s pec i e s . Woodworking D i g .
6 7 ( 4 ) : 34-38 .
" B r i efly d i s c u s s e s the phy s i c al , me chan i ­
c al and worki ng proper t i e s o f Alnus rubra
and compare s it w i t h other hardwoods as
a f urn i ture t imber . " ( FA )
3 1 2 . Lanne r , Ronald M .
1964 . Adve nt i t ious roo t i ng - a
r e s po n s e to Hawai i ' s envi ronment .
USDA For . Serv o Re s . Note PSW- 5 4 ,
3 p . Pac . Southwe s t For . and Range
Exp . S tn . , Berkeley , Cal i f .
" I n the very hum i d c l imate of H awai i . adven t i t i ou s roo t s h ave been noted o n t h e s tems or branche s of t h e followi ng e x o t i c s , wh i c h i n the i r own h ab i tats rare l y , if ever , form them : Euc alyptus
robu s t a , Melaleuca leucadendron , Cryptome r i a j apon i c a , Alnu s nepalen s i s ,
! . rubra , Frax i nu s uhde i , Cas u ar i n a
cunn i ngh am i an a , and Q . l i ttoral i s . " ( FA )
314 . Lars en , Lee E .
1 9 6 7 . Current work on the new
S oderhamn ch i ppers . Tappi
5 0 ( 2 ) : 61A-6 4A .
"The method o f ch i p preparat i on h a s a
great e ffect on the qual i ty o f the pulp
produced . Recent developme n t s i n
c h i pper de s i gn tend t o mi n im i z e c h i p
damage and contr i bute t o improved
s u l f i te pulp s t rength . Laboratory
re s u l t s obtai ned on c h i ps produced from
two new c h i ppers , the S oderhamn Drum
c h i pper and the H-P c h i pper , are c om­
pared w i th the re s u l t s of c h i p s produced
by the convent i onal d i s k c h i pper . " ( A )
3 1 5 . Lars o n , Don .
1 9 7 6 . N i trogen-f i x i ng shrub s : An
answe r to the world ' s f i rewood
s hortage ? Futur i s t 1 0 ( 2 ) : 7 4 - 7 7 .
"The growi ng s c arc i ty o f f i rewood i n the
world ' s under-deve loped count r i e s could
be e l i m i n ated i n f i ve t o 15 years i f
n i t rogen-f i x i ng s hrub s were p l anted i n
was t e l ands that c annot now s u pport tree s
or crops . The s e plan t s h ave the i r own
bu i l t- i n s upply o f n i trogen and c an
s urv i ve i n ster i l e , barren l ands where
nearly all other plants per i s h . I n
add i t i on , such super-hardy plants would
check wind and water ero s i on , reduce
runo f f , and reple n i s h the fert i l i ty of
long-impoveri shed s o i l s . " ( A )
313 . Lanne r , Ronald M .
1964 . Clones o f Nepal alder i n
Hawa i i . J . For . 62 ( 9 ) : 636-637 .
" Ob s ervat i on s i n a 26-year plantat i o n o f
A l n u s nepalen s i s wh i c h s u f fered h eavy
l o s s e s from wind reve aled that e p i c ormi c
s hoot s h ad grown ve rt i cally from wi nd­
th rown trees and put out adve nt i t i o u s
roo t s , g i v i ng r i s e t o c lonal groups . "
( FA )
75
3 1 6 . Larson , W i l l i am H .
1 9 5 1 . Fore s t roads i de control o f
alder and wi l low . J . For .
4 9 ( 10 ) : 7 0 5 - 7 0 7 .
itA s tandard tank truck wi th G r i swold
1 - i n . fog nozzle and 6-ft . app l i c ator
was u s ed f o r s pr ay i ng road s i de brush i n
Doug l a s F i r fore s t , c o n s i s t i ng ma i nly o f
W i l low and Red Alde r . O f the var i ou s
c oncentrat i o n s o f N a s al t o f 2 , 4-D t r i ed ,
i t was found that the 500 p . p . m . s o lut i on
was s at i s f ac tory . For a 5 00-gal . c harge
of th i s s o lu t i on , 2-1 / 2 lb . o f ' Spec i al
M i x ' and 1-1/4 lb . o f 82% 2 , 4-D ( c o s t i ng
$ 4 . 00 together ) were u s e d . B e s t r e s u l t s
w e r e obta i ned be tween mi d-May and June .
Total c o s t s vary with local cond i t i on s ,
acc e s s i b i l i ty and wate r e tc . , but i t i s
e s t imated that i n the exper iment the c o s t
w a s $ 1 1 . 90 p e r m i l e s p r ayed , e x c lu s i ve
o f travel to and from the j ob , broken
h o s e e t c . Ob s e rvat i o n s of treated
s t r i ps 2 years after tre atment showed
t h at they wer e s t i l l s ub s t ant i al l y f re e
f rom regrowth . " ( FA )
3 1 7 . L aundr i e , J . F .
1 9 5 9 . cont i nuous cold s oda pUl p i ng
o f we s t c o a s t red alde r , t anoak ,
madrone , and b i gleaf maple . USDA
For . Serv o For . Prod . Lab . Rep .
2 1 6 2 , 12 p . Mad i s on , wi s .
3 1 8 . Lawton , Don ald M .
1 9 7 2 . Alde r challenges e s t abl i s hed
h ardwoods . Woodwo rk i ng & Furni ture
D i g . 7 4 ( 2 ) : 28-3 0 .
Red alder i s g a i n ing an ever- i nc reas i n g
s h are o f U . S . a n d Canad i an furni ture
manufac tur i ng marke t s . Alder product i on
i n Oregon and Was h i ngton i n 1 9 7 0 was over
2 5 0 mi l l i on board feet , an i nc r e a s e o f
2 5 percent s i nc e 1960 . Inc lude s a br i e f
76
de s c r i pt i on o f r e d alder prope r t i e s and
c a s e h i s tor i e s of u s e by var i ou s manu­
f ac turers throughout the un i ted s t ate s .
( CFH )
319 . Leech , H . E .
1942 . Hemi chroa c rocea Fourcroy .
Entomol . Soc . B . C . Proc . 3 9 : 3 5 .
"Larvae o f th i s s awfl y wer e t aken on
Aln u s s p . at Gleneden , near Salmon Arm ,
June 1941 .
In Br . Columb i a i t was
prev i o u s ly known only from the l ower
Fraser Val ley . " ( BA )
320 . Leney , L . , A . Jackson , and H . D .
E r i ckson .
19 7 8 . Propert i e s o f red alder
( Alnus rubr a Bong . ) and i t s
compar i s on t o other hardwood s . In
ut i l i zat i o n and management o f
alde r , p . 2 5 -33 . Dav i d G . B r i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBel l , and W i l l i am A .
Atk i n s on , c omp i l e r s . USDA For .
Serv o Gen . Tech . Re p . PNW- 7 0 . P ac .
Northwe s t For . and Range E x p . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"Red alder i s compared w i t h s eve ral c om­
mon c ommerc i al h ardwoods o f the Un i ted
s t ate s . The obj e c t i ve i s to s how that
alder i s s u i table for many produc t s for
wh i ch other hardwoods o f s imi l ar
s t ructure and s pe c i f i c grav i ty are
used . One advantage of alder i s i t s
u n i form color o f both he ar twood and s ap­
wood . A l imi ted t e s t of alder s pec i f i c
grav i t y showed a r ange o f 0 . 3 3 t o 0 . 48
and no corre l at i o n with growth rate .
Ten s i on wood i s shown not to be a problem
i n alder and not e a s y to detec t . Growth
s tr e s s e s are bel i eved to be more of a
problem , c au s i ng the spl i t t i n g o f logs
and warpage o f lumber . " ( A )
3 2 1 . Leon ard , O . A . , Summar i ze r .
1961 . Unde s i reab1e woody p l ant s .
Re s . Progr . Rep . we s t . Weed control
Con f . 1961 : 16-2 6 .
"Alnus rubra--A 1/1 mi xture o f 2 , 4 , S-T
2 , 4-0 in d i e s el o i l , appl i ed basally
dur i ng the growing s e a s on , gave e f fec­
t i ve and e c onom i c defo l i at i on o f s tems
of 2 . S i n . d . b . h . , but dorman t - s e a s o n
appl i c at i on s h ave s at i s factory defol i a­
t i on only o f tree s < 1 i n . i n d . b . h . and
were more e f f e c t i ve on dry than o n wet
tree s tems . " ( FA )
3 2 2 . Let tman , Gary Jame s .
19 7 7 .
The role o f red alder i n
fore s t management i n Was h i ngton .
M . S . t h e s i s . Was h . S t ate . Un i v . ,
Pullman .
36 p .
"An analy t i cal mode l was deve loped t o
h e l p the owner o f fore s t l and i n
Was h i ngton determ i n e i f i t would bene f i t
h i m t o c o n s i de r red alder a s part o f h i s
management reg ime . Relevant e c on om i c
a n d envi ronmental con s i derat i on s we re
e x ami ned in a s urvey o f the l i terature .
Dur i ng the cour s e o f the s tudy pers onnel
a s s oc i ated wi th the Northwe s t Hardwood
A s s oc i at i o n , and s poke smen for s everal
p r i vate i ndus t r i al t imbe r l and own e r s and
manufac turers of h ardwood lumber were
i nterv i ewed .
"Alder was found to be a potent i al l y
valuable tool i n fore s t management i n
Was h i ng to n . Evaluat i o n o f economi c
t rends and recent advan c e s i n knowledge
of the b i o logy of alder i nd i c ated that
alder could be u s ed in many s i tuat i o n s
t o i n c r e a s e fore s t produc t i v i ty and to
h e l p produ c e a max imum sum of value s
f rom our f o re s t l and re source . " ( A )
323 . Lewi s , Me r iwether , and Wi l l i am
Clark .
1905 . Or i g i n al j ournal s o f the
Lewi s and Clark Exped i t i on
1804-1806 , i n 7 volume s and an
atlas . Ruben Gold Thwa i t e s , e d .
Dodd Mead and Co , New York .
On October 30 , 180S , near the B i g Rap i d
of the Co lumb i a R i ve r ( Th e Dal l e s ) ,
Clark , des c r i b i ng vegetat i on , wr i te s
" . . . and a t imbe r r e s emb l i ng the beach i n
bark but d i fferent i n the l e a f wh i ch i s
Smaller and the tree Smaller . " The
edi tor i den t i f i e s it as red alde r .
Later both men de s c r i be i t i n det a i l i n
the i r j ournal entry o f February 9 , 1906 ,
c al l i ng i t black alde r ; they men t i on i t
oc c a s i onally thereafte r .
( CFH )
324 . Li , c . Y .
19 7 4 . Phenol i c c ompounds i n under­
s tory s pe c i e s o f alde r , c on i fe r ,
and mi xed alder-con i fe r s tands of
c o as t al Oregon . Lloyd i a
3 7 ( 4 ) : 603-607 .
ttphenol i c c ompounds i n hydr o l y s at e s and
neutral extracts of l e aves of unde r s to ry
vegetat i on i n s t ands o f red alde r ( Alnus
rubra Bong . ) , c on i fe r , and mixed alder­
c on i fe r s near coas tal Oregon wer e
determi ned b y two d imen i on al t h i n-layer
c hromatogr aphy coupled wi th d i fferent
s pray i ng reagent s . E-Coumar i c , E­
hydroxyben zo i c , and van i l l i c ac i d s
o c curred i n a l l s pec i e s exc e p t Gal i um
t r i florum , wh i ch l ac ked E-hydroxybenzo i c
ac i d . Ferul i c ac i d oc curred i n about
two- th i rds of the s pec i e s . Proto­
c atechu i c and c af f e i c ac i d s o c curred
s porad i c al l y amon g the s pec i e s . Gent i s i c
and s y r i ng i c a c i d s o c curred i n S t achys
me x i c an a , Menz i e s i a ferrug i n e a , and
Ceanothus velut i n u s . Acer c i rc i natum
cont a i ned s yr i ng i c ac i d . Q . velu t i nu s
leave s al s o contai ned phlorogluc i nol .
Root nodules o f alder and roo t s o f
77
C e anothus we re add i t i onally ext racted .
The belowg round par t s o f the s e s pe c i e s
more r e s embled e ach other i n content o f
phenol i c compounds than they r e s embled
l e ave s of the i r own r e s pe c t i ve
s pec i e s . " ( A )
3 2 5 . L i , C . Y . , K . C . Lu , E . E . Nelson ,
W . B . Bollen , and J . M . Tr appe .
1969 . E f f e c t o f phenol i c and other
c ompounds o n growth o f Por i a we i r i i
i n v i tro . M i c rob i o s , Camb r i dge
3 : 305-311 .
" Growth o f the two i s olates t e s ted was
s t rongly i nh i b i ted in med i a contai n i ng
c o umar i n , 4-hydroxycoumar i n or 7 ­
h ydroxycoumar i n a t concentrat i o n s o f 0 . 5
and 2 . 0 mH and by Q-c atecho l , s a l i cyl i c
a c i d , benzo i c ac i d , feru l i c ac i d , Q­
c o umar i c ac i d , and phenylac e t i c ac i d at
2 . 0 mH . Other c ompounds , i nc l ud i ng three
known t o occur in Alnus rubra or other
Alders , v i z . c a f fe i c , chlorogen i c and
g e n t i s i c ac i d s , i nh i b i ted only one of the
i s o l at e s ; s t i l l othe r s , i nc lud i ng s ome
a l s o found i n Alder s , had no e f f e c t or
s t imul ated growth . Ferul i c ac i d was the
o n ly c ompound reported from P s eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i and T s uga hete rophyll a that
i nh i b i ted E. we i re i i in v i tro . The pos ­
s i ble role o f s uc h compounds as factors
in the re s i s t ance o f tree s to E . we i r i i
i s d i s c u s s ed . " ( FA )
3 2 6 . L i , C . Y . , K . C . Lu , J . M . Trappe ,
and W . B . Bo llen .
19 6 7 . S e l e c t i ve n i trogen
a s s imi l at i on by Por i a we i r i i .
Nature 2 13 ( 5 0 7 8 ) : 8 14 .
" Exper i ments we re de s i gned to determ i n e
( a ) the relat i ve growth of E . we i r i i
when s uppl i ed wi th N equ i valents i n
78
n i t r ate , ammo n i um , o r ami no forms , and
( b ) whether E. we i r i i produces n i trate
reductas e . I t was found that th i s fungus
did not use n i trate as an N s ource but
grew we l l wi th anwo n i um o r ami no N . I t s
behav i our i n culture was markedly s imi lar
to that reported for Arm i l l ar i a mel le a ,
another s e r i ou s d e s troyer o f tree roo t s .
Moreove r , c e l l-free extracts o f E . we i r i i
c ompletely l ac ked n i trate redu c t a s e
act i v i ty . The s e f i nd i ng s a r e d i s cu s s e d
i n relat i on to the fact t h a t s o i l under
s t ands of Aln u s rubra in m i x t ure wi th
con i fers has been found to be markedly
h i gher in n i trate N than s o i l under an
adj acent s t ands of pure c o n i fers .
It i s
s ugge s ted , tentat i vely , that ! . r ubra
mi xed wi th con i fe r s has a potent i al
value for the b i olog i c al control o f E .
we i r i i and probably other pathogens o n
many s i te s o f the Doug l as F i r reg i o n . "
( FA )
3 2 7 . Li , C . Y . , K . C . Lu , J . M . Trappe ,
and
W . B . Bol len .
1968 . Enzyme n i trate redu c t a s e of
s ome paras i t i c fung i . USDA For .
Serv o Re s . Note PNW- 7 9 , 4 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
" E i ght par as i t i c fung i , Fu s ar i um
avenaceum , [ . o xysporum , G l i o c l ad i um
r o s eum , Phytophtora c i nn amomi , pyth i um
debaryanum , Por i a we i r i i , Tr i chothec i um
ros eum , and vert i c i l l i um alboatrum , we re
grown in l i q u i d culture to determi ne the
ab i l i ty of each to produce n i trate reduc­
t a s e , an enzyme nece s s ary to c onvert
n i t r ate n i trogens into the more e a s i l y
u s ed ammon i um form . " ( A )
3 2 8 . L i , C . Y . , K . C . Lu , J . M . Trappe ,
and W . B . Bollen .
1968 . Enzyme s y s tems of red alder
and Dougl as - f i r in relat i on to
i n fect ion by Por i a we i r i i . In
B i ology o f alde r , p . 241-2 5 0 .
J . M . Trappe , J . F . Frankl i n , R . F .
Tarran t , and G . M . Hans en , eds .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Por i a we i r i i hyph ae s e c reted c ompounds ,
presumably pheno10x i d a s e s , th at r e su lted
in o x i dat ion o f c atecho l , DL-dopa , and
h ydroqu i none but not E-cre s o 1 . Phenol­
o x i d a s e s wi th s im i l ar ac t i v i ty we re
found i n red alder leaves but were
l ac k i n g in Doug l as - f i r leave s . Le ave s
o f both alder and Doug l as-f i r s howed
perox i dase act i v i ty , but at much h i gher
l evels in alder than in f i r . Alder
l e ave s wer e able to reduce n i trate
n i trogen , presumably through pre s en c e of
n i trate reduc tas e , whereas leave s of
Douglas-f i r l ac ked apparent n i trate­
r educ i ng ab i l i ty .
"The s e preliminary s t ud i e s w i l l be
f o l l owed b y s t ud i e s on wood and roots of
alder and Douglas- f i r . I f , as i s l i kely ,
the phen o l s and phenolox i dase s y s tem i n
red alder l e ave s are al s o present i n
roo t s , a reason for alder ' s r e s i s tance
to Por i a we i r i i c an be hypothe s i zed . On
penetrat i o n by the fungu s , the Q.-d i hydr i c
phenol s i n alder t i s s ue would be o x i d i zed
i n to fung i tox i c c ompounds through the
c atalyt i c ac t i on of the pheno10 x i das e s .
The s e c ompounds , depo s i ted about the
per i phery o f the i n i t i al i n fec t i on ,
would i nh i b i t further s pread o f the
fungu s . Pero x i dase ac t i v i ty , too , m i ght
c ontr ibute to r e s i s t ance . N i trate
r educ tase ac t i v i ty a s s ume s po s s i b l e
i mportance i n t h a t Por i a we i r i i c annot
reduce n i t rate , whereas many of i t s
antagon i s t s c an . Thu s , the h i gh n i trate
l evels in s t ands conta i n i ng alder are
n o t d i rectly u s able by E . we i r i i but
perm i t bu i ldup o f h i gh popul at ions of
antagon i s t s . " ( A )
3 2 9 . L i , C . Y . , K . C . Lu , J . M . Trappe ,
and W . B . Bollen .
1 9 7 0 . Inh i b i t i o n o f Por i a we i r i i
and Fornes anno s u s by l i no le i c
ac i d . For . S c i . 1 6 ( 3 ) : 3 2 9-330 .
"The K s al t of l i nole i c ac i d i nh i b i ted
g rowth in cultures o f E . we i r i i l i ne arly
u p to a concen trat i o n o f 1 . 0 mg . /ml . o f
ac i d i n t h e med i um . Growth became neg l i ­
g i bl e when the concentrat i on was i n­
c re a s ed from 0 . 7 5 to
1 . 0 mg . /ml . E .
anno s u s grew mode rately we l l a t a l l
concent rat i on s te s ted , b u t i nh i b i t i o n
i ncreased w i t h i nc re a s e of the l i no l e i c
ac i d concentrat i o n . Result s s ug ge s t
that the l i no le i c ac i d p roduced b y Alnu s
rubra i s an impor tant f ac t o r i n i t s
r e s i s t ance t o i n f e c t i on b y E . we i r i i and
may reduce the longevi ty of the fungus
in s o i l bene ath the tree s . A s im i l arly
s t rong i nh i b i t i o n of E . ann o sus in n ature
s e ems l e s s l i ke l y on the b a s i s o f pre s en t
data . " ( FA )
330 . L i , c . Y . , K . C . Lu , J . M . Trappe ,
and W . B . Bollen .
1 9 7 0 . Separat i on of phenol i c
c ompounds i n alkal i hydro1y s at e s o f
a f o r e s t s o i l by th in-layer
c h romatog raphy . Can . J . So i l S c i .
5 0 ( 3 ) : 45 8 -46 0 .
"De s c r i be s the extrac t i on and separat i o n
by th i n-l ayer chromato graphy o f phenol i c
c ompounds i n a s o i l extract f rom beneath
a tree of Aln u s rubra at C a s c ade Head
Exper i mental Fore s t , Oregon . " ( FA )
79
3 3 1 . L i , c . Y . , K . C . Lu , J . M . Tr appe ,
and W . B . Bollen .
1 9 7 2 . N i trate-reduc i ng c apac i ty o f
r o o t s and nodules o f Alnus rubra
and roo t s of Ps eudo t s uga men z i e s i i .
P l an t and S o i l 3 7 ( 2 ) : 40 9 - 4 1 4 .
333 . L i , Ch i ng-Yan .
1 9 6 9 . B i o l og i c al i n f luence of red
alder on Por i a we i r i i and other root
rot pathogen s . Ph . D . thes i s .
Oreg . s tate Uni v . , Corvall i s .
104 p .
" N i trate was reduced by root segme nts o f
. rub r a and ( more than twi c e as q u i ckl y )
b y root nodul e s . Root s egments o f E .
menz i e s i i f a i led to reduce n i trate i n
s p i te o f treatments des i gned t o i nduce
such ac t i v i ty . The reported favourable
r e s po n s e by E . menz i e s i i to n i trate
f e r t i l i ze r may be a s c r i bed e i ther to
mi c rob i al a s s imi lat i on to n i trate i on s
wi th s u b s equent l i berat i on o f ammo n i um
i n the s o i l , or to n i trate a s s imi l at i on
by fung i that form myc orrh i z ae wi th
Douglas F i r roots . " ( FA )
" S ubj e c t s c overed i nc lude : the ab i l i ty
o f E . we i r i i to u s e d i f ferent N s ources ;
the popul at i o n s o f bac te r i a , fun g i and
S treptomyc e s antagon i s t i c to E . we i r i i
i n s o i l s under Red Alder and Alde r /
con i fe r s t ands ; temperature a n d p H
req u i rements o f E . we i r i i ; the o x i d at ive
enz yme s o f E. we i r i i and l e aves and roots
o f Red Alde r and Douglas F i r ; the e f f e c t
o f phenol i c compounds on i s o lates o f E .
we i r i i ; the tann i n s and ferul i c , van i l l i c
and c af fe i c ac i d s i n roots , l eave s ,
l i t te r and s o i l o f Red Alder and Douglas
F i r ; s o i l tann i n s under Alder and
con i fe r s j and the characte r i s t i c s of a
c ompound , i nh i b i tory to E . we i r i i ,
e xtrac ted f rom leave s o f Red Alde r but
ab sent from Doug las F i r . " ( FA )
3 3 2 . Li , c . Y . , K . C . Lu , J . M . Trappe ,
and W . B . Bollen .
1 9 7 2 . Por i a we i r i i - i nh i b i t i ng and
other pheno l i c c ompounds in roo t s
o f r e d alder and Doug l as - f i r .
M i c ro b i o s 5 ( 1 7 ) : 6 5 -68 .
"A th i n-layer ch romatog raph i c s tudy re­
vealed the pre sence o f phenol i c compounds
in bound forms only . Ac i d hydro lysates
y i e lded van i l l i c ac i d from both s pe c i e s
( c a . twi c e a s muc h i n the s u s cept i ble
Douglas F i r as i n the re s i s t ant Red
Ald e r ) , and syr i n g i c ac i d from Alder
o n l y . Alkal i ne Hydrolysates y i e lded
s y r i ng i c , ferul i c and p-coumar i c ac i d s i n
Red Alde r , and van i l l i c , p-hydroxybenzo i c
a n d p-c o umar i c ac i d s i n Douglas F i r . Of
the s e , feru l i c , s y r i n g i c . and van i l l i c
ac i d s h ave been shown t o i nh i b i t growth
of the pathogen i n vi tro . Further re­
s e arch i s needed to eluc i date r e s i s t ance
me c h an i sms . " ( FA )
80
334 . Lines , R .
1 9 7 6 . Alnus rubra . I n Report o n
fore s t re s e arch , Fore s try
Commi s s i on , ended for year 1 9 7 6 i n
March , p . 1 6 . Edi nburgh , U . K .
"Exper iments wer e planted i n early 1 9 7 6
w i t h n i ne provenances o f Alnu s rubra and
one of Alnus s i nuata at Sh i n Fore s t
( H i ghland Reg i on ) and Ke i lder Fore s t
( Northumber l and ) . Apar t from the Alaskan
prove nance , all g rew we l l i n the i r s econd
year in the nursery , and autumn shoot
d i e-back was m i n imal , even on the
Cali forn i an or I g I n . Bacte r i al nodules
h ad already formed on the i r root s . " ( A )
3 3 5 . Li ttle , Elbert L . t Jr . 1 9 5 3 . Check l i s t of nat i ve and natur al i zed trees of the un i ted state s ( i nclud i n g Al aska ) . U . s . Dep . Agr i c . Agr i c . H andb . 4 1 , 4 7 2 p . Was h i ngton , D . C . s upe r i o r h e i ght g rowth o f !. rub r a X . glut i n o s a compared w i t h ! . g lu t i no s a
du r i ng the f i r s t 7 years and probabl e future developments , concluding that the hyb r i d wi l l r e ach a h e i ght o f 20 m . at 22-24 years and . glu t i no s a a t 40 . " ( FA ) 3 3 6 . L i t tl e , Gene R .
1 9 7 8 . Supply of we s tern alder
stumpage , i ts quan t i ty and qual i ty ,
and trends i n alder s t umpage p r i c e s
and p rodu c t market s f o r t h e S t ate
of Was h i ngton . I n Ut i l i zat i on and
man agemen t of alde r , p . 9-23 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S , DeBell ,
and W i l l i am A . Atk i n s on , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Ore g .
338 . Lloyd , W . J .
1 9 4 9 . Re sults of th i n n i ng a young
alder s t and . U . S . Dep . Agr i c . S o i l
Con s e rv . Serv . , Pac . Reg . Tech .
Note 8 , 2 p . Portl and , Ore g .
"There i s a s u f f i c i en t supply o f alder
for the foreseeable future . Mo s t alder
i s in p r i v ate owne r sh i p . There w i l l be
a tremendou s surplus ( four t ime s the
current h arve s t ) dur i n g the 1 9 80 ' s and
1 9 90 ' s . The opportun i t i e s for p r i c e
i mprovemen t don ' t look promi s i n g , s o we
do not s e e why, anyone would i ntenti onally
g row alde r . To c r e ate a f avorable c l i ­
mate for the alder i ndustry , at t i tude s
about th i s s pec i e s mu s t change s . " ( A )
3 3 7 . L j u nger , Aake .
1 9 5 9 . Al-och a1foradl i ng .
[ Alder
and alder bree d i n g . ] Skogen
4 6 ( 5 ) : 11 5 -1 1 7 .
[ In Swe d i s h . ]
" D i s c u s s e s the two s pe c i e s f ound i n
Sweden , the i r e c o logy and s i 1v i cu1tura1
i mportan c e and the occurrence o f hyb r i ds ,
and pre s e n t s f i gures f rom bree d i ng
exper ime n t s show i n g i n graph s the
339 . Lloyd , W . J .
1 9 5 2 . Alder th i n n i ng , s e c ond
prog r e s s report . U . S . Dep . Agr i c .
S o i l Con s erv . Serv . , P ac . Reg .
Tech . Note 2 9 , 2 p . Port land , Oreg .
340 . Lloyd , W i ll i am J .
1 9 5 5 . Alder t h i n n i ng-progre s s
report . U . S . Dep . Agr i c . S o i l
Conserv . Serv . , We s t Area Woodland
Cons e rv . Tech . Note 3 , 6 p .
Portland , Oreg .
341 . Lowe , Daphyne P .
1969 . Check l i s t and ho s t i ndex o f
bac ter i a , f ung i , nd mi s tletoes o f
B r i t i sh Columb i a . Dep . F i s h . and
F or . , I n f . Rep . BC-X-32 , 3 9 2 p .
V i ctor i a , B . C .
cro s s - i ndexed l i s t i ng o f B r i t i s h Columb i a
ho s t genera and the i r attac k i n g pathogen s
and s aprogens .
( CFH )
81
3 4 2 . Lu , K . C . , C . S. . Chen , and W . B .
B ollen . 1 9 68 . Compar i s o n o f m i c rob i al populat i on s betwe e n red alder and c on i fer s o i l s . I n B i ology o f alder , p . 1 7 3 - 1 7 8 . J . K . Trappe , J . F .
Frankl i n , R . F . Tarran t , and G . K .
H an s e n , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Rang e EXp . S tn . , portland , Oreg .
" Seasonal popu l a t i o n s o f molds and bac­
t e r i a i n the F l aye r and All s o i l hor i zon
f rom s t ands of pure c o n i fers , pure red
alde r , and c o n i f er-alder mi xtures near
the Oregon c o a s t were compared by d i lu­
t i on p l at i ng technique s . All o rg an i sms
were g enerally more numerous i n the F
l ayer than i n t h e All hor i zo n . On th i s
very mo i s t s i te , popul at i on s o f molds
were lowe s t in s pr i ng , when the s o i l was
e xtreme l y we t . In the F l aye r ,
S treptomyce s s p e c i e s , o f part i cular
i n tere s t due t o the i r pos s i bl e an tagon i sm
agai n s t root p athogen s , cons i s tently
c ompr i s ed a h i gher propor t i on of the
t o tal b ac t e r i al popul at i on o f the mi xed
s t and than of e i ther pure alder or pure
c o n i f e r s t ands . " ( A )
3 4 3 . Lumberman .
1 9 5 5 . Alder as s umes importance and
i s d i s cu s s ed by f o r e s t e r s at 3 4 th
Wa s h i ngton s tate Fore s try
Conferen c e . Lumberman 8 2 ( 1 3 ) : 8 7 ,
129 .
" S ummar i ze s very br i e f l y pape r s and
d i scus s i on on u s e s of Red Alder [ Alnus
r ubra ] f o r pu l p i n g , t imbe r and panel­
l i ng , i t s s e a s on i ng , l o gg i n g method s ,
n atural regenerat i on , i nc rement , e p i ­
c o rmi c branches and the i r e f fect o n
q u al i ty , s o i l r e l at i ons , and rotat i on . "
( FA )
82
3 4 4 . Lumbe rman
1 9 5 7 . Alder logs f i nd u s e i n
plugg i ng news p r i n t rol l s .
Lumberman 84 ( 7 ) : 4 6 .
"Al though many subs t i tutes h ave been
t r i ed , the old s t andby-- the wooden
plug- -rema i n s today the mo s t e ff i c i en t
and economi cal means o f preven t i ng
news p r i n t rolls f rom c o l l ap s i ng o r
crush i ng on t h e c o re . Th i s art i c l e
tel l s h ow they are made f rom alder by a
(A)
new company i n B r i t i sh Columb i a .
to
3 4 5 . Lut z , J . F .
1 9 7 2 . Veneer s pe c i e s that g row i n
the un i ted s t ate s . USDA For . S e rv o
Re s . Pap . FPL- 1 6 7 , 1 2 7 p . For .
Prod . Lab . , Madi son , Wi s .
"De s c r i be s propert i e s o f 1 5 6 U . S . tree
s pe c i e s that affect the i r manufac ture and
u s e as veneer or produc t s made from
veneer . Each s pec i e s i s rated for u s e i n
the general c atego r i e s o f cons truc t i o n
plywood , decorat i ve f a c e venee r , i nn e r
p l i e s o f decorat i ve pane l s , or c o n t a i n e r
veneer and plywood . " ( A )
346 . Lyon s , C . P .
1 9 6 9 . Tree s , shrub s , and f lower s
t o know i n B r i t i s h Columb i a . 2 d
ed . 1 9 4 p .
J . M . Den t & Sons
( C an . ) Ltd . , Toronto and Vancouve r .
3 4 7 . McCartney , W i l l i am D . , Robert F .
Scharpf , and Frank G . Hawkswo r th .
1 9 7 3 . Add i t i onal h o s t s o f Vi s cum
album , European mi s tl etoe , i n
Ca1 i fo n i a . Plant D i s . Rep .
5 7 ( 10 ) : 904 .
" Reports Alnu s rubr a , Populus fremon t i i ,
and Sal i x l as i andra as new h o s t s nat ive
t o Cal i fo r n i a . On the bas i s o f i nocula­
t i o n t e s t s , Populus tremulo i de s was also
f ound to be s u s cept i bl e . Ten other trees
l i s ted are ornamental s . " ( FA )
3 4 8 . MacConnell , J . T .
1 9 5 9 . The oxygen factor i n the
developmen t of func t i on o f the root
nodu l e s o f alde r . Ann . Bot .
( Londo n ) N . S . 23 ( 9 0 ) : 261-2 68 .
The number of nodules o f Aln u s glut i n o s a
g rowi ng i n solut i on was reduced as the
percent o f oxygen in aerat i n g gas was
decreased . The nodulated plan t was
s en s i t i ve to oxygen reduc t i o n . It i s
c on c luded that oxygen s upply i s of
s pe c i al impor tance in the deve lopmen t
a n d fun c t i on o f alder r o o t nodul e s . ( CFH )
3 4 9 . McGovern , J . N . , and G . H . McGregor .
1 9 4 4 . S ul f i te pulp produc t i on :
S ome f ac t o r s pert i nent to meet i ng
war born shortage s . Pulp and Pap .
Mag . Can . 4 5 : 7 4-81 .
"The pro s pe c t o f a s e r i ou s shortage of
s u l ph i te pulp in 1944 prompted the For e s t
Produ c t s Laboratory , Mad i s on , t o survey
ways and mean s of i ncreas i ng pulp
produc t i on under e x i s t i ng cond i t i o n s .
I t i s s uggested that the l e s s common
pulpwood s pec i e s together wi th logg ing ,
s awmi l l , and veneer-mi l l was t e s be
u t i l i zed t o the full e xtent o f the i r
ava i l ab i l i ty ; that advan tage be t aken of
d e n s e woods g i v i ng h i gh y i eld per
volume ; that the pul p i n g proce s s be
conducted in c onform i ty wi t h p r i n c i p l e s
r e s ul t i ng i n max i mum produc t i o n ; and
that f i bre l o s s e s f rom c h i p preparat i o n
and pulp t reatment a n d ble ach i ng b e
m i n imi s ed . T h e p aper d i s c u s s e s b r i e fly
the pul p i n g procedures appl i c able t o
s pec i e s l e s s c ommonly u s ed for s ulph i te
pul p i ng , i nclud i n g Aspen , cottonwood ,
B i rc h , Maple , Gum , Beech , Northern
P i n e s , Tamarac k , We s te rn P i ne , Larch ,
Douglas F i r , Southern P i ne , We s tern Red
Cedar , s i tka Spruc e , and Alde r , and
e x ami n e s i n de t a i l the s u l ph i te proc e s s
var i ables affe c t i ng pulp produc t i on .
General obs ervat i on s are made on me thods
o f redu c i n g f i bre l o s s e s due to
d i fferent c au s e s . " ( FA )
3 5 0 . McGovern , J . N . , J . S . Mart i n , and
R . M . K i ng s bury .
1 9 5 1 . S emi chem i c al p u l p i n g
characte r i s t i c s o f Pac i f i c c o a s t
r e d alde r , Douglas-f i r , we s t e r n
redc edar , and we s tern heml o c k .
U . S . For . Prod . Lab . Rep . R19 1 2 ,
1 0 p . Mad i son , w i s .
"The alder gave neutral s u l ph i te pulps
s u i table for c o n t a i n e r boards and
ble ached-paper produc t s . Pulps made
from We s tern Red Cedar and We s tern
Hemlock h ad c o n si de rable promi s e for u s e
i n paper-board , that made f rom Douglas
Fir somewh at l e s s p romi s e . Sulphate
s emi c hemi c al pulps made from lde r and
o ld-growth Douglas F i r had lower
chemi c al r equ i remen t s , lower bur s t i n g
s t rength and h i gher fold i n g enduran c e
than the i r neutral counterpar t s . S t rong ,
bleached , neutral s ul ph i te pulps c an be
produced i n y i elds o f 5 510 f rom Alder and
5 010 f rom s e c ond-growth Doug l a s F i r .
( FA )
II
83
3 5 1 . McGuane , H arry .
1 9 7 8 . Alder as a wood for veneer
and plywood . ( Ab s t r . ) In
ut i l i z at i o n and management o f alde r ,
p . 133 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S .
DeBe l l , and W i l l i am A . Atk i n s on ,
c omp i l e r s . USDA For . Serv o Gen .
Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Range Exp . S tn . , Portl and ,
Oreg .
"The o r al pres entat i on de s c r i bed the pro­
c e s s of manufac tur i ng alder veneer in a
f ac i l i ty equi pped w i t h the only hardwood
l athe i n the We s t . The h ardwood lathe
i s equ i ppd with a f i xed nose bar wh i c h
i s c ap able o f ach i ev i ng h i gher pee l i ng
pres s u re s than con i fe r lathes equi pped
w i th a roller bar . The c apab i l i ty o f
ach i e v i ng h i gher pre s s ures i s importan t
i n contro l l i ng the roughne s s , depth o f
checks , and th i c kne s s of t h e venee r .
The end product i s a dry veneer that i s
1 / 24 i nc h i n th i ckne s s . The maj or i ty of
t h i s veneer i s u s e d in the manufacture
of quarter i nch plywood wall panel i ng .
"The marke t f o r alder veneer and
i t s f u ture are unc e r t a i n . Produ c t i on o f
alder veneer has been low , and logs are
f requently knotty so re covery of h i gh e r
g r ade s i s d i f f i c ult and c o s tly . A large
f rac t i on i s , therefore , a lower qual i ty
veneer wh i ch enters a very compe t i t i ve
marke t w i t h s urplus low qual i ty venee r s
f rom o ther s pe c i e s . S tyle c hange s i n the
p ane l l i ng i ndus try and l ac k o f f ami l i ar­
i ty wi th alder are o ther problems . " ( A )
3 5 2 . McKe lvey , S u s an Delano .
1 9 5 5 . Botan i c al explorat i o n o f the
Trans-Mi s s i s s i p p i We s t 1 7 90-18 5 0 .
1 1 4 4 p . Arnold Arbor . Harvard
U n i v . , Jama i c a P l a i n , Mas s .
contai n s excerpts f rom or i g i n al j ournals
and e d i ted j ournal s o f early botan i s t s
who c o l l e c ted plan t s i n the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t . An alder was s een at Monterey
B ay in 1 7 9 1 by the Me l a s p i n a expedi t i on .
84
Red alder was collected b y Arch i bald
Menz i e s in 1 7 9 2 at Port D i s c over y ,
Wash i ngton , by Lewi s and Cl ark i n 1805
near the Dall s , Oregon , and by Douglas
i n 1 8 2 5 at th e mouth of the Columb i a
R i ve r . Nuttall de s c r i be s red alder
after c o l l ec t i n g it i n 1834 .
( CFH )
3 5 3 . McLaughl i n , W i l l ard T . , and Robe r t
L . B rown . 1942 . Contro l l i n g c o a s tal s and dune s in the P ac i f i c Northwe s t . U . S . Dep . Agr i c . C i rc . 660 , 46 p . Was h i ngton , D . C . "An account o f me thods employed i n ar­
r e s t i ng s and dun e s at the mouth of the
. . . The f i r s t
Columb i a R i ve r , Oregon .
s t age i n rec l amat i o n i s the plan t ing o f
s and-b i nd i ng beachgras s , b u t f i n al
control requ i re s the use o f s h rubs and
tree s , wh i c h may be i ntroduced only
after the i n i t i al s t ab i l i zat i on has been
accompl i s hed . Scotch Broom ( Cyt i su s
s c opar i u s { L . ) L i nk) i s the s hrub mo s t
c ommonly employed for th i s purpo s e . The
only nat i ve tree s pe c i e s u s ed exte n s i ve l y
i n dune-control plan t i ng s i s Shore P i ne
( P i nu s contorta Loud . ) . The P i n e i s
u s ually planted towards the i n s i de o f
t h e dune where greate s t h e i ght i s needed ,
the Broom be i n g planted on the outs i de
where there i s no heavy s hade . B e i ng a
l egume , the Broom bu i lds up the n i trogen
content of the s o i l wh i le ac t i n g as a
wi ndbreak for the young P i ne s . other
tree s u s ed i n the l ater s tages of
dune- r e c l amat i o n i nc lude the i n troduced
s pe c i e s P i nu s pinas ter , f . sylve s tr i s ,
f . punge n s , f . n i gra , and Aln u s
( FA )
glut i no s a .
Red alder doe s n o t afford much win­
ter protec t i on and i s u s eful only i n damp
areas .
( CFH )
3 5 4 . McM i nn , Howard E . , and Evelyn Maino .
1 9 3 7 . An i llu s t r ated manual of
Pac i f i c coast tree s . 409 p . Un i v .
Cal i f . Pre s s , Berkeley .
that no s im i l a r morphol og i c al grad i en t s
could b e e s t abl i shed alt i tudi nally
s uppo r t s the theory that the d i f ferences
are genotyp i c . " ( FA )
Red alder i s i den t i f i ed as Alnus oregona .
( CFH )
3 5 5 . McMunn , H . I .
19 5 6 . Deve l o p i n g new u s e s for
alde r . Pac . Coast Hardwood s ,
Marc h , p . 8-9 . Northwe s t Hardwoods
As s o c . , Seattl e , Wash .
E ar l y e f forts of one t imbe r c ompany to
develop new produ c t s and s al e s o f red
alde r .
( CFH )
3 5 6 . McNa i r , Cl i f f , Jr .
1 9 7 3 . Port Gamble turns to alder
operat ions . B remerton Sun , March
2 9 , 1 9 7 3 , p . I, c o l . 5-6 ; p . 2 ,
col . 4 - 5 .
3 5 7 . McPhe r s o n , W . E .
1 9 5 6 . Who l e s al i n g o f Nor thwe s t
hardwood s . Pac . Coas t H ardwood s ,
Marc h , p . 6 - 7 . Nor thwe s t Hardwoods
As s o c . , Seattle , Wash .
3 5 8 . McVean , D . N .
1 9 5 3 . Reg i onal var i at i o n o f Alnus
glu t i no s a ( L . ) Gaertn . i n B r i t a i n .
Wat s o n i a 3 ( 1 ) : 26-32 .
"Data from 18 populat i ons s how that Alder
i n B r i t a i n exh i b i t s c l i nal var i at i ons i n
s ome features o f i t s morphology and
phys i ology , and that these var i at i ons
t e nd to t ake place along the ma i n
c l imat i c grad i en t S . E . -N . W . The fact
3 5 9 . McVean , D . N .
1 9 5 5 . Ecology o f Alnus glut i no s a
( L . ) Gaertn . I . Fru i t format ion .
J . Ecol . 4 3 ( 1 ) : 46-60 .
"The exten t to wh i ch f ru i t i ng per iod i c i ty
o c c u r s i n the Alder i s de s c r i bed . Date s
are g i ven for the s t age s of fru i t
developmen t , and the vulnerab i l i ty of
the a nuc l e i in the ex tended per i od o f
4 - 5 mon ths between pol l i nat i o n and
fert i l i z at i on i s s t re s s e d . Empty s eeds
are the result of fert i l i z at i on f a i lure
rather than abort i o n . East Ang l i an
Alders are s hown to be completely s e l f­
s t e r i l e , and th i s , r ather than f ro s t
damage t o flowe r s , i s r eg arded a s a
po s s i bl e reason for low seed v i ab i l i ty
i n c e r t a i n years . H i gh winds at the
t ime of flower i ng are the mo s t l i kely
c au s e o f l ow fert i l i ty in expo s ed
popul at i o n s and o f the decreased % of
embryo format i on wi th i ncreased a l t i tude .
Even i n good s eed years , embryos are not
formed at al t i tude s above 300 m . " ( A )
360 . McVean , D . N .
1 9 5 5 . Ecology o f Alnu s glut i no s a
( L . ) Gaert n . I I . Seed d i s t r i but i on
and germ i n at i o n . J . Ecol .
43 ( 1 ) : 6 1-7 1 .
" Run n i n g water and wi nd-dr i f t over s t and­
i ng wate r are s hown to be the c h i e f
agents o f d i s pe r s al , wi th important
e f f e c t s on s eedl i ng e s t ab l i s hmen t and
the form of populat i ons . There i s
c on s i de rable var i at i on ( 0-80%) i n the
v i ab i l i ty of the s eed s et , and low
v i ab i l i ty i s almo s t who l l y due t o the
f a i lure o f embryo format i on . Opt i mum
85
germi nat i on t ake s place at about 2 6 ° C
and i s i ndependent o f l i ght , normal
t empe r ature fluctuat i on s , and pH of the
s ub s t r ate . H i gh 0 ten s i o n and humi d i ty
i n the s ur round i ng ai r are ne c e s s ary for
s at i s f ac tory germi nat i o n . Cold treatment
of damp s eeds at 0-4 ° C for at least 6
weeks redu c e s the m i n i mum germi nat i on
t empe r ature f rom 18 to 7 ° C j th i s has
i mpor t an t ecolog i c al impl i c at i on s . The
c o u r s e of germi nat i on i s de s c r i bed f o r
l aboratory and f i el d s eedl i n g s . An
i mportant feature i s the r e l at i ve weak­
n e s s o f the r ad i cle elongat i on and the
l i ab i l i ty o f the r ad i c l e t o s u f f e r damage
by low temperatures and i nc i p i ent dry i n g
i n t h e early s t ag e s o f germi nat i on . Th i s
partly expl a i n s the hydrophyt i c behav i our
of the s pe c i e s . " ( A )
3 6 1 . McVe an , D . N .
1 9 5 6 . Ecology o f Alnus Rlut i no s a
( L . ) Gaertn . I I I . S eedl i n g
e s t abl i s hmen t . J . Eco1 .
4 4 ( 1 ) : 19 5 -218 .
" Expe r iments on the r e l at i on s o f s eed­
l i n gs t o s o i l mo i s t ure are d e s c r ibed ,
B e tula pube s c e n s be i ng u s ed f o r
c ompar i s on :
( 1 ) Seedl i ng e s t abl i s hment
i n waterlogged s o i l .
( 2 ) Effect of
waterlogg i ng at var i o u s deve lo pmental
s t age s .
( 3 ) E s t abl i s hmen t at var i o u s
h e i gh t s above a con s t ant water-table .
( 4 ) E f f e c t o f per i od i c dry i n g o f the
soil .
It is concluded that in reg i o n s
o f l o w r a i nfall ( 5 0-6 5 cm . ) Alder s eed­
l i ng s w i l l only e s t abl i s h thems elves
where the s urface s o i l falls w i t h i n the
c ap i l l ary f r i nge o f the water-table , s o
t h at i t rema i n s cons tantly mo i s t f o r
2 0-30 d ays i n s pr i ng ( March-May ) .
H e av i e r r a i nfall and a c over o f vege ta­
t i on mod i fy t h i s p i cture . The Alder
s e ed l i n g i s better adapted to e s t abl i sh­
ment in very we t and waterlogged s o i l s
t h an i s the B i rc h , and pure s t ands o f
Alder c an b e obt a i ned f rom mi xed s ow i n g s
86
by appropr i ate tre atment . I t i s al s o
mo re re s i s t ant t o c omplete i nundat i on at
all s t age s of deve lopmen t . A water-table
at a depth o f 10-30 cm . is opt imal f o r
e arly Alder e s tabl i s hment , b u t s ub s equent
g rowth is be s t on dr i e r s i te s . The B i rc h
s eedl i n g i s b e t t e r adapted to e s tabl i s h­
ment i n h ab i tats s ubj e c t to per i od i c
dry i ng ou t , and pure s t ands o f B i rc h c an
thus be obtai ned by flood i ng . The
d i fferent buoyanc i e s o f the s eed , the
d i f f erent s u s cept i b i l i t i e s o f the
r ad i c l e s to dry i n g out , and the d i fferent
r at i o s o f s hoot to root deve lopmen t are
all concerned in th i s .
"The g rowth o f s eedl i ng s on d i f­
ferent s o i l s i s de s c r i bed , and e s t abl i s h­
men t found to be s at i s factory on all
e x c e pt ac i d peat s and h i gh l y c al c areous
s o i l s . Pure fen peat appe ars to lack
s ome factor , present i n mi neral s o i l ,
ne c e s s ary for the optimum deve lopment o f
t h e s eedl i ng s . An exper iment o n the
add i t i on o f var i ou s fert i l i ze r s to the
peat i n d i c ated that the pho s phate r ad i c al
i s l argely concerned . Devel opment o f
nodu l e s and mycorrh i z a i s found to h ave
l i t tle e f f e c t on e s tabl i s hment e xcept
perhaps on the mo s t i n fert i le s ands .
F i eld and pot exper iments on l i ght
i n tens i ty and root c ompe t i t i on are
de s c r i bed . I t is conc luded that l ow
l i ght i n tens i ty , s upplemen ted by i n sect
attac k , f lood i ng etc . is a frequent
c au s e o f regenerat ion f a i lure i n woods
and th i ck herbaceous vegetat i o n . Root
c ompe t i t i on appear s to be of great e s t
impor t ance i n the dr i e r gras s turf s .
The s i gn i f i c ance of the s e factors i n
n atural populat ion s t ructures and
succ e s s i o n is b r i e f l y d i s c u s s ed . " ( A )
3 6 2 . McVe an , D . N . 1 9 5 6 . Ecology o f Alnus glut i no s a
( L . ) Gaertn . IV . Root s y s tem . J .
Eco1 . 44 ( 1 ) : 219-2 2 5 .
"Analy s i s o f the g a s cont a i ned i n Alder
roots from below the s o i l water-table i s
d e s c r i bed and the r e s u l t s shown to be
c om arable wi th tho s e obtai ned by other
worke r s on the s ubme rged parts o f her­
baceous aquat i c s . The gas is largely
c o n t a i ned in the xylem elemen t s as i n
the genus Ae s chynomene . The s tructure
of the wate r 1ent i c 1 e s on s tems , roo t s
and nodu l e s i s d e s c r i be d and the sugge s ­
t i on made that they may p l ay an important
part i n the root ae r at i on mechan i sm of
the s pe c i e s when growi ng o n water-logged
s i te s . Root-cu t t i n g exper iments to t e s t
t h e impor t ance o f d i f ferent part s of the
root s y s tem i n the wate r s upply o f the
tree h ave s hown that the deep tap roo t s
may we l l account for t h e s u c c e s s o f e s ­
t abl i s hed Alder on s i te s o f deep wat er­
t able . The impor t ance of the surface
s y s tem ( wi th i t s nodu l e s and myco rrh i z a )
i n the nut r i t i on of the tree o n i n fert i le
s o i l s was a l s o demons trated by th i s
method . " ( FA )
3 6 3 . McVe an . D . N .
1 9 5 6 . Ecology of Alnus glut i no s a
( L . ) Gaertn . V . Not e s o n s ome
B r i t i s h alder populat i o n s . J .
Eco1 . 4 4 ( 2 ) : 321-330 .
" De s c r i b e s Alder popul a t i on s i n the New
Fore s t , Norfolk , N . Wal e s , Suthe r l and
and Inverne s s s h i re . The deta i l s of
f lo r i s t i c s and s u c c e s s i on are d i s cu s s ed .
The A1derwood flora i s i nf luenced by the
c ompo s i t i o n of the ve getat ion it h ad
s u c c eeded ; 50 o f A1de rwood spec i e s are
f rom fen and mar s h as s oc i at i ons and only
5 are woodl and s pec i e s . Alder commun i ­
t i e s are mo s t d i s t i n c t on wet s i te s r i ch
i n b a s e s ( the r e l at i o n s h i p o f s o i l wate r
and b a s e content to s ubord i nate s pec i e s
i s tabulated ) ; o n dr i e r and l e s s bas i c
s o i l s they merge w i t h Oak , Ash , and B i rc h
c ommun i t i e s . The Alder colon i ze s hydro­
s e re s part i cularly q u i c kly when fen
succe s s i on s h ave been deflected by mowing
or graz i ng , but it does not i nvade gras s ­
l and . I t i s s ugges ted t h a t the cond i ­
t i o n s requ i red for a c l imax Alder c ar r
a r e enough l i ght a n d enough s urfac e
above wate r to permi t regenerat i o n f rom
s eed ; i t i s unl i kely that the commun i ty
could b e perpetuated by veg e t at i ve
regenerat i on alone . " ( FA )
364 . McVean , D . N .
1 9 5 6 . Ecology o f Alnu s g lut i n o s a
( L . ) Gaertn . VI . Pos t-glac i al
h i s tory . J . Eco1 . 4 4 ( 3 ) : 331-3 3 3 .
"Br i e f l y d i s cu s s e s s al i en t features i n
the European h i s tory o f the Alder .
Aute co10g i c a1 s tud i e s i nd i c ate that the
s udden i nc reas e o f Alder pollen in the
Late Boreal per i od was brough t about by
( 1 ) a r i s e i n the s e a-level produc i ng
h i gher wate r-t able s and i n i t i at i ng
hydro s e re s , ( 2 ) and i nc re a s ed evapor­
at i on / prec i p i tat i on rat i o lead i n g to a
mo i s t s o i l surface i n s p i n g wh i ch
enabled the Alder to s pread from one fen
to another , and ( 3 ) c l imat i c o r b i o t i c
factors des tro y i n g the e x i s t i ng vegeta­
t i on . S ome ev i dence of recent c l imat i c
change i n the Br i t i s h I s le s , i nd i c ated
by the s tructure and reprodu c t i on of
h i ll Alder woods in the north and we s t ,
i s pre s ented . " ( FA )
87
3 6 5 . Maas , E . F . , and R . M . Adamson .
1 9 7 2 . Re s i s t ance of s awdu s t s ,
peat s , and bark to decompo s i t i on i n
t h e pre s en c e o f s o i l and nutr i ent
s ol u t i on . So i l Sc i . Soc . Am . Proc .
36 ( 5 ) : 769-7 72 .
"Decompo s i t i on o f organ i c g rowi ng med i a
s uch a s s awdu s t , bark o r peat c an have
unde s i reable e f f e c t s i n the greenhouse
c ulture o f tomatoe s . I n th i s s tudy the
i n fluence of ( a ) p,ar t i c 1 e s i ze o f the
med i um , ( b ) nut r ient addit i on s ( N , P , and
K ) , and ( c ) an admi xture of s o i l , was
i nve s t i gated by me as ur i ng we i ght los s e s
i n Alnus rubra s awdu s t , P s eudot s uga
menz i e s i i s awdu s t and bark , and three
t ype s o f peat . The e f fe c t o f ( a ) wa s
smal l ; ( b ) s i gn i f i c antly i nc re as ed
decompo s i t i o n o f the s awdu s t s but h ad
l e s s e f f e c t on the b ar k ; and ( c ) greatly
i ncreased decompos i t i o n in all the
med i a . " ( FA )
3 6 6 . Mac ki ntosh , Anne H . , and G . Bond .
1 9 7 0 . D i ve r s i ty i n the nodular
e ndophytes of Alnus and Myr i c a .
Phyton 2 7 ( 1 ) : 7 9-90 .
" I n the genera Alnus and Myr i c a r e s pec­
t i vely 1 7 and 1 2 unus ual comb i nat ions of
n odu l e endophyte s and ho s t s pe c i e s have
been s tudied for symb i o t i c performance .
In Al n u s 9 o f these c omb i n at i on s re sulted
i n s at i s f ac t o ry symb i o s e s , but in Myr i c a
only o'ne . I t i s conc luded that the Alnus
e ndophyte ex i s t s in a number o f forms ,
e ach able to symb i o s e w i t h a r e s t r i c ted
n umbe r of unu sual ho s t s pe c i e s , but that
i n Myr i c a the endophytes show l i ttle o r
n o s u c h ab i l i ty . Geograph i c al d i s t r i bu­
t i on and taxonom i c af f i n i ty of ho s t
s pec i e s prov i d e a rat i onal bas i s f o r s ome
o f the f i nd i ng s . " ( A )
88
3 6 7 . Mad i s on , Robert W .
1 9 5 7 . A g u i de t o the Cascade Head
Exper imental Fore s t . USDA For .
Serv o Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range
Exp . S tn . , 1 3 p . Portland , Ore g .
"De s c r i bes the exper imental fore s t , i t s
purpo s e s and admi n i s trat ion , and the
r e s e arch proj e c t s i n progre s s . " ( A )
3 68 . Mad i son , Robert W . , and Robert H .
Ru th .
1 9 6 2 . Basal s pray i ng o f red alde r .
We eds 10 ( 4 ) : 32 4-3 2 5 .
"Red alder ( Alnus rubr a ) was read i ly
ki lled by growi ng-season treatme n t s wi th
a 1 to 1 mi xture of 2 , 4-di ch10ro­
phenoxyace t i c ac i d ( 2 , 4-D ) and 2 , 4 , 5 ­
t r i c hlorophenoxyac e t i c ac i d ( 2 , 4 , 5 -T ) i n
d i e s e l o i l . Except for l - i nch-·d i ame ter
tree s , it was re s i s t ant to dormant-season
tre atments . Tre atments appl i ed dur i ng
moderate r a i n we re l e s s e f f e c t ive than
dur ing r a i n-f ree pe r i ods . " ( BA)
369 . Maloney , T . M .
1 9 7 8 . Alder : One o f tomorrow' s
important s t ruc tural raw mate r i a l s ?
I n ut i l i z at ion and manageme nt of
alder , p . 1 2 5 -132 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s ,
De n S . DeBell , and Wi l l i am A .
Atki nson , comp i le r s . USDA For .
Serv o Gen . Tec h . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"Alder i s a l i ghtwe i ght , fast- g rowi ng
s pe c i e s i deally s u i ted for c ompo s i t i on
board and compo s i te mate r i al s . Stud i e s
i nd i c ate that there wi l l b e a short age
of c onven t i onal raw mate r i al for plywood
bu i ld i ng mater i al s i n the Pac i f i c North­
we s t . The compo s i te panel made o f veneer
f ac e s and a par t i c l eboard core o f f e r s a
b u i l d i n g panel that c an po s s i bly u s e
alder f o r c o re . Plywood plan t s c an
ma i n t a i n o r i n c r e a s e the i r produc t i o n
r ate u s i ng part i c l eboard cores , t h u s
avo i d i ng probl ems as soc i ated w i t h short­
ages of conven t i onal veneer .
"Demon s t rat i on alder flakeboards ( a
t ype of par t i c l eboard ) s howed excel lent
modul u s o f rupture , modul u s o f e las t i ­
c i ty , and i n ternal bond prope r t i e s wh i ch
e x c e eded those i n c ompe t i t i ve fl ake--type
b o ards . I nd i c at i o n s are that alder
me r i t s s e r i ou s con s i derat i on a s a r aw
mate r i al for s t ructural panel mater i al s
( c ompo s i t i on board and compo s i te s ) . " ( A )
3 7 0 . Manol i s , B .
1 9 7 5 . Co as tal mi xed fore s t .
B i rd s 2 9 ( 3 ) : 7 6 7 .
Am .
Re s u l t s o f a b i rd s urvey i n a coas tal
m i xed fore s t at P o i n t Reye s , Cal i forn i a .
Red alde r was the mo s t abundant tree
s pec i e s . Twenty s pe c i e s were observed
at a den s i ty of 1 , 7 0 2 b i rds per square
k i lome te r .
( CFH )
3 7 1 . Maranv i lle , L . Frank , and otto
Go lds c hmi d .
1 9 5 4 . Ultrav i ol e t ab s orpt i o n
s p e c t r a as a me as ure o f phenol i c
hydroxyl group content i n
polypheno l i c tann i nl i ke mater i al s .
An al . Chem . 2 6 ( 9 ) : 1423-14 2 7 .
tho s e by purely chemi c al 2 , 4 -d i n i tro­
phenyl e ther method . Value s obtai ned by
both me thods on a s e r i e s o f bark e x t r a c t s
o f s ever al s pe c i e s o f s o f twood and
hardwood trees are in qual i t at i ve
agreement . The ultrav i olet procedure i s
an e x t r eme ly r ap i d and conve n i en t method
for obt a i n i ng a relat i ve me a s ure o f the
pheno l i c content o f natural po lypheno1 i c
mate r i a l s and prov i d e s a conve n i ent
mean s of d i fferent i at i ng d i f ferent
clas s e s of such mater i al s . " ( A )
3 7 2 . Margo l i n , Malcom .
1 9 7 4 . Hurray for alde r , s courge of
the woods . L i v i ng Wi lderne s s
38 ( 1 2 5 ) : 3 6-42 .
v i r t u e s of alder de s c r i bed i n l ayman t s
l anguag e . Arguments are made for
promo t i ng alder management reg ime s .
( CFH )
3 7 3 . Markwardt , L . J . , and T . R . C .
Wi l son .
1 9 3 5 . strength and rel ated
propert i e s of woods grown in the
Un i ted state s . U . s . Dep . Agr i c .
Tec h . Bull . 4 7 9 , 99 p . Was h i ngton ,
D.C.
"A r ap i d and s imple me thod for determi­
n at i on o f pheno l i c groups i n natural
polypheno 1 i c mate r i al s , such as tann i n s ,
h a s long been needed . An ultrav i ol e t
s pe c trophotome t r i c me thod employ i ng
d i fference [ s i c ] s pe c t r a has been
developed wh i ch i s s u i table for th i s
d e term i n at i on . R e s u l t s by the s pectro­
photometr i c me thod are compared w i th
89
3 7 4 . Marple ' s Bus i ne s s News leter .
1 9 7 4 . Wood c h i p s are i n t i ght
s upply . Marple ' s Bu s i ne s s News l .
6 4 3 , p . 3-4 .
"Wood c h i p s are i n t i ght s upply now
becau s e pulp mi l l s are runn i ng at
c apac i ty wh i l e lumber and plywood plan t s ,
a source of by- produ c t c h i p s , h ave cut
The pr i c e has about doubled i n a
back .
y e ar . Early th i s year when Japanese
m i l l s got beh i nd in the i r hardwood
requ i remen t s , alder went to a prem i um
over Douglas - f i r . Clean alder c h i p s
f rom who l e l o g s now br i ng $ 6 0 a un i t ,
and t h o s e from who le-tree c h i pp i ng (wi th
u p to l 2 bark and other re s i due ) , about
$ 5 5 . Pope & Talbo t w i l l s e l l i t s Port
G ambl e c h i p s to paper m i l l s on Puget
S ound . " ( A )
3 7 5 . Mat thewe s , Rol f W .
1 9 7 3 . A p alynolog i c al s tudy o f
p o s tglac i al vegetat i on changes i n
the Un iver s i ty Research Fore s t ,
s ou thwe s tern Br i t i s h Columb i a .
C an . J . Bo t . 5 1 ( 11 ) : 208 5-2 103 .
" The p o s t glac i al ve getat i on h i s tory o f
the Un i ve r s i ty o f B r i t i sh Co lumb i a
Research For e s t was i nve s t i gated u s i ng
percen tage and ab s o lute pollen analys i s ,
macro f o s s i l analys i s , and r ad i o c arbon
dat i n g . A mar i ne s i lty c l ay depo s i t
records the oldest ( 1 2 , 6 90 ± 190 years
b e fore present ( B . P . » a s s embl age of
terre s t r i al plant rema i n s s o far recover­
ed from the po s tglac i al o f s outh-coa s t al
B r i t i s h Columb i a . Lodgepo l e p i ne ( P i nu s
c onto r t a ) dom i n ated th i s early vege ta­
t i on , although s ome Ab i e s , P i ce a , Alnu s
and herbs were also pre s ent . Sed iment
c ores from two l akes we re ai s o s t ud i ed .
The o lder i s Mar ion Lake , where f i ve
pollen a s s embl ag e zones are recogn i zed ,
b e g i nn i ng wi th a previ ously unde s c r i bed
90
a s s emblage o f P i nus contor ta , S al i x , and
Shephe rd i a i n c l ay older than 1 2 3 5 0 +
190 B . P . The pollen d i agram f rom
Surpr i s e Lake ( 1 1 230 ± 230 B . P . ) i s
d i v i ded i n to three pollen zones wh i ch
s how the s ame maj or trends o f vegetat i on
change as the Mar i on Lake d i agram .
"The f i r s t report o f the po s tg l ac i al
vegetat i on h i s tory o f cedar ( Thuj a and
perhaps Chamaecypar i s ) i n s outhwe s tern
B r i t i s h Columb i a is presented from Pollen
and mac rofo s s i l analys e s .
"At about 10 5 00 B . P . i n both lake s ,
pollen o f Douglas - f i r ( P s eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i ) began a r ap i d i ncreas e , proba­
bly i n r e s po n s e to c l imat i c ame l i orat i on .
The palynolog i c al evi denc e , s upported by
wel l-pre s erved bryophyte subfo s s i l s ,
s ug g e s t that hum i d c o a s t al cond i t i on s
h ave preva i led i n the s tudy area s i n c e
about 10 5 00 B . P . , with v i rtually no
evi dence for a c l as s i c al Hyp s i thermal
i n te rval between 8 5 00 B . P . and 3000
B . P . " (A)
3 7 6 . Matthews , Ol i ver V .
1 94 1 . S ometh i ng new among the
alde r s . Am. For . 4 7 ( 8 ) : 3 7 4 --3 7 7 ,
400 .
Repo rts s everal cut-leaved red alder at
var i ou s locat i o n s i n the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t .
( CFH )
3 7 7 . Menz i e s , Ar c h i b ald .
1 9 2 3 . Menz i e s ' j ournal o f
Van couve r ' s voyage . Apr i l t o
October 1 7 9 2 . Edi ted , wi th
botan i c al and ethnolog i c al n o t e s by
C . F . Newcombe , M . D . , and a
b i ograph i c al note by J . For s y th .
Mem . V . Arc h . B . C . V i c t or i a .
Menz i e s was the f i r s t person to c o l l e c t
plants from t h e Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t . He
did not de s c r i be h i s own c o l l e c t ions .
Apparently many of the s pe c i e s collected
h ave not been s tud i ed yet . Red alde r
appears to be one of the s e . On May 1 ,
1 7 9 2 , Vanc ouver made h i s f i r s t l and i ng
i n a reg i o n that l ater wa s to become the
U n i ted s t ates . Th i s was on an i s l and i n
the s t r a i t o f Juan de Fuca at the
entrance t o Port D i s covery , Jefferson
County , Was h i ngton . They n amed i t
Prote c t i on I s l and .
On May 2 , Men z i e s wen t ashore wi th
C apt a i n Vancouve r . He wrote in h i s j our­
n al : "Be s i de s a var i e ty of P i n e s we s aw
the Sycamor e Maple [Acer Macrophy11 um ] the Ame r i c an A1dar [Alnus o regon a ] - a
s pec i e s o f w i l d Crab [ pyru s d i vers i f o1 i a ]
and the Or i ental S t r awberry Tree [Arbutus
menz i e s i i ] . . . - We met wi th s ome other
P l an t s wh i c h we re new t o me . . . " .
( CFH )
3 7 8 . Me s t re , J . C .
1964 .
[ Embryogeny o f the
Amentac e ae . Deve lopmen t o f the
embryo of Alnus glut i no s a . ] C . R .
Acad . Sc i . , P ar i s 2 5 8 ( 24 ) : 5 9 4 9- 5 9 5 1 .
The morphology o f deve lopmen t o f the
embryo Aln u s glut i no s a L . i s bas i cally
the s ame a s that o f Senec i o vulgar i s .
I t depar t s from i t , howeve r , by the
pres ence o f a true hypophy s i s wh i ch
furn i shes the s u s pensor s t age . Th i s
embryon i c t ype should then be l i nked to
the Calendul a arven s i s type .
( CFH )
3 7 9 . Met c al f , Mel v i n E .
1 9 6 5 . Hardwood t imber r e s ources o f
t h e Douglas-f i r sUbreg i o n . USDA
For . Serv o Re s our . Bull . PNW- l 1 ,
1 2 p . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range
EXp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
380 . M i ll e r , J ame s H .
1 9 7 4 . Nutr i e n t l o s s e s and n i trogen
mi neral i z at i on on fore s te d water­
sheds i n Oregon ' s Co a s t Range .
Ph . D . thes i s . S c h . F or . , Oreg .
S t ate Un i v . , Corvall i s .
94 p .
"Nut r i e n t l o s s e s o f the b i olog i c al l y
r e s pons i ve an i on s , n i trate a n d b i c ar­
bonate together with the maj or c at i on s ,
were mon i tored on 14 small waters heds i n
Oregon ' s Coast Range and evaluated i n
r e l at i o n t o management-i nduced d i s tur­
banc e . Mi xed fore s t s of Douglas-f i r and
red alde r h ad dom i nated the s e h i gh­
n i trogen s i te s p r i or to tre atment .
"Du r i ng the appro x imate ly two years
o f s t r e amwater mon i tor i ng followi ng
treatme n t s , no s i g n i f i c ant i nc r e a s e s i n
d i s s olved sol i d s were observed . No
cons i s tent d i f ferences appeared between
tre atme n t s or be tween c u t and uncut
wat e r s h eds . N i t r ate concentrat i on s ( 2 . 8
ppm N max imum) never exc eeded U . S .
Publ i c Health Serv i ce ( 19 6 2 ) s t andards
for d r i nking wate r .
"N i tr i f i c at i on rat e s are subs t an­
t i al l y greater in alder s o i l s ; wh i le
ammon i f i cat i on rates appear s imi l ar for
the two s o i l s w i t h i n the normal operat i ng
reg ime s of temperature and mo i s ture . I n
a very wet alder s o i l s the mob i l e n i trate
an i on i s reduced to the les s mob i l e
ammo n i um c a t i o n and ammo n i f i c at i on rates
are m i n imal . Th i s behav i o r appe ars to
be important in nutr i en t reten t i o n dur i ng
w i n t e r f l u s h i n g s when h i gh s o i l mo i s ture
i s prevalen t in the lower s o i l pro f i l e
and i n we t source areas ( s l owly dra i n i n g
areas ) that charac t e r i ze p a r t s o f the s e
wate r sheds .
" G i ve s s t at i s t i c s , adj u s ted for 1963 , f rom i nventor i e s o f Alnus rubr a , Ace r macrophyl lum , and Populus t r i choc arpa ,
wi th s ome data on other hardwoods . " 91
"The comb i nat i on s o f temperature
and mo i s ture e xh i b i t i ng the h i gh e s t rates
of n i t rogen m i neral i z at i on ( s ugges t i ng
u n s t ab l e s tate s ) we re not encountered i n
the f i el d under s t ands o r i n c l e ared
s i tuat i on s . S o i l tempe ratures above
2 1 0 C c omb i ned w i th mo i s t but uns aturated
c ondi t i ons r e s u l t s in th. h i gh e s t rates
of n i t rate produc t i on . Th i s , and the
observed behav i o r of the n i tro gen- r i ch
waters heds , suggest that n i trate l o s s e s
i n s tr e amwater foll owi ng fore s t d i s tur­
b ance are only l i kely in c l imat i c r e g i o n s
o f s ununer-surplus prec i p i t at i on . " ( A )
3 8 1 . M i ller , R i c hard E . , and Mar shall D .
Mur ray .
1 9 7 8 . The e f f e c t s o f red alder o n
g rowth o f Douglas-f i r . I n
u t i l i z a t i on and management o f
alde r , p . 283-306 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBel l , and Wi l l i am A .
Atk i n son , c omp i le r s . USDA For .
S erv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"We de s c r i be the long-term e f f e c t s o f
o f f-s i te red alder that were i n terplan ted
i n 1 9 3 3 wi th i n a 4-ye ar-old Doug las - f i r
p l antat i on . i n s o uthwe s tern Was h i ngton .
I n suff i c i en t ava i l able n i trogen l imi t s
t ree g rowth i n th i s plantat ion . Red
a lder c l e arly i ncreased he i gh t and d i a­
mete r o f the a s s oc i ated domi nant Dou g l a s ­
f i r . Improved g rowth i n d i ame ter began
wh en t h e Dougl as-f i r emerged through the
alder c anopy . Th i s emergence occurred
a t about 30 years from s eed at Wind
R i ve r and i n s everal even- aged , mi xed
s t ands that we also i nve s t i g ated . By
age 48 , Dougl as - f i r vol ume per ac re i n
the mi xed s t and aver aged about 3 , 100
c ub i c feet c ompared t o 2 , 900 c ub i c feet
92
i n the pure s t and . Red alder volume was
about 2 , 5 00 cub i c feet . Ma i n t a i n i ng red
alder in Douglas - f i r s t and s c an i n c r e a s e
merchantable y i elds on n i trogen-de f i c i ent
s i te s . Con tro l l i n g s t and den s i ty at an
e arly age i s nece s s ary to ma i n ta i n both
Doug l as-f i r and alder in a dom i n an t or
c odomi nant po s i t i o n . To prov i de adequate
n i trogen and not s e r i ou s ly reduc e
Doug l a s - f i r g rowi ng stoc k , about 20 t o
40 u n i formly d i s t r i buted r e d alder p e r
a c r e s hould be r e t a i ned . " ( A )
3 8 2 . M i nore , Don .
1 9 6 6 . I den t i f i c a t i on o f rotten
logs i n the coastal fore s t s of
Oregon and Was h i ngton . 1 6 p . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Rang e Exp . s t n . ,
Portland , Oreg .
Prov i de s an i dent i f i c a t i on key to rot ted
logs and spec i e s de s c r i pt i on for red
alder .
( CFH )
383 . M i nore , Don .
1 9 6 8 . Effects of art i f i c i a l
flooding on s eedl i ng surv i val and
g rowth of s i x nor thwe s tern tree
s pe c i e s . USDA For . Serv o Re s . Note
PNW- 9 2 , 1 2 p . Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"wi n ter flood i n g i n tanks i n J an . 1 9 6 7
o f s eedl i ng s from seed germi nated i n
Apr i l 1 9 6 6 , f o r per i od s o f 1 - 4 weeks ,
s everely i nj ured P s eudo t suga menz i e s i i
but had l i t t l e e f fect on the other
s pec i e s . Sununer flood i n g f rom June 1 9 6 7
f o r 4 and 8 weeks affected a l l s p ec i e s ;
many s eedl i ng s d i ed and many formed
adven t i t ious roo t s at the water-l i ne .
Thuj a pl i c ata and P i nu s contorta seemed
to be the mo s t toleran t , and P s eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i t o be e x t reme ly i ntolerant , of
f lood i n g ; Alnus rubra , P i ce a s i tchens i s
and T s uga heterophyll a we re
i ntermed i ate . " ( FA )
384 . M i nore , Don .
1 9 7 0 . Seedl ing g rowth o f e i ght
nor thwe s tern tree spec i e s over
three water table s . USDA For .
Serv o Re s . Note PNW- 1 1 5 , 8 p . Pac .
No rthwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Por t l and , Oreg .
" Seed was s own i n pots with s o i l of
un i form tex ture , and water- table depth
was control led at ( a ) 7 . 5 , ( b ) 3 5 . 5 and
( c ) 6 6 cm ( techn i ques des c r i bed and
i l l u s t rated ) . Re sults i nd i c ate that
P i nu s contort a , Thuj a p1 i c at a , Alnu
rubra and P i cea s i tchen s i s are all
tole rant , and Ps e udo t s uga menz i e s i i
i n tolerant , of ( a ) j E . contort a and ! .
pl i c at a grew be s t over ( c ) . T suga
heterophyl l a and Ab i e s amab i l i s were not
s i gn i f i c antly affected by depth o f the
water table . " ( FA )
3 8 5 . Mi nore , Don .
1 9 7 2 . Germi nat i on and e arly growth
o f c o a s t al tree s pe c i e s on organ i c
s e e d beds . USDA For . S e rv o Re s .
Pap . PNW-- 135 , 18 p . Pac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Range Exp . S t n . , Portland ,
Oreg .
" G i ve s the r e s u l t s o f f i e l d observat i o n s
a n d f i e ld and l aborato y e xper iments i n
Oregon on ps eudo t s uga menz i e s i i , P i ce a
heterophyl l a , Thuj a
s i tchens i s , Tsu
pl i c at a , P i nu s contort a , Ab i e s amab i l i s ,
and Al nus rubra , i nc luding i n format i on
on the e f fe c t s o f shad i ng . Nu t r i e n t s
we re more abundant i n du f f ( l i tter/ humu s )
t h an i n r o t ted wood . In dense coas tal
s t ands , s ee dl i ng s were u s u ally larger
and more abundant on duff- covered rot ten
l o g s than o n duff- covered mi neral s o i l ,
b e c au s e the duff ac cumu lat i on s we re
th i cke r on logs and over rotten wood
embedded in the s o i l than over mineral
s o i l alone . Sh ade l i mi ted root growth
more than h e i ght g rowth , but s eedbed
d i f ferences l i mi ted he i ght g rowth more
than root g rowth . All con i fe r s pe c i e s
res ponded s i mi larly to the s e edbed and
sh ade d i fferences t e s ted , and it i s
conc luded that the type o f organ i c s eed­
bed probably does not a f f e c t the s pe c i e s
compo s i t i on of fore s t regenerat ion under
l i gh t ly th i nned s helterwoods i n th i s
are a . " ( FA )
386 . M i nore , Don , and Clark E . Smi th .
1 9 7 1 . Occurrence and g rowth of
four no rthwe s t ern tree spec i e s over
shallow wate r table s . USDA For .
Serv o Res . Note PNW-160 , 9 p . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"The oc currence and rad i al g rowth o f ( a )
Alnus rubra , ( b ) Thuj a pl i c ata , ( c ) P i ce a
s i tchen s i s and ( d ) Tsug a heterophyl l a
were related to e s t imated water-tab l e
depths i n swamp s i n t h e Olymp i c Pe n i n­
s ul a , Wash i ngton . F i f ty-s i x plo t s , each
c on s i s t i ng of a l i ne i n tercept 6-15 m
long , we re e s t abl i s hed on s i t e s where
und i s t urbed nat ive trees and Lys i c h i tum
ame r i c anum were found g rowi n g togethe r .
The pe t i ole length o f . ame r i c amum were
used as an i nd i cator of water- t able
depth s . Al l four tree s pec i e s we re
found to tolerate winter water table s at
> 1 5 cm depth . Where the wate r table was
< 1 5 cm deep , and ( a ) and ( c ) g rew we l l
with flowi ng grou ndwate r , and ( a ) and
( b ) grew we ll wi th s t agnant water j ( d ) ,
however , appeared to be i n tole rant o f
wat er tabl e s shallowe r than 1 5 cm . " ( FA )
93
3 8 7 . M i nore , Don , Clark E . Smi th , and
Robert F . Woo l l ard .
1 9 6 9 . E f f e c t s o f h i gh s o i l den s i ty
on s e edl i n g root g rowth o f s even
northwe s tern tree s pec i e s . USDA
For . Serv o Res . Note PNW-112 , 6 p .
P ac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
" P seudo t s uga men z i e s i i , P i c e a s i tchens i s ,
T s uga heterophy11a , Thuj a p1 i c at a , P i nu s
conto r t a , Ab i e s amab i 1 i s , and Aln u s
rubra we re g rown i n plas t i c p i pe s i n
s o i l s o f three degre e s o f c ompac t i on-­
1 . 3 2 , 1 . 4 5 , and 1 . 5 9 g . / c . c . Seedl i ng s
we i gh t s and root depth s are t abulate d .
Total we i g h t s , root and shoot we i gh t ,
and max imum root depths are i n fluenced
by d i f ferences i n ava i l able nutr i en t s .
Average root depth s , however , s how that
. men z i e s i i ,
. contort a , and . rubra
c an penetrate s o i l den s i t i e s that i nh i b i t
roots o f . s i t c hens i s , 1 . heterophy1la ,
and 1 . p1 i c at a .
. amab i 1 i s ranks
betwe e n the two groups . " ( FA )
3 8 8 . M i tchell , Harry O .
1 9 5 8 . Pac i f i c coast h ardwoods and
t he i r u s e s . Nat 1 . Hardwood Mag .
3 2 ( 1 1 ) : 1 10-114 .
T alks about alder ' s u s e s as venee r ,
s o l i d wall panel ing , f i ne furn i ture ,
k i tchen c ab i net s , floor i ng , t anned
p roduc t s , chai r s , pattern s tock , and
o ther mi s c e l l aneous u s e s .
( CF H )
94
389 . Morave t s , F . L .
1 9 5 6 . Oregon ' s h ardwood re sourc e s .
Pac . Coast Hardwoods , March ,
p . 12-13 . Nor thwe s t Hardwood As s o c . ,
Seattl e , Wa sh .
Red alder i s the mo s t abundant o f
Oregon ' s h ardwood s pe c i e s and i s found
in all 1 9 count i e s we s t of the C a s c ade
Range . There are 215 , 000 acres of alder
type in we s tern Oregon . Total s awt imber
volume of red alder is e s t imated at 3 . 9
b i l l i on board feet .
( CF H )
390 . Morr i s on , Van c e L .
1949 . Ke e p i ng roads alder free by
the u s e of chemi c al s prays . B . C .
Lumberman 33 ( 1 ) : 108-110 .
"The Oregon State Board of Fore s try i n
cooper at i o n w i th the Crown- Zellerbach
Corporat ion has expe r i mented wi th
chemi c al s prays used for contro l l i ng the
encroac hment of brush ( part i cularly
Alde r ) on roads i n We s tern Orego n .
Chem i c al u s e we re i s op rophyl e s t e r and
a1kano10mine s alt , both derivat i ve s of
2 , 4 , -0 wh i ch we re appl i ed at the rate o f
about 4 gal . p e r acre . After 6 we eks
90% of Alder under 10 f t . h i gh was
apparen tly ki lled , and a pru n i ng e f f e c t
was obse rved on t h e l arge Alde r . The
exper iments we re not conclu s ive , but the
fol lowing po i n ts emerge f rom reports by
var i ou s other organ i zat ions :
( 1 ) 2 , 4-0
kills by ente r i ng the stomata and wo rking
i t s way to the root s . I f the outer s tem
and leaves are ki lled before the chemi c al
reaches the root s , or i f the tree i s
l arge , or the appl i c at ion i s too l i ght ,
the roots are not affec ted and the tree
r e cover s .
( 2 ) Spray i n g should be done
when the l e aves h ave reached normal
development , u s i ng any pumper w i th a
p r e s sure o f 200-600 lb . A weak s o lu t i o n
repeated after 2 weeks i s bet ter than
one heavy appl i c at i o n . ( 3 ) A he i ght
greater than 10 f t . s hould not be
t reated , unle s s a prun ing e f fect only i s
requ i red .
( 4 ) co s t e s t imates by d i f­
f e rent agenc i e s vary be tween $20 . 00 and
$ 5 0 . 00 per m i l e .
( 5 ) F i re h azard after
t r eatment s hould not be very great s i nc e
Alder tends to rot q u i ckly . " ( FA )
ads orbent . Vinylsyri ngyl s u l fonate
appeared to be a maj or monome r i c
component wh i c h formed a t l e a s t 4 o f
the total l i gn i n s ul fonates obtai ned i n
the f i r s t s t age o f s u l fonat i on . I t was
the maj o r produ c t formed by sulfonat i ng
s i napyl alcohol . Al s o , evi dence was
found for presence of the monome r s
v i nylvan i llyl s u l fonate , con i feryl
s ulfonate , and the s ul fonate s o f
c on i fe raldehyde and s i napaldehyde , and
the i r i dent i ty con f i rmed by th i n-laye r
c hromotography . Format i on o f monome r i c
s u l fonates from c o n i feryl and s i napyl
alcohol or hydrated, con i feryl and s i n apy1
alcohol un i t s in l i gn i n from red alder
wood i s propo s ed . " ( CA )
3 9 1 . Mor s e , W i l l i am B .
1 9 6 7 . Don ' t call red alder a weed !
Am . For . 7 3 ( 9 ) : 3 8-40 , 50-51 .
3 9 2 . Mo s h i e r , B i ll .
1 9 5 5 . Farmers f i nd alder can be
pro f i t abl e . S e attle Sunday Time s ,
Mag . S e c t . , May 1 5 , p . 23 . Seattle ,
Wash .
3 9 3 . Mothershead , John S . , and Dougl a s
W . Glenn i e . 1964 . Chemi c al s t ructure of l i gn i n sul fonate s . Part II . Iden t i ­ f i c at i on o f monome r i c l i gn i n s ul fonate s f rom red alde r . Tapp i 4 7 ( 8 ) : 519-524 . "Monome r i c l i gn i n s u l fonatelj f rom red
alder wood were i s ol ated and i dent i f i e d .
A frac t i o n conta i n i ng l i gn i n sul fonat e s
w i th low molecular we i ght was obt a i ned
b y pre c i p i tat i ng components wi th h i gher
mo lecular we i g h t i n 7 0 and 80 e thanol .
Further s ep arat i on wa s obtai ned by
c h romotography i n a column on i on­
e xchange re s i n and magne s i a- s i l i c a g e l
394 . Mue ns cher , W . C .
19 4 1 . The flora o f Wha t c om County ,
s t ate of Was h i ngton . 1 3 4 p .
Wi l l i am A . Church Co . , Ithac a , N . Y .
Red alder i s one o f the s pe c i e s d i s c u s s ­
ed . ( CFH )
395 . Mul l i g an , Br i an 0 . , Compi ler .
1 9 7 7 . Woody plants i n the
Un i ver s i t y o f Was h i ngton Arboretum ,
Was h i ngton Par k . 183 p . ColI .
For . Re sour . , Un i v . Wa s h . Seattle .
A che ckl i s t of the woody plant s g rowi ng
in the Un i vers i ty of Was h i ngton Arbore tum
i n S e attle . In add i t ion to red alder ,
there are 31 other s pec i e s , var i e t i e s ,
ornamental forms , and hybr i d s of alder
pre s ent .
( CFH )
95
3 9 6 . Mul l i n , S andy .
1 9 7 8 . New approaches to produc i ng
furn i ture components f rom h ardwood
l umber .
( Ab s t r . ) In ut i l i zat i on
and management o f alder , p . 123 .
Dav i d G . B r i gg s , De an S . DeBe l l , and
W i l l i am A Atki n s o n , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . P ac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Ore g .
" Furn i ture d i me n s i o n par t s are currently
b e i ng manufac tured f rom red alder on both
the E a s t and We s t Coa s t s . Spec i e s c har­
acter i s t i c s and the locat i on of s t anding
t imbe r g i ve alder certain compet i t i ve
advan t age s . D i men s i on manufacturers ,
h oweve r , mu s t c ont i nue to u s e every mean s
t o reduce the un i t c o s t s o f proce s s i ng .
Th i s paper d e s c r i bed mi n i -computer
s y s tems pre s ently be i ng used i n furn i t ure
d imen s i on plan t s to r educe l umber was t e . "
( A)
3 9 7 . Munc h , E .
1 9 3 6 . Das Erle n s terben .
F o r s twi s s . Centralbl . 5 8 ( 6 ) : 1 7 3-194 .
" In many plan t a t i o n s red alder trees
d eve l o p bushy forms and beg i n to bear
h e avy s eed c rops b y the 3d yr . after
p l ant i ng ; at about the 12th yr . they
c omme n c e to d i e . Th i s phenomenon was
f i r s t reported in Germany by Ortzen , i n
Mecklenburg . B l ack alder plant a t i on s
h ave f a i led s i nc e 186 5 ; natural s t ands
h ave done we l l . S i n c e at l e a s t 1 8 7 3
prac t i c ally a l l alder plantat i on s h ave
been made wi th s eed or plan t s of f o re i gn ,
c h i e f l y Belg i an , or i g i n . It i s be l i eved
t h at th i s s eed i s not adapted to the
German cond i t i o n s and is l e s s tolerant
o f low temp s . and changes i n ground
water l evel than the nat i ve s t o c k . Many
o f the dy i ng trees are attacked by Val s a
o xys t oma , but th i s i s not the p r imary
c au s e of death , for it seldom i nj ur e s
natural s t and s . I n comparat i ve plan t i ng s
exps . a t Tharandt w i th seed f rom nat i ve
alder form Eas t Pru s s i a , Mecklenbu r g ,
and S axony , and w i t h s eed o f for e i gn
alder ( Belg i an ) , the fore i g n stock i n
all c a s e s grew f a s te r for about 6 yr s . ,
then more s l owly than nat i ve stock . The
fore i gn alder bore seed every year ,
beg i n n i ng about the 4 th yr . , but nat i ve
alder has not borne s eed i n 1 1 years .
S imi l ar r e s u l t s we re obtai ned w i t h b i rc h
from nat i ve a n d Be l g i an s to c k ; the
Be l g i an b i rch s eeded abundan tly every yr .
after the 4 th , but nat i ve b i rch be g i n s
after 10-30 y r s . and then s eeds only
about once in 3 yrs . There i s danger
that all s eed ava i l able commerc i al l y
w i l l be f rom s uch "bred-down" r ace s , f o r
t h e tendency i s t o c o l l e c t s eed f rom the
trees that bear s oone s t and mo s t
abundan tl y , although they are mo s t
s u s c ept i bl e to d i s e a s e and c l imat i c
i nj ury and have poor form . Expe r i ence
wi th cherry ( Prunus sero t i n a ) has been
s im i l ar ; mo s t o f that now g rown in
Germany is l i t tl e better than a s hrub
but bears abundant s eed at an e ar l y
age . T h e author bel i eve s t h a t t h e s ame
p r i nc i ples apply to the s e and other spp .
as h ave been demo n s t r ated i n the c a s e o f
l arch and S c o t c h p i ne ; namely , that only
nat ive s eed o f parent trees known to be
adapted to the local i ty where u s ed
s hould be employed i n forestry
operat ions . " ( BA )
3 9 8 . Munger , Thornton T .
1938 . Red alder long c on s i dered
but a weed tree , n ow an importan t
r aw mater i al for we s t coast
woodworke r s . Hardwood Record
7 6 ( 3 ) : 7 -8 .
Survey of the d i s t r i bu t i on , s i l v i c s , and
( CF H )
u s e s of red alde r .
96
3 9 9 . Munn s , E . N .
1 9 3 8 . The d i s t r i but i on o f i mportant
fore s t trees o f the un i te d s t ate s .
U . s . Dep . Agr i c . Mi s c . Publ . 2 8 7 ,
11 p . and 1 7 0 map s . Wa s h i ngton ,
D.C.
con t a i n s d i s t r i bu t i on map o f red alde r .
( CFH )
400 . Mur a i , Saburo .
1 9 64 .
[ Phytotoxonomi c and geobotan­
i c al s tud i e s on genus Alnus i n
Japan , II I--Taxonomy o f who l e world
s pe c i e s and d i s t r i but i on o f each
s ec t i on . ] Gov . For . EXp . Stn .
Bull . 1 7 1 , 107 p . Tokyo .
[In
Japane s e . Engl i sh s ummary and
c apt i o n s . ]
A t axonom i c work of maj or importance .
cont a i n s s u f f i c i en t Engl i s h to be u s e fu l .
S e e Mur a i ( 401 ) for Engl i s h ver s i on
s ummar i z i ng muc h o f the i n format i o n o n
red alder . Conc l udes that Alnus i s d i v i ­
d e d i n t o t h e s ubgenera Aln a s t e r ( now
r e l e g ated t o th i s r ank ; wi th s e c t i o n s
­
B i furcatus and A1nobe tula) and
thyrus ( wi th s ec t i on s Cremastogyne ,
C l e throps i s , Japon i c a , Faur i ae , and
Glut i no s ae ) . Phylogeny i s d i s c u s s ed
w i th referece to morpho logy , d i s ­
t r i bu t i on , and c hromo some numbe r s .
Spontaneous polyplo i dy i s found i n
B i furcatu s . D i ag no s t i c characters o f
s pe c i e s and var i e t i e s are i ll u s trated .
The hyb r i d A . x l j unge r i ( ! . glu t i no s a x
! . rubra ) i s mo s t promi s i ng among
i n tras e c t i onal c r o s s e s .
( CFH )
401 . Mur a i , Saburo .
1 9 6 8 . Re l at i on s h i ps o f all i ed
s pe c i e s between northwe s tern U . S . A .
and Japan o n the genus Alnus . I n
B i o logy o f alde r , p . 23-36 .
J . M . Trappe , J . F . Frankl i n , R . F .
Tarran t , and G . M . Han s en , eds .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp .
S tn . , Por t l and , Oreg .
"In th i s paper the author h a s at tempted
to c ompare the genus Alnus i n the
nor thwe s tern un i ted states w i th that i n
Japan .
The re s u l t s are reported here i n ;
c omme n t s are s ol i c i ted . " ( A )
402 . Nagoda , Ludv i k .
1 9 6 8 . Van n i nnholdet h o s trevi rke
[Water content o f
og vektmal i n g .
woo d and we i gh t me asurement
( l i terature s t udy ) ] . T i d s skr .
Skogbruk 7 6 ( 3 ) : 191-216 .
"Di s c u s s e s the l i terature ( w i th par t i cu­
l ar refe rence t o Alde r , Aspen and B i rch )
and i nc lude s s e c t i on s on we i gh t s vs .
volume meas urement s , var i at i on s i n
mo i s ture content w i t h po s i t i on ( r ad i al
or ver t i cal ) i n the s tem , s e ason and
s i te c o nd i t ions , green den s i ty of
freshly fel led trees and changes i n
den s i ty dur i ng s torage . I t i s conc luded
that green we i ght alone i s i n adequate as
a bas i s for me asurement but that we i gh i n g
w i th a correc t i on f o r dry-mat ter content ,
g i ve s s at i s f ac tory r e s u l t s r e g ardl e s s o f
s pe c i e s , log s i ze and s e ason . " ( FA )
97
403 . Neal , J . L . , Jr . , W . B . B o l l e n , and
K . C . Lu .
1 9 6 5 . I n fluence o f par t i c l e s i ze
o n decompo s i t i on o f red alder and
Dougl a s f i r s awdu s t in s o i l . Nature
( London ) 2 0 5 ( 4 9 7 5 ) : 9 9 1-993 .
"Exper ime n t s made wi th s awdu s t i n four
part i c le-s i ze ranges showed a def i n i t e
p aral l e l i sm between p art i c le s i ze and
m i c ro b i al act i v i ty : the smaller the
p art i c l e , the g reater the 0 c o n s umpt i on .
The add i t i on o f NH 4 N0 3 wi th the
var i o u s s awdu s t s i·ze s d i d not s t imulate
o upt ake , and in fact reduced it in s ome
c as e s . It ( FA )
404 . Neal , J . L . , Jr . , K . C . Lu , W . B .
Bollen , and J . M . Trappe .
1 9 6 8 . A c ompar i s on o f r h i z o s phere
m i c ro f l o r a s a s s oc i ated wi th
mycorrh i z ae o f red alder and
Douglas-f i r . I n B i ology of alde r ,
p . 5 7 - 7 1 . J . M . Trappe , J . F .
F r ankl i n , R . F . Tarran t , and G . M .
H an s e n , eds . Pac . Northwe s t For .
and Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
" Rh i z o s phere mi c ro floras o f Cenococ cum
gran i forme ( Sow . ) Ferd . and Winge
myc orrh i za o f Douglas-f i r ( P s eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i ( M i rb . ) Franco ) , of one type
o f e c t otroph i c mycor rh i z a of red alder
( Alnus rubra Bong . ) , and o f non­
mycorrh i zal s ub e r i zed roots of both tree
s pec i e s we re i nve s t i g ated . M i c rob i al
p o pul a t i on s and the mo s t probable
n umber s of ammo n i fy i ng and n i trate­
r educ i ng m i c robes d i f fered qual i tat i vely
and quan t i tat i ve ly be tween r h i z o s phere
m i crohab i t a t s . In manome tr i c s t udi e s ,
h omoge n i zed Doug l as-f i r h i ghly s t imul ated
r e s p i r at i on o f n onrh i zo s phere m i c robe s ,
e s pec i ally i n the pre s ence o f glucose .
G l uc o s e o x i d at i on , howeve r , was s up­
p re s s e d in the pre s en c e o f Douglas - f i r
98
myc or rh i z al root s u spen s i on , probably by
the ant i b i o t i c wh i ch the fungal symb i ont ,
Q . gran i forme , i s reported to produc e .
Glu c o s e o x i dat i on by nonrh i zo s phere
m i c robes was s imi l arly repre s s ed in the
pre s ence of red alder nonmycorrh i z al
root s u s pe n s i on . An antagon i s t i c
s Ub s t ance found i n red alder root and
nodul e s u s pe n s i on s i nh i b i ted g rowth o f
Bac i l lus subt i l i s ( Cohn ) Pr azmows ki and
. cereus Frankland and Frankl and on
gluco s e - s al t s agar . The s e exper imental
results are d i s c u s s ed wi th reference to
the i n fluence o f mycorrh i z al and adj acent
nonmyc orrh i z al s ube r i zed root s upon
rh i zo s phere mi c rofloras . " ( A )
405 . Neal , J . L . , Jr . , K . C . Lu , J . M .
Trappe , and W . B . Bollen .
1 96 6 . Rh l zo s phere m i c ro b i al
ac t i v i ty o f mycorrh i z al and
nonmycorrh i z al roots o f Douglas f i r
and red alde r .
( Ab s t r . )
Bacte r i o l . Proc . 196 6 ( 2 ) : AIO .
"More mi croorgan i sms were found i n the
r h i z o s phere o f both spec i e s than i n the
n on-rh i zo s phere s o i l s . The d i f ference
was much greater in Red Alder than i n
Douglas F i r ; i n Alder there we r e c a .
twi c e a s many m i c ro organ i sms i n the
rh i zo s phere of mycorrh i z al roo t s than i n
that o f sube r i zed , nonmyc orrh i z al root s ,
but mi c roorgan i sms were more frequent
near nonmyc orrh i z al roo t s o f Douglas
F i r . Crushed myc orrhi zae o f Alder
s t imulated mi c r ob i al g rowth in v i tro .
The mycorrh i z ae o f Douglas F i r a s s o c i ated
w i th Cenococcum gran i forme h ad l i t t l e o r
no s t imulat i ng e f f e c t , po s s ibly becau s e
o f t h e pre s en c e o f an tagon i s t i c
s Ub s t an c e s . 1 t ( FA )
406 . Neal , J . L . , Jr . , J . M . Trappe , K .
C . Lu , and W . B . Bollen .
1 96 7 . ster i l i z at i on o f red alder
s eedcoats wi th hydrogen pero x i de .
For . S c i . 1 3 ( 1 ) : 104-105 .
"Concludes from data ( t abulated) on the
e f fe c t o f durat i on o f soak i n g in 30%
H 2 0 2 on s u r f ac e s t e r i l i zat i on ( s . s . )
and germi nat i on ( g . ) of Alnus rubra
s eed , that s o ak i n g for 10 m i n . g i v e s
c omplete s . s . wi th optimum g . ( 5 2% a f t e r
1 4 day s ) . " ( FA )
4 0 7 . Neal , J . L . , Jr . , J . M . Trappe , K .
C . Lu , and W . B . Bollen .
1 9 6 8 . S ome ecto troph i c mycorrh i zae
o f Aln u s rubra . I n B i ology of
alde r , p . 1 7 9-184 . J . M . Tr appe ,
J . F . Fr ankl i n , R . F . Tarran t , and
G . M . Han s e n , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Range EXp . S tn . , . Port1and ,
Oreg .
UTwo forms of mycorrhi z ae predomi nated
on root s y s tems o f red alder ( Alnus ruba
Bong . ) in a pure s t and near the Oregon
c o as t . De t a i led morpholog i c al s t Ud i e s ,
the f i r s t f o r th i s s p c i e s , r evealed
d i s t i n c t c h aracter i s t i c d i f fe rences be­
The great
tween fun g al s ymb i on t s .
abundan c e o f the s e mycorrh i z ae and the i r
i mmed i ate i nfluence on rh i zo s phere m i ­
c robes c o u l d markedly affect the
i nc i dence o f root d i sease . " ( A )
myco rrh i za was found to be dom i nant on
Douglas-f i r root l e t s . The fungal s ym­
b i ont was i dent i f i ed as Cenococcum
gran i f o rme ( Sow . ) Ferd . and Wi nge . Two
forms o f mycorrhi zae predom i n ated o n
r o o t s y s tems o f red alde r . Det a i le d
morph o l o g i cal s tu d i e s , t h e f i r s t for
th i s alder spec i e s , revealed d i s t i nc t
charac t e r i s t i c d i f fe rences between the
fun g al s ymb i onts . One common myc orrh i zal
form wa s c l avate with a dark-brown rough­
ened fungal man t l e . The Hart i g net wa s
wel l developed . The other predomi nant
form was p ale brown and glabrous . The
H art i g net was we akly deve loped and
s porad i c .
" Rh i zo s phere mi crof10ra o f three
morph o l og i c al l y d i f f erent mycorrh i zae of
a Doug l a s- f i r wer e exami ned and c ompared
w i th mi c ro f10ra s urroun d i n g adj acent
s ube r i zed roo t s and wi th that in non­
rh i zo s phere s o i l . Popul at i ons of
bac ter i a , mold s , and Streptomyc e s wer e
d i fferent for e a c h m i c rohab i t at . " ( A )
" Rh i z o sphere mi c rofloras of
Cenococ c um gran i forme mycorrhi z ae o f
Douglas -f i r , o f o n e type o f e c totroph i c
mycorrh i z a o f red alder , and o f non­
mycorrh i zal sube r i zed roots of both tree
s pec i e s we re i nve s t i g ated . M i c rob i al
populat i o n s and the mo s t probable
numbers of ammon i fy i ng and n i trate
reduc i n g m i crobes d i ffered qual i t at i vely
and quan t i t at i vely amon g rh i zo s phere
mi c rohab i tats .
"The s e exper imental r e s u l t s are
d i s c u s s ed wi th re ference t o the
i nfluence o f myc orrh i z al adj acent
nonmyc orrh i za1 sube r i zed roots upon
r h i zophere mi c rofloras . " ( FA)
408 . Neal , John Lloyd , Jr .
1 9 6 8 . Rh i zo s phere m i c rofloras
a s s o c i ated w i t h mycorrh i z ae o f
Doug l a s -f i r and r e d alde r . Ph . D .
thes i s . Oreg . state Un i v . ,
Corval l i s . 88 p .
"The myc or rh i zal rootlets o f Doug l as - f i r
( Ps eudo t s uga men z i e s i i ( M i rb . ) Franco . )
and red alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . ) were
e x te n s i ve l y i nve s t i gated . A j et-black
99
409 . Nelson , E . E .
1 9 6 8 . Surv ival o f Por i a we i r i i i n
c on i fe r , alde r , and mi xed c o n i fer­
alder s t ands . USDA For . Serv o Re s .
Note PNW-83 , 5 p . Pac . Nor thwe s t
For . and Range EXp . S tn . , Portland ,
Oreg .
"Cubes o f Doug l a s F i r heartwood naturally
i nfected wi th . we i r i i wer e bur i ed for
up to 1 8 mon ths i n s tands o f c o n i fers ,
Alder ( Alnus rubr a ) and i xed Alder and
c o n i f e r s . S u rv i val o f the fungus i n the
c ubes was better under the pure con i fe r s
t h an u n d e r s t ands contai n i ng Alde r ,
p e rhaps becuase many fung i , bac t e r i a and
a n t i nomyc e t e s c ompet i ng wi th . we i r i i
f o r s o i l n u t r i e n t s c an , u n l i ke .
we i r i i , u s e N03 -N ( pr e s ent i n l arge
amoun t s under Alde r . ) . " ( FA )
4 10 . Ne l s o n , E . E .
1 9 7 6 . E f f e c t o f urea on Por i a
we i r i i and s o i l m i crob e s i n an
a rt i f i c i al s y s tem . So i l B i oI . and
B i ochem . 8 ( 1 ) : 5 1- 5 3 .
" Repo r t s a l aboratory s t udy on
. we i d i
e s tabl i shed i n small s t em b i ll e t s o f
Alder ( Alnus rubra ) , bur i e d i n s o i l f rom
a Pseudots uga menz i e s i i s t and in Oregon
and i nc ubated in the dark at 1 5 deg C
f o r 3 2 weeks . Re s u l t s showed that no .
we i r i i s u rv i ved i n s o i l t o wh i c h urea
(:1 4 7 o r 294 g N/m3 ) h ad been added .
The s u rv i val o f . we i r i i dur i ng the
f i r s t 1 6 weeks was i nve r s e l y correl ated
w i th u r e a do s age and w i t h popu l at i on s of
T r i choderma ( f i r s t observed after 8
weeks ) and ac t i n omyc e t e s . F i eld plots
h ave been e s t abl i shed to ascert a i n
whether . we i r ! i c an b e controlled i n
t h e f i e ld b y N t reatment , po s s i b ly
c omb i ned wi th mec han i c al d i s rupt i on of
old root s y s t ems . " ( FA )
100
411 . Ne l s o n , E . E . , and H . Fay .
1 9 7 4 . Thermal tolerance o f Por i a
we i r i i . Can . J . For . Re s .
4 ( 3 ) : 288-290 .
" . we i r i i may s u r v i ve for years i n
bur i ed wood ; tempe r ature , i nteract i n g
w i t h the m i c r o f lora , i n fluences i t s
longev i t y . When grown i n s t em s e c t ions
o f alder ( Alnus s p . ) and i nc ubated wh i l e
relat i vely free of compet i t i o n f rom
other fung i ,
. we i r i i s u rv i ved for 3 2
weeks at between -5 deg and + 3 0 d e g C j
surv i val was reduced progre s s i ve l y whe n
t h e fungus was s ubj e c ted to greater
ext reme s o f c o ld ( down to -20 deg ) or
heat ( up to +39 de g ) . Pre-cond i t i on i ng
o f s tem s e c t i ons co lon i zed by . we i r i i
for 1 week at 6 5 deg improved s ub s equent
s urvi val at -15 deg . Though ext reme
heat or cold c an thus be lethal to
.
e i r i i , such cond i t i on s do not o c c u r
v e r y d e e p i n t h e s o i l w i t h i n t h e geo­
graph i c r ange of the fungu s , and i t i s
concluded that temperature i s probably
only an i n d i re c t factor in th i s s urvi val
in fore s t s o i l s . " ( BA )
412 . Ne l s on , E . E . , E . M . Han s e n , C . Y .
L i , and J . M . Trappe .
1 9 7 8 . The role of red alder i n
reduc i ng l o s s e s from l ami nated root
rot . I n ut i l i zat ion and management
of alde r , p . 2 7 3-282 . Dav i d G .
B r i ggs , Dean S . DeBe l l , and Wi l l i am
A . Atk i n s on , c ompi l e r s . USDA For .
Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exper iment
S t at i on , portland , Oreg .
"Red alde r , i n mi x t ure wi th con i fe r o r
preceding s t ands of con i fe r s , may b e
u s eful i n reduc i ng damage from l am i n ated
root rot ( Phell i nu s we i r i i ) on i n f e s ted
s i te s . Th i s bene f i t could r e s u l t from
changes in s o i l n i t r ate , pH , fatty ac i d s ,
phenol i c compounds and m i c rob i al popula­
t i o n s brought about by alde r , as we l l as
phys i c al s eparat i on o f s u s c ept i bl e root
s y s tems in mi xed s t ands . Survey data
tend t o s upport th i s hypothe s i s . D i s e a s e
i nc idence may be l imi ted by redu c i n g
s aprophyt i c s urvi val o f t h e p athogen o r
i nh i b i t i ng i t s s pread along c on i f er
roots . Evidence for the forme r i s
greater than for the l at te r . Long-term
e xper ime n t al plots h ave been e s t abl i shed
t o prov i de more def i n i t ive an swe r s . " ( A )
4 1 3 . Nel s o n , Earl E . 1 9 7 0 . E f f e c t s o f n i trogen fert i l i zer on s urvi val o f Por i a we i r i i and populat ions o f s o i l fung i and aerob i c ac t i nomyc ete s . Nor thwe s t S c i . 4 4 ( 2 ) : 102-106 . Examined e f f e c t s o f NH4 and N03
fert i l i z at i o n on the survi val of Por i a
we i r i i i n bur i ed s o i l c ube s . F i eld
t e s t s we re i nconclu s ive , but l aboratory
t e s t s s howed a r e l at i on s h i p between
n i trogen fert i l i z at i on and . we i r i i
s urvi val .
( CFH)
4 1 4 . Ne l s o n , Earl E .
1 9 7 5 . Survi val o f Por i a we i r i i o n
p a i red plots i n alder a n d c o n i fer
s t and s . M i crob i o s 1 2 ( 4 9 ) : 1 5 5 -1 5 8 .
"Cubes o f Dougl a s- f i r wood decayed by
Por i a we i r i i ( Murr . ) Murr . we re bur i ed
f o r 1 2 mon th s on pai red plots i n red
alder and in con i fe r s o i l s on the Cas c ade
H e ad Exper imental Fore s t . Survi val o f
the fungus was n o t s i gn i f i c an tly d i f­
f e rent i n the two s o i l s , although pH was
s i gn i f i c an tly lower and n i trate content
s i gn i f i c an tly h i gher i n alder s o i l s .
Even though e f f e c t s on fungus s urvi val
were n i l , red alde r , for other reasons ,
m i g h t s t i l l be u s ed to reduce damage
c au s ed by E. we i r i i root rot on areas o f
h e avy i n f e s t at i on , " ( A )
4 1 5 . Nelson , Earl E .
1 9 7 6 . Colon i z at i on o f wood d i s ks
i n i t i ated by bas i d i o s pores of
Phe l l i n u s we i r i i ( l ami n ated root
r o t ) . For . Sc i . 2 2 ( 4 ) : 40 7 -411 .
" S u s pe n s i ons o f bas i d i o s pores o f
Phe 1 1 i nu s [ Inonotus ] we i r i i at concentra­
t i on s f rom EO to 50 , 000 s pore s /ml wer e
s pr ayed o n to previ ously frozen and
s c alded wood d i s c s of 9 s pe c i e s o f
s o ftwood and 2 s pec i e s o f h ardwood , and
i n c ubated at 5 , 10 , 1 5 , 200 C w i t h a
spore c oncent rat i o n of 400 /ml . D i s c s
f i r s t s p r ayed wi th a s o i l s u s pe n s i on or
bur i ed after i nocul at i on we re not
colon i zed by I . we i r i i . Thuj a pl i c ata ,
P i c e a s i tchen s i s , Acer macrophy1 lum and
!lnus rubra were r e s i s t ant to c olon i z a­
t i on , the latter two not b e i n g h o s t s o f
t h e fungu s . S apwood o f P s e udotsuga
men z i e s i i was colon i zed mor e than
he artwood . " ( FA )
4 1 6 . New Zeal and state For e s t S e rv i c e .
1944 . Annual report o f the
D i re c tor of Fore s t ry for the year
e nded 3 1 s t March , 1 9 4 4 .
38 p .
Gov . Pr i nt . , We l l i ngton .
"Ob s ervat i ons made on plot s of exot i c
con i fe r s plan ted dur ing 1 9 2 7 - 2 9 at h i gh
al t i tude s ( 2 , 200-3 , 800 ft . above s e a­
level ) under exposed cond i t i on s on the
central North I s l and Plateau , showed
P i nu s murrayan a and . pondero s a to b e
t h e mo s t thr i f ty s pec i e s foll owed b y .
au s tr i ac a ,
. banks i ana ,
. sylve s t r i s ,
. r i g i da and . s t robu s . Other s pe c i e s ,
i nclud i ng . r ad i at a , g ave poor r e s u l t s .
Trees o f all s pe c i e s are heav i ly branched
and of poor t imbe r form , but the s tudy
101
g i ve s a good i nd i c at i on of the spec i e s
mo s t s u i table f o r the exten s i on o f upland
prote c t i on fores t s .
ttIn an exper imental i n terplan t i ng
o f worked Podocarp fore s t w i t h exot i c
h ardwoods , two S outh Ame r i c an Beeches
( Notho f agus procera and N . obl i gu a ) and
Red Alder ( Al n u s rubra ) showed par­
t i cularly good h e i ght g rowth and
development . tt ( FA )
4 1 7 . Newton , M .
1 9 6 6 . New i n j e c t ion s y s t em f o r
k i l l i ng or cur i n g tre e s .
( Ab s tr . )
Meet . Weed Soc . Am . 1 9 6 6 : 3 0-31 .
ttThe H ypo-Hatchet i s a prec i s i on
i n s trument , we i gh i ng c a . 3 lb . , that
operat e s automat i c ally on impac t . The
c h emi c al r e s e rvo i r i s o f l i ght-we i ght
p l a s t i c and when full ( 2 . 5 lb . ) should
l a s t half a day at rat e s o f 0 . 5 mI . per
c u t . The pos i t i ve-d i s p l ac emen t pump i s
s e lf-p r iming and wi l l feed i f the
r e s e rvo i r i s b e l ow the i n s t rument . The
d o s age may be c al i brated to de l i ve r any
volume up to 1 mI . The i n s trument ,
u s i ng u nd i luted c ompounds for 0 . 5 m1 .
i nj ec t i on s s p aced 3 , 6 or 9 i n . apart ,
h a s g i ven con s i s tent control o f a
v a r i e t y o f hardwoods and con i fe r s ,
i nc lud i ng P s e udo t s uga menz i e s i i , Ab i e s
grandi s , T s uga heterophyl l a and Prunu s
s pp . w i th c ac odyl i c ac i d or p i c loram +
2 , 4-D j P i c e a s i tchens i s , Acer rubrum and
Alnus rubra with 2 , 4-0 ami ne j and .
mac rophyl lum w i t h p i c loram or f enoprop
K . The i n s t rument may al s o be u s ed for
prec i s i o n i nj ec t i on o f ant i b i o t i c s and
i n s e c t i c i de s . tt ( FA )
102
418 . Newton , Mi chael .
1 9 7 8 . Herb i c i d e s i n alder man age­
men t and control . I n ut i l i zat i o n
and management o f alde r , p . 2 2 3-230 .
Dav i d G . B r i gg s , Dean S . DeBell ,
and W i l l i am A . Atk i n s on , c omp i le r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
ttHerb i c i d e s c an be u s e d e f f ec t i ve l y t o
convert alde r / s h rub commun i t i e s t o
c on i fe r s , t o release con i fe r s f rom s u c h
cove r , and probably t o prepare s i t e s f o r
alder produc t i o n . To th i n and c u l l young
s t ands o f alde r , t r i c hlopyr ( no t yet
r eg i s tered ) , 2 , 4-0 ami ne , and c acody l i c
ac i d c an b e e f f e c t i ve l y i nj ected i nt o
s e l e c ted tree s . I n c o n i fer management ,
alder and as s oc i ated s pec i e s c an be
controlled wi th ( 1 ) 2 , 4 , 5-T before bud
bur s t ( th e b e s t release tool ) , and ( 2 )
bru s hki ller ( 2 , 4-0 + 2 , 4 , 5 -T ) i n late
s ummer ( be s t for release f rom alde r ,
h az e l , th imbleberry , cherry , and o c e an
s pr ay ) .
To c onvert bru s h f i el d s , the
i n i t i al l y expen s i ve brown-and-burn
procedure is mo s t s u c c e s s ful . I n s i te
preparat i o n , phenoxys ( 2 , 4-0 and 2 , 4 , 5 -T )
alone often requ i re mul t i pl e tre atme n t s
and o f ten r e s u l t i n he avy an imal u s e .
Kren i te R , p i c loram/phenoxy mi xture s ,
and g lypho s ate ( reg i s tered i n Oregon
only in 1 9 7 7 ) are s at i s factory i f
treated s tems l arger than 3 - i n d i ame t e r
a r e fel led and l a r g e s eedl i ngs ,
pre ferably le s s palatable s pe c i e s , are
u s ed . " ( A )
4 1 9 . Newton , M i chael , B . A . e 1 Has s an ,
and Jaros 1av Zavi tkovski .
1968 . Role o f red alder i n we s tern
Oregon fore s t s u c c e s s i on . In
B i ology o f alde r , p . 7 3-84 . J . M .
Tr appe , J . F . Frankl i n , R . F .
Tarran t , and G . M . Han s en , eds .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
" Red alder was s tudied to determ i n e i n­
fluence on long-term fore s t s u c c e s s i on .
Juve n i l e growth of alder appe a r s r e s ­
p on s i ble for f a i lure o f other s p ec i e s ,
p ar t i cularly con i fers , to ma i n ta i n
p o s i t i o n s o f dom i n an c e . Suc c e s s of
Douglas-f i r depends on delay o f 4-9
years in e s t abl i s hmen t of alder , or
o c currence of the two s pe c i e s at such
s pac i ng that Douglas-f i r wi ll be from 8
t o 10 year s old before enc roachment by
alde r .
"Alder i s concentrated on me s i c
s i te s wi th h i s tory o f s c ar i f i c at i on or
f i re . Den s e s tands were shown t o f i x
n i trogen at an annual r ate o f abou 3 2 0
kg p e r hectare o n n i trogen-de f i c i en t
s o i l s . Equ i l i brat i on of f i xa t i o n wi th
n i trogen in s o i l tends to o c c ur before
the age o f 20 year s , beyo nd wh i c h
c ontr i but i on s of n i t rogen are small .
"Common s u c c e s s o r s to alder i nc lude
s almonbe rry , v i ne maple , and haze l , i n
that orde r . We s tern hemlock may fol low
e ventually , but Douglas-f i r i s v i rtually
ab sent e xc ept whe re it deve lops con­
c u rrently with the alder in open i ng s
w i t h i n the alder s t and . " ( A )
421 . Newton , W i l l i am E . , and C . J .
Nyman , Eds .
1 9 7 6 . Proceed i ng s o f the 1 s t
i n te rnat i onal s ympo s i um o n n i trogen
f i xat i on . Vol . 2 . 3 1 3 p . Was h .
s t ate Un i v . Pre s s , Pullman .
4 2 2 . N i e l s on , R . W .
1 9 7 7 . Red alder ut i l i zat i on i n
B r i t i s h Columb i a - p r e s e n t and
potent ial . We s t . For . Prod . Lab .
I n f . Rep . VP-X-164 , 2 9 p . Dep .
F i s h . and Envi ron . , Vancouve r , B . C .
"Red alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . ) i s a
c ommon hardwood s pe c i e s i n the Pac i f i c
Nor thwe s t , but i s v i rtually unused i n
Br i t i sh Columb i a . Th i s booklet revi ews
the red alder r e s ource s i tuat i on and the
extent of its ut i l i z at i on , wi th comp ar i ­
s o n s made between B r i t i s h Columb i a and
tQe ne i ghbor i ng s t ates of Was h i ngton and
Oregon .
"Wood prope r t i e s and c urrent ut i l i ­
zat i on prac t i c e s are outl i ned , and the
poten t i al for u s i ng th i s s pec i e s i n
Br i t i s h Columb i a i s d i s cu s s ed . Factory
lumber appe ar s t o be an ec onom i c ally
attrac t ive produ c t for th i s s pec i e s , but
i s dependent o n the consump t i on of m i ll
r e s i du e s and pulpwood-qual i ty red alder
by the pUlp i n g i ndu s try . " ( A )
4 2 0 . Newton , W i l l i am E . , and C . J .
Nyman , Eds .
1 9 7 6 . Proceed i ng s of the 1 s t
i n ternat i onal s ympo s i um o n n i trogen
f i xat i on . Vol . 1 . 311 p . Wash .
state Un iv . Pres s , Pullman .
103
4 2 3 . Noble , M . , J . de Temple , and P .
Nee rg aard .
1 9 5 8 . An annotated l i s t o f s eed­
borne d i s e a s e s . 1 5 9 p . Commonw .
Myco l . l n s t . , Kew .
"Arranged under f ami l i e s o f the ho s t s ,
wi th an i ndex to pathogen s , and i ndexes
t o common and Lat i n name s o f h o s t s , wh i c h
i n c lude Ace r s pp . , Alnus s p p . Araucar i a
e x c el s a , Betula s pp . , Chamaecypar i s s p . ,
Fr ax i nu s s pp . , Lar i x s pp . , P i ce a
s i t c h e n s i s , P i nus s pp . , Que r c u s s pp . ,
Thuj a s pp . , Ulmus ame r i c ana and .
pum i l l a . " ( FA )
4 2 4 . · No rr i s , L
. A.
1 9 6 6 . Degradat i o n o f 2 , 4-D and
2 , 4 , 5-T i n fore s t l i t te r . J . For .
64 ( 7 ) : 4 7 5-4 7 6 .
"The h e rb i c ide s 2 , 4-D and 2 , 4 , 5-T are
d e graded in fore s t l i tt e r at d i f ferent
r a t e s ; 2 , 4 -D i s metabo l i zed at an i n­
c re a s i n g rate w i t h t ime wh i le the rate
o f degradat i o n o f 2 , 4 , 5-T s hows only a
s l i ght i nc re a s e . More than 8 9 5 percent
o f the 2 , 4 , -D was dec arboxy1ated in 300
hours . Le s s than 2 5 percent o f 2 , 4 , 5-T
was dec arboxy1ated in the s ame per i od .
S im i lar qual i t at i ve relat i o n s h i p i n the
per s i s t e n c e character i s t i c s o f the s e
herbi c i de s i s expec ted i n the f i eld . " ( A )
4 2 5 . Norr i s , Logan A . , and Dav i d Gre i n e r .
1 96 7 . The degr adat i on o f 2 , 4 , -D i n
·fo r e s t l i tt e r . Bull . Env i ron .
Con t am , and Tox i co1 . 2 ( 2 ) : 6 5 - 7 4 .
"The s e s tud i e s h ave s h own that 2 , 4-D i s
rap i dly degraded i n fore s t l i tter and
tha t the rate of degradat i on var i e s w i t h
104
the t y p e o f l i tter , herb i c i de formu lat i o n
and t h e presence o f DDT . The degr adat i o n
of 2 , 4-D var i e s s l i ghtly i n l i t te r f rom
d i fferent vegetat i on type s when i ncubated
under s im i l ar envi ronmental cond i t i on s .
Greater var i at i on i n herb i c ide degrada­
t i on r at e s may be e x pected in the f i eld ;
but th i s w i ll be due pr imar i ly to d i f f e r­
ences i n the s i te m i c roenvi ronmen t ,
rather than i nherent d i f fe re n c e s i n the
li tter .
"Va r i ou s formul at i on s o f 2 , 4-D are
degraded at d i fferent rates in fore s t
l i tter although we be l i eve th i s t o be
more a f unc t i on o f cons t i tue n t s of
formulat i on than a d i re c t e f f e c t o f the
techn i c al ac i d , s al t or e s t e r .
" F i nally , the s e exper iment s h ave
shown that up to 4 gallons per acre o f
d i e s el o i l has l i ttle or n o e f f e c t o n
the decompo s i t i o n o f 2 , 4-D i s ooc ty1
e s te r , wh i le 1 1b . /A . o f DDT appear s to
s t imul ate herb i c i de deg r at i on . " ( A )
4 2 6 . Northwe s t H ardwood A s s oc i at i on .
1 9 5 7 . Management o f red alder i n
the Pac i f i c Northwe s t . Adv i s ory
group on fore s t management .
24 p .
Seattle , Was h .
"Cove r s the s i l v i c s o f Alnu s rubr a ,
t h i n n i ng prac t i ce s , m . a . i . and total
y i eld , volume t able s , rotat i on s , type s
o f f e ll i ng , and logg i ng me thods . Also
con s i de r s o f f i c i al grad i ng rules and the
j udg i ng o f qual i ty , chemi c al bark i n g for
pul pwood , and the relat i on o f marke t s t o
managemen t . " ( FA )
4 2 7 . Nor thwe s t Hardwood As s oc i at i on .
1 9 6 6 . Proceed i ng s f rom an alder
logg i n g and m i l l i ng c 1 i n i . 1 6 p .
S e at tle , Wash .
4 2 8 . Nuttal l , Thomas .
18 5 7 . The North Amer i c an s ylva j
or , a de s c r i p t i on o f the fore s t
t r e e s o f the un i ted s t ate s , Can ada ,
and Nova Scot i a , not de s c r i bed i n
the work o f F . Andrew M i c h aux , and
cont a i n ing all the fore s t trees
d i s covered in the Roc ky Mount a i n s ,
the terr i tory o f Oregon , down to
the shores o f the Pac i f i c , and i nt o
the conf i n e s o f Cal i fo rn i a , as wel l
as i n var i ous parts o f t h e Un i ted
stat e s . Vol . 1 , p . 41-46 . D . R i c e
and A . N . Hart , Ph i l ade l ph i a .
" OREGON ALDER . Alnus Oregon a . Fol i i s
l ato-ovaH s utr i ngue acu H s , dupl i c ato­
s e r r at i s j u n i or i bus glut i no s i s , ven i s
s ubtus pub e s c en t i bu s pal1 i d i s j s t ipules
oblong i s dec i du i s glut i no s i s , r amul i s
'
gl abr i s . " The or i g i n al de s c r i pt i on of
Oregon alder now an obsolete s ynonm for
as u s u al
red alde r . Nuttall found it It
w i th the p l an t s o f th i s genus , g rowi ng
along the border of smal l , c le ar brooks
n e ar the confluence o f the Wah l amet , but
s eldom , i f ever , on the banks o f the
l arger s t re ams wh i ch are s ubj e c t to
i nundat i on . I n our progre s s t o the
We s t , we f i r s t observed th i s tree on the
borders of the r i ve r s B o i see and Brulee
[ Burnt R i ve r , Oregon ] wh i ch pass i nto
the Shoshonee [ Sn ake ] not far from Wa1 l a­
Wall a . [ th i s area i s not c on s i dered
o u t s i de the range o f red alde r ] and at
i nte rval s i t con t i nues mor e or l e s s
c ommon to P o i n t Ch i nhook . near the
s hores o f the Pac i f i c . 1t ( CFH )
•
•
430 . Oregon state Department o f For e s t ry .
1 9 6 2 . Alder move s i n to t imbe r
management p i cture . For . Log
3 1 ( 10 ) : 4- 5 .
4 3 1 . Oregon s t ate Un i ver s i ty ,
coope r at i ve Exten s i on Serv i c e .
1 9 5 8 . Oregon h ardwoods , management ,
marke t i ng , manufacture . Ext . Bull .
7 7 5 , 16 p .
Corvall i s , Oreg .
4 3 2 . Oregon state Un i ver s i ty ,
Cooperat i ve Exten s i on S e rv i ce .
1 9 6 3 . Red alder ( Alnus rubr a ) . I n
Woodl and h andbook for t h e Pac i f i c
Northwe s t , p . 1 6 7 -1 6 9 . Corvall i s ,
Oreg .
•
s i l v i cultur al des c r i pt i on o f red alde r .
Adv i c e and solut i on s to probl ems
encountered by small woodlot owners
deal i ng wi th any Northwe s t s pe c i e s .
( CFH )
433 . Oregon state Un i ver s i ty ,
Cooperat i ve Exten s i on S e rv i c e .
1969 .
Red alder ( Alnus rubra ) . I n
Woodl and h andbook for t h e Pac i f i c
Northwe s t , p . 1 2 8-130 . 2 d e d .
Corvall i s , Ore g .
D i s c u s s e s fore s t management in a style
and s c ale appl i c able and u s able by small
woodlot fore s t e r s .
( CFH )
4 2 9 . O l s o n , Bob , Dav i d H i n t z , and Edwi n
Kittila.
1 9 6 7 . Th i nn i ng young s t ands of
alde r . U . S . Dep . Agr i c . S o i l
Con s e rv . Serv o Tec h . Note s TN 1 2 2 ,
2 p.
The sugges ted m i n imum s pac i n g for young
( CFH )
alder s t and s i s 10-12 feet .
105
4 3 4 . Oregon s t ate Un i ver s i ty , School o f
Fores try .
1 9 6 1 . Herb i c i d e s and the i r u s e i n
f o r e s try . 1 2 2 p . Corvall i s , Oreg .
4 3 6 . Overho l s e r , Jame s L .
1 9 6 8 . Oregon h ardwood s awt imber .
For . Re s . Lab . Rep . G-9 , 5 2 p .
Oreg . State Uni v . , Corvall i s .
"A s ympo s i um held i n Corval l i s on 7-9
Sept . 1 9 6 1 , at wh i ch 1 5 papers on
var i o u s a s pe c t s of herb i c i d e s and the i r
appl i c at i o n s i n fores try wer e pres ented ,
i nc l ud i ng : The developmen t and
c h arac t e r i s t i c s of herb i c i d e s ( V . H .
Freed ) [ outl i n i ng the s c ope for the i r
appl i c a t i on i n brush c ontrol i n fore s t s ,
and woody-weed s uppre s s i on on f arms ,
al ong h i ghway s , e tc . ] ; Chem i c al
s e lec t i v i ty on woody plants ( J . H .
Red i s ke ) ; Chem i c al forms o f phenoxy
h e rb i c i de s and the i r plac e in bru s h
control ( R . H . S c h i e f e r s te i n ) ; Hormone
h e rb i c i de s ( P . K. R i t ty ) ; Non-hormone
types of weed and bru s h ki l l e r s ( K . C .
Swi ngle ) ; Herb i c i de s i n fore s t management
i n We s t S i de ( U . S . ) Fore s t s ( P . G .
Lauterbac h ) ; S o i l herb i c ide s i n fore s try
( W . R . Fur t i c k ) ; and The legal r e s pon s i ­
b i l i t i e s of herb i c i de u s e i n fores try
( S . W. Turne r ) [ d i s cu s s i ng ways i n wh i c h
t h o s e appl y i ng herb i c i de s ( and pes t i ­
c i de s ) may be s t protect thems elves
ag a i n s t the con t i ngenc i e s o f l i t i g at i o n
and adv e r s e f i nan c i al j udgemen t s , b y
i n surance and by adequate as s e s sment o f
t h e cond i t i on s under wh i c h phytoto x i c
mat e r i al s c an be u s e d wi th l e a s t harm to
p r operty ] . " ( FA )
"We s tern Oregon has exten s i ve s t ands o f
nat i ve h ardwoods of s u c h qual i t i e s that
they are s u i table r aw mate r i al s f o r
making a wi de s e l ec t ion o f produc t s .
Proc e s s o r s and u s e r s o f the s e woods need
to know the i r propert i e s so that the
wood from them wi l l prov i de greate s t
s e rv i c e .
" S everal organ i zat i o n s and many
i n d i v i dual s h ave publ i s hed valuab l e
i n format i o n about the s e woods , b u t t h e
numerous r e p o r t s n e e d t o be c omb i ned f o r
ready acce s s to t h a t i nformat i on . Th i s
report i s a imed at prov i d i ng f o r that
need .
"Several Oregon hardwoods s upply
logs for a growi ng i ndu s try . A dozen
other s p ec i e s , l imi ted in volume or
wi thout developed marke t s , are u s ed
l i t tle now but may be pot e n t i ally
valuabl e . Foremo s t in volume o f lumb e r
produced i s r e d alder ; s e c ond i n
produc t i on i s b i gleaf maple .
"In format i on pres ented here i s
largely about phys i c al proper t i e s o f the
wood f rom the s e trees and about c on s i der­
at i on s important i n the i r manufacture
and u s e . Economi c s o f the i ndu s try are
not eas i ly me asured , and c omme n t s made
should be taken as i nd i c at i on s , not a s
de f i n i t i ve s t atemen t s of f ac t . " ( A )
4 3 5 . Oregon i an
1 9 7 5 . Alder cut on Publ i s hers
Paper land . Nov . 30 , p . C-2 , c ol . 1 .
4 3 7 . Pac i f i c Northwe s t Fore s t and Range
Expe r iment stat i on .
1 9 5 3 . Vo lume t abl e s for permanent
s ample plots as recommended by the
puget Sound Re s e arch Center
Adv i s ory Commi ttee for use i n
we s tern Was h i ngton . 3 0 p .
portland , Oreg .
"The tabl e s comp r i s e :
( 1 ) ' recommended '
t able s c on s i dered s u i table for u s e i n the
are a and cont a i n i ng data on c ub i c volume
106
f o r ent i re s tem and merchantable s t em ,
and board f t . volume b y the Intern a t i on­
al and S c r i bner rule s for P s e udo t s uga
t axofol i a , T suga hete rophyl l a , P i ce a
s i tchens i s , Ab i e s amab i l i s , and Alnus
rubr a ; and ( 2 ) ' i n ter im' t able s ,
c o n s truc ted from data outs i de the Puget
Sound area and s u i t able for use un t i l
i mproved t ab l e s are ava i l able , g i v i n g
s imi l ar i nformat i o n for Thuj a pl i c ata ,
P i nu s contorta var . l at i fo l i a , Populus
tr i c hoc a rpa and Ace r mac rophyllum . " ( FA )
4 3 8 . Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t Fore s t and Range
Expe r iment s t a t i on .
1 9 5 7 . Seasonal s tem g rowth at
McC l e ary forest . In Annual report
1 9 5 6 , p . 32-33 . Portland , Oreg .
"Three ye ar s ' records o f r ad i al
i nc r emen t i nd i c ated that s t em growth o f
R e d Alde r , We s te r n Red Cedar and Dou g l a s
F i r beg i n s i n t h e f i r s t wee k o f M a y and
ends i n l at e Septembe r or e arly October ,
l at e r for Douglas F i r than for the other
two spec i e s . Inc rement wa s apprec i ably
l e s s i n 1 9 5 6 than in 1 9 5 4-5 5 , presumably
b e c au s e o f the cold weather in Nov .
1 9 5 5 . " ( FA )
4 3 9 . P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t For e s t and Range
Expe r i ment s t at i on .
1 9 5 9 . Prun i ng and e p i c ormi c
branch i n g i n red alde r .
In Annual
report 1 9 5 8 , p . 1 5 - 1 7 . Por t l and ,
Ore g .
440 . P ac i f i c Northwe s t Fore s t and Range
Exper iment s t at i on .
1961 .
Red alder and s o i l
n i trogen . I n Annual report 1960 ,
p . 66-6 7 . Portland , Oreg .
"So i l f rom under a mi xed 30-year s t and
of Dou g l a s F i r and Red Alder ( a ) was
compared w i th that f rom a ne i ghbou r i n g
pure Doug l a s F i r plantat i on o f the s ame
age , and s everal important d i f ferenc e s
( 1 ) N content o f the top
were revealed .
12 i n . o f s o i l under ( a ) was 5 0 greater
( 2 ) Organ i c -mat ter con­
than under ( b ) .
tent i n the top 6 i n . was s i gn i f i c antly
greater under ( a ) .
( 3 ) The top 3 6 i n .
o f s o i l under ( a ) contai ned 1 6 6 5 lb . mor e
N per acre than t h a t under ( b ) j th i s
repr e s e n t s an ave r ag e annual accumul at i on
o f 64 lb . / acre at t r i butable to the
Alde r . " ( FA)
4 4 1 . P ac i f i c Northwe s t Fore s t and Range
Exper i ment s t at i on .
1 9 6 5 . Marke t i n g young-growth t imbe r
f rom T i l l amook County , Orego n .
3 2 p . U . S . Dep . Inter . , Bur . Land
Man age . , Portland , Oreg .
Red alder i s d i s c u s s ed as the p r i nc i pa l
h ardwood s pec i e s con sumed by three mi l l s
i n T i l l amook County , Oregon , i n 1 9 6 2 .
( CFH )
ItD i s s e c t i o n o f trunks of Alnus rubra
pruned 2 0 year s e ar l i e r at 21 years of
ag e , s howed that prun i ng s c ar s h ad
h e aled r a p i dly , but that deve lopment o f
e p i c ormi c s s e r i ou s ly h i ndered the
f o rma t i o n o f c l e ar wood . Bud s t r ands ,
o r i g i n at i ng i n the l e a f ax i l s , we re
appare ntly s t imu l ated by the prun i ng . 1 t
( FA )
107
4 4 2 . P an s h i n , A . J . , Carl de Ze euw , and
H . P . B rown . 1 9 6 4 . Textbook o f wood technology : Volume 1--Structure , i dent i f i c a t i on , u s e s , and prope r t i e s o f the c ommerc i al woods o f t he Un i ted s t a te s . 2d ed . 643 p . McGraw­
H i l l Book C o . : New York , San F r anc i s co , Toron t o , Londo n . D i s cu s s e s tree g rowth and wood s t ructure ,
t h e woody plant c e l l , the phy s i c al
n ature o f wood , and the var i ab i l i ty of
wood wi th i n a s pe c i e s . Keys for the
ident i f i c a t i on o f c omme rc i al woods are
g i ven . con t a i n s exten s i ve tables on
wood propert i e s .
( CFH )
4 4 3 . Part r i dg e , A . D . , and F . D . Johnson .
1 9 6 4 . New records o f fore s t fun g i
i n Idaho . Nor thwe s t Sc i .
3 8 ( 4 ) : 134-1 3 7 .
It I nc lude s Por i a obl iqua on l i v i ng Alnus
rubra , a new h o s t record for the we s t e r n
U . S . A . " ( FA )
4 4 4 . Paul , B . H .
1 9 6 2 . Choo s e the r i ght wood .
Prope r t i e s and u s e s o f s ome we s tern
h ardwoods . Woodworki ng D i g .
6 4 ( 3 ) 4 7 -49 .
ItT abulates the main source s , propert i e s
( i . e . , s p . g r . , modul u s of rupture ,
h a rdne s s ) , and c ommon and s pec i al u s e s
o f t h e followi ng we s te rn U . S . h ardwoods :
A lnus rubra , Fra x i num o regona , Populus
t r emul o i d e s ,
. t r i choc arpa , C a s t anops i s
c hrysophy1 l a , Cornus nuttall i i ,
Umbel1u1ar i a c a 1 i forn i c a , Arbutus
men z i e s i i , Ac e r macrophy11um , Quercus
ke l10gg i i , Q. 10bat a , Q. ge rrayana and
L i thoc arpu s den s i floru s . 1t ( FA )
108
4 4 5 . Peac e , T . R .
1 9 6 2 . Pathology o f trees and
s h rubs with s pe c i al reference to
Bri tain .
7 5 3 p . Cl arendon Pre s s ,
Oxford , Eng l .
The book i s d i v i ded i n t o two ma i n par t s :
( 1 ) d i s e a s e s c au s e d by nonl i v i ng and
l i v i n g agenc i e s , wi th a bre akdown i nt o
n u r s e r y d i s e a s e s , r o o t d i s e a s e s , and
s tem , leaf , and shoot d i s e a s e s ; ( 2 )
de s c r i pt i ons o f probl ems o n important
tree s , g roups o f tree s , or s hrub s .
Pr imary emph as i s i s on tree s nat i ve t o
o r i ntroduced i nt o Europe .
( CFH )
4 4 6 . echane c , Anna A . , and Jerry F .
Frankl i n .
1968 . Compar i s on o f vege t a t i o n i n
adj acent alde r , con i fe r , and m i xed
alder-con i fe r commun i t i e s . I I .
Epi phyt i c , e p i xyl i c , and e p i l i th i c
c ryptogams . I n B i ology o f alde r ,
p . 8 5 -98 . J . M . Trappe , J . F .
Frankl i n , R . F . Tarran t , and G . M .
Hans en , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Ore g .
It Epi phyt i c and e p i xyl i c c ryptogams wer e
c ompared i n adj acent r e d alde r , c o n i fer ,
and mi xed alder-con i fe r c ommun i t i e s .
Twenty-four e p i phyt i c s pe c i e s wer e
encountered . Red alder was a mor e
f avor able ho s t t h a n Doug l a s - f i r o r s i tka
s pruce i n terms of number of e p i phyt i c
c ryptogams and the i r frequency and
c overag e . Mo s s e s were repre s ented be s t
o n tree bas e s ; l i verwort s , o n mi dpor t i o n s
of t r e e trunks ; and l i c hen s , o n upper
t runks and i n c rown s . Th i rteen s pe c i e s
o f e p i x y1 i c cryptogams we re encounte red
dur i ng s ampl i ng of rotten l o g s . It ( A )
4 4 7 . Peter s , C . C . , and J . F . Lut z .
1966 .
Some mac h i n i ng prope r t i e s of
two wood spec i e s grown in Hawa i i -­
mo1uc c a a1b i z z i a and nepal alde r .
USDA For . Serv o Re s . Note FPL-0 1 1 7 ,
10 p . For . Prod . Lab . , Madi son ,
Wi s .
"Presents r e s u l t s o f s tudi e s o n the
mac h i n i ng proper t i e s of Hawai i an-grown
A1b i zz i a fa1cat a and Alnus nepalen s i s ,
s howi n g that they are s i m i l ar to tho s e
o f s everal U . S . h ardwoods ( e . g . , Alnu s
rubr a , L i r i odendron tul i pfera etc . ) . I f
ava i l able w i th s t r a i ght gra i n , t h e wood
s hould be s u i table for core s t o ck . " ( FA )
4 4 8 . P f e i ffer , J . R .
1 9 5 3 . Bas i c data for Oregon
h ardwoods . Ore g . For . Prod . Lab .
Rep . G-1 , 40 p . Corval l i s , Ore g .
4 4 9 . P f e i ffer , J . R .
1 9 5 3 . We s tern h ardwoods--a
promi s i ng i ndu s try . Nat1 . Hardwood
Mag . , March 2 7 ( 2 ) : 4 3-4 5 , 5 1 .
4 5 0 . Pfe i f fer , J . R .
1 9 5 6 . The c a s e for nor thwe s t
h ardwoods . Pac . Coast Hardwoods ,
Marc h , p . 10-1 1 . Northwe s t
H ardwoods As s o c . , Seattl e , Was h .
"The purpo s e o f th i s paper i s to proj e c t
i nt o the future f rom i nformat i on now
known about Northwe s t h ardwoods and to
attempt to s how why we should g i ve more
s e r i ou s c o n s iderat i o n to them , both from
t h e s t andpo i nt of con se rvat i o n of a
natural r e s ource and from the s t andpo i n t
o f the i r po s s i b l e econom i c contr i but i o n
t o t h e reg i on . " ( A )
4 5 1 . Pfe i f fer , J . R . , and A . C . Wol l i n .
1 9 5 4 . Red alder log and lumber
g r ad i ng . Ore g . For . Prod . Lab .
Rep . G-3 , 7 p . Ore g . S t ate Un i v . ,
Corval l i s .
"Re s u l t s o f tr i als on 4 7 2 e i ght-foot
logs o f Alnus rubra s howed that the
log-grad i n g rule s of the U . S . Fore s t
Produ c t Laboratory are s u i t able wi th
minor mod i f i c at i on s , that the l umber­
grad i n g rul e s o f the Nat i on a l H ardwood
Lumer As s o c i at i on are appl i c able to the
lumber , and that the lumber-gr ade
r ec overy from logs i s c omparable t o that
f rom many e a s t e rn h ardwoods . " ( FA )
4 5 2 . Pfe i f fer , J a c k R .
1 9 5 7 . General d e s c r i p t i on ,
s ource s , u s e s , and ava i l ab i l i ty o f
maj or s pe c i e s of Pac i f i c c o as t
h ardwoods . Pac . Coast Hardwood s ,
Jan 1 , p . 6-7 . Northwe s t Hardwoods
A s s oc . , S e attle , Wash .
De s c r i b e s wood prope rt i e s o f' e i ght
we s tern h ardwood s pe c i e s . Compare s
var i ou s s trength prope r t i e s o f 18 other
s pec i e s w i t h those o f alder when alde r
p roper t i e s are s e t at a base o f 100
percent .
( CFH )
4 5 3 . P i pe r , Charle s V .
1 9 0 6 . Flora o f the s t ate o f
Was h i ngton . Volume XI of
con t r i but i ons from the un i ted
S t a t e s Nat i onal Herbar i um . 637 p .
Gov . P r i n t . O f f . , Was h i ngton , D . C .
Red alde r i s i dent i f i e d as Alnus o regon a .
( CFH )
109
4 5 4 . P i pe r , Charles V . , and R . Kent
B e att i e .
1 9 1 5 . Flora of the Nor thwe s t
c o as t . 418 p . New Era Pr i nt . Co . ,
L an c a s te r , Pa .
Red alder i s i dent i f i ed as Alnus oregona .
( CFH )
4 5 5 . P l ank , Har l i n E .
1 9 7 1 . Red alde r . USDA For . Serv o
Am . Woods 2 1 5 , 7 p . Was h i ngton ,
D .C.
4 5 6 . P l atz , Bob J . , Ed .
1 9 7 2 . Was h i ngton ' s h ardwood
r e sources and marke t s . State Was h .
Dep . Nat . Re sour . DNR Rep . 23 , 144
p . Olymp i a .
A col l e c t i o n o f three d i s c u s s i on s o f the
h ardwoods o f Was h i ngton . The we s tern
Was h i ng ton re source report presents h ard­
wood s t at i s t i c s as of the mi d-1960 ' s wi th
f uture y i eld proj ect i on s . Evaluat ions
of dome s t i c and Pac i f i c r im export
marke t s are c overed in s eparate s e c t i o n s .
( CFH )
4 5 7 . P l ayf a i r , L . , Ed .
1 9 5 6 . Control o f woody plan t s .
Re s . Rep . We s t . Sec t . Natl . Weed
Comm . Can . 1 9 5 6 : 81-82 .
"Monuro n at 3 o z . / 100 s q . ft . and
c oncent rated Borascu ( 89 anhydrous
b orax ) at 9 lb . / l 00 s q . f t . were appl i ed
t o woody growth along a fenc e-l i n e
( ch i e f l y Rose [ Ro s a s p . l and Snowberry
l ) af t e r the
[ Sympho r i c arpo s
veget at i on h ad been cut to wi th i n 3 i n .
110
o f ground level . Ob s ervat i on s u p to 1 8
months l at e r sh owed Boras c u to be muc h
more e f f e c t i ve on woody growth than
monuron ; the reve r s e was the c a s e for
herbaceous growth . 2 , 4 , 5 -T wi th or
wi thout 2 , 4-D was appl i e d to fence-row
( 1 ) 1 . 5 lb . / acre
areas as fol lows :
2 , 4-D plus 2 lb . / ac re 3 , 4 , 5 -T ( butoxy
eth anol e s te r s ) ; ( 2 ) 2 lb . 2 , 4-D plus 1
lb . 2 , 4 , 5 -T ( butoxy eth anol e s ters ) ; ( 3 )
4 lb . 2 , 4 , 5 -T ; ( 4 ) 6 lb . 2 , 4 , 5-T .
(1)
and ( 2 ) were appl i e d to an area c on­
t a i n i n g Alder ( Alnus s pp . ) , S i lver
Poplar ( Populus s p . ) , Blac kberry ( Rubus
l ac i n i atus and g. proc erus ) and H awthorn
( Crat aegu s s p . ) ; ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) wer e
appl i e d t o areas contai n i ng H ardhack
( Sp i raea s p . ) , Bl ackberry and Alde r .
Tre atment of ( 1 ) s porad i c contro l ; ( 2 )
excellent con trol o f all s pe c i e s e x cept
Hawthorn ; ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) excellen t c ontrol
o f Blackberry but very l i t tle control of
Spi raea s p . 2 , 4 , 6-TBA was appl i ed at 2
and 4 lb . / ac r e ( 1 ) i n 1 5 and 3 0 gal .
wate r as a fol i age s pray and ( 2 ) i n 1 5
gal . d i e s e l fuel o i l a s a dormant over­
all s pr ay . E f f e c t s were very s l ow to
appear ; after about 1 5 mon ths Wh i te
Poplar ( Populus s p . ) , Ash ( Frax i num
s p . ) , Hawthorn ( Crataegu s s p . ) , w i l lows
( S al i x s p . ) and W i l d Ro s e ( Ro s a s p . )
were dead f rom tre atment ( 1 ) Burr Oak
( Quercus mac roc arpa ) developed s ome
deformed leave s and other Que r c u s s pp .
wer e dy i ng . Hazel ( Corylus s p . ) s howed
regrowth from root s ; Dogwood ( Cornus
s p . ) showed only s l i ght e f f ec t s . After
12 month s , more o r less s imi lar r e s u l t s
we re s howi ng on t h e s ame s pe c i e s f rom
tre atment ( 2 ) . " ( FA )
4 5 8 . Pomeroy . K . B . , and Dorothy D i xon .
1966 . The s e are the champ s . Am .
For 7 5 ( 2 ) : 14 -3 5 .
Largest known red alder to date i s 13
feet 6 i n ches in c i rcumference at breast
he i ght . I t is 9 2 feet tall , wi th a
s pread o f 5 4 feet . It i s growing i n
Polk County , Oregon .
( CFH )
4 5 9 . Ponc e , s t anley L .
19 7 4 . The b i o c hem i c al o xyg en
demand o f f i nely d i v i ded logg i ng
deb r i s i n s tream water . water
Re s ou r . Re s . 10 ( 5 ) : 983-9 8 8 .
temperatures the BOD o f !. rubra l e ave s
after 5 day s was 23 . 7% o f t he i r i n i t i al
dry we i ght . The t ox i c i ty o f the l e achate
t o f i sh was negl i g i ble . BOD c u rves for
e ach s pec i e s are pres ented and the
d i fferent reac t i o n rates are d i s c u s s ed . "
( FA )
" De s c r i b e s a l aboratory s tudy , u s i n g
water f rom a t yp i c al s tream i n the
Oregon Coas t Range , to d i s cover the
e f fe c t of P s eudo t s uga men z i e s i i needle s
and twi g s , T s uga hete rophyll a needle s ,
and Aln u s rubra l e aves on d i s s olved 02
and thu s o n the qual i ty o f the s tream
wate r . The c hemi c al 02 demand ( COD )
requi red for total o x i d at i on o f the
p l an t mate r i al , and the b i ochem i c al
oxygen demand ( BOD , i . e . the amount o f
0 2 requi red by m i c ro-organ i sms t o
decompo s e the mate r i al ) a n d the r a t e at
wh i c h 02 was u s ed , were quant i f i ed over
a 9 0-day per i od . The dat a on 02 deple­
t i on obt a i ned in the s tudy may be o f u s e
i n devlop i n g a pred i c t i ve model for
water qual i ty management on fores ted
l ands . " ( FA)
"Or i g i n al equat i o n s for pred i c t i ng the
s i te i ndex for tanoak and Pac i f i c
madrone are presented . The s i te - i nde x
equat i o n for red alder i n Humboldt
County , C al i f . , i s very s im i l ar t o one
prev i ou s ly reported for the s tands i n
we s te r n Was h i ngtn . " ( A )
4 6 0 . Ponc e , S t anley L . , and George W .
Brown .
1 9 7 4 . Demand for d i s s o lved oxygen
exerted by f i nely d i v i de d logg i n g
debr i s i n s treams . Oreg . s t ate
Un i v . Sch . For . Re s . Pap . 1 9 ,
10 p . Corval l i s .
462 . Pouque s , M . L . de .
1 9 4 9 . E s tude s c aryolog i qu e s s u r
l e s Fagale s . I . L e genre Alnu s .
[ Stud i e s of cell nucle i i n the
Fagal e s . I . The genus Alnu s . ]
Bull . du Mu s . Nat l . d ' H i s t . Nat . ,
P ar i s ( Se r . 2 ) 2 1 , p . 1 4 7 -1 5 2 .
" Re port s a laboratory s tudy t o determ i n e the e f f e c t of P s eudo t s uga men z i e s i i needles and twi g s , T s uga heterophyl la
needles and Alnu s rubra l e ave s o n d i s ­ s olved oxygen and the amount o f tox i n s i n water from a for e s t s tream . Af ter 9 0 days a t 2 0 deg C the b i olog i c al oxygen demand ( BOD ) of . men z i e s i i was 1 1 5 mg / g dry we i ght , o f 1 . heterophyl la 164 m g / g and o f ! . rubra 2 8 7 mg / g . After 4 5 d ay s the BOD for each s pe c i e s was 9 0% of the value o f 90 days . Under fluc tuat i ng 4 6 1 . Porte r , Denn i s R . , and H arry V .
W i an t , Jr .
1 9 6 5 . s i te i ndex equat i on s for
t anoak , P ac i f i c madrone , and red
alder i n the r edwood r eg i on of
Humboldt County , Cal i forn i a . J .
For . 63 ( 4 ) : 286-287.
4 6 3 . P re s t on , R . J .
1 9 48 . North Ame r i c an tree s .
3 7 1 p . I owa State Col I . Pre s s , Ame s .
111
4 6 4 . Pulp and Paper Magaz i ne .
1 9 5 6 . New k i nd o f wood plant i n far
we s t . Pulp and Paper 30 ( 1 ) : 100 ,
101 , 104 .
Th i s pl ant i s de s i gned to handle and
p r oces s short , 8-foot alder logs between
6 and 2 0 i nches in d i amete r . B ark i s
me chan i c ally removed by n i ne debarke r s
( CFH)
b e fore l o g s are c h i pped .
4 6 5 . Qu i c k , Robert H .
1 9 5 7 . Neutral s u l f i te s emi chemi c al
pu l p i ng o f alde r . For . Prod . J .
7 ( 7 ) : 2 46-24 7 .
" De s c r i be s the me thod now be i ng used by
the Weyerhaeuser T imbe r Company for
pulping Red Alde r . The pulp is u s ed for
mak ing c or rugated paper . " ( FA )
4 6 6 . Radwan , M . A .
1 9 6 9 . Chemi c al c ompo s i t i o n o f the
s apwood o f four tree s pec i e s i n
r e l at i on to feed i n g by the black
bear . For . S c i . 1 5 ( 1 ) : 1 1-1 6 .
"The contents of s ug ar s , N , P , Ca , Mg ,
Fe , and Mn , and the kinds o f sugar s and
s o l uble N c ompounds , i n the s apwood of
20- to 3 0-year Ps eudot s uga menz i e s i i ,
Ts uga hete rophyl l a , Thu j a pl i c ata , and
Aln u s rubra we re determ i n ed on two areas
in we s t e rn Was h i ngton , one of wh i ch show­
ed con s i derable , and the other l i t tle ,
damage t o trees by Euar c t o s ame r i c anus .
112
Although on both areas there we re s i g­
n i f i c ant d i fferences among s pe c i e s i n
contents and k i nds o f s ome chemi c al
con s t i tuent s , total sugars and a s h were
the only c omponen t s apparently related
to feed i ng preferenc e s by bear s . Wi t h i n
s pec i e s there wer e , however , only minor
d i f feren c e s be tween the two areas . I t
i s concluded that chemi c al analy s i s i s
i n s uf f i c i en t to e x p l a i n the problem o f
feed i n g b y bears on the s apwood o f
trees . " ( FA )
4 6 7 . Radwan , H . A . , and G . L . Crouch .
1 9 7 4 . Plant character i s t i c s related
to f e e d i n g preference b y black­
t a i led dee r . J . wi ldl . Manage .
38 ( 1 ) : 3 2-41 .
"Presents data on the chemi c al compo s i ­
t i o n and fermentab i l i ty o f s i x prefe rred
food plants of Odo c o i leus hemi onu s
columb i anus , v i z . Rh amnus pur s h i an a ,
Vac c i n i um parv i fo l i um , Ps eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i , Corylu s c al i forn i c a , Alnu s
rubra and Acer c i rc i natum . D i fferences
between the s pe c i e s could not be related
to the order o f preference as food . "
( FA )
468 . Rahmad , Abuhamed Mohamed .
1964 . A s t udy o f the movement o f
elements f rom t r e e c rowns b y natural
l i tterfa1l , s tem flow , and leaf
wash . M . F . thes i s . Col I . For .
Re sour . , Un iv . Wash . , Seattle . 118 p .
4 6 9 . Randal l , Robert H .
1 9 7 8 . Te chn i qu e s and c o s t s o f c on­
ver t i ng h ardwood s t ands to con i fe r s .
I n ut i l i zat ion a n d management o f
alde r , p . 3 5 3-363 . Dav i d G . Br i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBel l , and W i ll i am A .
Atki n s on , c omp i l e r s . USDA For .
Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 70 . Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portl and , Oreg .
tiThe occupation by hardwoods and bru s h
o f l arge areas o f the mo s t h i ghly pro­
duc t i ve con i ferous t imbe r growi n g s i te s
i s a ve x i n g problem f o r fore s te r s i n the
Douglas - f i r reg i o n . I n general , manage­
ment o f red alder i s at the center of
th i s problem . In general , management
dec i s i on s h ave tended to f avor remov i n g
h ardwood-brush typ e s and replac i ng them
w i th c on i f e r s to c k i ng .
tlCon s i derable work h a s been c ar r i ed
out i n c onver t ing hardwood-bru s h s i t e s to
c o n i ferous t imbe r type s . The maj or por­
t i o n o f th i s work h a s been done on
i ndus try l ands i n Was h i ngton . Several
c onve r s i on tech n i q u e s have been employed
w i th vary i ng deg rees of s u c c e s s . Tech­
n i ques u s ed i nclude h arve s t i ng , s c ar i f i ­
c at i on , chemi c al s pray i ng , a n d burn i ng .
A s tudy o f the c o s t s and succ e s s e s o f
apply i ng t h e s e techn iques shows that ,
wh i le conve r s i o n proj e c t s are expens i ve ,
they are gene r ally f i n anc i ally feas i ble
i f adequate s tocking i s obtai ned the
f i r s t t ime . It i s when the conve r s i o n
proc e s s mu s t be repe ated that f i nanc i al
f e a s i b i l i ty i s i n que s t i on . tI ( A )
4 7 0 . Ray , W i n f i eld W .
1940 . A new s pe c i e s of Taph r i n a o n
alde r . Hycolog i a 32 ( 2 ) : 1 5 5-1 5 8 .
tlA new s p e c i e s , Taph r i n a mac rophylla , i s
d e s c r i bed f rom leave s o f Alnu s rubra i n
C al i fo rn i a . The young le ave s become
greatly enlar ged , curled , and d i s torted ,
wi th a dec i de d purple colou r . Af ter the
a s c o s po r e s are shed the l e ave s s h r i ve l
and fall , and a new c ro p o f healthy
leave s i s produc ed . tI ( FA )
4 7 1 . Record , S amuel J . , and Robe rt W .
He s s .
1943 . T imbe r s o f the New World .
U s e and abu s e o f Amer i c a ' s n atural
r e s ource s . 640 p . Arno P r e s s , New
York .
The charac ter i s t i c s o f wood by f amily
and genus are botan i c ally d e s c r i bed .
Important s pe c i e s , i nc l ud i n g red alder ,
are d i s c u s sed furthe r .
( CF H )
4 7 2 . Red i s ke , J H . , and George R .
s t aeble r .
. 1 9 6 2 . Herb i c i dal s e le c t i v i ty of
cb19rophenoxybutyr i c s o n Douglas­
f i r . For . Sc i . 8 ( 4 ) : 3 5 3-3 5 9 .
tlpot and nur s e ry tr i al s of formulat i o n s
of 2 , 4-D , 2 , 4-DB , 2 , 4 , 5 -T , a n d 2 , 4 , 5-TB
were followed by h e l i copter s pray i n g w i t h
2 , 4-DB t r i e thyl ami ne and 2 ,'4 , 5 -TB butoxy
ethanol e s ter , e ach at 4 l b . " a6t i ve prin­
c i pl e / 1 0 g al . c ar r i e r / ac re , produc1ng
ac tual doses o f 2 . 1-3 . 6 lb . / ac re ( con­
s i dered too l i gh t ) . Spec i e s treated we re
the two mo s t r e s pon s i ble for exc lud i n g
Douglas F i r regenerat i on , i . e . ( a ) Alnus
rubra ( 10 0 ) , and ( b ) Ac e r c i rc i n atum
( 9 4 ) , as well as ( c ) Douglas F i r ( 0 ) ,
( d ) Ab i e s gr andi s ( 60 ) , and ( e ) Populus
t r i chocarpa ( 9 ) . In the aer i al s pray i ng ,
both s al t s con s i derably reduced the
c anop i e s o f ( a ) and ( b ) wi thout damag i n g
t h e Douglas , b u t t h e 2 , 4 , 5-TB s al t s howed
the greater s ele c t i v i ty , the f i gures i n
brac ke t s be i n g the % o f c r own k i ll
ach i eved i n the nur s e ry te s t s . I t s mild
effects on the Poplar should be u s e ful i n
wee d i n g s t ands o f th i s s pe c i e s . tI ( FA )
113
4 7 3 . Redi s ke , John H .
1 9 6 1 . Chemi cal s e l ec t i v i t y i n woody
p l an t s . Hormo10g , Ambl er , Pa .
3 ( 2 ) : 7 -9 .
"Exper ime n t s wer e undertaken at the
Weyerhaeuser Fore s try Re s e arch Centre to
i nve s t i gate the s e l ec t i v i ty of weed­
k i llers . Re s u l t s are tabulated , g i v i ng
c ompar a t i ve e f f e c t s o f d i fferent
preparat i on s on the f o l lowi ng s pec i e s :
P i nus pondero s a , P i c e a s i tchens i s ,
P s eudo t suga tax i fo1 i a , T s uga
hete rophyl 1 a , Ab i e s grand i s , Populus
t r i choc arpa , Al nus rubr a , Sal i x s p . ,
Acer mac rophy1 1um , ! . c i rc i natumm and
Rubus spectab i 1 i s . ( 1 ) 2 , 4-D , 2 , 4-DB ,
2 , 4 , 5 -T and 2 , 4 , 5 -TB t r i ethylamine s al t s
and butoxyethano1 e s te r s a s fol i ag e
s p rays :
i n gene ral 2 , 4 , 5-TB g ave a
g reater marg i n o f d i fferent i al t o x i c i ty
be twe e n c o n i f e r s and dec i duous s pec i e s
( . tr i chocarpa excepted ) than d i d
2 , 4-DB .
( 2 ) 2 , 4 , 5 -T emul s i f i able ac i d ,
t r i e thylam i ne and dodecylam i ne s alt s and
bu toxye thano1 e s ter as f o l i age s prays :
t h e dodecy1ami ne s al t h ad a greater
e f fect o n !. c i rc i n atum than on Dougl as
F i r , whereas the t r i e thylam i n e salt was
e qually e f f e c t i ve on both . On s i tka
Spruce , however , the t r i e thylamine s alt
had no t o x i c e f f e c t , whereas the
d e c iduous brush s pec i e s we re all to s ome
( 3 ) 2 , 4 , 5-T ac i d i n
de gree s u s c ept i b l e .
water a s f o l i age and dorman t - s e as o n
s p r ays : mo s t of t h e c o n i fers proved
h i ghly r e s i s tant to the dorman t-season
s p r ays , e . g . on Grand F i r they h ad no
o b v i ou s e f f e c t , whe reas grow i ng-s e as o n
( 4 ) 2 , 4 , 5 -T ac i d
s pr ays g ave 100 k i l l .
i n tox i c o r non-tox i c o i l as dormant­
s e ason s prays :
i n general , c o n i fers
s u s t ai ned less damage f rom appl i c at i o n s
i n non-to x i c o i l .
( 5 ) Tr i e thylamine
s al t s of ( a ) 2 , 4-D , ( b ) 2 , 4 , -DP and ( c )
2 , 4-DB appl i e d i n wat e r as fol i ag e
114
s prays : Doug l as F i r w a s unaffec ted by
( c ) , whereas s imi l ar concentrat i on s of
( a ) and ( b ) g ave 9 9 ki ll . On S i tka
s pruce , ( a ) had no e f f e c t , ( c ) g ave 30
k i l l . On . t r i chocarpa , ( a ) gave 100
k i l l and ( c ) only 2 .
( 6 ) Tr i e thylam i n e
salts o f 2 , 4-D , MCPA a n d 2-ch10ro-4­
f1uorophenoxyac e t i c ac i d ( 2-C1 , 4-F ) ;
2 , 4-D t r i e thylam i n e was mo re tox i c to
Ponde ro s a P i ne than the 2-C1 , 4 - F , wh i l e
f o r S i tka Spruce the reve r s e wa s true . "
( FA )
4 7 4 . Rehde r , Al fred .
19 1 1-18 . The Bradley b i bl i o g raphy .
A g u i de to the l i terature o f the
woody plants o f the world , publ i s hed
before the beg i n n i n g o f the
twent i eth cen tury . Comp i led at the
Arnold Arboretum of Harvard
Un i vers i ty unde r the d i re c t i on of
Ch arles S prague Sarge n t . Vol . 1 ,
1911 , 566 p . ; vol . 2 , 1912 , 9 2 6 p . ;
vol 3 , 1 9 1 5 , 806 p . ; vol 4 , 1914 ,
5 8 9 p . ; vol 5 , 1 9 1 8 , 1 , 008 p .
R i ve r s i de Pres s , Camb r i dge .
4 7 5 . Rehder , Alfred .
1 9 4 9 . B i b l i og r aphy o f c u l t i vated
trees and shrubs h ardy in the cooler
tempe rate reg i on s o f the northern
hemi s phere . p . 101 , 104 . Arnold
Arbor . Harvard Un i v . , Jama i c a
P l a i n , Ma s s .
"
g i ve s referen c e s to the sources o f
t h e botan i c al n ame s , val i d n ame s , and
synonyms of woody plants C U l t i vated i n
the cooler re g i on s o f the tempe rate zone
o f the Northern Hemi s phere . . . . " ( A )
4 7 6 . Rehde r , Al fred .
1 9 5 8 . Manual o f c u l t i vated trees
and s hrubs h ardy in North Ame r i c a
exclu s i ve o f the s ubtrop i c al and
warmer tempe rature reg i on s .
2d
ed . 9 9 6 p . MacM i l l an Co . , New
Yor k .
4 7 7 . Reh i l l , P . S .
1 9 6 8 . s t imulat i on o f Arm i l l ar i a
me l l e a rh i zomorphs wi th alder
extrac t s . B i -mon . Res . Notes
2 4 ( 4 ) : 3 4 . ottawa .
" Raabe reported that the r h i zomorph
produ c t i on of A. me l l e a was s t imu l ated
b y extracts f rom a number of wood
s pec i e s . We i nhold later s ugges ted that
the s t i mUl atory s u b s t ance was i ndole-3­
a c e t i c ac i d . The pre s ent paper repo r t s
s t i mu l at i on by hot-water e x tract of
Alnus rubra to a muc h greater degree
than that obt a i ne d by IAA or e th anol . "
( FA )
4 7 8 . Re i ch ard , T . A .
1 9 7 4 . Barred owl s i gh t i ng s i n
Wash i ngton . We s t . B i rds
5 ( 4 ) : 1 3 8-140 .
4 7 9 . Rem i ngton , Rod L .
1 9 7 8 . Alder--s hould we c h i p i t o r
s aw i t ? In ut i l i zat i on and
man agement of alde r , p . 103-109 .
Dav i d G . B r i ggs , Dean S . DeBell ,
and W i l l i am A . Atk i nson , comp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
" I t has been s t ated that the manuf acture
o f red alder l umber i s a small m i l l
produc t ; however , Nor thwe s t Hardwoods ,
I n c . has t aken g i ant s t r i de s toward
chang i n g that image . Qual i ty control
and l umbe r sense are the key wo rds that
de s c r i be our operat i on s goal s . From
expanded log c o n s umpt i on , c o n s tant
mach i ne ry and proc e s s u pdat i ng , to
s at i s f i ed c u s tome r s Nor thwe s t Hardwoods ,
Inc . has t aken the Mom & Pop approach
out o f manu f ac tur i ng alder . " ( A )
480 . Reukema , Donald L .
1 9 6 5 . Seasonal progre s s of rad i al
growth o f Dou g l as - f i r , we s tern
redcedar , and red alde r . USDA For .
Serv o Re s . Pap . PNW-2 6 , 14 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"Me a s urements of rad i al g rowth dur i ng 5
grow i n g s e asons i n we s tern Was h i ngton
showed that true growth o c c urred between
mi d-Apr i l and e arly Septembe r wi th
s e asonal d i s t r i bu t i o n o f growth vary i n g
from year to year . " ( A )
481 . R i c e , P . R . , and D . C . Church .
1 9 7 4 . Tas te r e s pon s e s o f deer to
browse extrac t s , organ i c ac i ds , and
odor s . J . W i ldl . Man age .
38 ( 4 ) : 830-83 6 .
"Black- t a i led deer ( Odoc o i 1 e u s hem i onu s )
were o f fered a cho i c e o f wate r or one
water e x t r ac t of brows e plant . Amount
drunk var i ed accord i ng to s ex and extr act
concentrat i on , but there was s ome prefer­
ence for e xtracts o f b i tterbru s h ( Pu r sh i a
tr i de n t ata ) , red alder ( Alnus rubra ) ,
c as c ara b uc kthorn ( Rh amn u s pur sh i ana ) .
Douglas f i r ( P s eudo t s uga menz i e s i i ) and
we s tern hemlock ( Ts uga heterophyl l a ) .
Mal e s but not femal e s prefe rred solu t i on s
of mal i c , s u c c i n i c and c i tr i c ac i ds and ,
to a l e s s e r degre e , q u i n i c ac i d . Sme ars
o f butyr i c ac i d and o f putre f i ed s almon
extract on the dr i n k i ng ves s e l s g ave
mi xed r e s pons e s , wi th s e x d i f ference s . "
(A)
115
4 8 2 . R i chens , R . H .
1 9 4 5 . For e s t tree breed i ng and
genet i c s . Imp . Agr i c . Bur . J o i n t
Publ . 8 , 7 9 p . Oxford , Engl .
S ummar i ze s l i ter ature on fore s t tree
b reed i ng in the pe r i od 1930-4 5 . Separate
accoun t s o f the i nformat i on pertai n i ng to
the genera o f 9 gymnos perms and 2 2 ang i o­
s perms . Very exten s i ve b i bl i ography .
( CFH )
4 8 3 . Robert s , A . N . , and W . H .
He llenth i n .
1 9 5 9 . Effects o f s awdu s t mulche s .
I I . Hort i c ultural c rops . Oreg .
Agr i c . Exp . Stn . Tech . Bul l . 5 0 ,
34 p . Ore g . S t ate Un i v . , Corval l i s .
" S umma r i z e s exper imen t s over an 8-year
p e r i od on the e f fect o f Doug l as F i r and
Alder s awdu s t , Oak l e ave s , and s tr aw ,
u s ed a s mulches and s o i l amendment s , on :
y i eld o f c e r t a i n hort i cul tural c rops ;
i nc i dence o f red-s tele d i s e a s e o f straw­
b e r r i e s ; and fert i l i ze r requi rements
( part i c ularly N ) as me as ured by crop
r e s pon s e . " ( FA )
4 8 4 . Rob i n s on , Dan D .
1948 . ut i l i zat i on o f Oregon
h ardwood s . Oreg . For . Prod . Lab .
I n f . C i r c . 2 , 22 p . Corval l i s ,
Oreg .
4 8 5 . R od r i guez-B arruec o , C .
1 9 6 8 . The o c c urrence of n i t rogen­
f i x i ng root nodu l e s on non­
l eg umi nous plan t s . Bot . J . L i nn .
Soc . 6 2 ( 1 ) : 7 7 -84 .
"At pre s e n t i t i s ,known that s ome 13
g e nera o f non-leguminous Ang i o s perms i n ­
c l ude at l e a s t s ome s pe c i e s wh i ch bear
root nodu l e s wi th the property of
116
n i trogen f i x at i on . Alnus i s t h e be s t
known example . T o as s i s t i n the
as s e s sment o f the ecolog i c al importan c e
o f the s e plan t s , the author has s u rveyed
the re levant l i terature to d i s cover how
many s pe c i e s in each of the genera have
been recorded t o b e ar nodule s . He a l s o
prov i de s evidence o f th i s feature i n
s everal s pe c i e s not h i therto reported .
Of an e s t imated total c omplement o f 3 4 2
s pe c i e s i n t h e 13 genera , 1 1 8 s p e c i e s
have s o far been recorded t o bear
The rema i n i ng s pe c i e s do not
nodul e s .
appear to h ave been examined for th e
pre s e n c e o f nodule s . " ( A )
486 . Rod r i guez-Barrueco , C .
1970 .
[ Stud i e s on c ro s s
i noculat i o n s be tween N-f i x i ng
s pe c i e s o f the genus Alnus . ] An .
Edafol . Agrob i ol . 2 9 ( 1 / 2 ) : 8 7 -9 7 .
"A s u s pen s i on o f tr i turated nodu l e s was
u s ed for c ro s s - i noculat i on of plan t s
g rown i n a ster i l e med i um . A . glut i n o s a
( a ) , A . c o rdata ( b ) and A . i nc an a ( c )
formed nodules r ap i dl y after i noculat i o n
wi th suspen s i on s from ( a ) . Nodul at i o n
wa s s l ower w i th s u s pen s i on s f rom A .
rub r a ( an Ame r i c an s pec i e s ) , and the
i noculated plan t s generally showed
i n fer i or g rowth to those i nocul ated w i th
( a ) . N f i xat i o n by plants i nocul ated
w i th A. rubra s u s pen s i on s , expre s sed i n
o f that f i xed b y t h e s ame s pec i e s
i nocul ated with ( a ) was :
( a) 32 , ( b ) 6 ,
and ( c ) 19 . There s eems , therefore , t o
b e a c e r t a i n degree o f i ncompatab i l i ty
between the nodule-form i ng o rg an i sms o f
t h e Ame r i c an s pe c i e s and t h e European
Alde r , though , after a pe r i od o f
adaptat i on , t h e nodul e s t h u s form d we re
able to f i x N e f f i c i ently . " ( FA )
4 8 7 . Rodr i guez-Barrue c o , C . , and G . Bond .
1968 . Nodul e endophytes in the
genus Alnu s .
In B i ology of alde r ,
p . 1 8 5 -1 9 2 . J . M . Tr appe , J . F .
Fr ankl i n , R . F . Tarran t , and G . M .
Han s e n , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Range Exp . S t n . , Portland , Oreg .
"The Alnus glut i no s a endophyte symb i o s ed
s at i s facto r i ly with two other European
al ders ( ! . cordata and ! . i nc an a ) , but
the !. rub r a endophyte performed l e s s
s a t i s f acto r i ly on the European ho s t
s p e c i e s , ma i nly becau s e of a de lay i n
nodule format i on . Th i s prov i d e s further
evi dence that the endophyt e s o f Alnus
s pe c i e s f rom di fferent geograph i c al
reg i ons may not be i den t i c al . Th i s
r e g i onal s pe c i al i zat i on i s par t i cularly
l i ke l y in s uch a w i dely d i s pe r s ed genus
as Alnus . " ( A )
4 8 8 . Roger s , Jack D .
1968 . Hypoxylon fus cum : A rev i ew
o f the fungu s and i t s relat i on s h i p
w i th Alnus i n the Northwe s t . In
B i ology of alde r , p . 2 5 1-2 5 8 . J .
M . Trappe , J . F . Frankl i n , R . F .
Tarrant , and G . M . Han sen , eds .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Hypoxylon fus cum i s a wi dely d i s t r i buted
i nh ab i tant of Alnus s pe c i e s and other
betulaceous s pe c i e s throughout the North
Temperate Zone . The fungus c au s e s a
r a p i d wh i te -type rot o f wood o f dead or
dy i ng Aln u s plant s . I t probably i s a
we ak paras i te , po s s i bl y contr i but ing to
k i l l i ng o f trees . The morphology and
development of the fungus and known
a s p e c t s of i t s relat i o n s h i p to Alnus
tenu i fol i a are d i s cu s s ed . " ( A )
4 8 9 . Roo f , Jame s .
1 9 5 1 . Growing Cal i f o rn i a ' s four
alder s . J . Cal i f . Hort . Soc .
1 2 ( 4 ) : 167- 1 7 3 .
"The 4 Cal i forn i a alder s , i n order o f
s i z e Aln u s rubr a , ! . rhomb i fo l i a , , ! .
tenu i fo l i a , and ! . v i r i d i s var . s i nuata ,
are each cons i dered i n detai l , both as
to the i r behav i or i n the wi ld and in
cult ivat i on . I n full s un wi th abundant
wate r throughout the year red alder 10
yrs . old may be 40 ft . in ht . and 7 i n .
i n d i am . 4 f t . above the ground . I t
t h r i v e s under l awn cond i t i on s . Wh i te
alde r , ! . rhomb i fo l i a , g rows i n cul­
t i va t i on 3 f t . a yr . after the 1st 3
It may be grown under the s ame
yrs .
cond i tl on s as red alder except that i t
w i l l not tolerate s al i ne cond i t ions .
Red alde r wi ll grow i n s andy s o i l i n
protected plac e s near the s e a ; wh i te
alder probably w i l l n o t . Fre s h seed
should be s own i n Aug . o r f o r wh i te
alder un t i l Oct . Germi n at i on i s 5 5 to
60% . See dl i ng s i n cans should be
watered almo st da i l y and planted out
after a yr . Young transplants c an be
moved at any t ime exc ept in s ummer .
Moun t a i n alder , ! . tenu i fo l i a , when
planted as a l awn tree , w i l l reach a
mature h t . o f 16 ft . i n 7 y r s . Then i t
w i l l g row n o h i gher b u t be g i n s to add
ma i n t runks that g row from the base of
the tree ; these are not suckers or
runne r s . Al though a nat i ve o f the
mounta i n s , it thr i ve s i n the bay reg i on .
The coas tal form o f the s i tka alder i s
expected to be an attrac t i ve small yard
tree for the San Franc i s c o fog bel t .
Germi nat ion of fresh s eed of moun t a i n
alder i s 48% , o f coastal s i tka alder
3 5 % . Se edl i ng s should be held in c an s
f o r 2 y r s . Mountain alder should be
watered only at the base after the 1 s t 3
yrs . as exce s s i ve wate r wi l l turn the
leave s p rematurely r u s ty in s umme r .
Overhead s p r i n kl i ng keeps s i tka alder
fresh and clean-looki ng . Al l the alde r s
n e e d full s un . The alde r s are
recommended for home l an d s c ap i ng . " ( BA )
117
4 9 0 . Ro s s , Herbert H .
1 9 3 2 . Record s o f add i t i onal
European s awfl i e s i n Ame r i c a and
de s c r i pt i ons of new var i e t i e s o f
North Ame r i c an s pe c i e s . Can .
Entomol . 6 4 ( 1 1 ) : 2 4 7 - 2 5 1 .
4 9 2 . Rub i n , A . , and B . P . B e i rne .
1 9 7 5 . Natural enem i e s o f the
European fru i t lecan i um , Lecan i um
t i l i ae ( Homoptera : Cocc idae ) , i n
B r i t i s h Columb i a . C an . En t omol .
1 07 ( 4 ) : 33 7 -342 .
"The 4 follow i n g s pp . are recent i n tro­
d uc t i on s f rom Europe : Hemi chroa crocea
G eo f . ( H . was h i ngto n i a Rohw . & Mi ddl . ) ,
o n Aln u s rubr a , i n Wash i ngton and Br i t .
'
Columb i a ;
ndr i a s tr ami n e i pe s Klug
(
. u rb i a Ro s s ) , o n P te r i s agu i l i n a i n
B r i t . Columb i a ; Tomo s tethus lute i ventr i s ,
new to B r i t . Columb i a , on s now , 4 7 00 f t . ,
; I. eph i ppium Panser (
des c r . o f
S e l andr i a i nh ab i l i s Norton ) , new to Br i t . Columb i a ; Mon o s oma i n feren t i a v . andro­
nosa
( p . 2 4 9 ) , ontar i o ; S t rongyloga s te r
annulo s u s v . c i ngul e r s c e n s ( p . 2 5 9 ) , M i ch g an ( type ) , ontar i o , New York , I l l i no i s , and Ind i an a ; Crabro ame r i c ana v . rub r o s a 0' ( p . 2 5 9 ) , M i c h i gan ( type ) ,
I l l i no i s , New York , S . Dakota , Man i toba ,
Ontar i o , Quebec . " ( BA )
"Repor t s a s urvey o f the predators and
paras i te s of h. t i l i ae , b a s ed on 2 4 1
colle c t i on s of i nf e s ted branches and
l e aves of B roadleaf Maple ( Acer
mac rophyl lum ) , Horse Chestnut ( Ae s culus
h ippocas tanum ) , Black Cherry ( Prunus
s erot i n a ) . Japane s e Plum , Hawtho r n
( Crataegu s s p . ) and Red Alder ( Alnus
r ubra) on wh i ch there were 5 0 0 2 2
s c ale s . Three s pec i e s of paras i te s , 18
predat o r s and a fungus we re found .
Un s ucc e s s ful at tempts at b i olog i c al
control are b r i e fly de s c r i bed . " ( FA )
=
=
=
4 9 1 . Roy , Dougl a s s F .
1 9 62 . Cal i forn i a h ardwood s :
Management prac t i c e s and problems .
J . For . 60 ( 3 ) : 18 4-186 .
" B r i e fl y con s i de r s 14 s pe c i-e s o f poten­
t i al c ommerc i al value , in the c atego r i e s
( 1 ) s tream- s i d e , bot toml and o r mo i s t-s i t e
h ardwoods ( Alnus rub r a , i n par t i cular ) ,
( 2 ) non-manag e able h ardwoods , and ( 3 )
p otent i al l y manage able hardwoods
( L i thoc arpus den s i florus and Quercus
kellogg i i ) . " ( FA )
118
493 . Ru s s e l l , Sterl ing A . , Harold J .
Evan s , and Patr i c i a Mayeux .
1968 .
The e f f e c t o f cobalt and
c e r t a i n other trace me tals on the
growth and v i t ami n B 1 2 content o f
Alnus rubra . In B i ology o f alde r ,
p . 2 5 9-2 7 1 . J . M . Trappe , J . F .
Frankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and G . M .
Han s e n , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Range Exp . Stn . , Portland , Oreg .
"An i nve s t i g at i on has been made o f the
e f f e c t s o f i n c reas i ng concentrat i on s of
N i , Fe , and Mn on the g rowth and the
chlorophyl l , N, v i tami n B 1 2 ' and Co
contents o f Alnu s rubra i n the presence
and ab s ence o f 5 0 ppm Co in .t he nut r i ent
med i um . The e f f e c t s o f the Mn , Fe , and
Ni on growth , both in the presence and
ab sence of Co , we re not s t at i s t i c al l y
s i gn i f i c an t . A t t h e f i r s t harve s t ( 1 4 4
days a f t e r be i ng p l aced i n culture ) , t h e
e f f e c t s o f t h e Co treatment on d r y and
f r e s h we i gh t s o f plant top s , on the
c h lorophyll content of l e ave s , and the N
c ontent o f tops we re h i ghly s i g n i f i c ant .
However , at the f i nal h arve s t ( after 213
days i n cul ture ) , the plan t s apparently
h ad obta i ned s u f f i c i en t Co from con­
t ami nat i n g s ou r c e s to s at i s fy mo s t of
the i r req u i rement s ; thus , no appre c i able
r e s po n s e s t o Co add i t i on were apparen t .
"The e f fe c t s o f the he avy met al
add i t i on s o n the v i tam i n B l 2 content o f
nodu l e s we re s t r i ki n g and s t at i s t i c ally
s i gn i f i c an t . From the B l 2 analy s e s ,
i t appeared that i nc re a s i ng concent r a­
t i on s o f N i , Fe , or Mn re s ul t ed i n marked
decrea s e s i n the b i o s ynthe s i s of v i tami n
Bi 2 i n nodule s . Th i s was mos t pro­
nounced whe re 0 . 0 5 ppm of Co was added
to the nutr ient s olut i on and where the
l owe s t i nc rements of N i , Fe , or Mn we re
added . The h i gh e s t concentr a t i o n s o f
t h e s e trace eleme n t s ( N i , Fe , arid Mn )
wer e as s o c i ated w i th an i nc r e a s e i n the
B 1 2 content of nodule s . Th i s i n c r e a s e
wa s at t r i buted to C o impur i t i e s i n N i ,
Fe , and Mn s alt s . In general , the
e f fe c t s o f i nc reas i n g concentrat i on s of
N i , Fe , and Mn i n nutr ient s olut i on s on
Co uptake by alder t i s s u e s we re s im i l ar
i n trends to tho s e e x h i b i ted by e f f e c t s
o f added me tal s on t h e B l 2 conte n t .
I t i s concluded that exc e s s i ve N i , Fe ,
and Mn may c ompe t i t i vely i n terfere wi th
t h e i n corporat i o n o f Co i n to B 1 2
c ompound s . " ( A )
4 9 4 . Ruth , Robert H .
1968 . F i r s t- s e a s o n growth o f red
alder s eedl i ng s under grad i en t s i n
s ol ar rad i at i on . In B i o l ogy of
alde r , p. 99-1 0 5 . J . M. Trappe , J .
F . Frankl i n , R . F . Tarran t , and G . M . Han s en , eds . Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp . S t n . , Portland , Oreg . "Red alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . ) s eedl i ng s
were grown o n mi neral s o i l near the
Oregon c o a s t under a con i fe r s t and
thi nned to prov i de grad i en t s i n c anopy
dens i ty . F i r s t- s e a s o n survi val was one
s eedl i ng per 31 v i able s eeds s own , i n­
d i c at i n g a low e f f i c i ency for alder
e s tabl i shment compared w i th con i fe r s
under s im i l ar c ond i t i on s . Only a smal l
part of var i at i on i n growth was as soc i a­
ted wi th r ad i at i o n reach i ng the fore s t
floor . " ( A )
4 9 5 . Ruth , Robert H .
19 7 0 . Effect o f s h ade on germi n a­
t i o n and growth o f s almonberry .
USDA Fo r . Serv o Re s . Pap . PNW-96 ,
10 p . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Thl nn i n g the fore s t ove r s tory s t imul ated
germi nat i o n of v i able s a lmonberry s e ed
appare n t ly pre s ent i n the fore s t
tops o i l . " ( A )
496 . Ru th , Robert H . , and Carl M .
Bern tsen .
19 5 6 . Chemi c al b a s al tre atment to
control red alde r . USDA For . Serv o
Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp .
Stn . Res . Note 1 2 8 , 6 p . Portland ,
Oreg .
"Stems o f tree s i n a 6-year s t and wer e
s prayed w i th a 4 o r 8 concentrat ion o f
2 , 4 , 5 -T i n d i e s e l o i l or 2 , 4 , 5 -T plus
2 , 4-0 to a h e i ght of 12 i n . for trees <3
i n . d i am . and to a he i gh t equal to 4
t ime s the d i ame ter for l arger tree s .
Equ i pmen t i s i ll u s trated . After 1 5 -1 7
months 9 6 o f the treated tree s we re
dead and the rema i n i ng 4 were l argely
defol i at ed . Co s t s for the 8 2 , 4 , 5 -T
were $0-44/ tree , and 90 tree s were
t reated per man-hour . " ( FA )
119
4 9 7 . Ruth , Robert Harve y .
1 9 6 7 . D i f ferent i al e f f e c t o f s olar
r ad i at i on on s eedl i ng e s tabl i s hment
unde r a fore s t s t and . Ph . D .
the s i s . Oreg . s t ate Un i v . ,
Corvall i s . 1 7 6 p .
"In the ma i n s tudy , on the Oregon c o as t ,
s c ar i f i ed plots were e s tabl i shed under a
118-year mi xed con i fe r s t and th i nned to
prov i de a range of c anopy dens i t i e s , and
the e s tabl i shment and growth of s eedl i ng s
o f P i c e a s i tchens i s , Tsuga heterophyl l a ,
P s eudo t s uga men z i e s i ! and Alnu s rubra ,
f rom natural s e edfall or from s ow i ng ,
were me as ured and rel ated to s ol ar
radi at i on . The con i f e r s all became
e s t abl i shed on mineral s o i l more read ily
than !. rubra . The i n ten s i ty o f s ol ar
r ad i at i on ( r ang ing from < 10 to nearly
7 0% of that i n the open ) had l i t tle
e ffec t on e s tabl i s hment , but growth i n
the f i r s t s e a s on o f E . menz i e s i i i n­
c re a s e d wi th radi a t i on , and that of the
o ther three s pe c i e s i n c re as ed w i th
r ad i at i on to an opt imum , var y i n g with
the s pec i e s from 3 9 t o 5 0% of that in
the open , and then dec l i ned ; th i s
d ec l i ne appeared to be related to h i gh
s o i l mo i s ture ten s i o n . " ( FA )
4 9 8 . Rymer , K . W .
1 9 5 1 . Red alder i n B r i t i s h
Columb i a . For . Prod . Lab . D i v .
B u l l . 98 , 1 9 p .
For . Branch , Can .
Dep . Re s our . and Dev . , Ottawa .
" Red alder i s one o f the mo s t important
·
h ardwoods in Br i t i s h Columb i a . I t i s
f ound i n the coastal reg i o n s o f the
prov i nc e and e x tends nor thward i n to
Alaska and s outhward to Cal i fo rn i a . I t
o c c u r s i n small pure s t ands and al s o i n
a s soc i at i on w i t h o t h e r hardwoods and
1 20
s o f twood s . The t ree mat ure s i n 50 to 60
years and may reach a d i ame ter o f 20
i nche s . P r e s e n t s i lv i cul tural e xper i ­
men t s s ugge s t that a grow i n g cycle o f 3 0
t o 40 years i s economi c al l y feas i bl e .
"The wood var i e s i n colour f rom
pale yel low to l i ght brown , i s moderate
in hardne s s , and moderately l i ght i n
It i s not a s t rong wood and
we i ght .
should not be used where i t w i l l be
s ubj e c t to s evere s t re s s e s . I t s c h i e f
u s e i s f o r furn i ture manufac ture ,
e s pec i ally as core s tock for ove r l ay s o f
valuable vene e r s ; for "t urned" part s ;
and , i n s o l i d form , for c h a i r s and a
var i e ty o f mode rately p r i ced furn i s h i ng s .
Other u s e s i nc lude i nter i or pane l l i ng ,
fuel , charcoal , toys and nove l t i e s , paper
roll plug s , f i xture s , and handle s . Red
alder s l abs and edg i n g s are used for
fuel , and s ome s awdu s t i s u s ed in smoke ­
cur i ng me at and f i s h .
"Inve s t i g a t i on s i nd i c ate that under
man aged growth cond i t i o n s , where a
rel i able s ource o f s upply could be
a s s ured , the u s e s o f alder mi ght be
e x tended to i nc lude produ c t s of both the
plywood and pulp i ndust r i e s . " ( A )
499 . S aka i , A . , and C . J . We i s e r .
1 9 7 3 . Freez i ng r e s i s t ance o f tree s
i n North Ame r i c a with reference t o
t r e e reg i on s . Ecology
5 4 ( 1 ) : 1 18-12 6 .
"Dormant one-year-old twi g s of about 7 0
t r e e s pe c i e s we re collec ted dur i n g
m i d-wi nter from f i ve t r e e reg i on s i n
North Ame r i c a ( Rocky and We s tern
Moun t a i n , Northern , Pac i f i c Coas t ,
Southeas tern Coa s t , and Central and
Eas tern Lowl ands ) . The twi g s we re
ar t i f i c ally hardened i n a reg ime of
s ub-free z i ng tempe ratures between _ 3 ° C
and -100 C for 24 days to i nduce max imum
freez ing r e s i s t anc e .
"Four Northern spec i e s , Popu l u s
tremul o i d e s , Populus bal s ami fera , Betula
papyr i fera and Lar i x l ar i c i n a had the
g reate s t freez i ng re s i s tance of the
s pe c i e s te s ted . They r e s i s ted free z i ng
t o -800 C and even imme r s i on i n l i q u i d
n i trogen ( -1 9 6 0 C ) fol l owi ng prefree z i n g
t o -1 5 0 C . Mo s t o f the Northern and
Rocky and We s tern Moun t a i n con i fe r s sur­
v i ved freez i ng be tween -600 and -800 C
wh i l e s everal s pe c i e s f rom the Pac i f i c
and Southeas tern Coast reg i on s , wh i c h
h ave relat i vely m i l d hum i d wi n te r c l i ­
mate s , we re h ardy t o only about -15 0 C .
"The r ange s o f s ome Pac i f i c Coas t
s pe c i e s s uc h as P s eudo t s uga menz i e s i i ,
Thuj a pl i c ata and T s uga h e terophylla
e x t end i n t o the mountai nou s i nl and .
S ampl e s c o l lected from i nl and s i te s wer e
f o u n d to be much hard i e r than tho s e from
the c o as t . A s im i l ar trend was observed
i n the var i ou s c o llec t i o n s of T s uga
h e t e rophyl l a from northern , c entral , and
s outhern areas along the Pac i f i c Coas t .
"Wi nter m i n imal temperatl,lres are
among the impor t ant fac t o r s s e t t i ng the
n orthern boundar i e s of the natural r ange s
o f many fore s t tree s pec i e s . Howeve r ,
P opulus delto i d e s and S al i x n i gra f rom
l o c at i on s w i th tempe rate or moderate
w i nter c l imates s urv ved free z i ng to at
l e a s t - 5 0 0 C i rr e s pe c t i ve of the i r nat i ve
h ab i t at s . In the s e s pe c i e s , wi nter
m i n imal temperatures do not appear to be
the pr i nc i p al factor govern i ng geograph i c
d i s t r i but i on . " ( A )
5 00 . S ande r , G . H .
1 9 5 8 . Oregon h ardwoods :
Management , marke t i ng , manu fac ture .
Oreg . state Un i v . Fed . Coop . Ext .
Bull . 7 7 5 , 16 p . Corval l i s .
5 01 . Sargent , Char l e s Sprague .
1 8 9 0 . The s i lva o f No rth Ame r i c a-­
a des c r i pt i on o f the t ree s wh i c h
grow naturally i n North Ame r i c a
e x c l u s i ve o f Me x i c o . Vol . 9 ,
p . 7 3 -7 4 . Repr i n ted i n 1 9 4 7 . Peter
Smi th , New York .
Clas s i c al botan i c al de s c r i p t i o n o f red
alder under th e n ame Oregon alder , Al nus
( CrH)
oregon a Nu t t al l .
502 . S awbr i dge , D . F . , and M . A. M. Bell .
19 7 2 . Vege t at i on and s o i l s o f s h e l l
m i ddens on t h e c o a s t o f B r i t i s h
columb i a . Ecology 53 ( 5 ) : 840-84 9 .
"Twenty three archaeolo g i c al mi dden s i te s
were s tudied . Alnus , Thuj a , T s uga ,. and
P s eudo t s uga domi nant ve getat ion type s
were d i s t i ngu i shed . Mi dden s o i l prof i l e s
are de s c r i bed and the i r phy s i c al and
chemi c a l propert i e s tabulated . The
m i dden depos i t s , wh i ch we re ove r l a i n by
an organ i c hor i zon and , at s ome s i t e s ,
mi neral hor i zo n s , were c omposed pr imar i l y
o f s h e l l and s ome ash i n b l a c k s o i l .
Rad i o c arbon dat i n g o f shell s ample s
i nd i c ated age s f rom 7 7 0 to 6 2 5 0 years
B . P . Nega t i ve relat i o n s h i p s were found
between age and exchangeabl e C a , Total N
and organ i c C . " ( SO )
5 03 . S c hmi t z , John .
19 7 6 . Alder : From a "we ed" to a
valuable spec i e s . Crow ' s For .
Prod . D i g . 5 4 ( 3 ) : 26 - 2 7 .
A br i e f h i s tory o f red alder p romo t i on
a s a hardwood s pe c i e s . L i s t s s everal
manufac ture r s u s i ng alde r and the i r
produc t s . Red alder i s promoted under
( CFH )
the t rade n ame we s tern alde r .
121
5 04 . S chn i ew i nd , A . P .
1 9 6 6 . Irregu l ar i t i e s o f f i n i shed
s u r f a c e s c aused by unequal ray
s h r i nkage . For . Prod . J .
1 6 ( 8 ) : 66-6 7 .
tt ' Gr a i n r a i s i ng ' i n table tops o f Al nus
r ubra wa s found to be rel ated to the low
r ad i al shr i nkage of ray t i s s ue . Only a
very n arrow range o f fluc tuat i on in m . c .
« ± 3%) could be tolerated w i thout
g i v i n g r i s e t o not i c e able e f f e c t s . " ( FA )
5 05 . Schopmeyer , C . S .
1 9 7 4 . Alnu s B . Ehrh . Alder . I n
Seeds o f woody plants i n the un i ted
s tate s , p . 206-211 . C . S .
Sch opmeyer , Tech . Coor . U . S . Dep .
Agr i c . Agr i c . Handb . 4 5 0 .
Wa s h i ngton , D . C .
I n format i on and data o n the s eed o f alder
s pec i e s growing i n the un i ted state s . ( CFH )
5 06 . S chroeder , Herbe rt A . , and Edward
D . Hans en . 1 9 6 8 . Two - s t age h i gh-yield s ul f i te p U l p i ng o f red alder . Tapp i 5 1 ( 1 ) : 1- 7 . tlwi th i n arb i trar ily s e t l im i t s , two-stage
pUlpi n g cond i t i o n s we re determi ned , wh i ch
p roduced a h i gh-y i eld pulp from red alder
h av i ng the b e s t overall s t rength proper­
t i e s . Tho s e cooks , c on s i s t i n g of a
b i ulf i te f i r s t s t age and a s l i ghtly
a lkal i ne s e c ond s t age , produced pulps
w i th the h i ghe s t s trength charac t e r i s ­
t i c s . The se pulps we r e chem i c ally
c h arac te r i zed , w i th part i c ular atten t i on
g i ven the xylan cons t i tuent , wh i ch was
i s ol ated and further analyzed . The
maj or hem i c e l lulo s e , 0-acetyl- ( 4-0­
methyl g l uc urono ) -xylan , had mo s t o f the
122
acetyl groups removed and the reduc i n g
end groups par t i ally o x i d i zed , but the
uron i c ac i d groups we re c ompletely
retai ned d u r i n g the pu l p i ng proc e s s .
The c e l l u l o s e appeared to be r e t a i ned
almo s t quan t i tat i vely and together w i th
a r e l at i vely h i gh hemi cellulo s e content ,
g ave a h i gh-y i e ld pulp wi th de s i reab l e
proper t i e s . T h e good reten t i on o f the
c arbohydrate mate r i al by the pulp c an
probably be a s c r i bed to the o x i dat i ve
e f f e c t o f the f i r s t- s t age b i sul f i te
l i quor , wh i ch r e s ulted i n prote c t i on
ag a i n s t alkal i ne degradat i on i n the
s e c ond s t age of the pUl p i ng proc e s s .
Th i s o x i dat i ve prote c t i on was shown by
the i den t i f i c a t i on o f xylon i c ac i d a s
o n e of the mor e important ac i d i c end
groups of the xylan retai ned i n the
pulp . " ( A )
5 0 7 . Schubert , Kare l R . , and Harold J .
Evan s .
1 9 7 6 . Hydrogen evo lut ion : A maj or
factor affec t i ng the e f f i c i ency o f
n i trogen f i xat i on i n n odulated
s ymb i on t s . Nat l . Acad . Sc i . USA
Proc . 7 3 ( 4 ) : 1 2 0 7 - 1 2 1 1 .
tlN i trogenas e-dependent hydrogen evolut i o n
f rom detached l egume nodu l e s and from
reac t i on mi xtures con t a i n i n g c e l l-free
n i trogenas e has been we l l e s t abl i s hed ,
but the overall e f f e c t o f hydrogen
evolut i on on the e f f i c i ency of n i trogen
f i xat i on i n v i vo has not been c r i t i c al l y
a s s e s s e d . Th i s paper de s c r i be s a s urvey
wh i ch revealed that hydrogen evolut i on
i s a general phenomenon as s o c i ated wi th
n i trogen f i xat i on by many nodul ated
n i trogen-f i x i ng s ymb i on t s . An eval uat i o n
of the magn i tude o f energy l o s s i n terms
of the e f f i c i ency of e l e c t ron tran s fe r
t o n i trogen , v i a n i trogenas e , i n e x c i s e d
nodu l e s s ugge s ted that hydrogen produc­
t i o n may s everely reduce n i trogen
f i x at i on i n many l egume s whe re photo­
s ynthate s upply i s a factor l i mi t i ng
f i xat ion . wi th mo s t s ymb i on t s , i ncluding
s oybean s , only 40-60 o f the e l e c t ro n
f l ow to n i trogenase was trans ferred to
n i trogen . The rema i nder was l o s t
through hydrogen evolut i o n . In s i tu
meas ureme n t s o f hydrogen evolut i on and
acetylene r educ t i on by nodulated s oybean s
c on f i rmed the re s u l t s obtai ned wi th
e x c i s e d nodule s . In an atmo s phere of
a i r , a maj o r por t ion o f the total
e l e c tron flux ava i l able for the
reduc t i on o f atmo s phe r i c n i trogen by
e i ther e x c i s ed nodules or i ntact
n odulated plan t s was ut i l i zed i n the
produ c t i on o f hydrogen gas . Some
nonl egum i no u s s ymb i on t s , s uc h as Alnu s
rubra , and a few legume s ( i . e . , V i gna
s i ne n s i s ) apparently have evolved
me chan i sms o f mi n imi z i ng net hydrogen
p roduc t i on , thus i nc re a s i ng the i r
e f f i c i ency o f elec tron tran s f e r to
n i trogen . Our r e s u l t s i nd i c ate that the
e x tent o f hydrogen evolut i on dur i n g
n i trogen reduc t i o n i s a maj or .factor
a f fe c t i ng the e f f i c i e ncy o f n i trogen
f i x at i on by many agronom i c ally important
l e gume s . " ( BA )
5 0 8 . Schumann , D . R .
1 9 7 2 . Dimen s i on y i elds f rom alder
( Alnus rub r a ) lumber . USDA For .
Serv o Res . Pap . FPL-1 7 0 , 12 p .
For . Prod . Lab . , Mad i s on , wi s .
" P r e s e n t s charts for determi n i ng y i elds
of d imen s i on s tock f rom the top three
g r ades o f !. rubra lumber , and e x pl a i n s
the i r u s e i n y i eld and c o s t c ompar i s o n s
t o i nd i c ate t h e mo s t econom i c al cho i c e
o f gr ade o r comb i n at i on o f gr ade s for a
s pe c i f i c c u t t i ng order . " ( FA )
5 09 . Schwartz , S i dney L .
1 9 5 8 . Hardboard from red alder and
f r om a mi xture of s l ow-growth
s outhern oaks . U . S . For . Prod .
Lab . Re p . 2 1 2 5 , 8 p . Mad i s on , Wi s .
"A s t udy ( 1 ) to demo n s t rate the s u i tab i ­
l i ty o f two w i dely d i fferent c l a s s e s o f
h ardwood ( Red Alder [Alnus rubr a ] and a
mi x ture of Red and Wh i te Oaks [ Que r c u s
falcata , Q. c o c c i nea , Q. velut i n a , Q.
s t e l l at a , Q. alba and Q. pr i nu s ] ) f o r
the produc t i on of hardboard , and ( 2 ) to
d i s cove r h ow the degree o f hydroly s i s
i n fluenc e s y i eld , bo ard s t rength , and
s i z i ng e f f i c i ency . The fol low i ng factors
were covered : the effect ( i ) of the
degree of s team cooki ng on y i eld and
qual i ty of the bo ard s tock , ( i i ) of the
amount of alum and of s i ze added t o the
s to c k o n board qual i ty , and ( i i i ) of
pre s s ur e on Oak hardbo ard . From the
dat a obtai ned on the r e s po n s e of both
mater i a l s to def i brat i o n , pulp i ng and
pre s s i n g tre atments , i t was e s tabl i shed
that for untreated h ardboard pre pared
f rom both c l as s e s , ( a ) the f l e xural
s trength and toughne s s reach an opt imum
at the 83-85 y i eld leve l ; ( b ) water
ab s orpt ion and th i ckne s s and volume ­
change dec reas e wi th y i eld ; and ( c ) the
l i near d imen s i onal change , though
re lat i ve ly sma l l , i n c r e a s e s wi th a
dec reas e i n y i eld . As Oak was s en s i t i ve
to s te am cooki ng it was nece s s ary to
de f i brate it at 1 2 5 , and the Alder at
1 7 5 lb . / sq . i n . " ( FA )
123
5 10 . S edel l . Jwme s R
Frank J . Tr i s ka .
and Nancy H . Tr i s ka .
197 5 .
The proc e s s i ng of con i fe r
a n d hardwood l e ave s i n two
c o n i f e rous fore s t s t rewms : I .
We i ght lo s s and as s oc i ated
i nve rtebrate s . Verh . Int . Ver .
L imno1 . 19 ( 3 ) : 1 6 1 7 -16 2 7 .
.
•
Dougl a s - f i r and b i g leaf maple leave s
decompo s e d s l owe r than red alder or v i n e
maple l e aves i n two s t rewms i n we s tern
Oregon . The d i fferences in bre akdown
r ates between the s t re ams may be
e x p l a i ned by the d i f ferences in the
n umber o f i nvertebrate colon i ze r s on the
l e ave s . D i f ferenc e s be tween s pe c i e s are
b e l i eved to be rel ated to the rate at
wh i ch they are cond i t i oned by m i c robe s .
( CFH )
5 1 1 . S h aw . Charles Gardner .
1 9 5 8 . H o s t fungus i ndex for the
P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t . I . Ho s t s .
Wash . Agr i c . Exp . Stn . C i rc . 3 3 5 .
1 2 7 p . Pul lman .
5 12 . S h aw . Ch arl e s Gardner .
1 9 5 8 . H o s t fungus i ndex for the
P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t . I I . Fung i .
Wash . Agr i c . EXp . Stn . C i rc . 336 .
2 3 7 p . Pullman .
5 13 . Shaw . Charles Gardner .
1 9 7 3 . H o s t fungus i ndex f o r the
P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t . I . Hos t s .
Wash . Ag r i c . Exp . Stn . Bull . 7 6 5 .
1 2 1 p . Pullman .
Records known occu rrenc e s and d i s t r i bu­
t i ons of paras i t i c fung i in the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t . Vol ume I l i s t s ho s t s pe c i e s
o f vascular plan t s except Gram i neae .
Alnus r ub r a i s reported to be att acked
by 1 6 7 s pec i e s of f ung i . c i tat i on s to
attacking s pec i e s are not g i ven but c an
be suppl i ed by Was h i ngton State
Un i ve r s i ty on reque s t .
( CFH )
5 1 4 . Shaw . Charles Gardner .
1 9 7 3 . Ho s t fungus i ndex for the
Pac i f i c Northwe s t . II . Fung i .
Wa s h . Ag r i c . EXp . Stn . Bull . 766 .
1 6 2 p . Pul lman .
L i s t s by s pe c i e s fung i paras i t i z i ng
vascular plants i n the Pac i f i c Northwe s t
and prov i de s a c ro s s i ndex to t h e ho s t
s pe c i e s l i s te d i n volume I ( 5 13 ) . At
l e a s t one l i terature reference to each
fungus genus is i n cl uded .
( CFH )
5 1 5 . Shel ford . J . A
W . D . K i t t s . and
C . R . Kr i s hnwmu r t i .
1 9 7 0 . ut i l i zati on of alder s awdu s t
( Alnus rubra) by rum i n an t s . Can .
J . An i m . S c i . 5 0 ( 1 ) : 208-209 .
.
Feed i ng on s awdu s t of red alder by cattle
was as s oc i ated wi th a change i n the
volat i l e fatty ac i d compo s i t ion o f rumen
f l u i d s . The s e changes i nd i c ate exten s i ve
fermen tat i on of the s awdu s t by rumen
mi c roflora and s ugge s t that s awdu s t be
u s ed as a s ource of food and ene rgy for
the c attle .
( CFH )
5 1 6 . Sheth . K
E . B i anc h i . R . Wi edhopf .
and J . R . Cole .
1 9 7 3 . An t i t umo r agents from Alnus
oregona ( Betulaceae ) . J . Ph arm .
Sc i . 62 ( 1 ) : 139-1 40 .
.
124
•
•
"The chloro form extract o f Alnus oregon a
s h owed an t i tumor ac t i v i ty ag a i n s t the
Walker 2 5 6 ( 5WA1 6 ) tumor s y s tem . Lupeol
and betul i n were i den t i f i ed as the two
c on s t i tue n t s r e s pon s i ble for th i s
act i v i ty . " ( BA )
5 1 7 . S i lver , W . S .
1969 . B i ology and e c ology o f
n i trogen f i xat i on b y s ymb i o t i c
as s oc i at i o n s o f non-legumi nous
plant s . Royal Soc . London Proc .
( Se r . B ) 1 7 2 ( 102 9 ) : 3 8 9-400 .
"A l i terature rev i ew , wi th d i s cu s s i o n on
yt olog i c al as pec t s of nodulat ion i n , and
the ecolog i c al role o f , s uch nodule­
b e ar i ng genera as Alnu s , Casuari na ,
Ceanothu s , Cor i ar i a , Myr i c a and
Podocarpu s . " ( FA )
5 1 8 . S i lve s te r , W . B .
1 9 7 6 . Ecolog i c al and econom i c
s i gn i f i c an c e o f t h e non-le gume
s ymb i o s e s . In Proceed i n g s o f the
1 s t i n ternat i onal s ympo s i um on
n i trogen f i xat i on , Vo l . 2 ,
p . 489-506 . W i l l i am E . Newton and
C . J . Nyman , eds . Was h . state Un i v .
Pres s , Pul lman .
All the non legume root nodule plants are
woody perenni al s h rub s or small tree s .
A s s uch , they f i nd l i t t l e d i rect u s e and
are not read i ly adaptable to agr i cultural
u s e as d i rect or i n d i r e c t s ou r c e s of
c omb i ned n i trogen . The only really
s i gn i f i c an t c on t r i bu t i on i s that of red
alder .
( CFH )
5 1 9 . S i vak , Be l a , and C . O . Person .
1 9 7 3 . The bac t er i al and fungal
flora of the bark , wood , and p i th
o f alder , black co ttonwood , maple ,
and wi ll ow . Can . J . Bot .
5 1 ( 10 ) : 1 9 8 5 -198 8 .
"The oc currence and d i s t r i but i on of
s ymb i o t i c c auloplane organ i sms on
dormant cutt i n g s of 1- to 2-ye ar-old
s tems of alder , black cot tonwood , mapl e ,
and wi l low we re determi ned f rom t i s s ue
s ampl e s removed to 210 malt extract and
nutr i en t broth agar s , and f rom s c ann i n g
e l e c t ron m i c ro graphs , o f the bark s u rface .
Fungal and bacte r i al s ymb i on t s we re f ound
to be conf i ned to the bark surfac e s ,
where the i r occ urrence wa s rel ated to the
s urface topography . Inner bark , wood ,
and p i th were v i rtually a s e pt i c . " ( A )
5 2 0 . Ski nner , Edgel C .
1 9 5 9 . Cub i c volume tables for red
alder and s i tka spruc e . USDA For .
S e rv o Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range
Exp . Stn . Re s . Note 1 7 0 , 4 p .
Portland , Oreg .
"Three tables s upplement i ng or amending
those already publ i s hed . " ( FA )
5 2 1 . Smi th , Harvey H .
1 9 5 6 . Improved ut i l i zat ion o f
we s tern h ardwoods b y modern dry i ng .
For . Prod . J . 6 ( 3 ) : 1 21-1 2 4 .
"De s c r i bes u s e s and resources ( e s t imated
at 23 , 000 m i l l ion bd . f t . for the more
important s pec i e s ) and di s c u s s e s both
a i r and k i l n dry i ng . Spec i e s men t i oned
are Alnus rubra , Acer macrophyl lum ,
Frax i nu s l a t i fol i a , Populus t r i choc arpa ,
L i thoc arpu s den s i florus , Umbe llular i a
c a l i forn i c a and Quercus ke ll oggi i . " ( FA )
125
5 22 . Smi th , J . H . G . , and D . S . DeBel l .
1 9 7 3 . Opportun i t i e s for s hort
r o t at i on c ulture and c omplete
u t i l i z at i o n o f s even northwe s tern
tree s pec i e s . For . Chron .
4 9 ( 1 ) : 3 1-3 4 .
5 2 4 . Smi th , J . H . G . , and J . W . Ker .
19 5 7 . T imber volume depends on
D 2 H . B . C . Lumberman 41 ( 9 ) : 2 8 , 3 0 .
"The values o f the con s t an t s a and b
wi th i n g i ven l i m i t s of d . b . h . ( D ) o r o f
t h e 2 l a s t term , are tabulated for V
a +
b D H , wh ere V i s vol ume and H i s
10Q.
.
.
total he l ght . Spec l e s ( groupe d var l O U S 1y
for matur i ty , d . b . h . , and prove n ance )
i, nclude Douglas and Bal s am F i r , Thuj a
p1 i c at a and Chamaecypar i s nootkate n s i s ,
T s uga heterophyl l a , s i tka and ' i nter i o r '
Spruce ( P i ce a s pp . ) , P i nu s mon t i co 1 a ,
.
ponder o s a and . contorta , Lar i x
o c c i dental i s , Alde r , B i rc h , Mapl e ,
Cottonwood and Aspen , i n Br i t i s h
Columb i a . Ano ther table shows the
s t andard e rror i n % for very tall and
very short trees for e ach s pe c i e s or
group . " ( FA )
=
"Pre s e n t s new data for the average
h e i gh t and d . b . h . of wel l s paced tree s
o f Aln u s rubra , P i nu s contorta , Populus
t remu l o i de s ,
. t r i choc arpa , P s eudo t s uga
menz i e s i i , Thuj a pl i c ata and T s uga
h e t e r ophyl l a i n f u l l y s tocked young
s t ands ( 5 , 10 , and 15 years old ) on good
s i te s in s outhern B r i t i s h Columb i a . Data
on the above-ground we i ght d i s t r i bu t i o n
o f t r e e components , t h e green s p . gr . o f
wood a n d bark , and t h e e s t imat i on o f tree
volume are c omp i l ed from var i o u s s ource s .
Other new data i nd i c ate that very h i gh
y i e l d s o f small stemwood ( for f i bre
p roduc t s ) c an be obtai ned on short
r o t at i on s (8 and 2 years re s pec t i vely )
w i th den s e s t ands o f . rubra and
c o pp i c e s t ands of . t r i choc arpa . Some
p r act i c al probl ems of th i s type of
manag ement are d i s c u s s ed . " ( FA )
5 2 3 . Smi th , J . H . G . , and D . S . DeBel l .
1 9 7 4 . S ome e f f e c t s o f s t and
d en s i ty on b i omas s of red alde r .
C an . J . For . Re s . 4 ( 3 ) : 3 3 5 -340 .
" S t and den s Hy ( degree of c rowd i ng of
t re e s wi th i n s to cked are as ) was s tudied
i n re l at i on to f ormat i on and y i eld o f
j uven i l e r e d alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . )
s t and s . Large var i at i on s i n tree s i ze
and b i omas s o f fully- s to cked s t ands were
a s s oc i ated wi th d i fferences in s t and
d e n s i t y . Me a s u reme n t of den s i ty i n
a dd i t i on t o s tocki ng ( the frac t i on o f
area o c c up i ed b y tree s ) wi l l i mprove
b i oma s s s t ud i e s . I t w i l l al s o
f ad l i tate compar i s o n s o f b i omas s
r e s u l t s w i th e x i s t i ng i n format i on from
s pac i n g s t ud i e s and y i e ld tabl e s . " ( A )
1 26
•
5 2 5 . Smi th , J . H . G . , and A . Kozak .
1 9 6 7 . Th i ckne s s and percentage of
bark o f the commerc i al tree s o f
B r i t i sh Columb i a . 33 p .
Fac .
For . , Un i v . B . C . , Vanc ouve r .
"Th i ckne s s and perc entage o f bark at
s tump , breast h e i ght and tenths of total
h e i ght above breas t h e i ght we re an aly s ed
i n relat i on to tree and s e c t i on
character i s t i c s for mature trees i n 19
s pe c i e s o r s pe c i e s groups . Dbh and bark
t h i c kne s s at bre a s t h e i ght are the be s t
i nd i c ators o f tree bark th i c kne s s . Dob
at that h e i ght i s the be s t i nd i c ator of
bark t h i c kne s s at any par t i cular he i ght
in a tree . Influences of age , c r own
c l as s , var i o u s c rown charac ter i s t i c s ,
and s apwood th i ckne s s al s o are
s t at i s t i c ally s i gn i f i c ant but o f l e s s e r
i mportanc e .
"Data on young trees wh i c h have
th i nner b ark than mature trees wer e
s ummar i zed for Douglas f i r , we s tern
hemloc k , we s tern red cedar , s i lver f i r ,
bl ack c o t tonwood , and red alde r . For a
g i ven dob , root th i c kne s s i s l e s s than
at the root collar ; but s i mi l ar d i ame t e r s
o f r o o t c o l l ar , bole , and branch have
j u s t about the s ame thi ckne s s of bark . "
(A)
5 2 6 . Smi th , J . H . G . , and A . Kozak .
1 9 7 1 . Th i c kne s s , mo i s ture conten t ,
and s pe c i f i c grav i ty o f inner and
outer b ark of s ome Pac i f i c
Nor thwe s t tree s . For . Prod . J .
2 l ( 2 ) : 3 8-40 .
"Improved me thods i nvol v i ng bark t h i c k­
ne s s and percentag e s and corre c t i on s for
volume s lo s t i n vo i d s are d i s c u s s ed .
Tabulated ave rages and me asures o f
var i at i on i n th i c kne s s , mo i s t ure , and
spec i f i c grav i ty prov i de new data about
b o th i nner and outer bark for 1 9 c ommon
tree s pec i e s of the Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t ,
13 c o n i fers , and s i x hardwoods . " ( A )
5 2 7 . Smi th , J . Harry G .
1 9 5 7 . Fore s t h i s tory from aer i al
pho tograph s . For . Chron .
33 ( 4 ) : 390-3 9 2 .
"A b r i e f compar i s on of two s e r i e s of
ae r i al pho tog raph s o f a r e s earch fore s t ,
t aken i n 1 9 4 9 and 1 9 5 5 r e s pect i vely ,
i l l u s trat i n g the k i nd o f i n forma t i on to
be obt a i ned from s uch a s c rut iny on e . g .
the pat tern of reprod u c t i on , weeds
e t c . " ( FA )
5 28 . Sm i th , J . Harry G .
1964 . Roo t s pread c an be e s t imated
from c r own wi dth of Dou glas f i r ,
lodgepole p i ne , and other Br i t i s h
Columb i a tree s pec i e s . For . ehron .
40 ( 4 ) : 4 5 6 -4 7 3 .
"Root s y s tems o f trees blown down by a
gale i n october 1962 i n the U . B . C .
Campu s fore s t we re excavated and
s tud i e d . Roo t s of 90 Douglas F i r , 81
We s tern Hemloc k , 61 We s tern Red Cedar ,
and 33 Red Alder trees we re mapped and
an alys ed i n relat i on to 18 tree and
s t and vari able s . Average and max imum
rad i u s o f roo t s of Douglas F i r and
Lodgepole P i ne we re al s o anal y s ed i n
relat ion t o crown wi dth , d . b . h . , he i gh t ,
age , and other tree and s t and character­
i s t i c s . Rat i o s of root s pread to c r own
width we re i nfluenced by s pe c i e s , s t and
den s i ty , and s o i l type . Rat i o s aver aged
1 . 1 for open-- and 0 . 9 for fore s t- grown
Douglas F i r , but we re 2 . 4 for both open­
and fore s t-grown Lodgepo l e P i ne on peat
or poo rly drai ned s o i l s . " ( FA )
5 2 9 . Smi th , J . Harry G .
1968 . Growth and y i e ld o f red
alder i n B r i t i s h columb i .
In
B i ology o f alder , p . 2 7 3-286 . J .
M . Tr appe , J . F . Fr ankl i n , R . F .
Tarran t , and G . M . Han s en , eds .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp .
S tn . , Portland , Ore g .
"A gro s s vol ume of 1 b i l l i on c ub i c feet
o f red alder. e x i s t s on about 3 5 0 , 000
acres o f Br i t ih Co lumb i a fore s t l and that
could produce mu ch h i gher value s i f
s tocked wi th Douglas-f i r or black cotton­
wood . However , the characte r i s t i c ally
rap i d j uven i le growth o f alder from
s eed , wh i c h pe rmi t s full s tockin g at
127
e arly age s , may prove valuable for
management o f alder on very short
rotat i on s . Data are pres ented on r ad i al
g rowth and import ant tree charac te r i s t i c s
f o r open- and fores t-grown tree s .
Regre s s i on s o f c rown wi dth on dbh and a
y i e ld table based on the s e are i nc l uded .
I t i s shown that c rown wi dth and root
s pread are h i ghly c orrel ated . S everal
total cubi c-foot tree volume equat i o n s
a r e g i ven , and i t i s noted that o n e of
t h e s e , VI B
0 . 44H , al s o c an be u s ed to
e s t imate growth and y i eld per acre .
Merchantable volume factors and
r educ t i o n s for decay , was te , and breakage
are s ummar i zed . D i s t r i bu t i o n s of s e c t i o n
volume s and d i ame ters i n s i de bark are
d e s c r i bed by regre s s i on equat i o n s . Data
on bark t h i c kne s s and percen tage are
s ummar i zed . Br i t i s h Columb i a For e s t
S e rv i c e normal y i eld and s t and tabl e s
f o r alder and Schon ' s emp i r i c al
me rchantable y i eld table , as wel l a s
d a t a f rom Un i ve r s i ty o f Br i t i s h Columb i a
c ampu s and Haney Fore s t s , are used to
i l lus t r ate the need for early and
e f fe c t i ve control of s pac i ng . " ( A )
components have been determined on 13 1
young tre e s . S i ze , volume , bark
charac te r i s t i c s , form , taper , and other
elemen t s o f growth and y i eld have been
s t ud i ed on 4 5 7 tree s i n clud i n g s ome
s prout clump s wh i ch have o r i g i n ated
foll owi n g c l e an i ng . Y i e lds me as ured on
small p l o t s and tho s e c alculated
d i rectly from c rown are a and other
var i ab l e s i nd i c ate po tent i al valu e s from
short- rotat ion managemen t . " ( A )
=
5 3 0 . Smi th , J . Harry G .
1 9 7 2 . Tree s i ze and y i elds i n
j uven i l e red alder s t ands .
Nor thwe s t S c i . A s s oc . Annu . Mee t .
1 9 7 2 , 3 5 p . Bel l i ngham , Wash .
" I ntere s t in b i omas s analys i s and i n
c omplete s t and u t i l i zat ion has focu s s ed
a t tent i on on s pe c i e s such as red alde r ,
Alnus rubra Bong . that are prol i f i c
s e ede r s and abundant on d i s turbed s i tes .
I n format i on c o l l e c ted s i nce 1 9 6 7 by a
v ar i e t y o f me thods h a s been analysed to
d e s c r i b e growth of s t ands up to 10 year s
o f age . Mo i s ture conten t s , s pec i f i c
g r avi ty , and fre sh and dry-·we i gh t
1 28
5 3 1 . Smi th , J . Harry G .
1 9 7 4 . B i omas s o f s ome young red
alder s t ands . Proc . Int . Un i o n
For . Re s . Organ . Mee t . , Vanc ouver
B i omas s Stud i e s , Co I l . L i fe Sc i .
and Ag r i c . , Un i v . Maine , Orono ,
p . 401-410 .
"Mo i s t ure conten t s , s pe c i f i c gravi ty , and
fresh- and dry-we i ght c omponents have
been me as ured on 131 young red alder
tree s ( Alnus rubra Bon g . ) . S i ze , vol ume ,
b ark , form , and taper o f 4 5 7 red alder
tree s from 1 to 10 years in age have
been anal y s ed i n tens i vely by graph i c al
and mul t i ple regre s s ion me thod s . Yi elds
h ave been determi ned in a var i et y o f
s t and cond i t i ons rang i ng from i s ol ated
open-grown tree s to the de n s e s t th i c ke t s
that could be found a s a r e s u l t of
natural seeding on bare ground . Yi elds
from very young s t ands h ave been c ompared
wi th those found in young and mat ure
type s on the South Coas t of Br i t i s h
Columb i a . Growth i n den s e s t ands h a s
b e e n evaluated on 19 small p l o t s for two
year s . B i olog i c al and man age r i al impl i ­
c at i o n s o f both average and max i mum
y i elds i n b i omas s and volume are
d i s cu s s ed , bri e f ly . " ( A )
5 3 2 . Smi th , J . Harry G .
1 9 7 8 . Growth and y i e ld of red
alde r : Effec t s o f s pac i ng and
t h i nn i ng . In ut i l i zat ion and
management of alde r , p . 2 4 5-263 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBe l l , and
Wi l l i am A . Atki n s o n , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"In th i s p aper I rev i ew i n forma t i on o n
t h e growth and y i eld o f r e d alde r . Re ­
cent po i n t s ample stud i e s of 131 tre e s
f rom Po i n t Grey near Vancouve r , Br i t i sh
Columb i a and 1 1 6 tree s from the Un i ve r ­
s i ty of B r i t i s h Columb i a Re s e arch Fore s t
near Haney , B . C . are reported t o s how
h ow tree s and s t ands grow . Mo s t
atten t i on i s p a i d t o the few stud i e s
wh i ch h ave demons trated how growth o f
2 0-year and older s t ands c an b e
c oncent rated o n fewe r , h i gher qual i ty
s t erns .
"Because very l i t t le i s known about
potent i al g a i n s f rom s p ac i ng , plan t i ng ,
o r precomme rc i al th i n n i ng o f red alder
i n the Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t , I s ummar i ze
data from curre n t s t ud i e s . Tree r i ng
analys e s of di sks and cores are u s ed to
l e arn how s u rv i v i n g trees i n old s t ands
grew when young . I also d i s c u s s problems
c au s ed by mul t i pl e , mi s s i n g , and loc ally
absent r i ng s . The c r i t i cal per i od o f
s t and e s tabl i s hment and he avy self­
th i n n i ng is de s c r i bed u s i ng data from
e i ght O . l-acre plot s in 8- to 10-year-old
s t ands and from two O . l- ac re plo t s i n
2 5 - year-old s t and s . The bas i c un i t s
we re O . OOl- acre plots i n wh i ch s pec i e s
and d . b . h . o f all l i ve and dead tree s
we re recorded . Compar i s o n s are made
between s everal charac t e r i s t i c s of me an
trees on O . OOl-acre p l o t s and the
b i gge s t tre e s on 0 . 0 1 acres ( top he i ght
tree s ) . The O . OOl-acre plot s are
regrouped i n to var i o u s plot s i z e s and
con f i gurat i on s and s t and den s i t i e s
me asu red b y numbers o f tree s , d . b . h . ,
and b a s al area to show what i n c r e a s e s i n
d . b . h . and he i ght mi ght re s u l t from
spac i ng and th i nn i ng . I s ummar i ze s t and
den s i ty i nd i c e s and to c k i n g as expre s s ed
by crown c over as we l l as d i s c u s s the
rol e s of l i ght-seeki ng and lean in
s e l f-th i nn i n g . I g i ve e x ampl e s o f the
numbers of years requi red to grow to
bre a s t he i ght and patterns of growth i n
he i ght and d i ame ter b y dec i l e s above
bre a s t he i ght and I compare recent
annual he i ght growth wi th growth of
branche s .
"Prem i ums for s i ze and qual i ty for
we l l - s paced s t ands are revi ewed i n
c ompar i s on w i th g a i n s i n vol ume for very
den s e s t ands . I conclude that s t and
manage r s have many exc i t i ng opt i o n s for
impro v i n g growth and y i e ld o f red alde r ;
but , i n order to con f i rm conclu s i on s
drawn tentat i vely from e x am i n at i on o f
tempo rary plo t s , s u s t a i ned s tudi e s o f
s pac i ng and precommerc i al t h i n n i ng are
needed . " ( A )
5 3 3 . Smi th , J . Harry G . , and Robert E .
Breadon .
1 9 6 4 . Comb i ned var i able equat ions
and volume -ba s al area rat i o s for
total cub i c foot volume s of the
comme c i al trees of B . C . For .
Chron . 40 ( 2 ) : 2 5 8-261 .
"Pre s e n t s rev i s ed tab l e s for B . C . and
d i s cu s s e s the i r prac t i c a l appl i c at i on . "
( FA )
129
3 4 . Smi th , J . Harry G . , and Donald D .
Munro .
1 9 6 5 . P o i n t s ampl i ng and
me rchan t able volume factors for the
c ommerc i al trees of Br i t i s h
Co lumb i a . Un i v . B . C . , Fac . For . ,
3 9 p . Van couver , B . C .
" p o i n t - s ampl i n g factors ( PS F ) are s t ated
a s vol ume per s quare foot of b a s al area
at bre a s t he i ght . They have been c al ­
c ulated here i n both c ub i c and board
feet ( B . C . Log Rule s ) for the c ommerc i al
t rees o f B r i t i sh Columb i a . PSF h ave
been d e r i ved f rom s t andard volume tabl e s
a n d t a p e r curves prepared b y t h e B . C .
Fore s t Serv i c e and h ave been checked
agai n s t data from other tables and from
s ample s c o l l e c ted in the f i e ld . PSF c an
b e u s e d d i rectly to s impl i fy s ummary of
d ata c o llected w i th the aid o f a pr i sm
o r r e l a s co pe .
"Merchantable-volume factors ( MVF )
are s t ated as rat i o s o f total c ub i c foot
volume s that rema i n after dedu c t i o n s have
been made for s t andard of ut i l i zat i o n
e xpected and for amounts o f l o s s ant i c i ­
p ated from decay , was te , and breakage .
I n add i t i on s ome approache s to theore t i ­
c al de r i vat i on o f MVF are de s c r i bed to
p rovide checks o n emp i r i c al ly de r i ved
c on s t a n t s .
"PSF and MVF are tabulated to
f ac i l i tate the i r use in f i e ld or o f f i c e .
F actors that govern tree vol ume , methods
o f me a s u r i ng tree volume , and t e s t s of
the var i ou s approache s to c alcu l at ion of
PSF and MVl!' are de s c r i bed b r i e f ly . " ( A )
5 3 5 . Sm i th , N i ch o las J .
1 9 7 8 . Red alder as a potent i al
s ource o f energy . In ut i l i z at ion
and man agement o f alde r , p . 139- 1 5 5 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBell ,
and Wi l l i am A . Atki nson , c omp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range EXp . St n . , Portland , Oreg .
130
"The energy plantat ion i s de f i ne d and s e t
i n t h e Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t energy contex t .
Analys e s on naturally e s tabl i shed 8- to
10-year-old red alder ( Alnus rubra Bong . )
at Un i ve r s i ty o f Br i t i s h Columb i a are
u s e d to demons trate above·-ground y i elds
and energy f l ows . Re s u l t s s how a current
net conwun i ty produc t i v i ty o f 2 8 . 5 oven
dry me tr i c tonne s / h a per yr ( conve r s i o n
e f f i c i enc i e s o f 3-percent v i s i b l e net
r ad i at i on ) , and a mean annual produc t i ­
v i ty o f 9 . 0 oven dry me t r i c tonne s / ha
per yr . po s s i b l e sources o f fuel by
b i oconve r s i on are d i s c u s s ed . F l u i d i z ed­
bed , c omb i ned-cycle s y s tems have g ood
prospects for e l ec t r i c al generat ion . To
s at i s fy B r i t i s h Columb i a ' s ( B . C . ) 1981
energy needs , at least 1 . 2 x 10 7 ha of
alder plantat i on s will be needed ( 1 2
percent o f B . C . ) . U s e w i l l prob ably
conti nue as dome s t i c fue lwood . A market
for supplemen t s to ut i l i t i e s based on
c o al , m i l l was te , and fore s t was te may
develop .
In the long-term , small energy
plantat i ons for l o c al commun i t i e s i n
B . C . are env i s aged . The term b i omas s
f arm i s u s ed preferen t i al l y s i nc e i t
al l ows flex i ble appropr i at i o n o f y i elds
to a s pect r:-um of poten t i al u s e s . " ( A )
5 3 6 . Sm i th , R . S . , and C . V . Sharman .
1 9 7 1 . Effect o f gamma rad i at i on ,
we t-heat , and ethylene o x i de
s ter i l i z at i on o f wood on i t s
subsequent decay b y four
wood-de s t r:-o y i ng fun g i . Wood &
F i be r 2 ( 4 ) : 3 56-3 6 2 .
" S apwood of Alnus rubra and P i nu s
ponde rosa was ste r i l i zed by impregnat i o n
wi th ethylene o x i de , s teaming a t 1210 C
or -rad i at i on at three do s ages ( 2 . 5 X
10 6 , 5 . 0 X 10 6 , and 10 7 rad ) , and then
exposed to two brown-rot and two wh i te-­
rot fung i . Gamma rad i at i on at 2 . 5 X 10 6
r ad i s a s u i table alternat i ve to the
other me thods o f s t e r i l i z at i on .
A small lo s s o f wood occurs at all three
r ad i at i on d o s e s . A do s age o f 10 7 r ad
c au s ed a s i gn i f i c an t i nc r e a s e i n decay
o f both wood s pe c i e s by Por i a we i r i i . "
( FA )
5 3 7 . Spr i nger , E . L . , F . L . Schm i dt , W .
C . Fe i s t , L . L . Zoch , Jr . , and G . J . Haj ny . 19 7 5 . S torage o f red alder c h i p s wi th and wi thou t bark - tre ated and untre ated . USDA For . S e rv o Re s . Pap . FPL-261 , 9 p . For . Prod . Lab . , Mad i s on , Wi s . " S c reened c h i p s f rom unbarked and barked
Alnus rubra logs we re s tored for 6 mon ths
i n s imul ators of ch i p p i l e s . Large
l o s s e s in wood subs tance s , pul p y i eld
and pulp s t rength occurred in bo h type s
o f c h i p s equally ; s l i ghtly mor e heat was
e volved in barked ch i ps dur ing the l a s t
4 mon ths o f s to r age . Imme r s i on o f the
c h i ps in 0 . 1% me th am-Na + 0 . 4% Na
2 , 4 d i n i t ro phenol before s torage was
e f fe c t i ve i n preven t i ng l o s s e s . " ( FA )
5 3 8 . Spri nger , Edward L . , Fred L .
Schm i dt ,
Wi l l i am C . Fe i s t , Lawren c e L . Zoch ,
Jr . , and George J . H aj ny .
1 9 7 5 . Re cent r e s u l t s i n ch i p
s torage- -compar i s o n s o f the s to rage
char ac te r i s t i c s o f ch i p s produced
f rom b arked and unbarked red alder
logs . Tapp i An nu . Meet . 1 9 7 5 : 83-91 .
" Ch i ps produced f rom unbarked ( rough )
and debarked red alder logs we re s tored
for 6 mon th s in ch i p p i le s imu l ato r s .
Only m i nor d i f ferences we re found i n the
s torage characte r i s t i c s of the untre ated
c h i p s . Dur i ng the l a s t 4 mon ths o f
s torage , a l i t t le more heat wa s evol ved
f rom the bark-free c h i p s . Large lo s s e s
i n wood subs tanc e , pulp y i eld , and pulp
s t rength we re observed ; howeve r , they
we re e s s en t i al ly the s ame for both type s
of ch i p s . Tre atment of both type s o f
c h i p s by i mme r s i o n i n a n aqueous s olut i on
of s od i um N-methyld i th i oc arbamate +
s od i um , 2 , 4-d i n i trophenol very e f fec­
ti vely pre s e rved the ch i p s . " ( A )
3 9 . S t aebler , George R .
1 9 60 . B a s al i nj ec t ion o f 2 , 4 , 5 -T
f a i l s to k i l l red alde r and b i gleaf
maple . For . Re s . Note 23 , 2 p .
We yerhaeuser Co . ' , Cent ral i a , Was h .
"Tree s o f 4-26 i n . d i am . at ground l i ne
i n S . W . Wa s h i ngton we re mo s tly unharmed
by 2 , 4 , 5 -T in d i e s e l o i l , i nj ec ted w i th
the L i t tl e tree i nj ector i n i nc i s i on s 2 ,
5 and 8 i n . apart . F a i lure to k i l l was
pre sumably due to f a i lure to get enough
chemi cal i n to the s tem . Tree s we re
s u c c e s s fully k i lled wi th a s im i l ar
chemi c al s qu i r ted i n to f r i l l g i rdle s . "
( FA )
5 40 . S t ark , Er i c W .
1 9 5 3 . Wood anatomy o f the
Betul aceae i nd i genous to the Un i ted
State s . Agr i c . Exp . S tn . , Stn .
Bull . 602 , 31 p . Purdue . Un i v . ,
Lafayette , Ind .
"Includes keys to photomi crograph s for
the i dent i f i c at ion of seven s pe c i e s o f
Betul a , s i x of Alnu s , o n e o f Carpi nus ,
three o f O s trya , and two of Cory1us . "
( FA )
131
5 4 1 . S t arker , T . J .
1 9 3 9 . A new alder .
3 7 ( 5 ) : 41 5 - 4 1 7 .
J . For .
De s c r i be s Alnus rubra var . pi nnat i s ecta
a s a n ew cut-leaved var i e ty o f red
a lder .
( CFH )
5 4 2 . S teele , Robert W .
1 9 7 1 . Red alder h ab i tats i n
C l e arwater County , Idaho . M . S .
the s i s . Un i v . Idaho , Mo s c ow . 88 p .
" S e ral s t ands o f Alnus rubra grow i n
nor thern Idaho d i s j unct from populat i o n s
we s t o f the Cas c ade Range . A s t udy of
r e d alder h ab i tats along the north Fork
o f the Cle arwater R i ve r revealed other
c o as t a l d i s j unct and e ndem i c s pec i e s
u n c ommon i n the northern Rocky Mount a i n s .
C l imax s t ands o f Thuj a pl i c at a and Tsuga
h e t erophyl l a i n r e d alder hab i tat had
u n de s c r i bed unde r s tor i e s domi nated by
f e rn s . A Dryopt er i a au s tr i ac a - .
f i l i x-mas un i on and an Adi antum pedatum
u n ion we re de s c r ibed as new habi tat
t y pe s . As s oc i at i on tabl e s s how that
c ert a i n s pe c i e s appear con f i ned to the s e
two un i on s wh i l e other s pec i e s common t o
t h e Pach i s t ima u n i on appear exc luded .
Red alder h ab i t ats s upport s everal
s pec i e s unreported from Cle arwater
County i n clud i n g Vi o l a s empe rv i ren s , a
d i s j unct s pe c i e s unreported from Idaho .
c e r t a i n other s pec i e s on o r near red
a l de r h ab i t ats h ave c on s i s tently abbe r ant
morpho l o g i c al and ecolo g i c al t r a i t s
wh i ch s ugge s t a n i nc l i nat i on o f the s e
p l an t s t o re. s embl e rel ated taxa growing
we s t o f the Cas c ade s .
132
" S t ands o f red alder h ad under­
s to r i e s s imi l ar to tho s e in adj acent
c l i max c ommun i t i e s . S i te i nd i c e s for
red alder ranged from 71 to 104 but
averaged only s l i ghtly lower than tho s e
we s t o f the Cas c ade s . " ( A )
543 . Stenzel , George .
1 9 5 4 . Marke t i ng woodlot produ c t s
i n the S t a t e of Wash i ngton . I n s t .
For . Prod . Bul l . 1 5 , 5 6 p . Un i v .
Wash . , Seattl e .
A s s o r ted i n format i on on wood s pe c i f i c a­
t i ons , poten t i al marke t s , log s c ale , and
s tand i ng volume table s for Pac i f i c
Nor thwe s t tree spec i e s , i nc l uding red
alde r . U s e f ul for the small woodlot
owne r .
( CFH )
544 . Stettler , R . F . , and J . C . Cummi ngs .
1 9 7 3 . A g u i de to fores t-tree
c o l l ec t i on s o f known s ource or
parentage i n the We s tern un i ted
states and Canada . Re s u l t s of a
prel imi nary s urvey . con i ferous
For . B i ome Bull . 3 , 5 9 p . ColI .
For . Re s our . , Un i v . Was h . , Seattle .
"Th i s publ i c at i on reports the r e s u l t s of
a prel imi nary s u rvey l i s t i ng 527 fores t­
tree plantat i o n s in the we s tern un i ted
states and Canada . Of the s e , 2 5 0
i nvolve f ami l i e s of known parentage , 1 3 1
provenance -te s t mat er i al , 8 7 clonal
mate r i al , and 5 9 i n terspec i f i c hybr ids .
The report i s i n tended ( 1 ) to s erve
fore s t r e s earchers in loc at ing gene t i c
mater i al rel evant t o the i r wo r k , and ( 2 )
to fac i l i tate an a s s e s sment o f regi onal
fore s t-gene res ourc e s . A l i s t of
agenc i e s , a s pe c i e s i nde x , a b r i e f
d i s c u s s i o n of s urvey r e s ul t s , and
rec ommendat ions complete the report . "
(A)
5 4 5 . Stettler , Re i nhard F .
1 9 7 8 . B i o l og i c al aspec t s of red
alder pert i nent to poten t i al
bree d i ng programs .
In ut i l i zat i o n
and man agement of alde r , p . 209-22 2 .
Dav i d G . B r i gg s , Dean S . DeBell ,
and W i l l i am A . Atki n s on , comp i l e r s .
USDA For . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"After a b r i e f i n troduc t i on to general
concepts o f gene t i c improvement , I
d i s cu s s s e lected b i olog i c al f ac tors of
red alder ( Alnus rubr a ) affe c t i ng the
feas i b i 1 i ty
d i re c t i on o f poten t i al
breed i n g programs . The s e factors i nc lude
the d i ve r s i ty of the genu s , the s pe c i e s '
l i fe h i s tory , growth , reprodu c t i ve
b i ology , and n i trogen f i xat i o n . B e c au s e
o f i t s early s e xual matur i ty , annual
s eed c ro p s , and r ap i d j uven i l e growth ,
red alder promi s e s to offer compara­
t i ve l y l arge gene t i c g a i n s per un i t of
t i me and e f fort . Three alternat i ve
improvemen t programs w i th d i f ferent
emph a s e s appe ar mer i tor i ou s , i . e . , ( 1 )
s hort- r o t at i on f i be r produc t i on , ( 2 )
normal-r o t at i on log produc t i on , and ( 3 )
n i trogen produc t i on . Pend i n g genet i c
improveme n t , i n format ion i s needed o n
bas i c gene t i c parameters and on s i lv i ­
cultural techn i qu e s o f i nten s i ve
nanagement . " ( A )
5 4 6 . S te u c ek , G . L . , and R . M . Kellogg .
1 9 7 5 . Ac t i on poten t i al s i n Alnus
rubra s tem s e gmen t s in relat i on t o
me c h an i c al s t r e s s .
( Ab s tr . ) Pa .
Ac ad . Sc i . Proc . 4 9 ( 1 ) : 9 3 .
e l i c i te and c h arac ter i ze the s e ac t i on
potent i al s . Act i on poten t i al s h ad a
s t imulat i on thre shold , a r e f r actory
per i o d wh i ch i l lus trated f a t i gue , and a
r e s t t ime charac ter i s t i c o f plant
c e l l s . The s e ac t i o n poten t i al s could
not be produce d in t i s s ue k i l led by heat
or treated wi th d i n i tropheno l . Only
when t i s s ue was hyperpolar i zed d i d
ac t i on potent i al s occur . The ab i l i ty o f
s tem t i s s ue t o generate ac t i on poten t i al s
var i ed wi th the s e a s on . " ( A )
5 4 7 . Stewart , R . E .
1 9 7 2 . F i e ld s c reen i ng o f granular
herb i c i d e s on pole- s i z e red alder .
We s t . Soc . Weed S c i . R e s . Prog .
Rep . , p . 19-2 0 .
" In evaluat i o n o f granular herb i c i d e s
for the control o f woody a n d herbaceous
weeds in Alnu s rubra c ommun i t i e s i n
c o a s t al Oregon and Was h i ng to n , d i c amba
at 1 5 lb/ acre and p i c loram at 5 1b/ acre
gave complete top k i l l of S ambuc u s
c a1l i c arpa and . glauc u s , wh i le Rubus
v i t i fo 1 i u s was b e s t control led with
p i c10ram at 1 5 lb . P i c e a s i t chen s i s
s ap l i ng s were ki l led b y p i c 10ram at
0 . 5 1b / acre and by d i c amba at 5 and 1 5
lb/acre b u t proved re s i s t ant t o
karbut i 1 ate . Herbac eous ground c over
was reduced by c a . 7 0% wi th 15 lb/acre
o f any o f the herb i c i de s . March and
Apr i l appeared to be the be s t months for
appl i c at i on . " ( FA )
"Af ter a 3 0 s ec ond per i od of me chan i c al
s t r e s s , a c t i on poten t i al s we re re corded
f rom alder ( Alnus rub r a ) s tem s egmen t s
u s i ng Ag : AgC1 elec trode s . Subs equently ,
e l e c t r i c al s t imulat i o n was employed to
133
5 4 8 . s t ewar t , R . E .
1 9 7 2 . F i eld s c ree n i ng of s tem
appl i ed herb i c i d e s on Co a s t Range
b r u s h s pec i e s . We s t . Soc . Weed
s c i . Re s . Prog . Rep . , p . 18-19 .
" In t r i al s i n Oregon and Wa s h i ngton ,
s tems o f Acer c i rc i natum , Alnus rubra ,
Coryl u s cornu t a , Rubus spe c t ab i l i s , and
g. par v i florus were s prayed thoroughly
a t bud-break wi t h 2 , 4-0 , 2 , 4 , 5 -T ,
d i chlorprop , S i lvex ( fenopro p ) and
d i c amb a , alone or i n mixture s , at 1
l b / lOO gal d i e s e l ' o i l . By the end of
the f i r s t growing s e a s on , 2 , 4 , 5 -T and
f e noprop r e s u l ted i n the be s t defol i at i on
and t o p- k i l l , wh i le the i nc idence of
r e - s prout ing on plo t s treated w i t h
2 , 4 , 5 -T w a s redu ced by the add i t ion o f
d i c amb a . A l l t reatme n t s s uppre s s ed
r e - sprout i ng of Alnu s rubra . " ( F'A )
5 4 9 . S t ewar t , R . E .
1 9 7 4 . Budbreak s prays for s i t e
preparat i on and r e l e a s e from s i x
c o as tal bru sh s p e c i e s . USDA For .
S e rv o Re s . Pap . PNW-· 1 7 6 , 20 , p .
Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S t n . , Portland , Oreg .
"Ten herb i c i d e s or comb i nat ions o f
h e rb i c i de s we re appl i ed at budbreak o n
red alde r , s almonbe rry , we s tern th imble
b e rry , v i ne mapl e , Cal i forn i a haze l , and
s alal . Re s u l t s show that red alde r ,
v i ne maple , and Cal i forn i a hazel c an be
ad equ ately controlled for con i f er
r e l e a s e by budbreak s p ray s o f 2 , 4 , 5 - T
appl i ed i n d i e s e l o i l . Sprays
c o n ta i n i ng 2 , 4 , 5 -T are promi s i ng for
c ontrol o f s alal , but add i t i onal t e s t s
a r e ne c e s s ary . Budbreak s prays should
n o t b e u s ed to control s almonberry o r
we s tern thimbleberry s h rubs . Ae r i al
s p r ay t e s t s i nd i c ate that c omb i nat i on s
o f d i c amba wi th 2 , 4 , 5 - T may be u s eful
for s i te preparat ion . Herb i c i dal
tre atme n t s for con i fer release and s i t e
preparat i on are recommended for each
s pec i e s . " ( A )
5 5 0 . S tewar t , R . E .
1 9 7 4 . Fol i age s prays for s i te
prepar at i on and r e l e a s e f rom s i x
coas tal brush s pec i e s . USDA For .
Serv o Re s . P ap . PNW- 1 7 2 , 18 p .
Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range EXp .
S t n . , Portland , Oreg .
" F' i fteen herb i c i de s or comb i n at i on s o f
herb i c i d e s we re t e s ted a s ground- appl i ed
fol i age s p r ay s on red alde r , s almonbe rry ,
we s tern thimbleberry , v i ne maple ,
Cal i forn i a haze l , and s alal . P i c l o ram
produced the b e s t overall control of the
s i x s pe c i e s , although not even p i c loram
produced acceptable control of s alal .
Fol i age s prays of 2 , 4 , 5 -T we re e f f ec t i ve
on all s pec i e s except s alal . Herb i c i d e s
were generally more e f f e c t i ve whe n
appl i ed i n l a t e s pr i ng than i n midsumme r .
However , adequate control for release of
con i fe r s c an be obt a i ned w i th midsumme r
s prays of 2 , 4 , 5 -T on red alde r , s almon­
berry , and we s tern t h i mbleberry . Herb i ­
c i dal t re a tme n t s s u i table f o r con ifer
release and s i te prepar a t i on are
recomme nded for each s pec i e s . " ( A )
5 5 1 . S tewar t , W . D . P .
1962 . A quan t i tat i ve s t udy of
f i xat i on and t r an s fe r o f n i t rogen
in Alnus . J . Exp . Bot .
1 3 ( 3 8 ) : 2 5 0- 2 5 6 .
"In Alder [ A . glut i no s a ? ] plants dur ing
the f i r s t s e a s o n ' s growth , N f i xat i on
per plant reached a max i mum i n l ate
134
Augu s t , but f e l l rap i d ly with the o n s e t
o f autumn . F i x at ion p e r un i t d r y we i ght
o f nodule t i s s ue was greate s t in young
nodul e s and was of the s ame order as i n
nodulated legume s . Throughout the grow­
i ng s e a s o n there wa s a s t e ady tran s fe r
f rom the n odules o f s ome 90% of the N
f i xed . The rate o f f i x at i on relat i ve to
the growth of the endophyte i s mu c h
h i gher than i n free- l i v i ng N- f i x i ng
organi sms , and i s c le arly governed by
the N requ i rements of the ent i re
s ymb i o t i c s y s tem . The s e f i nd i ngs are
c ompat i bl e w i th the v i ew that the
f i xat i on proc e s s i s e x t r acel lular to the
endophyte . " ( FA )
5 5 2 . stewar t , W . D . P .
1 96 7 . N i trogen-f i x i ng plants .
sc i en c e 1 5 8 ( 3 807 ) : 1426-1432 .
"A rev i ew , di s c u s s i ng the le gume /
Rh i zob i um a s s oc i at i on , the non-legumi nous
n i trogen- f i x i ng plants and the i r s ym­
b i on t s ( algae or bacte r i a ) , and the
b i ochemi c al aspects of n i trogen
reduc t i on .
( FA )
II
5 5 3 . Stubble f i e ld , George , and Chadw i c k
D . O l i ver .
1 9 7 8 . s i lv i cult ural i mpl i c at i o n s
o f the recons truc t i o n o f mi xed
alde r / c o n i fer s t and s . In
ut i l i z at i o n and management of alder ,
p . 3 0 7 - 3 2 0 . Dav i d G . B r i gg s , Dean
S . DeBell , and W i l l i am A . Atki nson ,
c omp i le r s . USDA For . S e rv o Gen .
Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Northwe s t
For . and Range Exp . S t n . , Portland ,
Oreg .
"Hi xed alder hemlock redcedar Dougl as-f i r
s t ands wh i ch began growth after a 1 9 2 7
logg i ng f i re were s tud i ed on t i l l s o i l s
o f the Marchworth Fore s t o f the central
Was h i ngton Cas c ade s . The s t and was
alway s sparsely s tocked . E s s e n t i al ly
all s tems had begun wi th i n 20 years o f
the d i s turban c e . Red alder s were the
s ame age or u p to 17 years younger than
the as s oc i ated c o n i fers on the s ame
plot , although the con i f e r s we re u s ually
i n a s ubord i n ate pos i t i o n . For anal y s e s
of s i t e i ndex , s tocki ng , and growth
rate s , i t cannot be a s s umed that the
alde r s are the s ame age as the i n i t i at i n g
d i s turbance . The alde r s var i ed widely
i n c rown s i ze and d i ame ter but var i e d
l e s s i n h e i gh t . Basal are a o f i nd i v i dual
alde r s was c l o s ely rel ated to s p ac i ng .
Clo s e l y s paced alder s r e s u l te d i n s p i ndly
s tems o f poor qual i ty . Very recent alder
s t ands generally be g i n wi th many more
s tems per acre than th i s s t and d i d .
Early th i nn i ng may be nece s s ary to
ach i eve adequ ate alder growth . " ( A )
5 5 4 . s tuntz , D . E . , and E . C . S e l i s kar .
1 9 4 3 . A s tem c anker o f dogwood and
madrona . Mycolog i a 3 5 ( 2 ) : 2 0 7 - 2 2 1 .
"Du r i n g the pas t few years Cornus
nuttal l i i and Arbutus menz i e s i i trees i n
seattle and the v i c i n i ty h ave become
i nc r e a s i ngly affec ted by c anke r s wh i c h
g i rdle the s tem and eventually k i l l the
tree . Wh en t i s s ues from c an ke r s on both
tree s pec i e s we re i ncubate d , two organ­
i sms we re obt a i ned : - -a Phomops i s , l ater
found to be a s e c ondary paras i te , and a
s pe c i e s o f Phytophthora , i dent i f i ed as
E . c ac torum . Th i s i s the f i r s t record
of E. c ac t orum on the s e ho s t s .
"The fungus wa s found by i noculat i o n
t e s t s t o be qu i te v i rulent o n AceI.'
mac rophyl 1um and able to attack
P s eudo t s uga t a x i fol i a , Al nus rubra , S al i x
s coul e r i ana , and Cory1u s c al i forn i c a . "
( FA )
135
5 5 5 . Sudworth , George B .
1 908 . Fore s t tree s o f the Pac i f i c
s l o pe . 4 4 1 p . Was h i ngton , D . C .
5 5 6 . Sund , J i mm i e Damon .
1 9 7 7 . Some r e s po n s e s o f red alder
t o herb i c i de appl i c at i on . M . S .
t h e s i s . Un i v . Was h . , Seattl e . 60 p .
"Under cond i t i on s o f th i s s tudy , r e l at i ve
humi d i ty and i n terac t i on s o f re lat i ve
h um i d i ty wi th pl ant mo i s t ure s t res s o r
temperature e x pl a i ned or we re a s s oc i ated
w i th 50 percent o f the var i at i on i n
c o n t rol o f red alder b y 2 , 4-D . B e s t
c ontrol was obt a i ned under cond i t i on s o f
h i gh r e l at i ve hum i d i ty dur i n g the morn i ng
hours , i f fol i age was not overly we t ; or
under c ond i t i on s o f r i s i ng relat i ve
hum i d i t y dur i ng the late afternoon .
T i m i ng o f d i urnal tran s port o f c arbo­
hydrat e s and herb i c i de to the roo t s and
r a t e s of r e s p i rat ion along the transport
route a ppear t o be add i t i onal factors as
t h e y r e l ate to plan t water relat i on s and
temper ature . The pe r i od o f poo re s t con­
t r o l was dur i ng the m i dday depre s s i o n
be tween 1 : 00 p . m . and 4 : 00 p . m . whe n
r e l at i ve humi d i ty was be low 5 01. and a
p l ant mo i s ture s t re s s of 1 5 atmo s phere s . "
(A)
5 5 7 . Swan , Er i c P .
1 9 7 3 . Re s i n ac i d s and fatty ac i d s
of C anad i an pulpwood s - - a r ev i ew o f
t h e l i te r at u re . We s t . For . Prod .
Lab . lnf . Re p . VP-X-1 1 5 , 2 1 p .
Can . For . S e rv . , Vancouver , B . C .
136
"The l i terature on the fatty ac i d s and
r e s i n ac i d s , and bound forms of the s e
ac i d s , found i n Canad i an pulpwoods i s
rev i ewed . Data for the foll owi n g trees
are pres ented : j ac k p i ne , lodgepo l e
p i ne , ponde r o s a p i ne , r e d p i ne , e as tern
wh i te p i ne , r ad i ata p i ne , we s te r n l arch ,
t amarack , wh i te s pruc e , s i tka s pruc e ,
Norway s pruc e , we s tern hemloc k , Dougl a s ­
f i r , alp i ne f i r , amab i l i s f i r , we s tern
red cedar , red alde r , red maple , sugar
mapl e , s i lver b i rc h , t rembl i ng as pen ,
wh i t e e lm , wh i te and yellow b i rch and
bas s wood .
"Further res earch on a var i e ty o f
i mportant var i ables and o n unreported
s pe c i e s i s d i s c u s s ed . " ( A )
5 5 8 . s z c z awi n s k i , Adam F . , and Antony S .
Harr i s o n .
1 9 7 2 . Flora on the Saan i ch
Pen i n s u l a : Annot ated l i s t of
vascular plan t s . Occas . Pap . B . C .
Prov o Mus . 1 6 , 1 1 4 p . V i c tor i a ,
B.C.
Red alder i s among the s pe c i e s l i s ted .
( CFH )
5 5 9 . Tarran t , R . F .
1 9 7 2 . The role o f alder i n
i mpro v i ng s o i l fert i l i ty and growth
of as soc i ated tree s . In Manag i ng
young fore s t s i n the Doug las-f i r
reg i on , Vo l . 3 , p . 1 7 -34 . Alan B .
Berg , ed . Sch . For . , Oreg . s t ate
Un i v . , Corvall i s .
5 6 0 . Tarran t , Robert F .
1961 .
Stand developmen t and s o i l
fert i l i ty i n a Douglas- f i r--red
alder plantat i on . For . Sc i .
7 ( 3 ) : 2 38-2 4 6 .
"Douglas F i r planted ( 8 X 8 ft . ) at 2000
f t . was i n terplanted in part 4 year s
l ater wi th 2-year Aln u s rubra f rom s eed
c o l lected at 100 ft . al t . , the latter
p l an t s s u f f er i ng early from fro s t . The
f o llowing advan tages for the mi xture at
2 7 years are shown from plot and s ample ­
tree s tudi e s . T h e volume ( Alder and
Dougl as ) was mor e than twi c e that of pure
Dougl a s , w i th no adve r s e e f f e c t on s tem
s i z e and w i th an adequate s tem number o f
Douglas ( 44 3 / ac re ) . Dom i n an t Douglas
grew faster i n d i am . and h e i ght over the
years 20-2 7 . Form c l a s s and upper c rown s
o f Douglas were bette r . Total N i n s o i l
and i n Douglas fol i age wa s al s o greate r .
The Alder has e v i dently c on t r i buted to
i ncreased growth in Douglas domi nan t s
f rom age 2 0 . " ( FA )
5 6 1 . Tarrant , Robert F .
1964 . Fore s t s o i l i mprovement
through growi ng red alder ( Alnus
rubra Bong . ) in Pac i f i c Nor thwe s tern
un i ted state s . 8th Int . Congr .
S o i l . Sc i . Tran s . V : l029-l043 .
Buchare s t , Ruman i a .
5 6 2 . Tarrant , Robert F .
1968 . Some e f f e c t s o f alder on the
fore s t envi ronmen t .
( Ab s t r . ) I n
B i ology of alde r , p . 1 9 3 . J . M .
Trappe , J . F . Fr ankl i n , R . F .
Tarrant , and G . M . Hansen , eds .
Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S t n . , Portland , Oreg .
563 . Tarrant , Robert F .
1 9 7 8 . At t i tude s t oward red alder
i n the Douglas-- f i r reg i o n . In
U t i l i z at i on and man agement of
alde r , p . 1-7 . Dav i d G. Br i gg s ,
Dean S . DeBe l l , and W i l l i am A .
Atki n s on , comp i l e r s . USDA For .
S e rv o Gen . Tech . Rep . PNW- 7 0 . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range Exp . S tn . ,
Portland , Oreg .
"A pos i t i ve change i n att i tude s toward
purpo s e ful management of red alder i s
i ncrea s i ngly e v i dent . Re a s on s for th i s
ch ange i n c lude c r i t i c al problems o f wood
f i be r s upply and i nc re a s i n g c o s t s of
fert i l i ze r mate r i al s . Several po s s i b i l i ­
t i e s for expl o i t i ng red alder i n fore s t
management programs are d i s cu s sed i n
l i ght o f i t s r ap i d early growth rate and
ab i l i ty to improve s o i l fert i l i ty .
Add i t i onal re s e arch mu s t be done , both i n
the phy s i c al and b i olog i c al s c i en c e s i f
we are t o c apture the u n i qu e attr i bu t e s
o f . r e d alder i n improved f o re s t man age­
ment s y s tems . Red alder mu s t be con­
s i dered a tree o f h i gh potent i al value
in a mature fore s t economy . " ( A )
564 . Tarrant , Robert F . , Leo A . I s aac ,
and Robe rt F . Chandl e r , Jr .
1 9 5 1 . Ob s e rvat i o n s o n l i tter fall
and foli age nutr i ent c o n tent of s ome
P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t tree s pec i e s . J .
For . 49 ( 1 2 ) : 914- 9 1 5 .
"Gives annual oven-dry we i ght of l i t ter
f al l , nutr i ent content o f f o l i age ( lb . /
acre ) , and s o i l pH at 3 depth s under the
fol l ow i ng spec i e s : Thuj a pl i c ata ,
P s eudot suga tax i fol i a ( 100 and 3 50 year s
o l d ) , Ab i e s amab i l i s , Ace r mac rophyl lum ,
P i nu s mon t icola , Alnus rubr a , T s uga
hete rophyl l a , P i ce a s i t chens i s , P i nu s
ponder o s a ( 100 and 3 5 0 years old ) , and
P i nu s contort a var . l at i fol i a .
( FA )
It
137
5 6 5 . Tarrant , Robert F . , K . C . Lu , W . B .
B o l len , and C . S . Chen .
1 9 6 8 . Nu tr i en t c yc l i ng by th rough­
f a l l and s temflow prec i p i tat i on i n
three c o a s tal Oregon fore s t type s .
USDA For . Serv o Re s . Pap . PNW- 5 4 ,
7 p . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
"Through fall and s temfl ow wer e collec ted
beneath three adj ac ent fore s t type s - -red
alde r ; c o n i fer--Doug l a s - f i r , we s tern
h emloc k , and S i tka s pruc e ; and a mi xture
of alder and con ife r . We i ght o f N and
d i s s olved s o l i d s in s temf low wa s i n s i g­
n i f i c ant becau s e of small amounts of
s temflow and s o i l area affected . Nut r i ­
e n t cyc l i ng r a t e s d i f f e r appre c i ably
be tween the three fore s t type s . " ( A )
5 6 6 . Tarrant , Robert F . , K . C . Lu , W . B . Bollen , and J . F . Frankl i n . 1969 . N i trogen e n r i c hment o f two f o r e s t e c o s y s tems by red alde r . USDA For . S e rv o Re s . Pap . PNW- 7 6 , 8 p . Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Oreg . " I n a s t udy o f 40-year-old fore s t s o n
t h e Oregon c o as t , a natural mi xed s t and
o f Red Alder and con i fe r s ( a ) contai ned
860 tree s / ac r e and had a l i tter-fall of
5 9 3 0 lb . / ac re ; corres pond i ng f i gures for
a pure con i fe r ( Doug l a s F i r , We s te r n
H emlock and s i tka S pruc e ) s t and ( b ) were
4 9 0 tre e s and 4232 lb . / acre , and for pure
Alder ( c ) 381 trees and 4490 lb . / ac re .
I n e ac h , the we i ght o f I i tter var i ed
w i th the s e a s o n ( s i gn i f i c antly for all
three s t and s ) and the year ( s i g n i f i c antly
in ( b ) but not in ( a ) o r ( c » ; thi s
l a t ter var i at i o n i s at t r i buted to
var i at i o n s i n the weather between year s .
The s e a s onal e f fect var i ed from year to
year . I n all s t ands the N10 o f the
l i t te r- f al l var i e d with s e a s on and year
and the s e a s o n / ye ar i n terac t ion was
138
h i ghly s i gn i f i c ant . Ove r three years ,
the aver age N10 i n the l i tter-fall o f ( c )
wa s nearly three t ime s and that i n ( a )
more than twi c e that i n ( b ) . The ave r age
we i ght of N i n the annual l i t ter-fall
wa s ( a ) 104 , ( c ) 100 and ( b ) 3 2 lb . / acre .
Net annual add i t i on o f N f i xed by Red
Alder and returned in l i tter i s e s t imated
at c a . 72 lb . / ac re in ( a ) and 68 in ( c ) .
Ove r all years and s e a s on s , the C/N rat i o
aver aged 6 9 o n ( b ) , 2 7 o n ( c ) and 3 2 o n
( a ) . T h e s i lv i cul tural value of Red
Alder in enhanc i ng s o i l fert i l i ty i s
d i s cu s s ed . " ( FA )
5 6 7 . Tarran t , Robert F . , and R i chard E .
M i ller .
1963 . Ac c umulat ion o f organ i c
mat ter and s o i l n i trogen beneath a
plantat i on o f red alder and
Dougl as - f i r . S o i l S c i . Soc . Am .
Proc . 2 7 ( 2 ) : 2 3 1-234 .
" So i l n i trogen accumul at i on beneath a
p l antat ion o f red alder and Dougl a s -f i r
was compared w i th that under a pure f i r
s egment o f the s ame 30-year-old s t and on
the W i nd Ri ver Exper imental For e s t in
s outhwe s tern Was h i ngton .
"Beneath the mi xed plantat i on , there
wer e s i gn i f i c antly greater amoun t s of
n i trogen i n the fore s t floor and in the
uppe r 24 i nches o f the mineral s o i l .
Org an i c mat ter content in the upper 1 2
i nc h e s of miner al s o i l was al s o greater
and bulk den s i ty at 0 to 3 i nches was
s i gn i f i c antly le s s . Beneath the alder­
f i r s t and , the c arbon-n i t rogen rat i o wa s
l e s s , both i n the fore s t floor and at 0
to 3 i nc he s .
"There were 938 pounds mo re N per
acre to depth o f 36 i nche s under the
alder-f i r plantat i on . Con s equently , an
ave rage o f 36 pounds more s o i l N per
acre per year has accumulated beneath
the mi xed s t and than under pure f i r . " ( A )
5 6 8 . Tarran t , Robert F . , and Jame s M .
Tr appe .
1 9 7 1 . The role o f Alnus i n
impro v i ng the fore s t envi ronment .
Plant and S o i l , Spec . Vo l .
1 9 7 1 : 3 3 5-348 .
"Wor ldwide exper i en c e s i nd i c ate s that
a lder c o n t r i butes s i gn i f i c antly to the
supply of n i trogen in the e c o s y s tem .
Th i s con t r i but ion markedly bene f i t s s o i l
f e r t i l i ty . A de f i n i te poten t i al e x i s t s
f o r employ i ng alder i n fore s t management
i n much the s ame way that le gumes are
u t i l i zed in ag r i c ul ture . Current re­
s e arch i nd i cates al s o that Alnus rubra
may play a s i gn i f i c ant role
ontrol­
l i ng Por i a we i r i i , a v i rulent root
p athogen wh i c h c au s e s extens i ve l o s s e s
o f c ommerc i al t imber tree s pe c i e s i n
we s te rn North Ame r i c a and Japan . " ( A )
5 69 . Taylor , Roy L . , and Bruce MacBryde .
1 9 7 7 . Vas cular plan t s o f B r i t i s h
Columb i a : A de s c r i pt i ve r e s ource
i nventory . Tech . Bull . 4 , 7 5 4 p .
Bot . Gar . Un i v . B . C . , Vancouve r .
D e s c r i be s Alnus rubra on page 1 2 6 . Use­
ful i n format i on on b i ology and c h romos ome
c ompl ement of red alde r .
( CFH )
5 7 0 . Teho n , L . R .
1 9 4 3 . C anker o f Pac i f i c dogwood
and madron a . Am . Nur s eryman
7 7 ( 7 ) : 18-19 .
" P ac i f i c Dogwood ( Cornus nut t al l i ) and
M adrona ( Arbutus menz i e s i ) are s ome t ime s
attac ked by phytophthora c ac torum wh i c h
c au s e s a g i rdl i ng c anker and wh i c h may
k i l l the t ree . Inocul at i on e xper iments
r e s ulted in very l arge canke r s o n the s e
s pec i e s after a per i od of 1 3 weeks , and
a l s o showed the fol lowing s pe c i e s to be
more or le s s s u s c ept i bl e to the d i s e a s e :
--Oregon Maple ( Acer mac rophyl lum ) , Red
Alde r ( Alnus rubr a ) , Scouler w i l low
( S al i x s c ouler i an a ) , Cal i fo rn i a Hazel
( Coryl u s c al i forn i c a ) , and Douglas F i r
( P s eudo t s uga t ax i fol i a ) . A me thod of
treatment by r emov i ng the c anker
( s c ar i f i c at ion ) i s d e s c r i be d . " ( FA )
5 7 1 . Te s s i e r , J . P . , and J . H . G . Smi th .
1 9 6 1 . Effect o f tree s i ze of red
alder on h arve s t i ng and conve r s i on
o f lumbe r . Fac . For . Re s . Pap . 4 5 ,
8 p . Un i v . B . C . , Vanc ouve r .
"A logg i n g s tudy was made on two 5 - ac re
blocks - - ( a ) only h ardwoods cut , ( b ) c le ar
fell ed--and a mi l l s tudy on n i nety-four
12-f t . log s . I t i s conc luded that , unde r
the condi t i on s of th i s s tudy , Alnus rubra
trees <11 i n . d . b . h . , and logs <8 i n . top
d i am . u . b . cannot be h arve s ted and con­
verted at a pro f i t . " ( FA )
5 7 2 . T i lton , Donald L . , and John M . B e rnard . 1 9 7 5 . Pr imary produc t i v i ty and b i oma s s d i s t r i but i on i n an alder s hrub e c o s y s tem . Am . M i d l . Nat . 9 4 ( 1 ) : 2 5 1 -2 5 6 . "Ne t pr imary product ! vi ty of an alder
[ Alnus rugo s a ( Du Ro i ) Spreng . ] tall­
s hrub c ommun i ty in the S-cent ral F i nger
Lake s reg i on of New York was e s t imated
by a s t rat i f i ed s ampl i ng me thod . The
total aboveground dry we i ght produ c t i on
of alde r was 7 30 g/m2 /year . Leave s
and twi g s repre s ented 4 2% o f total
produc t ion : 2 5% was in the bole i 2 1% i n
139
branc h e s , and 1 2% i n frui t s . The s e
valu e s var i e d wi th s i ze c l as s , wi th the
greate s t var i at i on in f ru i t produc t i on .
The he rbaceous l ayer contri buted 2 4 1
g /m2 / ye ar t o a t o t a l aboveground
produ c t i on of 9 7 2 g/m2 / year . Th i s
relat i vely h i gh produ c t ion value i s
thought to be due i n part to s ymb i o t i c
n i trogen f i x at i on i n alder root nodu l e s
a n d to f avorable s o i l mo i s ture and oxygen
l eve l s . " ( A )
5 7 3 . T imberman .
1 9 4 6 . New u s e f o r over -r i pe alde r .
T imberman 4 8 ( 2 ) : 7 0 .
5 7 4 . T imbe rman .
1 9 5 7 . we s tern h ardwood pane l s with
f i r cores s tudied . T imberman
5 8 ( lB ) : 10 5 .
5 7 5 . T i mberman .
1 9 5 8 . Prepar i ng s i te po s ed problem
o n th i s we s tern tree f arm .
T imb e rman 5 9 ( 2 ) : 4 3 , 5 5- 5 6 .
" The r e c l amat ion of 60 , 000 acres o f
twi ce-logged , c o n s t antly f i red Alder and
brush ( 1 5% of Weyerhae u s e r T imber Co . ' s
t ree f arm at Clemon s , Wash . ) i nvolved :
aer i al and ground s urvey to map vege ta­
t i on and d i s t i ng u i s h the unme rchan table
Alder ; the use o f T-D 24 c r awle r tractors
for c o n s truc t i ng roads ( 300 m i le s ) and
h e l i p o r t s ( 1 m i l e apart ) , for s c ar i fy i ng
g round ( $ 2 5 / acre ) and c lear i ng brush
( 1 . 0-1 . 5 acre/hour ) ; ae r i al s pray ing of
u nmerc an table Alder wi th 2 , 4-D or
2 , 4 , 5 -T at 5 gal . / acre ; logg i ng the r e s t
unde r contrac t , w i th bonu s e s for s n ag s :
f r e e s hoot i ng o f deer : and s owing with
h e l i c o p t e r s o f repellent- ( no t po i s on- )
t r e ated Douglas F i r s eed at 1 lb . / ac re .
The he l i copter c apac i ty i s 400 lb . of
140
s eed . I t s ows , f rom 200 f t . at 5 0
m . p . h . , a 90-ft . s t r i p , and c o s t s for
c r i s s -c ro s s s ow i n g are $ 2 / acre . An area
of 7 0 , 000 acres is s own i n 75 hour s . On
s c ar i f i ed ground 2 7 00- 5 5 00 s e edl i n g s / ac re
are obtai ned , o f wh i ch 3000 are expected
to become e s tal i s hed . " ( FA )
5 7 6 . Trappe , Jame s M .
19 7 2 . Regulat ion o f s o i l organ i sms
by red alde r : A poten t i al
b i o log i c al s y s tem for control o f
Por i a we i r i i . In Manag i ng young
fore s t s in the Dougl as - f i r reg i on ,
Vo l . 3 , p . 3 5 -61 . Al an B . Berg ,
ed . S ch . For . , Oreg . s t ate Un i v . ,
Corvall i s .
"An alys i s of f i e ld s ampl e s and l ab . te s t s
i nd i c ate that red alder ( Al n u s rubr a )
produ c e s Por i a i nh i b i t i ng compounds that
are added to the s o i l and could reduce
longev i ty o f the pathogen in bur i ed
i noculum . Such compounds , wi th the r e l a­
t i ve ly h i gh N leve l s under alder and the
lack o f a food base in the r e s i s t ant
alde r , r e s u l t i n a s e l e c t i ve i nc reas e i n
populat i on s o f organ i sms act i ve l y c ompe­
t i ng w i t h , i n h i b i t i ng , or paras i t i z i ng
.E . we i d i . " ( MO )
5 7 7 . Trappe , Jame s M
Jerry F .
Frankl i n , Robert F . Tarrant , and
George M . Han s en , eds .
1968 . B i ology o f alder .
( proceed i ng s
of a s ympo s i um held a t Northwe s t S c i ­
ent i f i c A s s o c iat ion 40th annual
mee t i ng , pul lman , Wa s h i ngton , Apr i l
14-1 5 , 1 9 6 7 . ) 292 p . Pac . Northwe s t
For . and Range Exp . St n . , Portl and ,
Ore g .
.
•
"Papers ( or the i r abs t rac t s ) read are
d i v i ded into f i ve s e c t i o n s - - ( l ) Taxonomy
and d i s t r i but i on : D i s j unct popul at i o n s
of Red Alder i n Idaho , and Taxonomy and
d i s t r i but i on of nor thwe s tern Alder s
( both b y F . D . John s on ) j Relat i o n s h i p s
o f al l i ed s pec i e s be tween northwe s tern
U . S . A . and Japan on the genus Alnus ( S .
Mura i ) .
( 2 ) Ecology : Compar i s o n of
vege t at i on i n adj acent Alder , c o n i fer ,
and mi xed Alde r-con i fe r c ommun i t i e s . I .
Unde r s tory vegetat i o n and s tand s tructure
( J . F . F rankl i n and A A . Pechanec ) j On
the ecology of S i tka Alder [ Alnus
c r i spula s ub s p . s i nuat a ] i n the s ubalp i n e
z o n e of south- c ental Alaska ( W . W .
M i tchell ) j A c ompar i s on of r h i z o s phere
m i c rofloras a s s oc i ated with myc orrh i zae
of Red Alder and Douglas F i r ( J . L . Neal
et al . ) j Role o f Red Alder in we s tern
Oregon for e s t s u c c e s s i o n ( M . Newton , B .
A . e l H a s s an , and J . Zav i tkovs ki ) j
Compar i s on of vege tat i o n i n adj acent
Alde r , c on i fer and mi xed Alder-co n i fe r
c ommun i t i e s . I I . Epi phyt i c , e p i xyl i c
and e p i l i th i c c ryptogams ( A . A . Pechanec
and J . F . F rankl i n ) j F i r s t-season growth
of Red Alder s e edl i ng s under grad i en t s
i n s o l ar r ad i at i on ( R . H . Ruth ) j
Germ i n at i on analy s i s of Grey Alder
( Alnus i nc an a ) a n d Blac k Alder ( Alnus
glut i no s a ) seeds ( I . Schal i n ) j S o i l
developme n t and Alder i nvas i on i n a
recently deglac i ated area of Glac i e r
B ay , Al a s ka ( F . C . Ugol i n i ) .
( 3 ) So i l
and mi crob i olog i c al relat i on s h i p s :
N i trogen tran s format i on s i n s o i l s
beneath Red Alder and con i fe r s ( W . B .
Bollen and K . C . LU ) j Effect of s temflow
prec i p i tat i on on chemi cal and mi c ro­
b i olog i c al s o i l propert i e s beneath a
s i ngle [ Red ] Alder and con i fe r s ( J . F .
Frankl i n e t al . ) j Compar i s on of m i c r ob i al
populat i o n s between Red Alder and con i fer
s o i l s ( K . C . Lu , C . S . Chen and W. B .
B o l l en ) j S ome ec totroph i c mycorrh i z ae o f
Alnus rubra ( J . L . Neal et al . ) j Nodule
e ndophyt e s i n the genus Alnus ( C .
Rodr i guez-Barreuco and G . Bond) j Some
e f fec t s of Alder on the fore s t envi ron­
ment ( R . F . Tarrant ) j Re s i s tance of Aln u s
£ubra to i n fec t i on b y t h e r o o t rot fungus
Por i a we i r i i ( G . Wal l i s ) j On the i n flu­
ence o f Alder ( Alnus i nokumae ) on s o i l
prope r t i e s i n northern Japan ( K . Yamaya ) j
E f f e c t of organ i c mat ter and c omb i ned
n i trogen on nodul at i on and n i trogen
f i xa t i o n i n Red Alder ( J . Zav i tkovski
and M. Newton ) .
( 4 ) Phy s i o logy : Red
Alder def i c i e n c y s ymptoms and fert i l i zer
tr i al s ( D . R. Hughe s , S . P . Ge s s e l and
R . B . Walker ) ; Photo s ynthe s i s of Red
Alde r , Douglas-F i r , s i tka Spruce and
We s tern Hemlock s eedl i ng s ( K . W . Krueger
and R . H . Ruth ) j Enzyme s y s tems of Red
Alder and Dougl a s -F i r in r e l at i o n to
i n fec t i on by P or i a we i r i i ( C . Y. L i et
al . ) j Hypoxyl on f u s c um : a rev i ew of the
fungus and i t s relat i o n s h i p wi th Alnu s
i n the northwe s t ( J . F . Rog e r s ) j The
e f f e c t o f cobalt and c e r. ta i n other trace
me tal s on the growth and v i t am i n B 1 2
content of Alnus rubra ( S . A . Ru s s ell ,
H . J . Evan s and P . Mayeux ) .
( 5 ) Growth
and y i eld : Growth and y i e l d o f Red
Alder i n B r i t i s h Columb i a ( J . H . G .
Smi th ) j Produc t i v i ty o f Red Alder i n
we s tern Oregon and Was h i ng t on ( R . L .
W i l l i amson ) . " ( FA )
5 7 8 . Tr appe , Jame s M . , C . Y . L i , K . C .
Lu , and W . B . Bol len .
1 9 7 3 . D i f fe ren t i al r e s po n s e of
Por i a we i r i i to pheno l i c ac i d s f rom
Dougl as-f i r and red alder roots .
For . S c i . 1 9 ( 3 ) : 1 9 1 - 19 6 .
"In pre v i o u s s tud i e s the pheno l i c ac i d s ,
p-coumar i c , feru l i c , s yr i ng i c , and
van i l l i c , have been quan t i tat i ve l y
determi ned from hydrolyzed extrac t s o f
141
red alder root s , and p-couma r i c and
van i l l i c , f rom Doug l a s - f i r root s . Alder
roots r e s i s t i n f e c t i o n by Por i a we i r i i ,
whereas Douglas-f i r roots are h i ghly
s u s c e p t i bl e . I n the present s tudy , the
c ompounds alone and in all comb i n at i o n s
we re t e s ted for e f f e c t s on growth o f two
genotype s of E. we i r i i i n v i tro . The
c omb i nat i on of all c ompounds , as found
i n alder root hydroly s ate s , i nh i b i ted
g rowth of both Por i a i s olate s . The p­
c oumar i c -van i l l i c comb i nat i o n a s s o c i ated
w i th Douglas-f i r root hydrolys ate s
i nh i b i ted one i s ol ate and s t imulated the
other . The two i s olate s d i ffe red
markedly in r e s ponse to s ever al other
c omb i n a t i o n s o f the c ompounds and i n
t he i r e f f e c t s o n pH o f the med i um .
Phenol i c subs tanc e s p robably part i c i pate
i n the Por i a-re s i s tance s y s tem of alder .
Phys i o log i c al s t rai n s o f E . we i r i i that
e f fe c t i vely at tack any s u s cept i ble h o s t
may e x i s t , b u t n o t all s tr a i n s are
l i ke l y to be equally pathogen i c on all
h o s t s o r all root par t s o f a host ( bark
v s . s apwood v s . heartwood , for e x ample ) .
B i olog i c al control o f E . we i r i i , s eem ing
anomal i e s i n behav i o r o f E . we i r i i i n
n ature , and breed i n g for h o s t re s i s tanc e
are d i s c u s s ed . " ( A )
5 7 9 . Tr i s ka , F . J . , J . R . Sedel1 , and B .
Buckley .
1 9 7 5 . The proce s s i ng o f c o n i fer and
h ardwood l e ave s in two con i ferous
f o re s t s treams :
II . B i ochemi c al
and nutr i e n t change s . Ve rh . Int .
Ver . L imno1 . 19 ( 3 ) : 1628-16 39 .
"Leaf mate r i al , as i t entered the s t ream ,
u n de rwen t leach i ng and m i c ro b i al colon i ­
z a t ion . Th i s proces s , c al led cond i t i on­
i ng , rendered allochthonous debr i s
142
p alatable t o s t ream i nvertebrate s . Th i s
cond i t i o n i n g proc e s s al s o r e s ulted i n
i nc re a s ed concen t rat i on o f cer ta i n
e s sent i al nut r i en t s such a s N and P .
Conc entrat i on i nc r e a s e s we re h i ghe s t i n
the l arger s t re am w i th t h e more ac t i ve
m i c rob i al flor a . The c o s t o f cond i t i on­
i ng wa s s ome qual i t at i ve det e r i or at i o n
o f c arbon qual i ty for detri tus-con s um i ng
i nvertebrate s .
"Fas ter leaf proc e s s i ng was o b s erved
i n Mack Creek , the l arger s t ream , whe n
c ompared to Water shed 10 b y a l l me as ured
paramete r s , we i ght lo s s , nut r i en t immob i ­
l i z at i o n , c arbon qual i ty , and mi c r ob i al
re s p i rat i o n . The mech an i sm f o r f a s t e r
mi c rob i al proces s i ng rema i n s obs cure .
Such data i nd i c ate the need for a mor e
thorough e x ami nat i on o f the phys i c al ,
chemi c al , and b i olog i c al propert i e s o f
the s o i l-water i nterface . " ( A )
580 . T s c h i r1ey , F . H . , Ed .
1 9 5 6 . Unde s i rable woody p l an t s .
We s t . Weed Control Conf . Re s . Prog .
Rep . 1 9 5 6 : 26-42 .
"
Alnus rubra was read i ly contro l l ed
by b a s al treatments w i th 2 , 4 , 5 -T alone or
wi th 2 , 4-D ( e s te r s ) . . . . " ( FA )
581 . Tuckerman , E .
1843 . Ob s e rvat ions o n s ome
i n tere s t ing plan t s o f New En gland .
Am . J . S c i . Ser . 2 , 4 5 : 2 7 -49 .
Alnu s s errulata is de s c r i bed as !. rubr a .
Th i s i s an obsolete s ynonym but c an c au s e
( CFH )
confu s i on i n older l i terature .
5 8 2 . Turnbull , K . J . , Gene R . L i t t l e , and
Gerald E . Hoyer
1963 . Comprehen s i ve tree-volume
t ar i f table s . 23 p . Was h . state
Dep . Nat . Re s our . , Olymp i a .
"The tabl e s c o n t a i n both cub i c and board­
foot volume t o var ious min imum top
d i ame te r s , and a l s o volume / b . a . r at i o s
and growth mult i pl i e r s t o e s t imate annual
volume growth from i ncrement core s , based
on f i e ld work i n Was h i ngton s tate .
' Ac c e s s table s ' for s e l e c t i ng the correct
tar i f f for Doug las F i r , Pondero s a P i ne ,
We s tern Hemlock and Red Alder are
i nc l uded . " ( FA )
5 83 . Turne r , J . , D . W . Cole , and S . P .
Ges s e l .
1 9 7 6 . M i n e r al nu tr i en t accumulat i o n
and c yc l i ng i n a s t and o f r e d alder
( Alnus rubr a ) . J . Ecol .
6 4 ( 3 ) : 96 5 - 9 7 4 .
"The d i s t r i but i on o f o rgan i c matter and
m i neral n u t r i e n t s in a th i rty-four-ye ar­
o l d s tand of red alder ( Alnus rubr a ) i n
Was h i ngton state , U . S . A . , i s de s c r i bed ,
t og e ther w i th the annual nut r i e n t tran s ­
f e r s betwe en componen t s . The nu t r i e n t s
s t ud i e d we re n i trogen , pho sphoru s ,
potas s i um , c al c i um , magne s i um and
mang ane s e . There was a l arge quant i ty
of N i n the e c o s y s tem , presumably because
o f N- f i xat ion by the alder . The s t and
was det e r i orat i ng and thus there was a
h i gh quan t i ty o f wood i n the 1 i t terfa11 .
The unde r s torey made an important cont r i ­
but i o n t o the b i omas s , s t and produc t i v i ty
and return of m i n eral nut r i en t s to the
fore s t floor . Compar i s o n wi th a ne arby
s t and of Doug l as - f i r ( P s eudot s ug a
menz i e s i i ) of s im i l ar age i nd i c ates that ,
wh i le the organ i c matter d i s t r i but i on i s
s imi l ar , they h ave d i f ferent patterns of
nut r i en t accumulat i o n and cyc l i ng . Data
from an overmature 4 5 0--year-old Doug1as­
f i r s t and are al s o i nc l uded so that a
c ompar i s on of two deter i or at i ng s t ands
c an be made . " ( A )
5 84 . Turne r , John , and Dale W .
1 9 7 3 . A rev i ew o f fore s t
ac cumulat i o n . Con i ferous
B i ome Intern . Rep . 5 6 , 4 3
Was h . , S e attle .
Col e .
b i omas s
For .
p . Un i v .
5 8 5 . Turn e r , Nancy J . 1 9 7 5 . Food plants of Br i t i sh Columb i a Ind i an s : Part l--Coasta1 peoples . B . C . Prov o Mus . Handb . 3 4 , 264 p . Vi c to r i a , B . C . 5 86 . U . S . Depar tment o f Agr i culture ,
Agr i cultural Re s e arch Serv i ce .
1960 . I ndex o f plan t d i s e a s e s i n
the uni ted State s . U . S . Dep .
Agr i c . Agri c . Handb . 1 6 5 , 5 3 1 p .
Was h i ngton , D . C .
A l i s t of more than 1 , 200 h o s t genera
and 5 0 , 000 paras i t i c and nonparas i t i c
d i s e a s e s arranged b y ho s t . U s e ful
annotat i on on some d i s e a s e s .
( CFH )
5 8 7 . U . S . Department o f Agr i cu l ture ,
Fore s t Serv i c e , Fore s t Produc t s
Labor atory .
1 9 5 0 . Veneer c ut t i ng and dry i n g
propert i e s . Red alde r ( Alnus
rubra ) . For . Prod . Lab . Rep .
D 1 7 6 6 -2 , 2 p . Mad i son , Wi s .
"Labor atory t e s t s cove r i ng the prepara­
t i on of logs for cutt i ng , s u i table l athe
s e t t i n g s , and veneer dry i n g , wer e made
on bol t s of Red Alder ( Alnus rubra ) .
143
The wood was found to be i n excellen t
c ondi t i on for c ut t i ng a f t e r was h i n g i n
water at 140° F . f o r about 8 hr . for a
l 2 - i n . and 1 5 h r . for a 1 6 - i n . bol t ,
both 4 ft . long .
It i s po s s ible that
good veneer could be cut f rom unhe ated
wood , and heat i ng in s te am would probably
r e s ul t in overheat i ng . A tho rough s t udy
o f lathe s e t t i ng s has not been made , but
s e t t i n g s that produce t i ght , smooth
veneer are g i ven for 3 veneer th i c k­
n e s s e s . The green veneer var i e d i n
mo i s ture content from 7 1 t o 105% . At a
t emper ature o f 2 5 0 ° , the 1 / 32- and
l / 24- i n . veneer d r i ed i n 5 m i nutes to a
mo i s t ure content of 2-3% ; i t was rather
b r i ttle and s pl i t in h andl i ng . The
l / 1 6- i n . veneer dr i ed in 8 mi n . to about
5% . Tangen t i al s hr i nk i ng based on green
w i dth was about 7 % . " ( FA )
5 8 8 . U . S . Department o f Agr i c ulture ,
For e s t Serv i c e , Fore s t Produ c t s
Laboratory .
1 9 5 8 . Factors that i nf luence the
decay of unt reated wood i n s e r v i c e
a n d c ompar a t i ve decay r e s i s t ance of
d i f f erent s p ec i e s . For . Prod . Lab .
Re p . 68 , 6 p . Mad i son , Wi s .
D i s c us s e s i n gene ral t erms fac t o r s
i n f luenc i ng decay of wood : mo i s ture ,
a i r , warmth , hear twood and s apwood ,
amounts o f natural pre s ervat i ve s , s e a s o n
o f cull i ng , and s e ason i n g and s ervi c i ng
c o nd i t i on s . Alder i s c on s i dered
s l i ghtly r e s i s t ant or nonre s i s t ant to
de c ay .
( CFH )
144
5 8 9 . U . S . Departmen t of Agr i cul ture ,
Fore s t Serv i c e , Fore s t Produc t s
Labor atory .
1 9 7 3 . S t andard terms for de s c r i b i ng
wood . USDA For . Serv o Res . Note
FPL-01 7 1 , 12 p . For . Prod . Lab ,
Mad i son , Wi s .
"Pr e s e n t s s e r i e s o f s t andards for de s c r i ­
b i ng s pe c i f i c grav i ty , s h r i nkage , bend i n g
and compre s s i ve s t rength , h ardne s s , shock
r e s i s tance , and s t i f fne s s of the var i ou s
s pec i e s o f wood as developed b y t h e U . S .
Fore s t Produc t s Laboratory . " ( A )
5 9 0 . U . S . Departmen t of Agr i cult ure ,
Fore s t Serv i c e , Fore s t Produ c t s
Laboratory .
1 9 7 4 . Wood h andboo k : Wood as an
eng i neer i ng mater i al . U . S . Dep .
Ag r i c . Agr i c . H andb . 7 2 , 5 2 8 p .
Was h i ngton , D . C .
Bas i c i n format ion on wood as a mate r i al
for c o n s t ruct i o n , w i th data for i t s u s e
i n de s i gn and s pe c i f i c at i on s . Al s o a
1 9 5 5 edi l i on .
( CFH )
5 9 1 . Uemura , S .
1 9 7 1 . Non- leguminous root nodu l e s
i n Japan . P l a n t and So i l , Spec .
Vol . 19 7 1 : 349-360 .
"Among plants nat i ve to Japan , nodule
format i o n i s con f i rmed i n 14 s pe c i e s and
var i e t i e s of Alnus , 10 of Elaeagnus , 2
of Myr i c a and 1 o f Cor i ar i a , i n a number
of i n s tanc e s for the f i r s t t ime . Plants
of 20 fore i gn s pec i e s , i n 8 genera , wh i c h
bear nodu l e s i n the i r nat i ve count r i e s ,
were r a i s ed i n the nursery i n Tokyo ;
only s pec i e s o f Alnus , Myr i c a and
Ceano thu s formed nodule s . No nodu l e s
were found o n nat i ve plan t s o f pryas
oc topetala var . as i at i c a .
"In a tr i al e xtend i n g over 12 year s
e v i dence was obt ai ned that the growth of
P i nu s thunberg i i was bene f i ted by under­
p l an t i ng w i th Myr i c a rubr a , a r e s u l t
a t t r i buted to n i trogen f i xat i on i n t h e
root nodu l e s of t h e l atter s p ec i e s .
"In the attempted i s o l at ion of the
e ndophyte s from the nodu l e s o f Alnus and
o ther non-legume Ang i o s perms , although
a c t i nomycetes pecul i ar to the h o s t
s pe c i e s wer e u s u ally obtai ned from the
n odul e s , n one of the i s olates i nduced
nodules in re- i nocu l at ion t e s t s . Al s o
f rom Podoc arpus nodu l e s ac t i nomyc etal
and bacte r i al s tr a i n s wer e commonly
i s ol ated ; re- i noculat ion t e s t s w i t h
the s e a r e i n progre s s . " ( A )
5 9 2 . Ulr i ch , B .
1962 .
[ F i fteen years expe r ience
w i t h poplar and red alder i ri the
Danndorf Fore s t Admi n i s trat i on . ]
Holzzucht 1 6 ( 1 / 2 ) : 4- 7 .
5 9 3 . un i te d K i ngdom Fore s try Commi s s i on .
1964 . Report on fore s t r e s earch
for the year ended March 1 9 7 4 .
109 p . Her Maj e s t y ' s Stat i onery
Off . Londo n .
I
" Proven ance t r i al s i n progre s s are repor­
ted for P i c ea s i tchens i s , f. Englemann i i ,
f . Ab i e s , P i nus contor t a , Ab i e s grand i s ,
and Alnus rubr a . " ( PO )
5 9 4 . Van c u r a , V . , and G . Stot zky .
1 9 7 6 . Gaseous and volat i l e
exudates f rom germi nat i ng s e eds and
s eedl i n g s . Can . J . Bot .
5 4 ( 5 -6 ) : 5 1 8- 5 3 2 .
rel ated , in general , t o the amount of
s tor age s Ub s tanc e s present i n the s eeds .
Both qual i tat i ve and quan t i t at i ve
d i fferenc e s were found be tween var i o u s
plan t s pe c i e s and var i e t i e s o f both
ang i o s perms and gymno s perms . The releas e
o f vol at i l e c ompounds prec eded the
appe arance of the f i r s t root and , wi th
mo s t s e ed s , was greate s t in the f i r s t 24
to 4 8 h . Organ i c volat i l e s could be
dete c t ed , by gas c hromatography , i n as
l i t tle as 5% of the atmo s phere from one
germ i n at i ng s eed . All seeds that wer e
s tud i ed l i berated ethanol , and mo s t
s e eds evolved methano l , formaldehyde ,
acetal dehyde , formi c ac i d , ethylene , and
propylene . Prop i onaldehyde and ( or )
acetone was a l s o evolved by cotton , pea ,
and yel low p i ne . The po s s i bl e s ource of
the s e volat i l e metabol i te s and the i r
ecolog i c al impl i c at i on s are d i s c u s s ed . " ( A )
5 9 5 . van D i j k , C . , and E . Merku s .
1 9 7 6 . A mi c ro s c op i al s tudy o f the
deve lopment of a s pore- l i ke s t age
i n the l i fe cycle of the root­
n odule endophyte o f Alnu s glut i no s a
( L . ) Gaertn . New Phyto l . 7 7 ( 1 ) : 7 3-91 . "A l i ght- and electron-mi c r o s c op i al s tudy
of the root-nodule endophyte pf Alnu s
glut i no s a ( L . ) Gaertn . wa s c arri ed out t o
i nve s t i gate the devel opme n t o f a spore­
l i ke s t age , here c alled the granule , i n
the l i fe cycle o f the endophyte . Compar­
i s o n of granule- r i ch and granule-free
root nodu l e s showed that granule forma­
t i on t ake s place v i a local tran sve r s e
growth of th i c k endophyt i c hyphae ,
g i v i ng r i s e to mul t i c e l lu l ar ' granul ated
bod i e s ' d i ffer i ng i n s h ape and s i ze .
Subs equently , the c e l ls o f the s e
granul ated bod i e s are tran s formed i nt o
"The quan t i t i e s o f gaseous and volat i l e
metabol i te s l i berated b y germ i n at ing
s eeds and seedl i ng s appeared to be
145
g r anu l e s by c e l l s eparat i on and
u l tras t ruc tural change s , the mo s t
s t r i k i n g o f wh i ch are c e l l-wa l l
t h i c ke n i ng , reduc t i on o f t h e number o f
me s o s ome s , and i ncreas ed den s i ty o f the
c ytopl a sm . Granule developmen t take s
place both i n t race11u1ar1y and
i n terce1 1u1ar1y . Intrace11u1 ar1y
produced granu l e s are eventually
l i berated by the death o f the h o s t
c e ll . Mature granu l e s s how a s t rong
r e s embl an c e to s pores of free- l i v i ng
a c t i nomyc e t e s in the i r u l t ras tructure
and behav i or .
" I t i s conc luded that , i n v i ew o f
t h e t e rmi nology currently u s ed i n the
d e s c r i pt i on of memb e r s of the
Ac t i nomycetale s , the term granule s hould
b e repl aced by s pore and thus the term
g r anulated body by s porogenous body . " ( A )
5 9 6 . Van o s do11 , John C l ark .
1 9 7 7 . Red alder whole-tree
ch i pp i ng ch arac t e r i zat i o n i n
r e l a t i on t o kraft pUlp i ng . M . S .
thes i s . Un i v . Was h . , Seattle . 3 7
p.
The b i g g e s t problem i n u t i l i z i ng who1e­
tree c h i ps i s bark contami nat i on ; the
mo re bark in the c h i p s u ppl y , the lower
the y i e ld and the h i gh e r the kappa
number of r e s ul t i ng pulps . Suc c e s s ful
u t i l i z a t i on of whole-tree c h i p s w i l l
requ i re development o f me thods t o allow
m i l l s t o adapt to the vary ing c h i p
s uppl y . The bark content of a ch i p
s upply and l i gn i n we re found t o corre late
wi th the s c reened pulp y i e ld o f corres­
ponding kraft c ooks . Lower y i el d s are
ac c ompan ied by i ncreas e s in black l i quor
s o l i d s and Br i t i s h thermal un i t per
pound of ovendry s ol i d s , reduced d i g e s to r
ou tput a n d dec r e a s e s i n produc t i on .
The s e p l u s an i nc reased alkal i demand
i n c r e a s e c o s t s of pulp produc t i on . other
146
problems , s u c h as wear f rom s and and g r i t
i n bar k , and po s s i bl e overload i n g o f the
r ecovery furnace c au s ed by an i n c re a s e d
load o f b l a c k l i quor s o l i d s i s al s o
i mportant .
( CFH )
5 9 7 . V i e r e c k , Le s l i e A . , and Elbert L .
L i t tl e , Jr .
1 9 7 2 . Alaska tree s and s hrub s .
U . S . Dep . Agr i c . Agr i c . Handb . 410 ,
2 6 5 p . Was h i ngton , D . C .
A de s c r i pt i on o f the woody s pe c i e s o f
Alaska . Include s s eparate s unwer and
wi nter key s for Alaska tree s and for
shrub s ; i l l u s t r at i o n s , r ange map s ; and
d i s c u s s i on s of botan i c al and
s i 1v i c u1tura1 fe ature s .
( CFH )
5 9 8 . V i e r e c k , Le s l i e A . , and Elbert L .
L i ttle , Jr .
1 9 7 4 . Gu i de to Al aska tree s . U . S .
Dep . Agr i c . Agr i c . H andb . 4 7 2 , 98
p . Was h i ngton , D . C .
"Al a s ka ' s nat i ve tree s , 3 2 s pec i e s , are
de s c r i bed in nontechn i c al terms and i l­
l u s trated by draw i n g s for i dent i f i c at i on .
s i x s pe c i e s of shrubs rarely reach i ng
tree s i ze are men t i oned b r i e fly . There
are notes on o c currence and u s e s , a l s o
small maps showing d i s t r i but i on w i th i n
the S t ate . Keys are provi ded f o r both
s umme r and winer , and the s ummary of the
vege t at i o n has a map . Th i s new Guide . . .
i s conde n s ed and s l i ghtly rev i s ed f rom
' Al a s ka Tre e s and Shrub s ' ( 19 7 2 ) [ ( 5 9 2 ) ]
by the s ame authors . 1t ( A )
5 9 9 . Vi rtanen , A . I . , T . Mo i s i o , R . M .
Al l i s o n , and R . H . Burr i s .
1 9 5 5 . F i xat ion of n i trogen by
e xc i s ed nodules o f the alde r . Acta
Chern . S c and . 9 : 184-186 .
600 . V i r t anen , Ar ttur i I .
1 9 5 7 . Inve s t igat i o.n s en n i tro.gen
f i xat i o.n by the alder . I I .
As s o. c i ated cul ture o.f s pruce and
i no.culated alder wi tho.ut co.mb i ned
n i tro.gen . Phy s i o.l . P l an t . ,
Co.penhagen 10 ( 1 ) : 164-169 .
" S eedl i ng s o.f P i c ea ab i e s we re gro.wn fro.m
1 9 3 1 to. 1 9 4 2 in quartz s and in as s o.c i a­
t i o.n wi th s eedl i ng s o.f Alnus glut i n o. s a
t h a t h ad been i no.culated w i th a water
s u spen s i o. n o. f c r u s hed Alder ro.o.t no.dule s .
No. co.mb i ned N was added ; but the t e s t
p l an t s wer e watered with a nutr i ent
s o. lut i o.n o. f MgS0 4 , KCl , KH 2 P0 4 ,
C aC0 3 and t apwate r . All fal len Alder
l e aves we re remo.ved fro.m the s o. i l
s urface . After 7 year s , s eedl i ng s o.f
bo.th s pe c i e s we re an alysed to. determine
the amo.un t s o.f dry mat ter and the N
co.ntent o.f d i fferent par t s o.f the plan t .
Re s u l t s are tabulated . Re s u l t s o.f
analys e s after 1 1 year s were lo.st dur i n g
t h e war b u t pho. to.s shew the gro.wth o. f
beth s pe c i e s . Spruce o.bt a i ned N f i xed
i n the no.dul e s o. f Alder ro.o.t s even
dur i ng i t s f i r s t year s o.f gro.wth . Data
are g i ven en the amo.unt o. f N f i xed by
Alder after 7 years . " ( FA )
601 . Vo.c kero.th , J . R .
1 9 7 4 . No.t e s o.n the b i o.lo.gy o. f
Crampto.no.my i a spenc e r i Ale x ander
( D i pte r a : Crampto.no.my i i d ae ) .
J . Ento.mo.l . So.c . B . C . 7 1 : 38-42 .
" Adul t s o.f Crampto.no.my i a s pence r i we re
abundant in the lo.wer Fraser Val ley ,
B r i t i s h Co.lumb i a , fro.m l ate February to.
e arly Apr i l o. f 1 9 7 3 . Eggs , l arvae and
pupal s k i n s were fo.und o.n o.r i n dead
f allen s tems o.f Alnus rubra . Wing
f requency meas urements o. f bo.th s e xe s
i nd i c ate that aud i to.ry s t imul i are no.t
i nvo.lved i n f i nd i ng o. f mate s . " ( A )
602 . vo. i g t , G . K .
1 9 6 5 . N i tro.gen reco.very fro.m
deco.mpo. s i ng tree leaf t i s s ue and
fo.re s t humus . So. i l S c i . So.c . Am .
Pro.c . 29 ( 6 ) : 7 5 6- 7 5 9 .
"Reco.very o.f N fro.m deco.mpo. s i ng leaf
l i t te r o. f alder ( Alnus rugo. s a [ Du Ro. i s ]
Spr i ng . ) , do.gwo.o.d ( Co.rus flo.rida L . ) ,
tul i p po.plar ( L i r i o.dendro.n tul i p i f e r a
L . ) , hemlo.ck ( T suga c an aden s i s [ L . ]
Carr . ) , e a s tern redc edar ( Ju n i perus
v i rg i n i ana L . ) , and red p i n e ( P i n u s
r e s i no. s a Ai t . ) was s tud i e d und
l abo.rato.ry and greenho.u s e co.nd i t i o. n s .
We i ght l o. s s and N de f i c i t s i n deco.mpo. s i ng
t i s s ue wer e mere marked in hardwo.o.ds than
in c o.n i fer s . The re was no. pro.no.unced
s pe c i e s co.rrelat i o.n between Ca co.ncent ra­
t i o.n o.f the l e af l i t ter and e i ther we i ght
l e s s o. r N de f i c i t , but N de f i c i t was
i nc r e a s e d in s o.me c a s e s by add i t i o.n o.f
CaC0. 3 ' Co.n s i derable var i a t i o.n i n
ava i lab i l i ty o. f N t o. Do.ug l a s -f i r
( Ps eudo. t suga menz i e s i i [ M i rb . ] Fran c o. )
s eedl i ng s was o.bs e rved i n s o. i l cultures
where N o.r i g i nated f ro.m deco.mpo. s i ng leaf
t i s s ue o.r f ro.m humus s ample s co.llected
under the afo.rement i o.ned s p ec i e s . Re­
c o.very o. f N r anged f ro.m abo.ut 60 to. o.ver
9010 o. f the o.r i g i nal N content . " ( A )
603 . Vo. i g t , G . K . , and G . L . S teucek .
1 9 6 9 . N i tro.gen d i s tr i but i o.n and
ac cret i o.n in an alder e c o s y s tem .
So i l S c i . Sec . Am . Pro.c .
3 3 ( 6 ) : 946-94 9 .
"An al y s i s o f plant and s o. i l c ompo.ne n t s of
an alde r ( Al n u s rugo. s a [ Du Ro. i ] Spreng . )
co.mmuni ty that had i nvaded the bed o f an
abando.ned m i l l p nd showed an ave r age
annual N accre t i o.n o f about 8 5 kg /ha .
Mo. s t ( 9 3% ) of the N i n the e c o. s y s tem was
fo.und i n the s o i l and there was a s treng
147
c orrelat i on be tween s o i l mo i s ture content
and N concentrat ion . Th i s may have re­
s ulted i n part f rom more f avo rab l e
c ondi t i on s for nodu l e f unct i on i ng . Th e
amount o f N i n the alder s t and dur ing
the g rowi ng season was about equal to
that contai ned in f r e s hly fallen l i t ter .
About three-fourth s o f the N i n alder
p l an t s was found in s tems and twi g s but
h i ghe s t concentrat i on s o f N were found
i n l e ave s and nodule s . " ( A )
604 . Voorh i e s , Glenn .
1 9 4 4 . The e s s e nt i al s of k i l n
d ry i ng Oregon h ardwood lumber .
Oreg . For . Prod . Lab . , Re s . Leafl .
2 , 1 7 p . Corval l i s .
6 0 5 . Voth , Elver H . , and Hugh C . Blac k .
1 9 7 3 . A h i s to r i c techn i que for
determi n i ng feed i ng hab i t s o f small
herb i vore s . J . W i 1d1 . Manage .
3 7 ( 2 ) : 2 2 3-231 .
" The moun t a i n be aver ( Ap10dont i a ruf a )
was u s ed i n a feed i n g exper iment i n­
volv i n g 20 s pe c i e s o f vascular plant s .
A fol i ar e p i d e rmal d i ge s t i b i l i t y
c h arac ter i s t i c w a s me as ured . A fecal
recogn i t i on i tem was a flat epi dermal
f ragment that me asured at least 0 . 1 mm
i n at l e a s t one d i re c t ion . The number of
recogn i t i on i tems per gram o f dry we i ght
of each plant eaten in c apt i v i t y was
determ i ned and d i v i ded i n to a s t andard
n umbe r , wh i c h wa s the number ( 1 1 . 0 ) of
f r agme n t s counted per gram ( dry we i ght )
o f swo rd-fern ( P01ys t i chum mun i tum )
i nges ted . The resul t i ng conve r s i o n
f actor was c alled a n equi val ence f actor .
148
T h e e qu i valence f actors var i e d through a
1 5-fold range - -from 0 . 8 for red alder
( Alnus orego n a ) to 12 . 2 for we s tern
s p r i ng beauty ( Mon t i a s i b i r i c a ) . The
conve r s i on factors i nc r e a s e the accuracy
o f relat i ve volume t r i c e s t imate s o f food
i n take b a s ed on i s to10g i c analy s i s of
fecal s ampl e s collected in the f i e ld .
Conver s i on factors c an be pred i c ted by
correlat i ng equ i valence factors w i th
mo i s t ure content and read i ng factors f o r
unknown plan t s from a l i ne o f regre s s i on
when the percentage dry we i gh t of the
plant has been dete rmi ned . " ( A )
606 . Voth , Elver Howard .
1968 . Food h ab i t s of the P ac i f i c
mount a i n beave r , Ap10don t i a rufa
pac i f i c a Mer r i am . Ph . D . t h e s i s .
Oreg . state Un i v . , Corvall i s .
276 p .
"The mount a i n beaver c au s e s heavy los s
i n the Pac i f i c Northwe s t , pr imar i ly t o
Douglas F i r , by c l i pp i ng or bury i ng s eed­
l i ngs dur i ng burrow i ng and by prun i n g or
g i rdl i ng older tree s . A s t udy of a he avy
populat i o n and i t s annual c o n s ump t i on o f
vegetat i on i n a 2-ha . s i te w i th alder
succe s s i on problems in the Oregon Coas t
Range i n 1 9 64-66 s h owed that s word-fern
o r bracken ( ne i ther much eaten by dee r )
form 82'. o f the d i e t o f the adul t . " ( FA )
6 0 7 . Wagener , W i l l i s W . , T . W . Ch i lds ,
and J . W . Kimmey . 1949 . Note s on
s ome fol i age d i s e a s e s of fore s t
trees o n the Pac i f i c s lope . Plant
D i s . Rep . 33 ( 4 ) : 19 5 - 1 9 7 .
608 . Waggener , Thomas R .
1978 .
Should alder be replaced by
c on i fe r s ? In ut i l i zat i on and
man agement of alde r , p . 3 6 5 - 3 7 9 .
Dav i d G . Br i gg s , Dean S . DeBell ,
and Wi l l i am A . Atki n s on , c omp i l e r s .
USDA Fo r . Serv o Gen . Tech . Rep .
PNW- 7 0 . Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range Exp . S t n . , Portland , Oreg .
"As w i th mo s t hypothet i c al que s t i on s ,
the que s t i o n o f whether alder should or
s hould n o t be replaced wi th con i fe r mu s t
b e answered amb i guou s ly . I t i s a s s umed
that th i s bas i c que s t i on wi l l be ap­
proached from an economi c or f i n anc i al
p o i n t of v i ew .
"App l i c at i on o f f i n anc i al analy s i s
t o the que s t ion o f s i te conver s i o n
requ i re s two bas i c s e t s o f i n format ion :
1 ) b i olog i c al r e s po n s e data re l evant to
the management o p t i o n s to be c on s i dered ,
and 2 ) p r e s e n t and future values for both
c o s t s and r e turns for each management
opt i on , i n c lud i ng the relevant c o s t o f
c ap i tal .
"A p r i mary cons i derat ion i n the
analys i s o f s i te c onver s i on i s the
determi n at i on o f y i e ld r e s po n s e s from
management . Al s o , proj e c ted t ime trends
in both y i e l d value s and c o s t s need to
be c arefully cons i dered , s i nc e both
manageme n t and feas i b i l i ty and the
c omparat i ve advan tag e o f an opt imal
management program c an change greatly
under such trend s . Because o f the long
f i nanc i al p rodu c t i on pe r i od s , the c o s t
o f t ime i s o f t e n a maj or determ i n ant o f
e c onom i c f e as i b i l i ty .
"Exampl e s for general i zed s i te
c onve r s i o n analy s i s are revi ewed and the
i mpl i c at i o n s o f the maj o r management
var i able s are d i s c u s s ed . The app l i c at i o n
o f the s e appro ach e s requ i re s e a c h man ager
t o c arefully as s e s s the s pec i f i c s of h i s
f o re s t l and and the s i te - s pec i f i c c o s t
and value relat i on s h i p s . " ( A )
609 . Wal l , Br i an R .
1 9 6 9 . Pro j e c ted deve l o pmen t s of
the t imber e c onomy of the Columb i a­
North Pac f i c reg i on . USDA For .
Serv o Res . Pap . PNW- 84 , 8 7 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Rang e Exp . St n . ,
Portl and , Ore g .
Economi c proj e c t i o n s o f the fore s t i ndus­
try o f the Nor thwe s t through 2020 . Exten s i ve t abl e s de s c r i be c ommerc i al and p r i vate forest are a , fore s t i ndustry employment income , volume s o f growing s tock by s pec i e s , etc . ( 5 1 t able s ) . ( C 'H ) 610 . Wal l i s , G .
1968 . Re s i s tance of Alnus rubra to
i n f e c t i on by the root rot fungus
In B i ology of alde r ,
Por i a we i r i i .
p . 1 9 5 . J . M . Tr appe , J . F .
Frankl i n , R . F . Tarran t , and G . M .
Han s en , eds . Pac . Nor thwe s t For .
and Range EXp . S tn . , Portland , Ore g .
"Attemp t s at i noCUlat i ng red alder roots
wi th cultures o f Por i a we i r i i plus
s tud i e s of excavated root s y s tems i nd i ­
c ated that alder i s not s u s c ep t i bl e t o
s u s ta i ned i n fe c t i on b y th i s pathogen . " ( A )
6 1 1 . Wall i s , G . W . , and G . Reynolds .
1 9 6 2 . Inocul at i on of Douglas f i r
roots wi th Por i a we i r i i . Can . J .
Bot . 40 ( 5 ) : 63 7 -64 5 .
"A me thod for the i noculat i on of Doug l a s ­
f i r root s w i th Por i a we i r i i u s i n g Douglas
f i r , alder , maple , and oak wood for pre­
par i ng the i noculum is de s c r ibed . When
the dec i duous wood was u s ed as the food
base on wh i ch the fungus was grown , a
h i gher percentage of i n f ec t i on was
149
achi eved than wh en e i ther Dougl as f i r
s tem o r roo t s we re u s ed . s i x months was
s u ff i c i en t t ime for the fungu s to become
well e s tabl i shed on the bark surfac e ;
pene t r at i on o f healthy bark occurred i n
1 2 mon th s . Spread o f the fungu s to
adj acent roots at po i n t s o f root contact
was no ted . Growth of mycel i um on the
b ark s urface was u s ually in advance of
i n fe c t i on i n the wood . Por i a we i r i i
myc e l i um c on t i nued to grow v i gorou sly
dur i ng the fall and w i nter months o f the
s tudy pe r i od . " ( A )
Q l fference was ± 0 . 2 1 feet for Dougl as
f i r when c ompared w i th he ground data ,
and the max imum error was ± 0 . 5 8 feet
for alde r . When compar i s o n s wer e made
i n terms of mean erro r s , c o t tonwood
showed the least accuracy ( -1 . 3 fee t )
wh i l e a cons i s tent mean error o f zero
was obtai ned for Douglas f i r , cedar and
h emlock .
"There was no c on s i s tent re s u l t
wh i ch would g i ve a c lue to determ i n e
wh i c h s pec i e s g i ves t h e be s t he i ght
e s t imate s .
(A)
6 1 2 . Wal l i s , G . W . , and G . Reynolds .
1 9 6 5 . The i n i t i at i on and s pread o f
P or i a we i r i i r o o t r o t o f Douglas
f i r . Can J . Bot . 43 ( 1 ) : 1-9 .
6 1 4 . Warrack , G . C .
1 9 5 6 . The management of h ardwood
t imbe r s t and s . Pac . Coas t Hardwoods
( Ju ly ) , p . 12-14 ; Dec . , p . 10 .
Nor thwe s t Hardwood As s oc . , Seatt l e ,
Wash .
" Repo r t s . . . i nf ec t i on t r i al s i nd i c at i ng
t h at mycel i um could i nvade root s of
trees f e l led at leas t 1 2 months earl i e r ,
and the he artwood that h ad been bur i ed
f o r 1 2 mon th s , and that Alnus rubra and
Acer mac rophyl1um showed con s i derable
r e s i s t ance . " ( FA )
6 1 3 . Wang , Yu-H i n .
1 9 6 5 . U s e o f a s e r i e s o f ae r i al
photograph s to e s t imate growth o f
t r e e s and s t ands . H . F . the s i s .
U n i v . B . C . , Vancouver . 143 p .
"On the whole , methods o f pred i c t ion o f
g rowth o f s t ands b y t h e u s e o f a s e r i e s
o f ae r i al photog raphs should b e u s eful
u n l e s s the s t and is so den s e l y s tocked
t h at i t would affect the me as ureme n t s o f
c omp i l at i on he i ght .
"Meas ureme n t s of c rown width were
r e vealed to be f a i rly accurate . The
m i n imum s t andard error of the me an
150
D i s c u s s e s h ardwoods grown i n B r i t i s h
Columb i a . Hake s sugge s t i o n s for man age­
men t , plan t i ng , t h i n n i ng , and h arve s t ing
o f red alde r .
( CFH )
6 1 5 . Warrack , G . C .
1 9 5 8 . Th i nn i ng expe r iments i n red
alder . I n Re s e arch rev i ew ,
p . 48- 5 0 . B . C . For . Serv . , V i c to r i a .
6 1 6 . Warrack , G . C .
1964 . Th i n n i ng e f f e c t s i n red
alde r . 8 p . B . C . For . S e rv . , Res .
D i v . , vi cto r i a .
6 1 7 . War rac k , George .
1 9 4 9 . Treatment o f red alder i n
the c o a s t al reg i on o f B r i t i s h
Columb i a . B . C . For . Serv o Re s .
Note 1 4 , 7 p . Vi c tor i a , B . C .
"Prel imi nary r e s u l t s o f a t h i n n i ng s t udy
s t arted in 1 9 4 8 i nd i c ate that a s u i table
t i me for a he avy th i n n i ng o f pure Alder
s t ands on good s i te s would be be tween 1 5
and 2 0 year s . Th i s should as s i s t i n the
p roduc t ion o f a me rchantable s t and w i th i n
a 30- t o 40-year rotat i on . The occ ur­
rence of e p i corm i c branches may be a
f actor i n determi n i ng rotat i on and
dens i ty requ i rement s . " ( FA )
6 1 8 . Was h i ngton s t ate Un i ver s i ty ,
Coope r at i ve Exte n s i on Serv i c e .
[ n . d . ] Grow i ng red alder for
pro f i t . 6 p . Wash . state Un i v . ,
Pullman .
6 1 9 . Was h i ngton Woodl and Counc i l .
1964 . Grow i n g red alder for
prof i t . Ore g . s t ate Un i v . Fed .
Coop . Ext . C i rc . 7 2 5 , 2 p .
Corvall i s .
6 2 0 . Wayman , M . , C . B . Anderson , and W .
H . Rap s on . 19 6 5 . Perac e t i c ac i d bleach ing of groundwood from n i ne Canad i an wood s pec i e s . Tapp i 4 8 ( 2 ) : 1 1 3-120 . " Promi s i ng r e s u l t s h ave been obtai ned
wi th 6 Canad i an h ardwoods and 3 s o ft­
wood s , the best wi th Populus t r i cho c arpa
and the poore s t wi th Alnus rubra . " ( FA )
621 . We athe rby , Hugh .
1 9 4 9 . The u s e o f chemi c al weed
k i l l e r s . B . C . Lumberman
3 3 ( 8 ) : 5 1- 5 2 .
"Several proj e c t s u s i n g chem i c al s prays
to keep roads and powe r- l i n e r i ghts of
way free of weeds and tree growth h ave
been e x ami ned , and it was conc luded that
chemi c al s pray s k i l l any Alder and
Arbu tus they h i t . Con i fe r s among the
Alder we re apparently unh armed . The c o s t
i s o n l y about 30% of that o f s l ash i ng . A
power- l i ne r i gh t o f way , 68 m i l e s long
and 100 ft . wide , was s prayed in 2 4 days
by a c rew of 9 men , 3 tank trucks and a
j ee p . B r acken can be ki lled , but i s not
much affec ted b y the s pr ay u s ed for
ki l l i ng Alder and other bru s h . " ( FA )
6 2 2 . Webb , Warren L .
1 9 7 2 . A model o f l i ght and tempera­
ture control led net pho t o s ynthe t i c
rates for terre s t r i al plan t s . I n
Proceed i n g s - --Re s earch o n con i ferous
f o r e s t eco s y s tems--A s ympo s i um , p .
2 3 7 - 24 2 . Jerry F . Frankl i n , L . J .
Dempster , and Ri chard H . War i ng ,
eds . Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range
Exp . s t n . , Portland , Oreg .
"The model des c r i bed repre s e n t s net C0 2
exchange i n a s te ady s t ate a s the d i ffer­
ence of two emp i r i c al func t i on s de s c r i ­
b i ng r e s pe c t ively phot o s yn th e s i s ( i n
terms o f l i ght energy and temperature )
and res p i r ation ( i n terms o f tempe rature
only ) . The s i x parameters of the model
were evaluated the use o f data for the
C0 2 e x c h ange o f Alnus rubra s eedl i ngs ,
1-2 year s old , i n a controlled envi ron­
ment . The beh av i our of the model agreed
w i th exper imental r e s u l t s over a wide
r ange o f tempe ratures ( 0- 5 0 deg C) and
l i ght-energy value s . The maxi mum C0 2
upt ake by l i ght-s aturated s e edl i n g s
occurred a t 2 3 deg C . " ( FA )
151
623 . Webb , Warren L . , M i chael Newton ,
and Duane starr .
1 9 7 4 . Carbon d i o x i de exch ange of
Alnus rubr a : A mathema t i c al model .
Oecolog i a 1 7 ( 4 ) : 2 81-291 .
ItThe C 0 2 e xchange r e s po n s e of plants to
mult i pl e envi ronmental var i ab l e s i s often
d i f f i c u l t to f r ame for purpo s e s o f
c ompar i s on . I n th i s pape r , a n on l i near
model relat i ng C0 2 e xchange to l i ght
and tempe rature i s - de r i ved f rom expe r i ­
men tal curves determi ned i n other
i nve s t i gat i o n s . Parame ter value s ,
determined from a least- squares f i t of
the mode l t o C0 2 exchange dat a , are
u s eful for comp a r i n g r e s pon s e s to l i ght
and temperature in te rms of s e a s onal
phenol ogy , populat i on heterogene i ty , or
s pec i e s var i at i on .
ItThe model was f i tted to C0 2
e xchange data o f a group o f 40 Alnus
rubra Bong . ( re d alde r ) s eedl i ng s for
s teady-st ate comb i nat i o n s of l i ght and
t empe rature . The average dev i at i on o f
the d a t a f rom t h e model was ± 6 . 7 .
Th i s s te ady- s t ate expres s i on s at i s f ac­
t o r i l y pred i c te d C0 2 e x change for
dynami c cond i t i on s o f l i ght and
t empe rature o c c urr ing i n a d i urnal
c ycle . " ( A )
6 2 4 . Webb , War ren Lewi s .
1 9 7 1 . Phot o s ynthe t i c r e s pon s e
mode l s f o r a terre s t r i al plant
c ommun i ty . Ph . D . the s i s . Oreg .
s t ate Un i v . , Corvall i s . 88 p .
ItPho t o s ynthe t i c re s pon s e t o l i ght and
t empe r ature was modeled us i ng data from a
s mall red alder ( Alnus rubra B . ) commun i­
ty growing in a controlled envi ronment
c h ambe r l i nked to the c omputer . Th i s
n ew s y s tem c o n t ro l s a i r temperature ,
root temperatur e , and vapor pre s s ure
152
over a wide r ange , and both l i ght
i n ten s i ty and s pe c tral qual i t y are
c omparable wi th natural s un l i gh t . Net
photo s ynthe t i c rates are me as ured by
cont i nuou s l y mon i tor i ng atmo s pher i c
C0 2 i n the gas-t i ght envi ronment
chamber . Photos ynthe t i c me asuremen t s
were t aken between 0 . 06 l y / m i n a n d 0 . 6 8
1y/m i n ( total shor t-wave r ad i at i o n ) at
temperatures f rom 6° to 30° C .
itA s te pwi s e mul t i pl e l i ne ar
regre s s ion analy s i s accounted for 98 of
the var i at i on i n s tady-s tate n e t photo­
s ynthe s i s u s i ng l i ght and temper ature
plus two i n terac t ion terms as i ndependent
var i able s . Non- l i near mode l s wer e
c o n s t ructed based on the known l i ght
c urve for pho t o s ynthe s i s o f s i ng l e
plan t s . The we i ghted average d ev i at i o n
o f t h e data f rom t h e be s t non- l i near
model was ± 3 . 7 . Extrapolat i on o f
pred i c ted photo s ynthe t i c r e s po n s e appe ars
r e l i able e x cept for an i nc on s i s tency at
l i ght energ i e s below 5 full s u n l i ght
for temperatures l e s s than 6° C . 1t ( B I )
6 2 5 . We ll s , Frank L . , Lloyd E . Herdl e ,
and Ale x ander Walke r , Jr .
1969 . Rap i d s u l f i te pul p i n g i n
concent rated sul fur d i o x i de
s o lut i on s . Tap p i ( 5 2 ) 11 : 2 1 36-214 0 .
ItU s i ng concent rated s olut i on s o f f re e
s ul f ur d i o x i de at pre s s u res h i gher than
those normally u s ed i n s u l f i te p u l p i n g ,
bleachable s u l f i te pul p s h ave been made
i n 2 hr or l e s s from a var i e ty o f hard­
woods and s o f twood s , i nc l ud i ng Douglas­
f i r [ and red alder ] . The add i t i on of an
alcohol or organ i c ac i d to the cooking
l i quor reduces the max imum pre s s u r e
reached and improve s y i eld and bleach­
ab i l i ty of the pUlps . wi th approp r i ate
adj u s tments i n cooking cond i t i on s , pulp s
s u i table for paper or for e s te r i f i c at i on
c an be made . I n e i ther c a s e the pulps
c an be bleached by a s imple sequence
w i thout alkal i ne ref i nemen t . The very
s h o r t cook i ng t i me s requi red s ugge s t that
a c on t i nuous proc e s s for the manufacture
of s u l f i te pulp could be developed . " ( A )
6 2 6 . We llwood , R . W .
1 9 5 6 . The manufac ture and u s e s o f
h ardwood i n B r i t i s h Co lumb i a . 4 p .
Northwe s t Hardwoods As soc . , Seattl e ,
Was h .
6 2 7 . We s t Coast Lumberman .
1 9 4 9 . Alder for plast i c s . We s t
Coast Lumberman 7 6 ( 10 ) : 10 2 .
6 2 8 . We s t co t t , Cynth i a .
1 9 7 1 . Plant d i s e a s e h andbook . 3d
ed . 843 p . Van Nos trand Re i nhold
Co . : New York , C i n c i nnat i , Toronto ,
Londo n , Melbourne .
A comprehen s i ve volume d i s c u s s ing plant
d i s e a s e s and the i r pathoge n s ; i l lus­
t r ated ; alphabe t i c al l i s t i ng o f ho s t
p l an t s and the i r d i s e a s e s , ea i ly
c r o s s-refe renced to s pec i f i c pathogen s .
Alder i s c l as s i f i ed by gene r i c name
o n l y . Good general i ndex .
( CFH )
6 2 9 . We s te rn Fore s try and Con s e rvat i o n
As s o c i at i on .
1 9 5 3 . Repo r t s o f the Pac i f i c
Nor thwe s t Seed i ng and Plan t i n g
Commi ttee on var i o u s rec ommended
refore s ta t i on prac t i c e s and
techn ique s . 6 9 p . We s t . For . and
Con s erv . As s o c . , Portland , Oreg .
630 . We s tern Soc i e t y o f We ed S c i ence .
1 9 6 9 . Degradat i o n of s everal
h erbi c i des in red alde r fore s t
floor mate r i al . Res . Prog . Rep .
1969 : 21-2 2 .
"Anal y s e s of herb i c i de r e s i due s i n
mate r i al f rom the fore s t floor under
Alnu s rubra showed that ami trole and
2 , 4-D we re rap i dl y decompo s e d ; p i c loram
was the herb i c ide mo s t r e s i s tant to
degradat i o n , and 2 , 4 , 5-T was of
i n te rme d i ate pers i s tence . The h i gher
the rate o f decompo s i t i o n o f the
herb i c i de , the lower the haz ard of
s tream pollut i on . " ( FA )
6 3 1 . We t ze l , G .
1 9 2 7 . Chromo s omenzahlen be i den
Fagale s . Ber . D t s c h . Bot Ge s .
4 5 ( 4 ) : 2 5 1-2 5 2 .
6 3 2 . We t ze l , G .
1 9 2 8 . Chromo s ome n s t ud i en be i den
Fagale s . Ber . D t s c h . Bot . Ges .
4 6 ( 3 ) : 212-214 .
633 . We t ze l , G .
1 9 2 9 . Chromos omen s t ud i en be i den
Fagale s . Bot . Arc h . 2 5 : 2 5 7 -283 .
634 . Wh i te , Gordon .
1 9 7 4 . Indu s t r i al hardwood r e s e arch
i n northern Alab ama . J . Al a . Acad .
Sc i . 4 5 ( 4 ) : 3 5 3-3 5 8 .
153
6 3 5 . W i c kl i f f , Car l o s .
1 9 7 7 . The e f f e c t s of c admi um on
the n i trogen f i xat i on s y s tem i n
Alnus rubr a . Ph . D . the s i s . Oreg .
s t ate Un i v . , Corval l i s . 242 p .
"Aln u s rubra ( Bong . ) s eedl i ng s were grown
i n s and cult ure and i r r i gated w i th nut r i ­
e n t solut i on contai n i ng CdCl 2 ran g i ng
f rom 5 g to 100 mg per l i te r . Tre atment
o f . rubra s e edl i ng s for 4 weeks wi th 5 0
a n d 100 m g CdCl 2 p e r l i ter o f n i trogen­
f ree n u t r i ent s o lu t i on decreased in s i tu
n i trog enase ac t i v i ty 93 and 9 9 , r e s pe c ­
t i vely . when compared to control s . N i ­
t rogen f i xat ion was decreased 32 and 6 5
at CdC1 2 concentrat i on s of 5 0 and 100
mg per l i ter , r e s pec t i vely . Growth was
decre a s ed to about the s ame extent as n i ­
t rogen f i xat i on . Cadm i um concent rat i o n s
i n t h e organs o f . rubra i nc reased w i t h
i ncrea s i ng CdC1 2 concentra t i o n s i n the
n u tr i e n t solu t i on and i ncreas i ng durat i o n
o f tre atment .
" . rubra s eedl i ng s wi thout nodu l e s
were i noc ulated a t t h e s t art o f t h e ex­
p e r i ment . The growth pe r i od pr i or to
apparent nodulat i on i nc re a s ed from 5 to
8 weeks as the CdCl 2 concentrat i o n
i ncre a s ed from 10 to 100 g p e r l i te r of
n i trogen- f ree nutr i en t s o lut i o n . No
d e t e c t able n i trogen f i x at ion was observed
at hi gher c admi um concentrat ions .
D e c re a s e s in plant growth from CdC1 2
t reatmen t we re roughly parallel to
d e c re a s e s i n n i t rogen f i xat ion .
"Th e s e r e s u l t s i nd i c ate that c admi um
i n nu t r ient med i a i nh i b i t s n i trogena s e
a c t ivi ty , and therefore n i trogen f i xat i o n
i n Alnu s rubr a . Growth , nodu lat ion , and
n i trate redu c t a s e act i v i t y we re i nh i b i ted
by the elemen t . Ob s e rvat i o n s of root
and nodule cell ultras tructu re s ugge s t
t h at c admi um exerts a por t i on o f i t s
e f fe c t by i n fluenc i ng the s t ruc ture of
o rgane l l e s . " ( A )
154
636 . W i c klow , Mar c i a C . , Walter B .
Bollen , and
W i l l i am C . Den i s on .
1 9 7 4 . Compar i s on o f s o i l
m i c ro fung i i n 40-ye ar-old s tands o f
pure alde r , pure con i e r , and
alder-con i fe r mi xture s . So i l B i o l .
and B i oc hem . 6 ( 2 ) : 7 3- 7 8 .
" S ampl e s we re taken f rom the L , F , and
All l ayers in three adj acent s tands
compo s e d of' ( a ) pure Aln u s rubra , ( b ) a
s�udot s uga
mi xture o f P i c e a s i tc
menz i e s i i , and T s ug heterophyl l a , and
( c ) a m i x ture of alder and con i fe r s , i n
the coas tal fog belt o f Oregon . The 92
s pe c i e s o f · m i c rofung i i s o lated are
t abulated , and the i r occurrence and
frequency i n s pec i e s c ompo s i t i on of the
fungal popu l at i on s was s t rongly correla­
ted wi th the domi nant vascular vegeta­
t i on , and d i f fered l i t t l e betwee n
hor i zo n s wi th i n a s t and . S t and ( a ) h ad
a large number ( 1 6 ) of c o-dom i n ant
fungus s pe c i e s , and Pen i c i l l i um daleae ,
generally con s i dered a rare s pe c i e s ,
reached a frequency of 83 . S tands ( b )
and ( c ) showed s i gn i f i c antly f ewe r fungus
s pec i e s , and s t and ( c ) was i n termed i ate
between the other two s t ands in terms of
s pe c i e s compo s i t i on . " ( FA )
6 3 7 . Wi c klow , Marc i a Cope .
1 9 7 2 . A compar i s on of s o i l
mi crofungi i n fore s t s t ands o f red
alde r , c on i f er , and alder-con i fe r
mi xture s . Ph . D . the s i s . Oreg .
S t ate Un i v . , Corval l i s . 64 . p .
"The s pec i e s compo s i t i on o f s o i l mi c ro­
fungal populat i on s in adj acent s tands of
red alde r , con i fe r s , and mi xed alder
coni fer corre l ated s t rongly wi th the
domi nant vascular vege tat i o n . A total
55 from
o f 92 s pec i e s we re i s ol ated :
the alder s t and ; 45 from the con i fers ;
and 46 from the mi xed alder- c on i fer ,
w i th few s pe c i e s ( 1 6 , 7 , and 5 i n the
three plot s , r e s pe c t i ve l y ) re ach i ng
average frequenc i e s o f 5 0% or h i gher .
P e n i c i l l i um n i gr i c an s , Aureobas i d i um
pullulan s , Cephalospor i um c u r t i pe s , and
C l adospor i um herbarum we re pre s e n t w i t h
h i gh frequence at a l l s i t e s .
"There wa s l i ttle d i f ference i n
s pe c i e s c ompo s i t ion among s o i l hor i zons
w i th i n a s t and . Fun g i wh i c h wer e
domi nant i n o n e l ayer were dom i n ant i n
the other s .
"Three i s o l at ion technique s : d i lu­
t i on plate s , s o i l plate s , and imme r s i on
tube s , d i d not y i e ld s i gn i f i c ant
d i fferences i n s pec i e s compo s i t i on .
"In a l l three s t ands , numbers of
s pe c i e s we r e great e s t i n February and
lowe s t i n June , fo ll owi ng s e a s onal max ima
and m i n ima of s o i l mo i s ture . " ( BI )
6 3 8 . W i l e y , Kenneth N .
1 9 6 5 . Effe c t s of the October 12 ,
1962 w i nd s torm on permane n t growth
plo t s in s ou thwe s tern Was h i ngton .
Weyerhaeu s e r For . Pap . 7 , 13 p .
Weyerh aeu s e r Co . , Cent ral i a , Wash .
" Two hundred n i ne teen permane n t growth
p l o t s in Sou thwe s t Wash i ngton , p r i mar i ly
Dougl as - f i r and we s tern hemlock 20 to 130
years o f age , we r e e x ami ned . N i neteen
h ad been de s t royed and 7 4 wer e damaged .
D amage was con centr ated i n the older age
c l as s e s of both s pec i e s . On the damaged
p l o t s , dom i nant and codom i n an t trees ac­
c ounted for 83 per cent of the mo r tal i ty
i n terms o f basal area but 40 percent o f
t h i s mor t al i ty as i n t r e e s wi th root or
s t em rot . " ( A )
6 3 9 . Wi l l i ams o n , R i c hard L .
1968 . Produc t i v i ty o f red alder i n
we s te rn Oregon and Was h i ngton . I n
B i ology o f alde r , p . 28 7-2 9 2 . J .
M . Trappe , J . F . Frankl i n , R . F . Tarrant , and G . M . Han s en , cds . Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range EXp . S tn . , Por tland , Oreg . "Red alder in we s tern Oregon and Was h i ngton grows rap i dly when young and
ou tprodu c e s Dougl as- f i r up to age s 2 5-30
years on med i an s i te s o f both s pe c i e s . Red alder read i ly r e s ponds to th i nn i ng . I t s ab i l i ty to add n i trogen to s o i l i s
important for s i te improvement over much
of i t s n at u ral range . " ( A ) 640 . Wi l l i s , J . C .
1 9 6 6 . A d i c t i onary of the f lowe r i ng
7th ed . 4 2 p .
plants and ferns .
Cambr i dge Un i v . Pre s s , Camb r i dge .
6 4 1 . Wi l s on , Don ald F . , L . N . Johan s on ,
Bjorn F . Hrut f i ord .
and
1 9 7 2 . Me thanol , e thano l , and
ace tone i n kraft pulp m i l l
conde n s at e s t reams . Tapp i
5 5 ( 8 ) : 1244- 1246 .
"Me thanol , ethano l , and acetone are three
i mpor tant wate r- s oluble s team- volat i l e
c ompounds found i n kr aft m i l l conden s ate
s t re ams . The extent of the i r format i o n
i s reported as a func t i on of wood s pec i e s
pulped , based o n l aboratory d i g e s t ion o f
155
6 4 2 . W i nj um , Jack ke i th .
1 9 6 9 . Stud i e s o f the compe t i t i ve
performanc e of outp1anted 2 + 0
Douglas f i r ( Ps e udotsuga menz i e s i i
[ M i rb . ] Franco ) through the f i r s t
grow i n g s e a s o n . Ph . D . thes i s .
U n i v . Mi c h . , Ann Arbor . 130 p .
Itpot s tud i e s wer e u s ed to determine o p t i ­
mum env i ronments f o r Douglas F i r s e edl i n g
g rowth as regards l i gh t , mo i s ture and
r ates of NPK app l i c at i on , and the e f f e c t
o f compe t i t i on by Gaulther i a s ha110n
( wh i c h f avoured Dougl as F i r growth i n
t e rms o f dry-we i ght ga i n ) and Alnu s rubra
( wh i ch depre s s ed growth ) . In f i eld
s tud i e s , however , when Douglas F i r was
p l anted out in n atural Q . Sha110n or A.
rubra c ommun i t i e s , both s pe c i e s reduced
root and s hoot g rowth o f the Douglas F i r
c ompared w i th contro1 s . 1t ( FA )
6 4 3 . Wi s e , Lou i s e E . , Eve lyn K . Ratc l i ff ,
and B . L . Brown i ng .
1 9 4 8 . Determi nat i on o f manno s e .
Mannan s i n hardwood s . Anal . Chem .
2 0 ( 9 ) : 82 5 -828 .
ItThe H agglund-Bratt me thod for the
d e termi nat i o n o f mann o s e and mannans i n
wood wa s mod i f i ed and appl i e d t o 4 h ard­
woods ( Oregon maple [ Acer mac rophy11um ] ,
A s pen [ Populus t remu10 i d e s ] , Red Alder
[ Alnus r ubra ] and Querbracho Colorado
[ Sc h i nops i s s p . ] ) all o f wh i ch proved to
c o n t a i n small amounts o f mannan . In at
l e a s t one case ( Aspen ) , mannose un i t s
were s hown t o b e pre s ent i n h ardwood
-cellu l o s e . Cotton l i nters , on hydro l­
y s i s , g ave no manno s e . The r e s u l t s
are tabu1ated . 1t ( FA )
156
644 . Wo11um , A . G . , II , and C . T .
Youngberg .
1 9 6 4 . The i n f luence o f n i trogen
f i xat ion by non1eguminous woody
plan t s on the growth of p i ne
s e edl i ng s . J . For . 6 2 ( 5 ) : 316-321 .
ItNodu1ated s eedl i ng s of Ceanothu s
ve1ut i nu s ( a ) and Alnus rubra ( b ) were
grown in 10w-N-content s o i l s ( pumi c e and
gran i t i c r e s pe c t i vely ) in the greenhou s e .
Af ter 9 months the s eedl i ng tops were
removed at the ground l i ne and P i nu s
rad i at a s OWn i n t h e p o t s and al s o i n p o t s
of f r e s h s o i l that had been suppl i ed
w i th N at 0 , 2 5 , 5 0 , 7 5 , and 100 p . p . m .
All tre atments rece i ved 100 p . p . m . of
P . After 1 2 month s , the P i ne s e edl i n g s
were h arve s ted , we i ghed , and an alysed
for N . The y i eld and N content o f
seedl i ng s i n ( a ) p o t s we re c omparable t o
tho s e rece i v i ng 3 5 p . p . m . o f added n ,
and tho s e i n ( b ) pots to 1 5 p . p . m .
Another exper iment was de s i gned t o
i nve s t i gate t h e e f f e c t o f var i ou s l i t ters
on growth o f f . radi ata s eedl i n g s i n a
gran i t i c s o i l . Douglas F i r l i tter at a
rate of 2 5 0 g . / 2 5 00 g . s o i l depre s s ed
the growth o f f. r ad i at a , whereas Alder
improved i t . 1t ( FA )
645 . Woodworth , Robert H .
1 9 2 9 . Cytol o g i c al s tu d i e s i n the
Betu1aceae . I I . Cory1us and
Alnus . Bot . Gaz . 88 ( 4 ) : 383-3 99 .
ItCory1us exh i b i t s no polypl o i dy , all
s pec i e s and hyb r i d s hav i ng the hapl o i d
number of 14 chromo s ome s . Throughout
the genus there occurs a fus i on of 1 , 2 ,
or 3 pai r s o f b i valent chromo s ome s , thu s
often caus i n g the hapl o i d number to ap­
pear to be l e s s than 1 4 . Natural hybr i d s
are eas i ly formed . The s e plan t s show
s ome o f the cyto log i c al pecu l i ar i t i e s
known t o b e due t o heterozygo s i s . The
fundamental number o f chromo s ome s i n
Alnus is al s o 1 4 , 2n and 4n s pe c i e s are
d e s c r i bed . Alnus rugo s a s h own marked
h yb r i d cytolog i c al charac t e r s and i s
c o n s i dered heterozygous . I t forms i t s
s eed apomi c t i c ally . Alnus rug o s a and !.
g l u t i no s a e xh i b i t f u s i on o f b i valent
c hromo s ome s . Cytomy x i s and chromo s ome
m i grat i on t ake p l ac e i n c e r t a i n s pec i e s
o f Corylu s and Alnus . Dysplo i dy may be
due to unequal c hromo s ome d i s t r i bu t i on ,
c hromo s ome extr u s i on , o r to cytomy x i s
and chromo s ome migrat i on . A per i nuclear
z o ne occurs in the pollen mother
c e l l s . " ( BA )
648 . Worth i ngton , Norman P . , Floyd A .
Johnson , George R . stae bl e r , and
Wi l l i am J . Lloyd .
1960 . Normal y i eld tab l e s for red
alder . USDA For . Serv o Pac .
Nor thwe s t For . and Rang e Exp . Stn .
Re s . Pap . 36 , 32 p . Portland , Oreg .
6 4 6 . Worth i ngton , Norman P .
s i lv i c al characte r i s t i c s of
195 7 .
red alder . Pac . Northwe s t For . and
Range Exp . Stn . S i lv i c al Ser . 1 , 1 5
p . Portl and , Oreg .
6 4 9 . Worth i n gton , Norman P . , Robert H .
Ru th , and Elmer E . Mat s on .
1 9 6 2 . Red alder , i t s man agement
and u t i l i z at i on . U . s . Dep . Agr i c .
M i s c . Publ . 881 , 44 p . Was h i ngton ,
D.C.
"The f i r s t o f a ' s i lv i cal character i s ­
t i c s ' s e r i e s to be p roduced by th i s
s t at i on o n the s ame l i ne s a s those be i n g
publ i s hed by o t h e r Federal stat ions .
The s e comp i l at i ons aim at g i v i ng
i n forma t i o n on h ab i t at cond i t i o n s , l i fe
h i s tory , i n c luding growth and y i e ld ,
i nj ur i e s , r ac e s and hybr i d s , and any
s p e c i al f e ature s , prelimi nary to
eventual pUb l i c at i on i n book form . " ( FA )
6 4 7 . Worth i ngton , Norman P .
1963 . Th i r teen years of th i nn i n g
i n a Doug l as - f i r woodland . USDA
For . Ser . Re s . Note PNW- 8 , 4 p .
Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and Range EXp .
S t n . , Portland , Oreg .
"Yields over the pas t 13 years from a
t yp i c al 5 7 -year small woodl and i n
Was h i ngton ( c ons i s t i ng o f 2 / 3 Douglas
F i r wi th We s tern Redcedar , We s tern
Hemlock and Red Alde r ) are an aly s ed to
demo n s trate that management c an produc e
an annual i ncome from th i nn i ng s wh i l e
ma i n t a i n i ng o r i nc re a s i ng product i on . "
( FA )
"Computed from data from 4 2 8 Aln u s rubra
s ampl e p l o t s in pure s t ands aged 10-80
years in N . W . Oregon , W . Was h i ngton , and
S . Br i t i sh Columb i a . Methods of prepara­
t i on are br i e fly de s c r i bed . " ( FA )
Cove r s s i l v i cul tural charac t e r i s t i c s and
i nc rement as we l l as man agement and
( CFH )
u t i l i z at i on .
6 5 0 . Wr i gh t , Erne s t .
19 5 4 . A prel imi nary s t udy of the
deter i orat ion of alder and Douglas­
f i r c h i ps i n outdoor p i l e s . USDA
For . S e rv o Pac . Nor thwe s t For . and
Range Exp . Stn . Re s . Note 9 9 , 5 p .
Portland , Oreg .
tlIn a p i lot te s t , l as t i ng 1 year , of a
p i le con t a i n ing 2 / 3 Alder and 1 / 3
Dougl a s , dete r i orat i on o f Alder c h i p s
was s l owed down wi thout i n c r e a s i ng the
decay i n Douglas F i r for the te s t pe r i od .
A p i le con t a i n i ng 90 Doug l a s F i r and
10 Alde r showed no decay dur i ng the
te s t . Th i s te s t i s not cons idered
conclus i ve . " ( FA )
157
6 5 1 . Wu , Ch i h Fae .
1 9 7 7 . The chromophor i c behav i or o f
N orway s pruce , we s tern hemlock and
red alder the rmomechan i c al pulps .
M . S . thes i s . Un i v . Wash . ,
S e at t l e . 5 7 p .
Pulp p roduced by thermomechan i c ally
proce s s i n g wood wi th h i gh tempe rature
p r e s s u r i zed s te am i s d i s co lored becaus e
o the extrac t i ve and l i gn i n components
of wood . Br i ghtne s s var i e s wi th s pec i e s
and wi th s te aming t.emperature . H i gh
t empe r ature s u s ually r e s u l t i n darker
p ul p . Under the s ame cond i t i on s , Norway
s pruce i s b r i ghter than e i ther we s tern
h eml o c k or red alde r . Sod i um s ul f i te
pretre atment c an i nc r e a s e the br i ghtne s s
o f the rmomechan i c ally produced pulp ,
l argely e l imi nat i ng the e f f e c t o f e x trac­
t i ve s .
I t demo n s t rate s a potent i al for
p rodu c i ng pulp by the rmome chan i c ally
proc e s s i n g wood e s pe c i ally that of hard­
wood s pec i e s .
( CFH )
6 5 2 . Yarwood , C . E . , and M . W . Gardne r .
1 9 7 2 . Powdery m i ldews favored by
ag r i culture .
( Ab s tr . )
Phytopathology 6 2 ( 7 ) : 7 99 .
"certa i n h o s t / pathogen a s s o c i at i o n s i n
t h e Ery s i phaceae have been found only i n
h ab i t a t s d i s turbed by man , and not where
t h e ho s t s occur naturall y : Erys iphe
c i choracearum on 11 s pec i e s o f
. polygo n i , Mi c r o sph aer a
Euc alyptus ;
aIni , and Phyl l ac t i n i a c o rylea on 30
s pec i e s o f Que r c u s a n d L i thoc arpu s ; and
o ther s .
Only three h o s t / pathogen
a s s oc i at i on s , i n c lud i ng . alni on Alnu s
o rego n a ( ! . r ubr a ) appeared to be as
abundan t on und i s turbed wi ld plan t s as
on tho s e i n fluenced by man . T i llage and
p run i ng were shown in th i s s tudy to
f avour d i s e a s e .
( FA )
II
158
6 5 3 . Yarwood , C . E . , and M . W . Gardner .
1 9 7 2 . Powdery mi ldews favored by
man . Plant D i s . Rep .
5 6 ( 1 0 ) : 8 5 2-8 5 5 .
"The fol l owing Ery s i phaceae we re abundant
in cUl t i vated areas , but c on s p i cuou s ly
ab s e n t where the ho s t s o c c urred naturally
in areas relat i vely und i s turbed by man :
Erys i phe c i chorace arum on Bacchar i s
p i l u l ar i s var . cons angu i ne a , Erys i phe
polygo n i o n E s c h s chol t z i a c a l i forn i c a ,
Sphaerothec f u l i g i nea o n Navarre t i a
sguarro s a ,
. fUl i g i ne a o n Prune l l a
vulgar i s , and . lane s tr i s ,
. t r i na ,
Mi c ro sphaera aln i and Phyll ac t i n i a
corylea o n 30 s pec i e s of L i thocarpus and
Quercu s . Mo s t of s ome 1400 c o l l ec t i o n s
o f Ery s i phaceae o n s ome 5 3 6 h o s t s pec i e s
f rom 1934 t o 19 7 2 h ave been o n cult i vated
plan t s , or in botan i c garden s , green­
hou s e s , parks , c ampu s e s , and roads i de s ,
and i t i s not known whether the mi ldew
al s o o c c u r s in the nat i ve h ab i tat of the
hos t . Only three ho s t : pathogen
a s s o c i at i ons ( . aln i on Alnus oregon a ,
E . c oryle a on Diplacus aur an t i acu s , and
. c i chorace arum on Myo s ot i s sylvat i c a )
appeared t o b e a s abundant o n und i s turbed
wild plan t s as on those man i pul ated by
man . A pos i t i ve cor relat ion of leaf
s i ze w i th s u s cept i b i l i ty o f Que r c u s
agr i fo l i a t o . t r i n a and o f Q . i le x t o
. l ane s t r i s was e s t abl i s hed .
The
relat i ve role of t i llage , fert i l i z at ion ,
wate r i ng , prun i ng , greenhouse cult ure ,
or s ome unknown factor i n f avor i n g
mi ldews i s unclear . Of these , only
t i llage and prun i ng have been demo n s t r a­
ted to f avo r d i s e a s e i n th i s s tudy . " ( A )
6 5 4 . Yoho , Jame s G . , Dan i e l E .
Ch appelle , and Denni s L . S chwe i tzer .
1969 .
The economi c s of convert i ng
red alder to Douglas -f i r . USDA
For . Serv o Re s . Pap . PNW-88 , 31 p .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portland , Oreg .
6 5 6 . Zabka , Josef .
1 9 4 2 . Taxonomi c ke pozn amky 0 o l s i
a j ej i m geograf i c kem r o z s i ren i .
[ T axonomi c notes on alder and i t s
geograph i c d i s t r i but i on . ] . Lesn .
Pr . 2 1 ( 1 ) : 10-2 0 .
[ In Czech . ,
German s ummary . ]
" Th i s s tudy def i ne s tho s e cond i t i o n s
where i t i s more pro f i table to replace
red alder s t ands with Douglas -f i r than
t o manage f o r red alde r . Under mos t of
the c i rcums tanc e s analyzed , red alder
s tands should be imme d i ately c onverted .
I n order o f importance , the c r i t i c al
var i abl e s i n th i s dec i s i on were found to
b e the d i s count rate , s i te produc t i v i ty ,
e x pe c ted s tumpage pr i c e s , the pre s ent
age o f the e x i s t i ng red alder s t and ,
c o s t s o f c o nver s i on , and annual man age­
ment c o s t s . Sens i t i v i ty anal y s e s
s ugge s t h o w the s e var i able s i nf luence
the c onver s i on dec i s i on . " ( A )
"Two subgenera o f Alnus are d i s t i n ­
gui shed : A1nobetu1 a , wi th 1 s pec i e s , ! .
v i rd i s ; a n d Gymnothry s u s , w i th 8 s pec i e s ,
! . cordata , ! . subcordat a , ! . j apon i c a ,
! . i n c an a , ! . rubr a , ! . tenu i fo 1 i a , ! .
rugo s a , and ! . glut i no s a . " ( FA )
6 5 5 . Yoho , Jame s G . , Dan i e l E .
Chappe l l e , and Denn i s L . S chwe i tzer .
1 9 6 9 . The marke t i ng of red alder
pulpwood and s·aw log s . USDA For .
Serv o Res . Note PNW-9 6 , 7 p . Pac .
Northwe s t For . and Range EXp . S tn . ,
P o r t l and , Oreg .
tl ln the P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t , red alder h a s
i nvaded many c utover a r e a s wh i ch once
s upported Douglas-f i r . As the supply o f
red alder i nc re a s ed , more u s e s we re found
and red alder became more valuabl e .
Th i s Note me asures the present red alder
r e s ource and summar i ze s i t s produc t i on ,
marke t i ng , and future pros pec t s . " ( A )
6 5 7 . Zach , Lawrence W . , Don B aue r , and
H a l Goodyear .
1 9 4 3 . Prac t i c al appl i c at i on of
p l an t hormone s in fore s t-tree
propagat i on . J . For . 4 1 ( 3 ) : 214 .
"Re s ul t s f rom pre l imi nary exper iments
( a ) for exten s i ve f i eld
show that :
plant i n g , c utt i n g s treated w i t h
i ndolebutyr i c ac i d are not prac t i c able
in the propagat i n g o f Doug l a s F i r , Port
Orford Cedar , We s tern Wh i te P i ne , We s tern
Wee p i ng Hemloc k , Red Alde r , and S h i pmas t
Loc u s t ; ( b ) seedl i ng s ( 2-0 and 1-0 s t o c k )
of Dougl as - f i r , Port Orford Cedar and
Ponde ro s a P i ne , and of We s te r n Wh i te
P i ne ( 2-0 s tock onl y ) do not react
s i gn i f i c antly to tre atment w i th i ndole­
butyr i c ac i d ; ( c ) s eeds o f S ugar P i ne
and Port Orford Cedar treated with
i ndolebutyr i c ac i d appear t o g i ve
po s i t i ve r e s u l t s , tho s e o f We s tern Wh i te
P i ne negaHve r e s u l t s , wh i l e those o f
Douglas F i r show no s i gn i f i c an t e f fect .
I t i s s ugge s te d that the apparent
i n e f f e c t i vene s s o f hormone t r e atment may
be due to temperature condi t i on s . " ( FA )
159
6 5 8 . Zav i tkov s k i , J . , and M . Newton .
1 9 7 1 . L i tterfa11 and l i t te r
accumul a t i on i n red alder s tands i n
we s tern Oregon . Plant and S o i l
3 5 ( 2 ) : 2 5 7 -268 .
" L i tter accumulat ion i n 2- to 33-ye ar-o ld
Alnus rubra c ommun i t i e s in the coast
R ange area of W . Oregon i s greater than
t h at reported for any other plant c ommun­
i ty of the temper ate reg i on s . L i t te r
produ c t i o n i s al s o unusually h i gh i n
c ommun i t i e s o f o t h e r N-f i xer s , such a s
C e anothus ve1ut i nu s : Th i s charac ter
s ugge s t s that the ab i l i ty o f such s pec i e s
t o produc e large quan t i t i e s o f N-r i c h
l i t ter , even i n a n unfavourable envi ron­
ment , i s rel ated to the i r ab i l i ty t o f i x
N . L i t te r ac c umulates r ap i dly on the
g round dur i n g the f i r s t f i ve years after
e s tabl i s hmen t o f . rubra , but equ i l i ­
b r i um i s reached a t age 6 , and i s
m a i n t a i ned after several decade s .
D u r i ng th i s t ime , the decompo s i t i on o f
l i tter equals the annual l i t ter fall .
In 50 year s , c umulat i ve l i tter fall
r e ache s >300 met r i c tons /ha , mo s t of
wh i ch i s decompo s ed and i ncorporated
i nto the m i n e r al s o i l . Favourable
phys i c al , chemi c al , and nutr i t i onal s o i l
c o nd i t i on s are c reated by Alder for the
developmen t o f the c l imax vegetat i on . 1t
( FA )
160
6 5 9 . Zavi tkovs ki , J . , and M i chael Newton .
1968 . E f f e c t of organ i c matter and
c omb i ned n i trogen on nodulat i on and
n i trogen f i xat i on i n red alde r . I n
B i ology o f alder , p . 209-2 2 3 . J .
M . Trappe , J . F . Frankl i n , R . F .
Tarrant , and G . M . Hansen , eds .
Pac . Northwe s t For . and Range Exp .
S tn . , Portland , Ore g .
"Nodu l at i on and g rowth i n dry we i ght o f
r e d alder plants were i n fluenced
f avorably by i n c r e a s i ng leve l s o f total
s o i l n i troge n ( TS N ) . Few but l arge
nodu l e s developed in s o i l s w i th low TSN ;
i n s o i l s w i th h i gh TSN , nodu l e s wer e
small b u t more numerou s . Acc re t i on s o f
n i trogen to t h e s y s tems and e f f i c i ency
o f n i trogen f i x a t i o n pe aked between 0 . 03
and 0 . 05 perc ent TSN . Nodulat i on was
adve r s ely affected by urea-n i t roge n , but
add i t i on s o f 15-30 ppm o f n i trate­
n i trogen depre s s ed the n odu lat i o n . Rates
of n i trogen f i x a t i on of over 300 kg / h a
year , determined under r e d alder s tands
2-14 years old , wer e s u b s t an t i ated by
greenhouse exper imen t s . B a s ed on
e f f i c i ency o f n i trogen f i xa t i on o f about
5 . 4 mg NI day g nodul e , dry we i gh t , rate
o f f i xat i on could reac h 140 kg / h a year
o f n i trogen in a 7 -ye ar-01d alder s t and ,
and up to 209 kg /ha year i n a 30-year-old
s t and . Based on ave rage ac c re t i on o f
220 m g of n i t rogen p e r k i l ogram o f s o i l ,
n i trogen f i xat i on could approach 100
kg / h a dur i n g the f i r s t year in the
f i e ld . " ( A )
660 . Zavi tkovs ki , J . , and R . D . s teven s .
1 9 7 2 . Pr imary produc t i v i ty o f red
alder e c o s y s tems . Ecology
5 3 ( 2 ) : 23 5-242 .
" F i fty red alder commun i t i e s fl"om 1 t o
6 5 y e a r s old wer e s tudi ed i n we s tern
Oregon . H i ghly s i gn i f i c ant correlat i o n s
wer e found between a n i ndex o f volume
and dry we i ghts of who l e tree s , i nd i v i ­
dual s tems , crown s , tops , and root s .
Cor rel at i on s of dry we i ght w i th other
i ndependent var i ab l e s ( age , dbh , he i gh t )
wer e var i able and s t rongly curvi l i near .
Rat i o s o f c rown to s tem. i n domi nant
t r e e s were h i gher than tho s e o f s up­
p r e s sed o r i n termed i ate tree s . B i omas s
o f aboveground parts i nc reased rapi dly
dur i ng the f i r s t 20 years and reached
about 240 mt/ha by the age of 3 3 year s .
Net pr imary produc t i v i ty dur i ng the
years o f max imum growth ( between 10 and
1 5 year s ) averaged 2 6 mg /ha per year .
Net as s imi l at i on rat e s ranged frQm 2 . 5 8
t o 4 . 33 mt /mt per year . To p roduc e be s t
y i el d s , red alder s tands should be
h arve s ted before 20 ye ars of age . " ( A )
6 6 1 . Zavi tkovs ki , Jaro s 1 av , and M i chael
Newto n .
1 9 6 7 . The role o f s nowbrush
( Ce an othu s ve1u t i nu s Doug1 . ) and
red alder ( Al n u s rubra Bong . ) , i n
fore s t regenerat i on i n the Pac i f i c
Northwe s t . Int . Un i o n For . Res .
Organ . 1 4 th Congr . Proc . Part I I
( Sect . 21 ) , p . 4 29-440 .
[ Mun i ch . ]
"Both s pe c i e s are , because o f the i r
1 i t te r p roduc t i on , i mportant p i oneer
s pe c i e s and s o i l b u i l de r s in the early
s t age s of s uc c e s s i on on i nfert i l e s o i l s .
The i r r o le as nur s e c ro p s i s , howeve r ,
o f doubtful value and the i r net e ffect
on c on i f e r s is more harmful than bene­
f i c i al . Snowbru s h may decrease the
s urv i val of natural o r planted c o n i f e r
s eedl i ng s , developmen t o f wh i c h may b e
r e tarded by 5 - 1 5 year s . T h e s uppre s s i ve
poten t i al o f Red Alder i s even more
pronounc ed , and only the mo s t tolerant
s pe c i e s may be able t o s u rv i ve under
heavy s t ands . " ( FA )
161
Aut h o r I n d e x
Abbe , E r n s t C . 1, 2
Andrews , H . J . 18 Abrams , L . 3
Angul o , A . F . 19 Adams o n , R . M . 365 Ap s e y , T . M i c h ae l 20 Akkerma n s , Anton i u s D i rk Lou i s 4
Arkwr i ght , Peter 21 Alban , Dav i d H . 5
Atki n s o n , Wi l l i am A . 22 , 7 4 , 229 A l l an , G . G . 6, 7
Atte rbury , Toby 23 A l l an , G . Gr aham 8
B abe r , A . A . 24 Allison , G . W . 9
B a i rd , P . K . 25 All i son , R . M . 599 B ake r , W i l l i am J . 26 A l tman n , Th . 10 Ba1c i , A. N . 2 7 , 28 Amchem P roduc t s , Inc . 11 , 12 B arbe r , Paul 29 Ame r i c a n For e s try As s o c i at i on 13 B aro f s ky , Douglas F . 282 , 283 Amer i c a n Plywood As s o c i at i on 14 Baro f s ky , E l i s abeth 282 , 2 83 Anders e n , H . E . 15 Barret t. , R . E . 30 Ande r s o n , B . G . 16 , 1 7 B aue r , Don 65 7 Ande r s o n , C . B . 620 Beatt. i e , R . Ken t 454 Becke r , Edw i n L . 309 162
Becki ng , J . H .
3 1 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 34 , 3 5
B od i g , J .
49
Behm , R . D .
36
Bollen , W . B .
5 0 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 3 2 5 , 3 2 6 , 3 2 7 , 328 ,
3 2 9 , 3 30 , 331 , 3 3 2 , 3 4 2 , 403 , 404 ,
4 0 5 , 406 , 40 7 , 5 6 5 , 5 6 6 , 5 7 8
B e i rne , B . P .
492
Bollen , Wal ter B .
54 , 5 5 , 636
B e l l , Enoch
144
Bell , M . A . M .
502
Bond , G .
5 6 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 60 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 4 ,
2 4 4 , 366 , 4 8 7
Bene , John
37
Bongard , H e i nr i c h Gus tav
65
B e rg , Alan
38
Borde n , J . H .
66
B e r g , Alan B .
39
Bornebu s ch , C . H .
67
B e rgman , stuar t
40
I.
Boyl e , F . P .
291
Bernard , John M .
572
B racket t , Mi chael
68
B e r n t s en , Carl M .
41 , 4 2 , 43 , 44 , 4 5 , 496
Bramhall , G .
69
B e s l ey , L .
46
Brayshaw , T . C .
70 , 7 1
B e t h e l , Jame s S .
72 , 73
Breadon , R . E .
9 , 533 B e t t. s , H . S .
47
B r i gg s , Dav i d G . 72 , 73 , 7 4 , 187
B i an c h i , E .
516
B r i l l , W i n s ton J .
75
B i s h o p , Dan i e l M .
48
B r i t i s h Columb i a Departmen t o f Lands and
Fore s t s
76
B l ac k , Hugh C .
605
B r i t i s h Columb i a For e s t Serv i c e
77
163
Br i x , H .
78 calde r , J . A .
88 , 89 Brockman , C . Frank
79
Call i e r , , A .
90 , 91 , 92 , 93 B rough , Sherman G . 80 Cameron , P . J . 94 B rown , George W . 81 , 460 Car s te n s e n , John P . 95 B rown , H . P . 442 Chamberl a i n , Char l e s T . 96 B r own , K . J . 82 Chambe r s , Charl e s J . 97 B rown , Robert L . 353 chandler , Robert F . , Jr . 564 B r owne , F . G . 83 Chang , Y i ng-Pe 98 B rowne , J . E . 84 Ch appe l l e , Dan i e l E . 654 , 655 B r own i ng , B . L . 643 Cheadl e , Vernon I . 156 Bruce , Dav i d 85 , 124 Chen , C . S . 5 0 , 342 , 565 B r u s h , Warren D . 116 Chen , Ch i -S i n 55 , 99 Bryan t , B e n S . 86 , 2 2 9 Cheng , C h i Shan 100 Bubl i t z , Wal ter J . 87 Ch i ld s , T . W . 607 Bu c kley , B . 579 Chopra , C . S . 6
Buhaly , J o s eph 147 Chopra , Chetan S . 8
Burri s , R . H .
599
Chow , S . 101 , 102 164
Churc h , D . C . 481 Crouc h , G . L . 467 C l ark , Don ald H . 103 , 104 , lOS , 106 , 1 0 7 , 108 Crouch , Glenn L . 1 2 2 , 123 C l ark , J . B . 109 Cummi n g s , J . C . 544 C l ark , John B . 110 , 111 Curry , Loren 147 C l ark , Robert H . 112 Curt i s , Robert O . 85 , 124 , 125 C l ark , Wi l l i am 323 Dahms , W . G . 126 Cole , D. W . 113 , 5 83 Darl i ng ton , C . D . 127 Cole , Dale W . 114 , 5 84 Daubenm i r e , R . 128 , 129 Cole , J . R . 516 Davi s , E. M . 130 , 131 C o l l i ngwood , G. H . 1 1 5 , 116 Davi s , Margaret B ryan 132 C ommonwe alth Bureau o f So i l s 117 Dayton , Wi l l i am A . 133 Cooke , W i l l i am B r i dge 118 Dean , W . F . 66 Corl i s s , J . F . 119 Deardo n , E l i z abeth Ruth 264 Cowan , I . M . 120 DeBe l l , D. S . 134 , 5 2 2 , 5 2 3 Cowl i n , R . W. 18 DeBell , Dean S . 7 4 , 13 5 , 136 , 1 3 7 , 138 Cowl i n , Robert W . 121 DeFre i tas , Amant i no R . 139 , 1 5 5 Cronqu i s t , Arthur 248 , 249 DeFre i t as , Amant i no Ramo s 140 165
DeMar s , Donald J .
125
Dyrne s s , C . T .
119 , 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 180
DeMo i s y , Ralph G .
141
Effland , M . J .
157
Den i s o n , Wi l l i am C .
636
Eklundh , C .
153
Detl i n g , LeRoy E .
142
El l i o t , G . K .
289
D i ehl , Wi l l i am W .
143
E r i c ks o n , H . D .
320
D imock , Edward J . , I I
144
E r i c ks o n , Harvey D .
139 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 5
D i xon , D .
145
E s au , Kathe r i ne
156
D i xon , Dorothy
458
E s lyn , W . E .
157
Dob i e , J .
146
E s penas , Le i f D .
158 , 159
Doerks en , Allan
38
Evan s , Harold J .
160 , 2 9 5 , 296 , 2 9 7 , 298 , 493 , 5 0 7
Doran , S amuel M .
14 7
Evan s , R . S .
161
Douglas , Dav i d
148
F aeg r i , Knut
162
Dougl as - f i r Second-Growth Management
Commi t tee
149
Fahey , D . J .
25
Dreyer , H . V .
150
Dr i ver , Charle s H .
151
Du f f i e l d , John W .
152
166
Farr , Tommy D .
87
Farr , W i lbur A .
227
Faurot , James L .
163
F ay , G i nny 164 , 1 6 5 Fore s t Record , Fore s try Comm i s s i on 175 F ay , H . 411 Forr i s t a11 , Floyd F . 176 Feddern , Edwart T . 166 For s te r , Robe rt H . 121 Fe i s t , W. C . 537 Fowe 11 s , H . A . 177 Fe i s t , W i l l i am C . 538 Frankl i n , J . F . 566 Fergerson , Wal ter 251 Frankl i n , Jerry F . 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 180 , 181 , 4 4 6 , 5 6 6 , 5 7 7 Ferguson , T . P . 64 Frashour , R . G . 16 , 1 7 Fer r i s , Roxana S . 3
F r i edho f , J . F . 6
F i eld , Nancy 167 F r i edman , Jan e t Patterson 182 F i nn i s , J . H . 168 , 169 F r i t z , Emanuel 183 Fletche r , W. W . 64 Fro i devaux , Luc i e n 1 8 4 , 185 Fonda , R . W . 170 Furl ow , John Jac ob 186 Fontno i re , Jean 171 Fye , Calv i n G . 187 Forbe s , Regi nal d D . 172 Gara , R . I . 6 , 188 Fore s t Club , Un i ve r s i ty o f Br i t i sh Columb i a 173 Gardner , H. W . 652 , 653 Fore s t Indu s tr i e s
174
Garman , E . H . 189 167 Gerhard s , C . C .
190
G r ave s , Henry S .
206
Gessel , S . P .
113 , 1 7 6 , 191 , 1 9 2 , 193 , 194 , 2 5 5 ,
583
Greg s o n , P . G .
207
Ge s s el , S t anley P .
114 , 1 9 5
Gl enden n i ng , R .
196
Glenn i e , Doug las W .
197 , 393
G i bbons , W i l l i am H .
276
Go ldschmi d , otto
371
Goodyea r , Hal
657
Gordon , John C .
198 , 199
Graf , Ph i l l i p Edward
200
Graham , R. D .
201
Graham , Robert D .
202
Gram , K. C .
203
Gr amov s ky , A. A .
204
Gra s s , Al
292
Gratkowski , H .
205
Gre i ne r , Dav i d
425
Grobey , John Henry
208
Gronda1 , Bror L .
209 , 210 , 211
Guern s e y , F . W .
267
Gunthe r , Erna
212
Haard , R i ch ard T .
213
Haddock , Ph i l i p G .
214
Hagman , K .
215
Hagman , Max
216
Haj ny , G . J .
537
Haj ny , George J .
5,38
Hal l , J . Al f red
2 1 7 , 218
Hall , John W .
219 , 220
Hall , Ri ch ard B .
199
Ham i l ton , J . K .
221 , 222
168
Ham i l ton , W i l l ar d I . 22 Hawke s , Carl 232 Hans en , E . M . 412 Hawley , L . F . 233 Hansen , Edward D . 506 Haye s , Jame s 234 Hans en , Eve re t t 223 Heeb i nk , T . B . 235 H an s en , George M . 577 Hende r s on , J . A . 236 Han smann , Eugene W . 224 Hept ing , George H . 237 Hanzl i k , Edward J . 276 Herdle , Lloyd E . 625 H arger , J . R . E . 225 He rfeld , H . 238 Harrar , E . S . 226 Herman , Franc i s R . 125 Harr i s , Arl and S . 227 Hes s , Robert W . 471 H ar r i s , K . F . 228 He s s i ng , polly 164 , 165 Harr i s on , Antony S . 558 Hether i ngton , J. C . 239 Hartman , D av i d A . 229 Heu s s e r , C . J . 240 , 241 Has s an , B . A . e 1 419 Heu s s e r , C alv i n J . 242 , 243 Hat ton , J . V . 230 , 2 5 8 Hewi t t , E . J . 244 Hat ton , John V . 231 H i ldenbrand , Homer 245 H awksworth , Frank G . 347 H i ll , Fred J . 246 169
H i ll s t rom , Wi l l i am A . 247 I s aac , Leo A . 262 , 564 H i nt z , Dav i d 429 Ivan B l o c k and Assoc i at e s 263 H i tchcock , C . Leo 2 4 8 , 249 Jackson , A . 320 Hopki n s , D . 205 Jacks o n , H . S . 264 Hos ie , R . C . 250 Jacob s e n , Karen 164 , 1 6 5 Hoye r , Gerald 251 Jaeck , L . L . 188 Hoye r , Gerald E . 2 5 2 , 582 Jai n , M . C . 265 Hrutf i ord , B . F . 253 Jare tzky , R . 266 Hru t f i o r d , Bj orn F . 641 Jenki n s , J . H . 267 H u f fman , J . G . 2 5 4 , 294 Jepson , wi l l i s L i n n 268 , 269 Hughe s , D. R . 255 Johan s o n , L . N . 641 Hughes , Dallas Robe r t 256 Johnson , F . D . 443 Hunt , I an S i n c la i r 257 Johnson , Floyd A . 48 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 2 , 648 Hunt , K . 230 , 258 Johnson , Freder i c D . 273 , 274 Hyt t i ne n , A . 2 5 9 , 260 John s on , Herman 275 , 276 Ifju , G . 290 Johns on , R . L . 277 I r g e n s -Mo1le r , J . 261 John s son , Helge
278 . 279 170
Jone s , George Nevi l le
280
Kirsch , R . K .
293
Jone s , J . R . I . L . 281
K i t t i l a , Edw i n
429
Jurd , L .
291
Kitts , W . D .
2 5 4 , 294 , 5 1 5
Kal l ande r , R . H .
271
Kl i ewe r , Hark
160 , 2 9 5 , 2 9 6 , 2 9 7 , 298
Karche s y , Joseph J .
2 8 2 , 283
Knu t s e n , Stanley Kenneth
299
Karch e s y , John Joseph
284
Kohnke , H e lmut
300
Kell e r , E . L .
285
Kozak , A .
301 , 5 2 5 , 5 26
Kel lman , H . C .
286 , 287
Koz l i k , C . J .
302
Kel logg , R . H .
546
Kozl i k , Char l e s J .
303 , 304
Ken ady , Re i d H .
2 88
Kr i s hnamur t i , C . R .
2 5 4 , 294 , 5 1 5
Kennedy , R . W .
2 8 9 , 290
Kruege r , Kenneth W .
3 0 5 , 306
Ker , J . W .
524
Kryg i e r , Jame s T .
81
Kimmey , J . W .
607
Kuntze , O .
307
K i ng , A . D . , Jr . 291 Kurth , E . F .
308 , 309
K i ng , Dav i d G . 292 Lac i t i s , As t r i d
7
K i ng s bury , R . H . 285 , 350 Lai , Yuan-Zong 310 K i rk , T . K . 157 L ' Allemand , Gordon
311
171
Lanne r , Ronald M .
3 1 2 , 313
Larsen , C . Muh1 e
2 03
Larsen , C . Syrach
203
Larsen , Lee E .
314
Lars o n , Don
315
Larson , W i l l i am H .
316
L aundr i e , J . F .
317
Lauterbach , P .
205
L auterbach , P aul G .
271
L aver , Hurray L .
2 8 2 , 283
L awton , Donald H .
318
Lee , J-h
7
Leech , H . E .
319
Leney , L .
320
Li ,
Y.
3 2 4 , 3 2 5 , 3 2 6 , 3 2 7 , 3 2 8 , 3 2 9 , 330 ,
331 , 332 , 412 , 5 7 8
c.
L i , Ch i ng-Yan
333
Lines , R .
334
Li s te r , G . R .
109
Li s te r , Geoffrey R .
110 , 1 1 1
Li ttle , Elbert L. , J r .
335 , 5 9 7 , 598
L i t t le , Gene R .
336 , 582
L i u , Fu-me i
7
Lj unger , Aake
279 , 337
Lloyd , W . J .
338 , 3 3 9
Lloyd , Wi l l i am J .
340 , 648
Love land , Patr i c i a H .
283
Lowe , Daphyne P .
341
Leonard , O . A .
321
Lu , K. C .
5 0 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 3 2 5 , 326 , 3 2 7 , 3 2 8 ,
329 , 330 , 331 , 332 , 3 4 2 , 403 , 404 ,
405 , 406 , 407 , 5 6 5 , 5 6 6 , 5 7 8
Lettman , Gary J ame s
322
Lu , Kuo C .
55
Lewi s , Mer i wether
323
Lumberman ,
343 , 344
172
Lutz , J . F . 345 , 447 Mack i n t o s h , Anne H . 366 Lyon s , C . P . 346 Mad i s o n , Robe rt W . 3 6 7 , 368 MacBryde , Bruce 569 Magg i , M . W . 6
McCall , G . L . 24 Ma i no , Eve lyn 354 McCartney , Wi l l i am D . 347 Maloney , T . M . 369 MacConne l l , J . T . 348 Manol i s , B . 370 McGovern , J . N . 82 , 349 , 350 Manuwa1 , D av i d A . 167 McGregor , G . H . 349 Maranv i l le , L . Frank 371 McGuane , Harry 351 Margo l i n , Mal c olm 372 McKelvey , S u s an Delan o 352 Markwardt , L . J . 373 McLaughl i n , W i l l ard T . 353 Marple ' s B u s i ne s s News l e t t e r 374 McMi nn , Howard E . 354 Mar t i n , J . S . 2 5 , 285 , 350 McMunn , H . I . 355 Mathewe s , Rolf W . 375 McNa i r , C l i f f , Jr . 356 Mat s on , Elmer E . 649 McPhe r s on , W . E . 357 Matthew s , Ol i ver V . 376 McVe an , D . N . 3 5 8 , 3 5 9 , 360 , 361 , 362 , 363 , 364 Maur anen , P . 7
Ma s s , E . F . 365 Maye u x , Patr i c i a 493 173
Me llenth i n , W . M .
483
Mothe r s h e ad , John S .
1 9 7 , 393
Menz i e s , Arch i b ald
377
Muen s c her , W. C .
394
Merku s , E .
595
Mul l i gan , B r i an O .
395
Me s t re , J . C .
378
Mul l i n , S andy
396
Me tcal f , Me l v i n E .
379
Munch , E .
397
M i ller , Donald J .
202
Munge r , Thornton T .
398
M i ller , J ame s H .
380
Munn s , E . N .
399
M i ller , R i c hard E .
381 , 5 6 7
Munro , Donald D .
534
M i nore , Don
3 8 2 , 383 , 384 , 3 8 5 , 386 , 3 8 7
Mur a i , S aburo
400 , 401
Mi tche l l , H arry O .
388
Murray , Mar shall D .
38 1
M i tche l l , Raymond L .
98
Nagoda , Ludv i k
402
Mo i s i o , T .
599
Neal , J . L . , Jr .
403 , 404 , 405 , 406 , 4 0 7
Moore , Duane G .
180
Neal , John Lloyd , Jr .
408
Mo r ave t s , F . L .
389
Neergaard , P .
423
Mo r r i s o n , Van c e L .
390
Nel s o n , E . E .
3 2 5 , 409 , 410 , 411 , 412
Mo r s e , Wi l l i am B .
391
N e l s o n , Earl E .
413 , 414 , 4 1 5
Mo s h i e r , B i ll
392
Neog i , A . N .
6
174
New Zeal and s tate For e s t Serv i c e
416
Newton , M .
417 , 6 5 8
Newton , M i chael
2 5 1 , 418 , 4 1 9 , 6 2 3 , 6 5 9 , 6 6 1
Newton , W i l l i am E .
420 , 421
N i e l son , R . W .
422
Noble , K .
423
Oregon State Un i ver s i ty , Cooperat i ve
Exten s i o n Serv i ce
4 3 1 , 432 , 433
Oregon S t ate U n i ver s i ty , School of
Fores try
434
Oregon i an , The
435
overho l s e r , Jame s L .
436
Ownbey , Mar i o n
249
Nobl e , Marv i n
29
Pac i f i c Nor thwe s t Fore s t a n d Range
Exper iment s tat i o n
4 3 7 , 438 , 439 , 440 , 4 4 1
Nor r i s , L . A .
424
pan s h i n , A . J .
442
Nor r i s , Logan A .
425
Partr i dge , A . D .
443
Northwe s t Hardwood A s s oc i at i on
426 , 427
Pau l , B . H .
444
Nuttal l , Thomas
428
Peac e , T . R .
445
Nyman , C . J .
420 , 4 2 1
Pechane c , Anna A .
1 8 1 , 446
Oakley , Karen
164 , 165
Person , C . O .
519
Of ford , Harold R .
112
Peters , C . C .
447
O l i ve r , Chadw i c k D .
553
Pfe i f f e r , J . R .
448 , 449 , 4 5 0 , 4 5 1
O l s o n , Bob
429
P f e i ffer , Jack R .
452
Oregon S t ate Departmen t o f Fore s try
430
Ph i nney , H arry K .
2 24
17 5
P i ckle s , K . J .
102
Rat c l i f f , Eve l yn K .
643
P i pe r , Char l e s V .
453 , 454
Ray , W i n f i eld W .
470
Pl ank , Marl i n E .
455
Rec o rd , Samue l J .
471
Platz , Bob J .
456
Red i s ke , J . H .
472
P l ayfa i r , L .
457
Red i s ke , John H .
473
Pomeroy , K . B .
458 Rehder , Alfred
474 , 475 , 476
Ponc e , S t anley L .
4 5 9 , 460
Reh i ll , P . S .
477
Porte r , Denn i s R .
461
Re i c hard , T . A .
478
Poucque s , J . L . de
462
Remi ngton , Rod L .
479
P r e s to n , R . J .
463
Reukema , Donald L .
13 7 , 480
P u l p a n d Paper Magaz i n e
464
Reynolds , G .
611 , 6 1 2
Qu i ck , Robert H .
465
Rice , P . R .
481
Qu i spe1 , A .
19 R i ch en s , R . H .
482
Radwan , M . A .
466 , 467
Robe rt s , A . N .
483
Rahman , Abuhamed Mohamed
468
Robe rt s , S . C .
6
Randal l , Robert M .
144 , 469
Rob i n son , Dan D .
484
Rapson , W. H .
620
Rod r i gue z-Barrue c o , C .
4 8 5 , 486 , 4 8 7
176
Roge r s , Jack D . 488 Schmi dt , Fred L . 538 Roof , Jame s 489 Schm i t z , John 503 Ro s s , Herbert H . 490 Schn i ew i nd , A . P . 504 Roy , Dougl as s F . 491 Schopmeye r , C . S . 505 Rub i n , A . 492 Schroeder , Herbert
506 Rus s e l l , Robert M . 8
S chreuder , Ger ard F . 73 Ru s s e l l , S ter l i n g A . 493 S chubert , Kare l R . 507 Ruth , Robert H . 305 , 306 , 368 , 494 , 49 5 , 496 , 649 Schumann , D . R . 508 Ruth , Robe r t Harvey 497 Schwar tz , S i dney L . 509 Ryme r , K . W . 498 Schwe i tzer , Denn i s L . 654 , 655 S akai , A . 499 Scott , Dav i d R . M . 251 S ander , G . H . 500 Sede l l , J . R . 5 79 S argent , Charle s Sprague 501 Sede l l , Jame s R . 510 S awbr i dge , D . F . 502 S e l i s kar , E . C . 554 S chafe r , E . R . 2 5 9 , 260 S e s h ad r i , T . R . 265 S charpf , Robert F . 347 Sharman , C . V . 536 S chmi d t , F . L . 537 Shaw , Charl e s Gardne r 511 , 512 , 513 , 514 A. 177
Sheldon , Jue1
29
stanley , W . L .
291
Shelford , J . A .
294 , 5 1 5
s tark , E r i c W .
540
Sheth , K .
516
starke r , T . J .
541
S i lver , W . S .
517
starr , Duane
5 23
S i lve s te r , W . B .
5 18
steel e , Robert W .
542
S i vak , Bela
519
stenze l , George
543
S k i nne r , Edge1 C .
5 20
stettle r , R . F .
544
Smi th , Clark E .
386 , 387
stettle r , Re i nhard F .
545
Smi th , Harvey H .
521
Steucek , G . L .
5 4 6 , 603
S mi th , J . H . G .
301 , 5 2 2 , 5 23 , 5 24 , 5 2 5 , 5 26 , 5 7 1
s teven s , R. D .
660
S mi th , J . Harry G .
5 2 7 , 5 28 , 5 29 , 5 3 0 , 5 3 1 , 5 3 2 , 5 3 3 ,
534
stewart , R . E .
5 4 7 , 5 4 8 , 549 , 5 5 0
S mi th , N i cholas J .
535
S mi th , R . S .
536
S pr i nge r , E . L .
537
S p r i ng e r , Edward L .
538
S t aebler , George R .
4 8 , 4 7 2 , 5 3 9 , 648
178
stewar t , W . D . P .
551 , 552
Stoate , T . N .
1 9 1 , 192
Sto tzky , G .
594
St rand , Robert F .
13 7
S tubbl e f i e ld , George
553
stuntz , D . E .
554
Sudworth , George B . 555 Tr appe , J ame s M . 5 7 6 , 577 , 578 Summe r s , Ken 292 Trembl ay , F . Todd 195 Sund , J immi e Damon 556 T r i s ka , F . J . 579 Swan , E r i c P . 557 Tr i s ka , Frank J . 510 s z c z awi n s k i , Adam F . 558 Tr i s ka , Nancy S . 510 Tarran t , R . F . 559 T s c h i r1ey , F . H . 580 Tarrant , Robert F . 5 0 , 5 5 , 180 , 5 6 0 , 5 6 1 , 5 6 2 , 5 6 3 , 564 , 565 , 566 , 567 , 568 , 5 7 7 Tuckerman , E . 581 T aylor , Roy L . 88 , 8 9 , 569 Tehon , L . R . 570 Templ e , J . de 423 Te s s i e r , J . P . 571 Thomp s o n , J . W . 249 Thomp s o n , N . S . 221 , 222 T i l ton , Donal d L . 572 T imberman 573, 574 , 575 T rappe , J . M . 3 2 5 , 3 26 , 3 2 7 , 328 , 329 , 330 , 331 , 3 3 2 , 404 , 405 , 406 , 407 , 412 , 5 6 8 Turnbul l , K . J . 1 9 1 , 192 , 5 8 2 Turnbu l l , Kenneth J . 195 Turner , J . 193 , 5 83 Turne r , John 113 , 194 , 584 Turne r , Nancy J . 585 U . S . De partment o f Agr i cultur e ,
Agr i c ulture Re s e arch Serv i c e 586 U . S . Depar tmen t o f Agr i cu l ture , For e s t
Serv i ce , For e s t Produ c t s Laboratory 5 8 7 , 588 , 5 8 9 , 5 9 0 Uemura , S . 591 Ulr i ch , B . 592 179
un i te d K i n gdom Fores try Commi s s i o n 593 Wall , Br i an R . 609 VanCoeve r i ng , C aryanne 8 5 , 124 Wal l i s , G . 610 Vancura , V . 594 Wall i s , G . W . 611 , 6 1 2 van Dijk, C . 19 , 595 Wang , YU-M i n 613 Vano sdoll , John Clark 596 War rac k , G . C . 614 , 6 1 5 , 616 V i er e c k , Le s l i e A . 5 9 7 , 598 Warrac k , George C . 617 V i rtanen , A . I . 599 Was h i ngton s t ate Un i ver s i ty , Cooperat i ve Exten s i ve Serv i c e 618 V i rtanen , Ar ttur i 600 Vocke roth , J . R . 601 Vo i g t , G . K . 602 , 603 Voorh i e s , Glenn 604 Voth , Elver H . 605 Voth , Elver Howard 606 Wagene r , W i l l i s W. 607 Wagge ne r , Thomas R . 608 Walke r , Alex ande r , Jr . 625 Walke r , R . B . 255 180
Was h i ngton Woodl and Counc i l 619 Wayman , H . 620 We atherby , Hugh 621 Webb , Warren L . 6 2 2 , 623 Webb , Warren Lewi s 624 We i s e r , C . J . 499 We l l i ng to n , W. G . 94 We ll s , Frank L . 625 We llwood , R . W . 626 We s t Coast Lumbe rman 627 W i l s on , Boyd C . 138 we s tcott , Cynth i a 628 W i l s o n , Don ald F . 641 We s te rgaard , M . 203 W i l s on , T . R . C . 373 We s tern Fore s t ry and Con s e rvat ion A s s oc i at i on 629 W i n j um , Jack Ke i th 642 We s tern Soc i ety o f Weed Sc i en c e 630 Wet zel , G . 6 3 1 , 632 , 6 3 3 Wh i te , Gordon 634 W i an t , Harry V . , Jr . 461 W i ckl i f f , Carlos 635 W i c k1ow , Marc i a C . 636 W i c k1ow , Marc i a Cope 63 7 W i edhopf , R . 516 W i ley , Kenneth N . 638 W i lki n s , R . M . 6
W i l l i amson , R i chard L . 639 W i ll i s , J . C . 640 Wi s e , Lou i s e E . 2 3 3 , 643 Wol l i n , A. C . 451 Wo11um , A . G . , I I 644 Wonde r l y , Judson 86 Woodf i n , R i chard O . 229 Woodwo r th , Robert H . 645 Woollar d , Robert F . 387 Worth i ngton , Norman P . 2 7 2 , 646 , 6 4 7 , 648 , 6 4 9 Wr i gh t , E . 53 Wr i ght , Erne s t 650 Wu , Ch i h Fae 651 Wyl i e , A . P . 12 7 Yarwood , C . E . 652 , 653 181
Subject I n d e x Yoho , James G .
654 , 6 5 5
Youngberg , C . T .
644
Z abka , J o s e f
656
Z ach , Lawrence W .
657
Z av i tkovski , J .
6 5 8 , 6 5 9 , 660
Zavi tkovs ki , Jar o s l av
419 , 661
Z e euw , Carl de
442
Zenczak , P i otr
211
Z i eger , E .
238
Zoch , L . L . , Jr .
537
Zoch , Lawrence L . , Jr .
538
An atomy
I , 1 5 6 , 2 1 9 , 220 , 289 , 3 7 8 , 4 4 2 ,
462 , 5 0 4 , 540
An imal damage
120 , 122 , 123 , 133 , 466 , 4 6 7 , 481 ,
605 , 606
B i bl i ograph i e s ( al s o see Gene ral )
1 1 7 , 4 7 4 , 4 7 5 , 482
B i rds ( al s o see Commun i t i e s , Ecology ,
Hab i t at )
164 , 165 , 1 6 7 , 292 , 3 7 0 , 4 7 8
Botany ( al s o see Anatomy , Cytology ,
Morphology )
7 0 , 7 1 , 88 , 186 , 189 , 2 2 6 , 248 , 249 ,
2 5 0 , 268 , 269 , 280 , 3 3 5 , 346 , 3 5 4 ,
3 6 6 , 394 , 3 9 5 , 428 , 4 5 3 , 4 5 4 , 463 ,
4 7 6 , 5 01 , 5 5 5 , 5 5 8 , 5 69 , 5 9 7 , 5 9 8 ,
640
Breed i n g ( al s o see Genet i c s )
1 5 3 , 198 , 2 1 5 , 216 , 2 7 8 , 2 7 9 , 3 3 7 ,
482 , 5 4 5 , 6 5 7
Commun i t i e s ( al s o see Ecology )
88 , 128 , 1 2 9 , 16 2 , 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 181 ,
200 , 236 , 2 7 3 , 363 , 419 , 446 , 502 ,
542
Compe t i t i on ( al s o see Spac i ng st and
den s i ty , Th i nn i ng )
149 , 5 2 3 , 5 6 0 , 639 , 6 4 2
Crown D imen s i on s
20 , 138 , 5 28 , 6 1 3
Cytology
89 , 203 , 266 , 462 , 5 1 7 , 631 , 632 ,
633 , 6 4 5
Damag i ng ag ents
B i olog i c al ( s ee An imal damage ,
Di s e a s e s and d i sease control ,
I n s e c t s and i n sect contro l )
182
Chem i c al ( s ee Herb i c i de s )
A i r pollut i o n i nj ury
225
Phy s i c al ( s ee Fro s t damage , W i nd and
w i nd damage )
D i s e a s e s and d i s e a s e control
80 , 83 , 118 , 143 , 1 5 1 , 223 , 2 3 7 ,
264 , 3 2 5 , 326 , 3 2 7 , 328 , 329 , 332 ,
333 , 3 4 1 , 3 4 7 , 3 9 7 , 409 , 410 , 411 ,
4 1 2 , 4 1 3 , 414 , 4 1 5 , 423 , 443 , 4 4 5 ,
4 7 0 , 4 7 7 , 488 , 5 1 1 , 5 1 2 , 513 , 5 1 4 ,
519 , 5 5 4 , 568 , 5 70 , 5 7 6 , 5 7 8 , 586 ,
6 0 7 , 610 , 6 1 1 , 612 , 6 2 8 , 6 5 2 , 6 5 3
Eco logy ( al s o s e e B i rds , Commun i t i e s ,
H ab i t at , Succ e s s i on )
1 1 5 , 1 1 9 , 162 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 7 , 1 7 8 ,
1 7 9 , 213 , 2 2 7 , 2 7 5 , 3 5 9 , 383 , 384 ,
3 8 5 , 3 8 6 , 399 , 4 4 6 , 494 , 4 9 5 , 4 9 7 ,
502 , 5 1 0 , 5 2 3 , 5 5 9 , 5 6 0 , 561 , 5 6 2 ,
5 6 8 , 5 7 2 , 5 7 9 , 5 8 4 , 644 , 646 , 660 ,
661
E co nomi c s
2 3 , 4 2 , 7 3 , 86 , 144 , 1 4 6 , 1 4 7 , 161 ,
163 , 1 6 6 , 208 , 2 4 5 , 3 2 2 , 336 , 3 7 4 ,
436 , 4 6 9 , 5 08 , 5 7 1 , 608 , 609 , 618 ,
619 , 6 5 4
Farm fore s t ry ( al s o s e e S i lv i culture )
234 , 3 9 2 , 432 , 4 3 3 , 618 , 6 1 9
F e r t i l i z at i on ( al s o s e e Nu t r i en t s and
nutr i t i on )
1 7 5 , 1 9 1 , 192 , 1 9 5 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 6 , 413
F i rewood
161 , 315 , 535
F l owe r i ng and fru i t i n g
2 , 215 , 359
Food from trees
2 5 4 , 2 9 4 , 5 1 5 , 585
Fore s t produc t s ( s ee al s o Ut i l i z at i on )
21 , 7 4 , 105 , 1 7 4 , 2 2 9 , 318 , 3 5 1 ,
369 , 3 8 8 , 4 5 0 , 4 7 9 , 500 ,
Fore s t r e s ource s t at i s t i c s ( s e e al s o
Inventory )
1 2 1 , 1 5 4 , 1 7 4 , 3 3 6 , 3 7 9 , 389 , 4 2 2 ,
4 5 6 , 609 , 6 5 5
Fro s t damage
152
Genet i c s
89 , 1 2 7 , 138 , I S O, 198 , 199 , 203 ,
2 1 5 , 2 1 6 , 2 7 3 , 2 7 9 , 334 , 3 3 7 , 4 8 2 ,
544 , 5 4 5 , 593 , 634
General ( i n c lud i ng conference and
s ympo s i a proceed i ng s ) ( al s o s e e
B i bl i ograph i e s )
3 9 , 4 7 , 7 4 , 7 9 , 103 , 1 1 6 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 ,
1 7 3 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 7 , 1 9 9 , 206 , 2 7 5 , 343 ,
391 , 4 2 6 , 4 5 8 , 5 7 7
G i rd l i n g
4 1 , 168
Glues and glu i ng
95
Grad i ng ( l og and lumber )
187 , 426 , 451
Growth
1 3 , 1 4 5 , 384 , 438 , 480
Growth and y i e l d ( al s o s e e Men surat i on ,
Volume equat i on s and t able s , Y i e ld
t able s )
20 , 42 , 43 , 4 5 , 7 7 , 9 7 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 ,
1 3 7 , 381 , 4 1 6 , 5 2 3 , 5 2 9 , 5 3 0 , 531 ,
5 3 2 , 5 3 5 , 5 7 2 , 5 8 4 , 613 , 639 , 648 ,
660
H ab i t at ( al s o s ee Ecology )
1 2 0 , 133 , 1 6 7 , 2 3 6 , 2 7 3 , 386 , 446 ,
489 , 5 4 2
Herb i c i de s
6 , 8 , I I,
1 4 1 , 144 ,
3 2 1 , 368 ,
434 , 4 5 7 ,
548 , 549 ,
630
12 , IS, 24 , 41 , 7 6 ,
168 , 205 , 232 , 239 ,
390 , 4 1 7 , 418 , 424 ,
4 7 2 , 4 7 3 , 496 , 5 3 9 ,
5 5 0 , 5 5 6 , 5 7 5 , 580 ,
126 ,
316 ,
425 ,
547 ,
621 ,
183
H i s t o r i c al
1 4 2 , 148 , 182 , 206 , 212 , 2 7 5 , 323 ,
3 5 2 , 3 7 7 , 428 , 5 0 1 , 5 0 2 , 5 2 7 , 5 8 5
Hybr i d s
2 7 3 , 2 7 8 , 2 7 9 , 3 3 7 , 3 9 5 , 400 , 5 4 4
H ydro logy
2 7 , 2 8 , 5 0 , 81 , 2 2 4 , 299 , 380 , 4 5 9 ,
4 6 0 , 468 , 5 10 , 5 6 5 , 5 7 9 ,
I n s e c t s and i n s ec t control
3 0 , 6 6 , 9 4 , 188 , 196 , 204 , 281 , 319 ,
4 9 0 , 4 9 2 , 601
I nven tory ( al s o s e e Fore s t re s ource
s t at i s t i c s )
9 , 104 , 106 , 336 , 3 7 4 , 436 , 4 5 6 , 5 2 7
Logg i n g
1 6 3 , 166 , 2 2 4 , 4 2 6 , 4 2 7
Lumb e r
16 , 1 7 , 1 8 7 , 396 , 5 08 , 5 7 1
Management
2 2 , 3 9 , 7 4 , 137 , 1 4 7 , 149 , 1 7 7 , 207 ,
214 , 2 2 7 , 2 7 6 , 3 2 2 , 3 7 2 , 4 2 6 , 430 ,
4 3 1 , 432 , 433 , 4 5 0 , 469 , 491 , 498 ,
5 0 0 , 5 2 2 , 5 6 3 , 608 , 614 , 649 , 6 5 4
M arke t i ng
26 , 3 6 , 2 4 5 , 263 , 318 , 336 , 3 5 7 ,
3 7 4 , 431 , 433 , 441 , 449 , 4 5 6 , 4 7 9 ,
5 0 0 , 5 4 3 , 618 , 619 , 6 5 5
Medi c i nal prQdu c t s
212 , 516 , 5 8 5
M e n s u r at i on ( measurement )
9 , 20 , 8 5 , 1 2 5 , 183 , 2 7 2 , 301 , 438 ,
480 , 5 2 3 , 5 3 1 , 613 , 639 , 5 2 7 , 5 2 9 ,
5 3 3 , 613
M i ll s
2 4 6 , 3 5 6 , 4 2 7 , 441 , 464 , 4 7 9
Morphology
1 , 2 , 32 , 378
184
Mycorrh i z ae
184 , 1 8 5 , 404 , 4 0 5 , 4 0 7 , 408
Natural var i at i on
138 , 1 5 0 , 186 , 289 , 313 , 334 , 3 5 8 ,
376 , 397 , 5 4 5 , 593
N i trogen f i xat i o n
4 , 19 , 3 1 , 3 2 , 33 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 5 9 ,
60 , 61 , 6 2 , 63 , 64 , 7 5 , 114 , 160 ,
198 , 244 , 2 9 5 , 296 , 2 9 7 , 2 9 8 , 348 ,
420 , 421 , 4 8 5 , 486 , 4 8 7 , 5 0 7 , 5 1 7 ,
5 1 8 , 5 5 1 , 5 5 2 , 591 , 5 9 5 , 5 9 9 , 600 ,
603 , 6 3 5 , 644 , 6 5 9
Nutr i ent cycl i ng
38 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 6 7 , 113 , 114 , 193 ,
194 , 468 , 5 6 4 , 5 6 5 , 5 6 6 , 5 6 8 , 5 7 9 ,
5 8 3 , 602 , 603 , 644 , 6 5 8
Nutr i en t s and nutr i t ion ( s e e
Fe rt i l i za t i on )
Palynology
132 , 162 , 240 , 241 , 242 , 243 , 364 ,
375
Phy s i ology
7 8 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 198 , 199 , 305 ,
306 , 3 2 7 , 328 , 329 , 331 , 3 3 2 , 348 ,
383 , 3 8 5 , 4 7 7 , 486 , 493 , 494 , 4 9 7 ,
499 , 5 0 7 , 5 4 6 , 5 5 6 , 5 7 2 , 5 9 4 , 600 ,
6 2 2 , 623 , 6 2 4 , 63 5 , 644 , 6 5 7
Plant analy s i s ( al s o s e e Nut r i e n t s and
nut r i t i on )
324 , 466 , 4 6 7 , 643
Plan t i ng ( s e e Re fore s t at i o n )
Plant nut r i en t s
113 , 160 , 244 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 6 , 493 , 5 6 4 ,
635
Plywood
14 , 3 7 , 108 , 34 5 , 3 5 1 , 3 6 9 , 388 ,
5 74 , 587
Pollen ( al s o s e e Flowe r i ng and f ru i t i n g ,
Palynology , plant analy s i s )
96
P roduc t i v i ty ( s e e Growth an d y i e ld , s i te
i ndex , y i e ld tabl e s )
Provenance
138 , 200 , 2 7 3 , 334 , 544 , 5 9 3 , 634
Prun i ng
44 , 439
S i lv i cul ture ( al s o s e e Management ,
Prun i ng , Ref o re s t a t i o n , s i te
preparat i on , Spe c i e s m i x t u re s ,
Thinn i ng )
1 3 7 , 1 7 7 , 206 , 2 2 7 , 228 , 2 7 7 , 391 ,
4 2 6 , 433 , 469 , 5 5 3 , 5 7 7 , 5 9 2 , 614 ,
646
s i te i nd e x
48 , 1 2 5 , 1 9 5 , 2 5 1 , 2 7 2 , 4 6 1
s i te prepar at i o n
10 , 169 , 2 6 2 , 3 8 2 , 4 1 8 , 5 4 9 , 5 5 0 , 5 7 5
Pulp and papermaking
2 5 , 8 2 , 8 7 , 1 0 7 , 1 9 7 , 210 , 2 1 7 , 218 ,
230 , 2 3 1 , 2 4 7 , 2 5 8 , 2 5 9 , 260 , 285 ,
291 , 310 , 3 1 7 , 344 , 349 , 3 5 0 , 465 ,
506 , 5 3 7 , 5 3 8 , 5 9 6 , 6 2 0 , 6 2 5 , 641 ,
651
So i l b i ology
5 1 , 53 , 5 5 , 9 9 , 184 , 1 8 5 , 326 , 342 ,
3 6 5 , 403 , 404 , 405 , 407 , 408 , 409 ,
410 , 413 , 414 , 41 5 , 424 , 4 2 5 , 483 ,
5 78 , 636 , 6 3 7
pulpwood
108 , 1 3 6 , 1 5 4 , 163 , 2 5 3 , 314 , 4 2 2 ,
464 , 5 3 8 , 5 9 6 , 6 5 0
So i l charac ter i s t i c s
2 7 , 28 , 53 , 99 , 1 7 6 , 180 , 324 , 3 2 5 ,
330 , 3 8 7 , 5 6 4
Refore s t at i on ( al s o s e e Seedl i ng
e s tabl i s hmen t , Seeds and s e e d i n g , s i te
preparat i on , Vegetat i ve propagat i on )
10 , 2 2 7 , 2 6 2 , 288 , 29
So i l formi n g proc e s s e s
5 , 38 , 54 , 5 5 9 , 560 , 561 , 562 , 566 ,
5 6 7 , 5 6 8 , 603 , 644
Re s e arch and r e s e arch procedures
4 , 5 7 , 7 8 , 8 5 , 114 , 1 2 5 , 261 , 2 9 5 ,
330 , ' 3 6 7 , 382 , 5 3 4 , 6 1 1
So i l nut r i en t s
38 , 5 3 , 5 5 , 1 7 5 , 380 , 440 , 5 5 9 , 5 6 0 ,
5 6 1 , 5 6 2 , 5 66 , 5 6 7 , 5 6 8 , 583 , 602 ,
644 , 6 5 9
Root deve l o pment
362 , 383 , 387 , 407 , 528
So i l s t ab i l i ze r s
353
S awdu s t
2 5 4 , 2 9 3 , 294 , 403 , 483 , 5 1 5
So i l s urveys
119
S e a s o n i ng
1 6 , 1 7 , 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 , 201 , 2 6 7 , 302 ,
303 , 304 , 5 2 1 , 5 8 7 , 604
Spac i n g ( al s o s ee Compe t i t i on , Stand
den s i ty , Th i n n i n g )
135 , 1 3 7 , 4 2 9 , 5 3 2 , 5 5 3 , 634
Seedl i n g developme t
288 , 3 6 1 , 384 , 3 8 5 , 4 9 7
Spec i e s mi xture s
10 , 2 2 , 3 5 , 38 , 99 , 2 2 3 , 381 , 409 ,
5 5 3 , 5 5 9 , 5 6 0 , 561 , 5 6 2 , 5 6 8 , 600 ,
644
Seeds and s e e d i n g
1 5 , 2 8 6 , 2 8 7 , 3 5 9 , 360 , 361 , 406 ,
489 , 5 0 5 , 5 9 4
185
s t and dens i ty ( al s o s e e Compe t i t i on ,
Spac i ng , Th i nn i n g )
4 2 , 43 , 4 5 , 1 3 5 , 5 2 3 , 5 3 0 , 5 3 1 , 5 3 2
Succ e s s ion ( al s o s e e Ecology )
1 3 2 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 200 , 241 , 242 ,
2 4 3 , 280 , 300 , 3 5 3 , 363 , 364 , 3 7 5 ,
4 1 9 , 606 , 6 6 1
Taxonomy
1 , 3 , 34 , 5 9 , 6 5 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 8 8 , 90 ,
91 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 186 , 189 , 2 1 9 , 220 , 248 ,
2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 8 , 269 , 2 7 4 , 307 , 3 3 5 ,
3 4 6 , 3 5 4 , 3 6 6 , 3 7 6 , 382 , 3 94 , 3 9 5 ,
400 , 401 , 4 2 8 , 442 , 4 5 3 , 4 5 4 , 463 ,
501 , 541 , 5 5 2 , 5 5 5 , 5 5 8 , 5 6 9 , 581 ,
5 9 7 , 598 , 6 5 6
Vegetat i ve propagat i on
1 5 3 , 288 , 3 1 2 , 313 , 6 5 7
Vol ume and equat i o n tabl e s
18 , 6 8 , 84 , 8 5 , 124 , 1 7 2 , 2 2 9 , 2 5 2 ,
2 7 0 , 2 7 1 , 4 3 7 , 5 20 , 5 24 , 5 2 5 , 5 26 ,
534 , 543 , 582
water relat i o n s
7 8 , 383 , 384 , 3 8 6
W i nd a n d w i nd damage
1 6 2 , 313 , 638
Wood chemi s t ry
7 , 98 , 102 , 112 , 1 5 7 , 1 9 7 , 2 11 , 221 ,
2 2 2 , 233 , 2 6 5 , 282 , 283 , 284 , 308 ,
309 , 310 , 3 7 1 , 393 , 466 , 506 , 5 5 7 ,
641 , 643 , 6 5 1
T h i nn i ng ( al s o s e e Compe t i t i on , Spac i n g ,
Stand den s i ty )
4 5 , 1 3 7 , 338 , 3 3 9 , 340 , 418 , 4 2 9 ,
4 9 5 , 5 3 2 , 5 5 3 , 614 , 6 1 5 , 616 , 6 1 7 ,
639 , 647
Wood dete r i or at ion
100 , 139 , 140 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 202 , 290 ,
291 , 5 3 6 , 5 3 7 , 5 3 8 , 5 8 8 , 6 5 0
T i mber s a l e s
29
Wood extrac t i ve s
2 3 8 , 309
u t i l i z a t i on ( al s o s e e Fore s t produc t s )
14 , 21 , 23 , 26 , 5 1 , 69 , 7 2 , 7 4 , 86 ,
101 , 108 , 161 , 182 , 207 , 209 , 211 ,
2 1 2 , 214 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 5 , 246 , 2 7 6 , 294 ,
3 1 1 , 3 1 5 , 3 1 8 , 343 , 344 , 3 4 5 , 3 5 1 ,
3 5 5 , 3 5 6 , 3 6 9 , 3 7 4 , 388 , 3 9 6 , 398 ,
4 2 2 , 4 2 7 , 4 3 1 , 4 3 5 , 441 , 444 , 4 4 7 ,
4 4 9 , 4 5 2 , 4 5 5 , 4 7 1 , 4 7 9 , 484 , 498 ,
5 00 , 5 03 , 5 08 , 5 09 , 5 1 5 , 5 2 2 , 5 7 1 ,
5 7 3 , 5 7 4 , 5 8 7 , 5 9 0 , 6 2 6 , 6 2 7 , 649
Wood mo i s t ure ( al s o see Season i n g )
4 6 , 402
Wood , phy s i c al propert i e s
21 , 4 0 , 4 6 , 4 7 , 49 , 8 6 , 101 , 130 ,
131 , 190 , 2 2 6 , 2 3 5 , 2 5 7 , 289 , 290 ,
311 , 318 , 320 , 3 7 3 , 442 , 444 , 4 4 7 ,
448 , 4 5 2 , 4 5 5 , 4 7 1 , 5 04 , 540 , 5 4 6 ,
589 , 590 ,
Y i e l d t able s
7 7 , 9 7 , 433
186
U n ited States Department of Agriculture
Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station
809 N , E , Sixth Avenue
P , O, Box 3890
Portland, Oregon 97208
The Forest Service of the U ,S , Department of
A g ri c u l t u re is d e d i cated t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of m u l t i p l e
u se manage m e n t o f t h e N at i o n ' s forest res o u rc e s
f o r s u s t a i n e d y i e l d s o f wood, water, f o rage, w i l d l i fe ,
a n d re c reat i o n , T h ro u g h f o re s t ry researc h ,
c o o p e rat i o n w i t h t h e States a n d p r i vate forest
o w ners, a n d manage m e n t of the N at i o n a l Fores t s
and Nati onal G rass lands, i t strives - a s d i rected b y .
C o n g re s s - t o p rov i d e i n c reas i n g l y g reater s e rv i c e
t o a g row i n g N at i o n ,
T ile U , S , Depart m e n t o f Ag r i c u l t u re i s a n Eq u a l
O pportu n i ty E m p l oyer, A p p l icants f o r a l i Department
p ro g ra m s w i l l be g i ven e q u a l c o n s i d e rat i o n w i t h o u t
reg ard t o age, rac e , c o l or, sex, re l i g i o n , o r n a t i o n a l
origin,