FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
ro:
ORGANISATION DES NATIONS UNIES POUR
L'ALIMENTATION ET L'AGRICULTURE
J
1
1979
/5
ORGj\MZACION DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS
PARA LA AGRICUL TURA Y LA ALIMENTACION
TmHNICAL CONSULTATION ON FAST-aROWINO
PLA.NTATION
BROADLZAVED TREES
FOR KEDlTERRANEAll AND
ZONES
Lisbon, PartubJ,t 16-20 October 1979
Dean S. DeBell and Constance A. Harrington Experiment Station O
ia., Wa.a.hin«ton 98502 U.s.A. Pa.citio NortlDtest Forest am.
About This File:
w.
This file as created by scanning the printed publication.
.
Mlsscans Identified by the software have been corrected.'
however, some mistakes may remain.
Invited.
'4/08670
paver
.. 169 -
f!e
smDWa'
11
111
R!lStOO!:
USt.OO!:I
iT.
II'l'RODOC'1'lCll'
BIS'l'OB'I
IN
PLAll'J!A1'I0I
2
S!3D !WIDLI1la AID NUlif!1IE' PRAC'rICl!I
2
!:rl!.UlJ:smmrI'. PRACTICE
3
PI...Ul'r..U'ION
4
UlA.O:l!2lmf'1'
'1"!EIII IKPROVEXI!n
CE
Ilf
5
PL.ABTJ.TIOll
6
O'l'lLIZA:'l'IOI
1
ECOIOICICS
1
C CliCLDSlO!lS
8
R!ii'ItRI!aCES
9
.. 170 -
- -n SUMMARY
Alnus rubra is the most important hardwood in northwestern U.S.A. and coastal
umbia, Canada.
Significant biological attributes include rapid early
Britis
growth and capacity to fix large amounts of atmospheric nitrogen.
The species is
suitable for many products ranging from furniture and cabinetry, fine printing and
tissue papers,
to fuel for industrial and home use.
The biological potential for plantation manegement of A. rubra in its native
habitat and in other moderate climates is great.
1bl;-m;Qagement
Poss
systema vary
from coppice cut on 2- to 6-year cycles to high forest rotations of 10 to lS years
for pulpwood logs or 25 to 35 years for sawlogs and peelers. Management experience
is limited, but survival after planting has been high and trees respond to thinning.
Growth rates of trees in plantations have exceeded those in natural stands. Much
natural variation occurs in the species; thus, opportunities for rapid and sub­
stantial gains through genetic improvement programs appear premising.
Because
nitrogen is a major factor limiting growth of highly valuable conifer associates,
rubra has received attention for use in mixture with or in crop rotation with conifers, especially Pseudotsuga menziesii. Mortality caused by diseases, insects, or other animals appears negligible in
natural stands; but importance of such damaging agenta may increase or become more
, apparent with management.
Thinning or other mechanized operations may increase
opportunities for damage by disease fungi.
Perhaps the most significant biological
limitation is that stain and decay proceed quickly after falling and bucking; thus
rapid processing of logs is a necessity.
At the present time, low stumpage values
seriously limit management interest in A. rubra in its native habitat.
Trends in
supply and demand for timber and energy-aIe likely to increase values tad thereby
increase
uiterest
in management in both natural stands and plantations.
Where
rapid growth of a wood crop with minimum expenditures of energy is important,
should be considered a prime candidate for planting.
- 171 -
- iii -
Alnus rubra est Ie feuillu Ie plus important du nord-est des Etats-Unis
et de-ra-ione cotiere de la Colombie britannique
Canada .
Parmi ses principales
caract risticrues biologiques, il faut noter un debut de croissance rapide et la
Cette essence
capacite a fixer d'importantes quantites d'azote atmospherique.
(
)
convient pour de nombreux usages allant du bois de menuiserie et d'ebenisterie,
au bois de feu a usage industriel et domestique en passant par Ie bois de tritura­
tion pour la fabrication de papier d'impression ou de papier de soie.
Le potentiel biologique des plantations de A. rubra dans son habitat nature 1
et dans d'autres climats temperas est cansiderable.
systemes d'amenagement
possibles vont du taillis, avec une revolution de 2 a 6 ans, a la futaie, avec
une r volution de 10 a 15 ans pour Ie bois de trituration et de 25 a 35 ans pour
L'exp rience en matiere d'amenagement est
les billes de sciage et de deroulage.
limitee, mais on a obtenu des taux de survie elev s en plantation; les arbres
repondent bien aux eclaircies; les accroissements en plantation depassent ceux
La variabilite naturelle de l'essence est grande et,
des peuplements naturels.
par sui'ce, les programmes d'amelioration genetique semblent promettre des gains
L'azote tant un important facteur limitant de la
rapides et substantiels.
croissance des 'essences coniferes associees a
.
, cette espece a retenu
l'attention en vue de l'utilisation en melange ou en assolement avec des coniferes,
notamment Pseudotsuga menziesii.
La mortalite due aux maladies, aux insectes ou a d'autres animaux semble
negligeable dans les peuplements naturals; mais l'importance de ce type de
degats pourrait augmenter ou devenir pl
apparente en culture intensive.
Les
eclaircies ou autres operations mecanisees peuvent accroftre les risques de
La limitation biologique la plus
dommages par des maladies cryptogami es.
importante pourrait etre due aux alterations et aux pourritures oui apparaissent
rapidement apres l'abattage et la coupe; la mise en oeuvre rapide des grumes
A l'heure actuelle, la faible valeur des boiS Bur pied
est donc une necessite.
restreint consid rablement l'interet suscite par l'amenagement de A.
dans
son habitat naturel.
Etant donne les tendances de l'offre et de la demande
de bois et d'energie, il est probable que cette valeur augmentera et que l'on
s'interessera de plus en plus a l'amenagement des peuplements naturels et des
La ou une production ligneuse a croissance rapide avec un faible
plantations.
investissement energetique est envisagee,
. rubra peut etre considere comme
l'un des meilleurs candidats a la plantation.
- 172 -
- iv ­
RES'JMEN
E1 Alnus r bra es la froniosa mAs importante en el noroeste de los Estados Unidos de
Am riea y en la zona eostera de Colwmbia Britdniea,
Canadd.
Atrib tos bio16gieos significati­
vos inebyen el ereeimiento rdpido en la etapa juvenil y eapaeidad de fijar tp'an eantidad de
La espeeie es apropiada para muehos productos, varianio desde muebles
nitr6 eno atmosf rico.
y ebanisterfa, papeles para imprenta finos
dustrial
0
de seda,
hasta material combustible para uso in­
dom stico.
0
E1 potencial bio16gico para manejo de plantaeiones en su habitat nativo y en otros
climas moderados es granie.
ciclos de 2 a 6 anos,
25
35
a
Los sistemas de manejo posibles varfan de tallar con cortas a
limitada,
son promisorias.
el A.
un
especialmente Pseudotsuga menziesii.
insectos,
II
otros animales pareee ser insi.
lou rodnlp.fl nat:lrnleu, pero la impor t a ncia cIe tales ar,Emtes ci aninos puede alJrnen­
fln
hnccrlle mtin p.vl,i0.ntc con 01 manejo.
1<:1
nc ] n r eo
(raleo)
u
pucdrln itllmontnr lan onort'mi Inllor. de danoo c<ll1cado ; por micoois.
] 6':ica m.1e Dil:ni ficut iva
vol tNlr y tronznr;
0[;
otras operaciones mecanizadas
Tal
vez In limitaci6n bi­
quP. ]a8 mnnchn o .Y In :lencompooici6n aparecen ensefSlU·la despu s de
por onto,
es nocesario procelmr las trozas rl1pidnmente.
AI presente,
unjou valoror; lip. la madera en pie limitan m:lcho el intertls en hacer manejo de A.
l,iW
hnui tnt nativo.
tar lou vnlores y nut
plnntnciones.
imp ortante,
en­
factor importante en la limitaci6n
rubra ha recibido especial atenci6n para ser
en rotaci6n de cortas con confferas,
0
y de ah! que las
mediante pro ramas de m joramiento
Debido a que e1 nitr6 eno es
La mortalilad cDusada por enfermeualieo,
niricnntc
0
La experiencia en manejo es
Hay mucha variaei6n natural en la especie,
idades de optimizaei6n rdpida y substancial,
llsa,10 en mezcla
0
anos por maceras para pulpa
La velocidad de crecimiento de los drboles en plantaciones ha exeedido a
del crecimiento ele valiosas contferas,
tar
15
pero la supervivencia despu6s de plantar ha sido buena, y los drboles responden al
las de los rodales nat-..ll'a1es.
tieo,
a
anos para trozas de sierras y trozas para debobinado.
aclareo (raleo).
oport
10
hasta rotaciones de fustales de
los
flU
tcmlp.nciau 110 Ia oferta y In uemanda por maJera y ener<rfa podrtan aumen­
tnmbitm alJrnentar el inter s POI' e l manejo cIe rodales naturales y en
C,lnnio e1 crecimiento rl1pido para madera,
el A.
rllbra en
rubra deber!a ser considerarlo
-m
- 173 -
con g'astos rn.!nimos de energ'ta,
candilato preferido en la plantaei6n.
es
- 1 INTRODUCTION
Nomenclature
Bong.,
Alnus
Betulaceaa Agardh.
(Common name:
red alder)
Natural distribution and habitat
o ISTRIBtrrI ON
Generally within 200km of Pacific Ocean in Western U.S.A. and Canada, from 340N to
600N latitude (29).
Raraly found above 750-111 elevation. Seldom occurs east 'of
Cascade or Sierra Nevada Ranges; isolated populations in Idaho (25).
•
Climate
Humid to superhumid climate; precipitation from 600-3
OOOmm. annually, primarily as
rain in winter.
Summers generally cool and droughty.
Temperature extremes fro
_200 to 450C.
Minimum winter temperatures (17) and perhaps lack of precipitation
during growing season appear to limit species range.
Grows on soils varying from grav l or sand to clay; more prevalent on soils of
Best stands on deep, well-drained loams or loamy
restricted internal dra nage.
sands of alluvial origin.
At southern and eastern limits of range, stands usually
limited to stream or lake borders (17, 25).
Description of tree in natural habitat
rubra is a short-lived, intolerant pioneer with rapid juvenile growth.
It is
only commercial tree species in Western North America that fixes atmospheric N .
2
In natural stands, trees are usually single stemmed with narrow dome-like crowns;
A.
shallow, spreading root systems; and clear, slightly tapered and leaning
On good sites trees are up to 40m tall and 75cm in diameter.
Stands are
60-70 years of age (59).
Characteristic tree associates are Pseudotsuga
sitchensis, Thuja plicata,
Tsuga heterophvlla,
grandis,
circinatum. and Populus trichocarpa.
boles
(45).
mature at
menziesii,
macrophyllum.,
Natural variability
Phenotypic variation is great and not surprising given A. rubra's wide range (51).
Natural variation between geographic locations and between and within stands has
been documented (11).
hybrids with
No natural hybrids have been documented; but possible
tenuifolia and
rhombifolia may exist in disjunct Idaho
var. pinnatisecta Starker,
populations (25).
Only one variety,
mutant form, has been identified (6).
- 174-
a cut-leaf
- 2 HISTORY IN PLANTATION
History in planting
WITHIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN
Although natural stands occupy about two million hectares, planting has been
limitad primarily to research trials, pilot-scale operations, and site
rubra was planted as a firebreak and artificially seeded on
rehabilitation.
abandoned logging roads and railroad grades in two National Forests in the 1930',
(59), but little or no additional planting was done for nearly 40 years. Recently,
several research plantations have been established.
AS AN EXOTIC
Attempts made to introduce the species for forestry purposes elsewhere in the
United States have not been successful (3); failures may be associated with l
has been planted in Britain as a
elevation, coastal seed sources.
windbreak species to protect conifer plantations and as an amenity tree, but
die-back may limit silvicultural use (20).
Areas planted
Researcn and operational plantations established to date total less than 100 hectares,
but use of
in planting programs is increasing.
ANNUAL
RATE
A 1979 survey of Federal and State managers and owners of industrial and small
private forests indicated that 30 to 50 hectares will be planted annually with
alder during the next decade.
Main countries
No large-scale planting has been accomplished to date in any country. Trial
plantings have been established in the United States, Canada and Britain.
SEED liANDLING AND NURSERY PRACTICE
Seed collection, extraction and storag�
is a prolific and consistent seed p.oducer.
Cones (strobiles) can be.
collec ed when the first bra s or scales start to separate (August-october) and on
through the seed dispersal period (fall to winter) (46). Seed should be extracted
from the cones before storage. Cones will open after several weeks indoors on
o
drying racks, or sooner if ovendried at 26 38 C. Number of cleaned seed per gram
ranges from 840 to 2,400. Soundness has been reported as averaging 70% (46), but
percent of sound seed varied tremendously from tree to tree .(28) and from year to
year.
... 175 -
- 3 -
1/
Nursery and field practicesSeed is usually soaked for 24 hours in water prior to sowing. Stratification is
o
apparently not required, but most nurseries stratify moist seed at 1 C for 30-60
seed1i gs now use containers, such as
days. All major pr ducers of
Styroblock 2 ( 40cm ) or CZ-Treetainer (-SOem ) and a 50:50 mix of peat moss and
vermiculite or perlite. Seeds are cdVered with planting media or silica grit and
kept moist until germination. Sowing time varies from March to June. Irrigation
balanced· NPK solution is applied in
is as-needed, approximately once weekly.
irrigation water; the amounts and ratios of elements vary by nursery. Fertilizer
rates are reduced late in growing season to encourage hardening-off. Total
production time in greenhouses or lathhouses varies from 5 to 9 months. Seedlings
are 20 to 30cm tall when outp1anted. Nursery practice to date has not included
innoculation with N -fixing endophyte(s) or with mycorrhizae; but innoculation may
Z
future operations to enhance early growth.
be routine
rubra has been planted bare root and has been and is occasionally direct seeded.
Cuttings can be rooted, but this method of propagation is still in the research
stage (35).
ESTABLISHMENT PRACTICE
Choice of site
rubra grows best on moist but well-drained, rich, deep, alluvial soils. It
requires abundant soil moisture for development of sawtimber stands (59). Site
quality can vary greatly over short distances, however the species grows well over
a range of site conditions. Planting to date has generally been restricted to
problem sites and for specialized uses.
A.
Site preparation
For direct seeding, bare mineral soil should be exposed via burning or scarification.
Establishment of
by planting may require some early control of herbaceous
vegetation--burning is acceptable, but chemical controls may be preferred
because herbicides do not expose mineral soil and thus do not create conditions
favoring establishment of weeds and unwanted (excess) alder (38).
Planting
rubra has not been planted extensively, but experience to date has beea
encouraging (28). A. rubra has b en planted as container stock, bare-root
·
seedlings, and pull-up wild1ings. Container seedlings are most commonly used;
they are easy to plant, and early survival has generally been excellent. No
machine planting has been done or is anticipated on typical native terrain.
Spacing is not standardized, and many spacings have been used based on the planting
objective. Spacing trials have recently been established for the species. To
produce sawlogs with one intermediate thinning, planting 600-800 stems per hectare
(sph) would probably be optimum (10).
11 This information is based on a 1979 survey of current practices by the
authors. These practices are likely to be modified as research results become
available.
- 4 Early tending
Survival and early growth have not been observed to vary with cultural treaement;
however, observations to date have been limited.
Natural thickets or plantations
with natural fill-in should be spaced prior to year five.
Costs of establishment
Establishment costs depend primarily on site preparation needed and he number of
sph
In general, establishment costs for h rubra are likely to be less than for
the more commonly planted conifers because less site preparation is needed initially
and costs for subsequent control of competing vegetation and animal damage are
expected to be lower.
PLANTATION MANAGEMENT
Protection
ANIMALS
Animal damage problems are usually minimal.
In years of high Microtus spp.
populations, stems may be girdled during winter. Reducing winter cover may control
this damage. Rabbits or hare occasionally clip or girdle small stems.
Some deer
is not preferred browse (41).
browsing is observed in fall and winter .. but !:..
Damage by fire is unusual in natural h rubra stands because sites are usually
Little fire control is needed.
In
moist and inflamma ble debris is scarce (17).
fact, the species has been planted as a firebreak.
DISEASE
A. rubra is remarkably free of major disease up to age 40 (22 , 59). A canker,
presumably Nectria spp., has been observed in young natural stands and plantations.
No special measures are currently used for disease control. Care should be taken
during thinning or other stand treatments to avoid damaging residual trees as
injury increases susceptibility to decay fungi.
INSECTS
None of the insects found on A. rubra cause appreciable mortality in healthy trees,
and no insect control has been attempted in alder stands (54). Growth reductions
have been associated with defoliation; under intensive management, control measures
may be warranted.
The two major defoliators are tent caterpillars, Malacosoma
disstria Hhn. and
Eriocampa
californicum (Packard).
L. and Alniphigus
aspericollis (lec.) could become major pests (19) .
Pruning and thinning
PRUNING
Pruning is not a common cultural practice but was reported as effective in increaSing clear wood formed (5).
rubra self-prunes well in dense stands (49)
.... 171 ....
•
- 5 1'RINNING
Individual tree response is
A. rubra responds to thinning (31, 40, 49, 56, 57).
For sawlog production, we believe the stand
excellent in young stands.
should contain no more than 600-750 sph by age 5; if needed, early spacing or
thinni ng should achieve this stocking level. Addi ional precommercial thinning
The first thinning at age 10 to 15 will remove pulpwood
should not be necessary.
(>LS-cm d.b.h.) leaving 375-500 sph (10). Epicormic branching has occurred after
heavy thinning, especially in older stands.
usually
Special techniques
FERT II.. IZATI ON
Fertilization is not used
in
rubra stands.
has root nodules which fix
atmospheric N ; thus, nitrogen additions are unnecessary.
is
In fact,
2
being managed on a limited basis as a na
l supplier of nitrogen in conifer stands.
Nutrition of alder seedlings, however, has been examined in pot studies (24); and
some work has considered effects of trace metals on nodules (44) .
New investigations
on importance of nutrient amendments on nitrogen fixation and tree development are
planned.
Rotation
Rotation lengths vary depending on site and desired products.
Suggested rotation
or cutting cycles are:
(1) 4 to 6 years for coppice fiber production, (2) 10 to
15 years for pulpwood logs, and (3) 25 to 35 y ars for sawlogs (10). Rotations
longer than 30-40 years are not biologically or economically feasible because of
increased disease problems
(14, 22, 59) and reduced growth of alder (4, 57)
TREE IMPROVEMENT
Evidence of genetic differences between orovenances when grown in olantation
Height, diameter, stem form, bark thickness, and resistance to frost or insect
damage varied significantly among 10 sources of A. rubra planted in coastal
Fastest growing sources were from no�t ern Washington; but sources
Oregon (11).
Form
from British Columbia, southwestern Washington, and Oregon also grew well.
attack by a twig girdler (Agrilus
was positively correlated with growth rate;
burkei Fisher) was most severe on fast-growing sources, but rapid growth in
Subsequent years overcame detrimental effects. The slowest growers were from
Juneau, Alaska and Sandpoint, Idaho; these sources also had the greatest frost
resistance.
These' results suggest that reproductive material of A. rubra may be
moved to mild sites over rather long distances on the Pacific coast .
-----
- 178 -
- 6 ­
Selection and breeding within populations
Phenotypic variation was studied within and among eight stands selected to
represent the range in stand and site conditions in a local area (11). Few tree
characteristics varied between stands; but considerable variation among trees within
stands occurred in straightness, branching characteristics, bark thickness, and
wood density. Presumably, many of these traits are under the genetic control.
Progeny tests have been established with open-pollinated (half-sib) offspring from
the above trees. The recessive cut-leaf trait
var. pionatisecta can be
used as a genetic marker in breeding studies (51).
Hvbrids
rubra has been successfully crossed with
more rapidly than
japonica and
glutinosa (30).
sinuata (36).
glutinosa (26), and the hybrid grows
Succesaful crosses have also been made with
PERFORMANCE IN PLANTATION
Growth and yield
Growth and yield information is available for natural A. rubra stands (8, 47, 48,
49, 57, 58). On well-stocked good sites, mean annual increment (total stem) may
3
approach 10-11 m Iha for the 20- to 30-year rotations needed to produce pulpwood
or s&Wlogs without management.
•
Projections based on early perfo rmance of plantations and gains obtained with
agement of other species suggest that plantation yields will be substantially
higher (10). For example, ccppica can be grown on 2- to 6-year cutting cycles and
pulpwood logs can be produced in 10 to 15 years on good sites.
Estimated t tal­
stem yields of these manag ement regimes a e nearly double (i.e., 17 to 21 M Iha
per year) those obtained in unmanaged natural stands.
Sawlogs and peelers can
probably be g3°WU in 30 to 35 years on such sites; total-stem yields are estimated
at' 12 to 15 m Iha per year or about 40 percent higher than those listed in normal
yield tables for well-stocked natural stands.
Yields in experimental coppice plantings harvested on 2-year cycles have ranged
from 3.2 to 7.5 tonnes per hectare per year, and varied with irrigation and
pulpmill sludge treatments (21).
In the provenance trial (10), an unpublished
evaluation at age 10 indicated that the best 4 provenances averaged ll.6cm in
dbh and 10.5m in height
•
•
In )lIUI1&Da6ed, irregularly spaced stands beyond age 20, most !:..
stems are
If lean is due to
leaning and have developed substantial sweep and crook.
phototrophic sensitivity of the species (56), geometric spacing of plantations may
minimize the problem.
- 119-
- 7 Susceptibility to pests, diseases, and other damage
Insect and disease pests of alder have been reviewed
problems oeserved in
(14, 1 8, 19, 22).
Pest
plantations include twig girdling, Nectria spp.
cankers, basal stem girdling by Microtus spp., and some sapsucker damage.
Defoliators (tent caterpillars and sawflies) and bark beetles could become serious
pests in plantation management
Mortality and.severe top die-back have
(19).
occurred in A. runta plantations established in Southern United States and Northern
Britain, res ctively.
Mortality and top breakage have been documented in natural
pe
stands after ice storms or unseasonable frosts
ra unlikely to offer serious threats to
(15) .
Windthrow and fire, however,
plantations.
UTILIZATION
Of wood
Wood of A. rubra is'diffuse-porous, moderately dense, and has uniform texture.
It
Stain and decay
is used in production of both solid wood and fiber-based products.
proceed rapidly after felling and bUCKing;
unless stored in water
are excellent.
and novelties.
(59).
logs must therefore be milled quickly
Turning, planing, gluing,
and staining characteristics
Solid wood products include furniture, cabinets,
case goods, pallets,
•
Chips may be converted to pulp by several processes.
pulp provides good
qthness and softness, and is generally
formation and printability as well as
blended with conifer pulps to manufacture tissue, bond, envelope, and book papers
(23).
(32) .
Chips or flakes can also be used for composite materials such as flakeboard
Alder is burned as fuel in home fireplaces and in mills where residues are
(43) . It has been evaluated for
(16, 50). Foliage, twigs, and sawdust
grain or alfalfa for cattle feed (27).
converted to heat for drying and other processes
use in biomass farms for energy conversion
of
may be used as a suppl
ent to
Environmental
1) in
can provide benetits and has been planted or suggested for planting:
areas with poor drainage,
eroded or low fertility areas
2)
on coal mine spoils, land slides and other
(5 3) , 3)
33, 34, 39, 52) , 4) as a firebreak or
(37, 53, 5 4), 6) for wildlife, 7) for
amended with municipal
(28)
(1, 9,
5) to control conifer root rots
as a nitrogen source for other species
windbreak,
stream bank protection, and
or pulpmill (21) sludge.
8)
on plots
ECONOMICS
Most available reports deal with economics of converting A. rubra stands to
conifer production (12, 42, 55, 60) or compare costs of nitr
added by alder
with costs of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers (1, 2, 34) .
Analysts have also
examined the species in terms of value added in processing
total input
(energy,
(43)
and in terms of the
labor, materials) needed to produce alternative products
(7).
Nearly all of the foregoing analyses are based on current alder stUmp age values
which ar
very law, and many assume yields obtained in unmanaged,
natural stands.
At present alder management is not profitable (13) ; this is valid for present
stands and market conditions.
These analyses, however, have limited utility for
- 8 use in appraising the economics of managed plantations where yields will be
substantially higher and logging costs lower.
Moreover, increased competition for
supplies of both rounawood and fiber will probably result in future alder prices
which are comparable to prices of alternative raw materials.
Thus, alder
management is expected to become profitable in the future.
CONCLUSIONS
Several short­
Plantation management of A. rubra to date has been limited.
rotation systems have considerable potential, though, and are attracting increasing
interest.
Information is needed on:
requirements, and
3)
1)
yields in managed stands,
response to cultu al practices.
2)
site
The species can be utilized
for a wide range of products, but current use is limited in relation to the total
available resource.
Increased utilization will not be hampered by a lack of
processing technology.
The main deterrent to plantation management of
its native habitat is that current stumpage values are low.
As product markets
in
broaden and alternative supplies become less available, stumpage prices will
increase and management of both natural stands and plantations may be looked upon
more favorably.
- 181 -
- 9 ­
REFERENCES
(1) Atkinson, W.A. at al. Crop rotation of Douglas-fir and red alder: A prelimi­
1979
nary biological and economical assessment. Bot. Gazette 140:5102-5107. (2) Atkinson, l-l.A. and Ramil ton, W. I. The value of red alder as a source of nitro­
gen in Douglas-fir/alder mixed stands. l.!! Briggs, D.G.
1978 ., compo
Utilization and management of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. ·Stn., Portland, Oreg., p.
337-351.
(3) Askew, J.L. and Lane, C.L. Nitrogen-fixing capabilities,for Myrica cerifera,
Elaeagnus ungens, and various Alnus species grown on Piedmont sites
1979 in South Carolina. In Gordon, J.C. et al., eds. Abstract in symbiotic
nitrogen fL tion in the management of temperate forests. Oregon
State University, Corvallis, Oreg., p. 410-411.
(4) Atterbury, T. Alder characteristics as they affect utilization.
Briggs,
D.G. et al., compo Utilization and management of alder. USDA For.
1978 Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn.,
Serv.
Portland, Oreg., p. 71-81.
(5) Bernstan, C.M. Pruning and epicormic branching in red alder.
1961
59:675-676. Jour. of Forestry (6) Brayshaw1 T.C. Catkin bearing plants (Amentiferae) of British Columbia. Occasional
1976
Papers of the British Columbia Provincial Museum No. 18. Victoria, B.C.
( 7)
Briggs, D.G. et al. An approach for comparing the relative value of alder with
other species from forest to end product. In Briggs, D.G. et al., compo
Utilization and management of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p.
35-46.
1978
(8) Chambers, C.J. Empirical yield tables for predominantly alder stands in western
Washington. State of Washington Department of Natural Resources Report
1974 No. 31, Olympia, Wash.
(9) DeBell, D.S. and Radwan. M.A . Growth and nitrogen relations of coppiced black
cottonwood and red alder in pure and mi..'Ced plantings. Bot. Gazette
1979 140:S97-S101.
(10)
DeBell, D.S. et ale Short-rotation production of red alder: Some options for
Briggs, D.G. et al., compo Utilization and
future forest management.
1978 management of alder. lJSDA For. Serv·, Gen. Tech. Rep. ?NW-70, Pac. North­
west For. and Range Exp. Stu., Portland, Oreg., p. 231-244.
(11)
DeBell, D.S. and Wilson. B.C. Natural variation in red aldet. In Briggs, D.G.
et al., compo Utilization and management of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen.
1978 Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland,
Oreg., p. 193-208.
(12)
Dimock, E.J.II. et al. Converting brush and hardwoods to conifers on high sites
in western Washington and Oregon--Progress. policy, success, and costs.
1976 USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-213,. Pac. orthwest For. and Range Exp.
Stn., Portland, Oreg.
-- 182-
- 10 ,
(13)
Doran, S.M. et al. Red alder costs and returns for western Washington. Coop.
Ext . Serv., Coll. of Agric., Wash. State University, EM 3461, Pullman,
1971
Wash.
(14)
Driver, C.H. Red alder management and diseases. In Briggs, D.G. et al., compo
Utilization and management of alder. USDX-For. Servo Gen:-TeCh. Rep.
1978 PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 271272.
(15) Duffield, J.W. Damage to western Washington forests from November 1955 cold
1956 wave. USDA For. Servo Res. Note PNW-129, Pac. Northwest For. and
Range Exp. sen . • Portland, Oreg.
(16) E vans, R.S. Energy plantations--should we grow trees for power-plant fuel? Can. For. Serv., Dept. Environ., For. Prod. Lab. Inf. Rep. VP-X·129. 1974
(17) Fowells, H.A. Silvics of forest trees of the United States.
1965
Service Ag. Handbook 271, Washington, D.C. (18) Furniss, R.L. and Carol1n, V.M. Western forest insects.
, 1977
Misc. ?ub. 1339, Washington, D.C. USDA Forest USDA Forest Service (19) Gara, R.I. and Jaeck, L.L. Insect pests of red alder: Potential problems.
., compo Utilization and management of alder.
In Briggs, D.G.
1978 USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range
Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 265-267.
(20) Gordon, J.C. and Hall. R.B. Alder research outside the northwest: A brief
overview. In Briggs, D.G. at al., compo Util£zation and'management
1978 of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For.
and Ranga Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 47-53.
(21) Harrington,
1919
e.A. et ale An experiment in biomass production:
Results from three
conseoutI'V'e1iae
.rv sts of cottonwood and alder.
In Proceedings Solar
'19 Northwest, sponsored by U.S. Dept. of Energy et al., Seattle,
Wash •• p. 363-366. -
(22) Hepting, G.B. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States.
1971
Forest Service Ag. Handbook 386, Washington, D.C.
USDA
(23) Hrutfiord. B.F. Red alder as a pulpwood species. In Briggs, D.G.
•• compo
Utilization and management of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep.
1978 PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.,
p. 135-138.
(24) Hughes, D.R. at ale
Red alaer deficiency symptoms and fertilizer trials. In
Trappe, J.M. et al., eds. Biology of alder. Pac. Northwest For. and
1968 Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 225-237.
(25) Johnson, F.D. Disjunct populations of red alder in Idaho, In Trappe, J.M.
1968 et al., ads. Biology of alder. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. sen.,
Portland, Oreg., p. 1-8.
(26) Johnsson. H. Lovtrad. In Svensk Voxtforadling.
1951 .
1-83. - 183-
Stockholm. Natur Uod Kulture - 11·,
.
27) Keays, J.L. and Barton, G.M. Recent advances in foliage utilization.
. Serv. , Dept. Environ., For. Prod. Lab. Inf. Rep. VP-X-13 7.
1975
Can. For.
(28) Kenady, R.M.
1978 Regeneration of red alder. In Briggs, D.G. et al., camp. Utilization
and management of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac.
Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, ,Oreg., p. 183-191.
(29) Little, E.L.,Jr. Atlas of United States trees. Volume 1. Conifers and
important hardwoods. USDA Fore st Service Misc. Pub. No. 1146, 1971 Washington, D.C. (30) Ljunger, A.
1959
Al och alforad1ing.
Skogen 46:115-117.
(31) Lloyd, W.J. Alder thinning - progress report. USDA Soil Cons. Servo Tech.
1955
Notes, Woodland Conserv. 3, Portland, Oreg.
(32) Maloney, T.M. Alder: One of tomorrow's important structural raw materials?
In Briggs, D.G. et al., camp. Utilization and management of alaer.
1978
DA For. SP- . Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range
Exp. St ., Portland, Oreg • • p. 125-132.
. ,
(33)
Miller. R.E. and Murray, M.D. The effect s of red alder on growth of Douglas-fir.
In Briggs, D.G. et al., compo Utilization and management of alder. USDA
1978 For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn.,
Portland, Oreg., p. 283-306.
(34)
Ferti li zer versus red alder for adding nitrogen to
Mi ller, R.E. and Murray, M.D
Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific Northwest. In Gordon, J.C. et al.,
1979 eds. Symbiotic n it rog en fixation in the management of temperate forests.
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oreg. , p. 356-313.
(35)
Monaco, P. A. et al. C l on ing red alder genotypes by vegetative cuttings. In
1979
Gordon, J. C. et al., eds. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in the management
of temperate forests. Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oreg., p. 482.
(36)
Mulligan, B.O. Woody plants in the University of Was hing ton Arboretum, Washington Park. C ol lege of For. Resources, University of Washington, Seattle,
1977 Wash.
•
.
(37) Nelson, E.!.
. The role of red alder in reducing losses from laminated
root rot. In Briggs, .G. et 41., camp . Utilization and management of
1978
alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and
Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 273-282 •
(38)
Newton, M. Herbicides in alder management and control. In Briggs, D.G. et al.,
compo Utilization and management of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech.
1978 Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, O reg .,
p. 223-230.
(39)
Newton,
1968
at al. Role of red alder in western Oregon forest succession. In
Trappe, J.M. et al • • eds. 8 i ol ogy of alder. Pac. Northwest For. and
Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 73-84.
M.
- 184 ..
- 12 (40) Olson,
1967
R. et ale Thinning young stands of alder.
Notes TN-122, Por tland, O reg.
USDA Soil Cons. Servo Tech.
(41) Radwan, M. A . et ale Chemical composition and deer browsing of r ed al der foliage.
USDA For. Servo Res. Pap. PNW-246, Pac. N o r thwest For. and Range Exp. Stn.,
1978 P or tland , Oreg.
(42) Randall, R.M. Techniques and costs of converting hardwood stands to.conifers.
In Briggs, D.G. et al., compo
Utilization and manag eme nt of alder.
USDA
1978 For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp.
Stn. , Po rt l and , Oreg., p. 353-363.
Industrial uses and utilization potentia l for red alder.
In Gordon,
(43) Resc h, H.
nt of temp­
J.C. et al.p eds. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in the manag
1979 erate forests.
Oregon State University,
Corvallis,
Oreg.,
p. 444-450.
(44) Russell, S.A. et ale The ef fect of cobalt and certain other trace metals on the
rubra.
In Trappe, J.M. et al.,
growth and vitamin B12 content of
1968
ld
e
r.
Pac.
Northwest
For.
and
Range Exp. Stn. , Portland ,
iology
of
a
eds.
B
Oreg. , p. 259-271.
(45) Rymer, K.W. Red alder in British Columbia. Forest Branch Bull. 98, Canada
Dept. of Resour. and Develop., Minister of Resources and Develop.,
1951
Otcawa, Ont.
(46) Schopmeyer, C.S. Seeds of woody plants in the United St tes.
1974
S ervi ce Ag. Handbook 450, Washington, D.C.
USDA Forest
(47) Smith, J.H. G. Growth and yiel d of rad alder in British Columbia.
In Trappe,
J.M. et al., eds. Biology of alder. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp.
1968 Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 284-286.
In IUFRO Biomass Studies,
(48) Smith, J.H.G. Biomass of some young red alder stands.
1974
College of Life Sciences and Agric., Univ. of Maine at Or o n o , p. 401-410.
(49)
Smith,
1978 Growth and yiel d of red alder:
Effects of spacing and thinning.
In
D.C. et al., comp o Utilization and manag e men t of alder. USDA For.
Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Northwest For, and Range Exp. Stn.,
Portland, Oreg., p. 245-263.
J.H.G.
Briggs,
(50) Smith, N. J. Red alder as a potential source of energy. In Briggs, D.G.
.,
. 1978
compo Utilization and management of alder. USDA For. Se rvo Gen. Tech.
Rep. PNW-70,. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn. , Portland , Oreg . ,
p. 139-155.
.
.
(51) Stettler, R.F. Biological aspects of red alder pe rt inent to potential bre ed ing
1978
programs.
In Briggs, D.G. at a1.·, comp. Utilization and management of
USnX-For. Servo Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-70, Pac. Nor hwest For. and
alder.
Range Exp. Stn., Por land, Oreg., p. 209-222.
(52) Tarrant, R.F. and Miller, R. E. Accumulation of organic matter and soil nitrogen
1963 b e n eath a plantation of red alder and Douglas-fir.
Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. Proc. 27:231-234.
(53)
Tarrant, R.F. and Trappe,
1911
mente
P la nt
J.M. The role of Alnus in improving the forest environ­
and Soil, Spec. Vol. 1911:335-348. - 185 -
- 13 -
.(54)
'
Trappe, J. M'. Regulation of soU organisms by red alder: A potential biological
system for control of Poria weirii.
In Berg, A. B. , ed. Managing young
1972
forests in the Douglas-fir region V3. Oregon State University, School
of Forestry Paper 734, Corvallis, Oreg., p. 35-52.
Briggs, D. G.
't
(55) Waggene , T.R.
Should alder be replaced by conifers?
1978
compo
Utilization and management of alder. USDA For. Servo Gen. Tech.
Rep. PNW-70. Pacific Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn •• Portland, Oreg.,
p. 365-379.
(56) Warrack, G. C. The management of hardwood timber stands.
1956
July Iss. , p. 12-14, Dec. Iss., p. 10.
Pacific Coast Hardwoods,
(57) Williamson, R. L. Productivity of red alder in western Oregon and Washington.
In Trappe, J. M. et al., eds. Biology of alder. Pac. Northwest For. and
1965 Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg., p. 287-292.
(58)
erv.,
USDA. For.
. Normal yield tables for r ed alder.
Worthingto .. N.P.
3
Oreg.
Portland,
6,
1960
Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. stn. Res. Pap.
(59)
Worthington, N. P, et a1. Red alder, its management and utilization.
'
1962 Service Misc. Pub. SSl, Washington, D. C.
(60)
Yoho, J.G. et a!. The economics of converting red alder to Douglas-fir. USDA
For. Servo Res. Pap. PNW-88, Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn. ,
1969 Portland, Oreg.
Reproduced by USDA Forest Service,
for official use.
- 186 -
USDA Forest