Adolescent Behavior and Development
Physical Maturation
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Secondary sex characteristics are the physical characteristics other than genital, that indicate sexual maturity, such as body hair,
breasts, and deepened voice
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Adaptation at puberty requires an integration of biological, psychological, and social changes
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The degree to which one’s body matches the desired or socially valued body build of the culture influences social acceptance by
peers and adults
Physical Maturation: Physical Changes in Girls & Boys (cont.)
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Although most girls are prepared by their mothers for menstruation, the topic is often handled
as a matter of hygiene rather than as a sexual transition, and therefore many girls do not
understand the relationship of menstruation to reproduction
Boys generally welcome the changes, involving increase height and muscle
mass, that bring them one step closer to adult maturity
Boys are generally not well prepared by their parents with information on the
maturation of their reproductive organs
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Physical Maturation: The Secular Trend & Individual Differences in
Maturation Rate
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A secular growth trend is a decrease over time in the average age at which
physical maturation takes place
Changes in hygiene, nutrition, and health care have contributed to an earlier
growth spurt over the past century
The age at onset of puberty and the rate of change in physical maturation vary
Early and late maturing have psychological and social consequences for both
boys and girl
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Egocentrism & Decentering
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Egocentrism is the perception of one-self at the center of the world;
the view that others base their behavior on or events occur as a result
of one’s own perceptions
Decentering is gaining some objectivity over one’s own point of
view, reducing the dominance of one’s subjective perspective in the
interpretation of events
Egocentrism
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2 Characteristics of Egocentrism that may affect adolescents; social interactions
as well as their problem solving are:
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Preoccupation with their own thoughts
Belief that others are also preoccupied with their thoughts
Personal Fable - an intense investment in one’s own thoughts and feelings, and a
belief that these thoughts are unique
Imaginary Audience – adolescents assume that they are the center of interest in
others’ thoughts and attentions
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Emotional Development: Eating Disorders
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Eating disorders are an example of internalizing problems, turning one’s
frustration, anger, or fear inward on the self
Anorexia is characterized by a fear of gaining weight, refusal to maintain a
minimally normal body weight, and perceptions of one’s body as overweight in
general or in specific area
Bulimia involves spurts of binging and overeating followed by the use of
different strategies to prevent the absorption of food, such as induced vomiting,
the use of laxatives, or strenuous exercise
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Emotional Development: Eating Disorders (cont.)
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Origins of eating disorders are not fully understood: A preoccupation with body
appearance may be provoked by the relatively rapid physical changes associated
with puberty
Because of the seriousness and widespread nature of eating disorders, public
health experts are working to create a more positive acceptance of people of
various body types and shapes, with less focus on thinness
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Emotional Development: Depression (cont.)
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Major Depressive disorder is characterized by a person who has experience 5 or
more symptoms for at least two weeks: depressed mood or irritable mood most
of the day; decreased interest in pleasurable activities; changes in weight or
perhaps failure to make necessary weight gains in adolescence; sleep problems;
psychomotor agitation or retardation; fatigue or loss of energy, feeling of
worthlessness or abnormal amounts of guilt; reduced concentration and decisionmaking ability; and repeated suicidal ideation, attempts , or plans of suicide
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Emotional Development: Factors Associated with Adolescent
Depression & Gender Differences in Depression
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Adolescents face a number of challenges that make them vulnerable to
depression
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Parental loss or rejection has been found to increase an adolescent’s vulnerability to
depression
Researchers recognize that adolescents are often exposed to more negative events and hassles
than are younger children: social alienation, excessive demands, romantic concerns, decisions
about one’s personal future, loneliness and unpopularity, assorted annoyances and concerns,
social mistreatment, and academic challenges
Emotional Development: Factors Associated with Adolescent
Depression & Gender Differences in Depression (cont.)
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Adolescents are relatively inexperienced in coping with these kind of stressors
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Most studies find no differences in depression between prepubescent boys and
girls; however, during the period from about age 11 to 15, gender differences are
systematically noted and continue to be evident into adulthood, with depression
more common in females than in males
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Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and Crowds & Peer Group
Boundaries and Norms
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Before the adolescent period, it is important to have friends, but not as important to be a
member of a definable group
Cliques are small friendship groups of 5 to 10 friends, and these groups provide the
framework for frequent interactions both within school and in the neighborhood
A crowd refers to a large group that is usually recognized by a few predominant
characteristics such as their orientation toward academics, involvement in athletics, use
of drugs, or involvement in deviant behavior
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Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and Crowds & Peer Group
Boundaries and Norms (cont.)
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Popularity and acceptance into a peer group at the high school may be based on
one or more of the following characteristics: good looks, athletic ability, social
class, academic performance, future goals, affiliation with a religious, racial, or
ethnic group, special talents, involvement with drugs or deviant behavior, general
alienation from school
Membership in cliques is relatively stable, but always vulnerable to change
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Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and Crowds & Peer Group
Boundaries and Norms (cont.)
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Important skills that are learned by becoming a member of a peer group are the
assessment of group structure and the selection of the particular group or groups
with which one would like to affiliate
Membership in an adolescent peer group is a forerunner of membership in an
adult social group
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Sexual Relationships
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The Transition into Sexualized Relationships
Most young people are involved in a variety of romantic relationships during
adolescence, including dating, feeling of tenderness and love, and deepening
commitments
Dating Relationships provide the initial context for most sexual activity.
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Sexual Relationships
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First Intercourse or the transition into sexual activity may take place
in very different contexts for adolescents
Usually the earlier the transition into sexual activity and intercourse
the more likely the act is to be part of a profile of high-risk behaviors,
including alcohol use, drug use, and delinquent activity
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Sexual Relationships: Sexual Orientation
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One might assume that sexual orientation – heterosexual, homosexual, or
bisexual – begins to take shape in early adolescence; the research on this point
suggests an earlier and more differentiated path
For sexual – minority youth, two aspects of a sexual orientation have been
identified:
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Self-labeling – applying a label such as gay, lesbian, or bisexual to one-self
Disclosure – sharing this information with others
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Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts Associated with Sexuality
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The sexual system is one of the most problematic components of psychosocial
development for young people in the United States
Most parents do not feel comfortable discussing sexuality with their children.
Sexually Transmitted Disease
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About 25% of sexually active teens contract a sexually transmitted disease each year.
Teens are especially at risk for Chlamydia, genital herpes, and gonorrhea
Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts Associated with Sexuality
(cont.)
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Unwanted Sexual Attention
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Often teen do not find the emotional closeness and understanding they may seek in a sexually
intimate relationship
Many instances of unwanted sexual contact occur on the first date or in a dating relationship
The lack of supervision and monitoring by adults as well as the lack of opportunity to talk
about sexuality with them can place adolescents at risk for early sexual experiences that are
abusive or associated with negative feelings
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Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts Associated with Sexuality
(cont.)
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Contraception
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In spite of the fact that many parents and teachers do not provide information about the use of
contraceptives as part of their education about sex and sexual behavior, the use of
contraceptives by U.S. teens has increased
The use of contraceptives is associated with religious beliefs, family attitudes and behaviors,
and peer norms
Sexual Relationships: Parenthood in Early Adolescence
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Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy
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Poverty
Increased Risk of Child Abuse
Increase risk of birth complications associated with lack of prenatal care
Adolescent Fathers
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Although the focus on adolescent pregnancy has been on girls, there is growing concern about
adolescent fathers. While most fathers of babies born to teen mothers are within 2 years of the
mother’s age, about 20% are 5 or more years older than the mother
Sexual Relationships: Parenthood in Early Adolescence (cont.)
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Most studies of adolescent pregnancy find that, contrary to the stereotype, many fathers
remain in contact with the mother and child in the first months after the child is born
However, by the time the children are in school, contact drops off
Fathering a child is bound to stimulate conflicting feelings of pride, guilt, and anxiety in the
adolescent boy
Little systematic research has been done on the attitudes, knowledge, or behaviors of
adolescent fathers or the impact of fatherhood on a teenage boy’s subsequent development
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The Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity Versus Alienation
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Group Identity – the positive pole of the psychosocial crises of early adolescence in
which the person finds membership in and value convergence with a peer group.
Cognitive Processes that Support the Formation of Group Identity
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Group Representations
Group Operations
Reflective Thinking about Groups
Four Dimensions of Group Identity
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Categorizing People and Recognizing Distinguishing Features of Group Members
The Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity Versus Alienation (cont.)
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Experiencing a Sense of History as a Member of a Group
Emotional Investment in the Group
Social Evaluation of One’s Group and its Relation to Other Groups
Alienation – withdrawal or separation of people or their affections from an object or
position of former attachment
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The Contribution of Alienation to Group Identity and Individual Identity is important
A period of feeling alone and lonely may help teens appreciate how good social acceptance
feels and how important it is for their well being.
The Psychosocial Crisis:
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The assessment of the importance of certain content areas in relation to
others influences the use of resources, the direction of certain decisions,
and the kinds of experiences that may be perceived as most personally
rewarding or threatening
Both the content and evaluation components of identity may change over
the life course
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The Central Process: Peer Pressure
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Peer pressure refers to the demand for conformity to group norms and a
demonstration of commitment and loyalty to group members
Peer pressure is often used with a negative connotation, suggesting that young
people behave in ways that go against their beliefs or values because of a fear of
peer rejection
However peer pressure can have an alternative meaning, one that highlights the
emerging role of the peer group in the radius of significant others
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The Central Process: Peer Pressure (cont.)
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Affiliating with a Peer Group – provides the context within which the crises of group identity
versus alienation is resolved
Peer Pressure in Specific Areas – time spent with peers, school, and family; academic
achievement; drug use; engaging in misconduct; sexual activity; religious participation;
community service; or preference in dress, music, or entertainment
Conflicts Between Belonging and Personal Autonomy – peer groups do not command total
conformity; most depend on the unique characteristics of their members to lend definition and
vigor to the roles that emerge within them
The Central Process: Peer Pressure (cont.)
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Ethnic Group Identity – knowing that one is a member of a certain ethnic
group; recognizing that aspects of one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are
influenced by ethnic membership; and taking the ethnic-group values,
outlook, and the goals into account when making life choices
Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Use
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Factors Associated with Alcohol Use
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Physical Effects of Alcohol – death may result from chugging, when combined with other
drugs, and when driving under the influence
Assessment of Risk – adolescents do not view alcohol drinking as risky and may use it as
sensation seeking behavior
Reference Groups – the two reference groups that influence the acceptability of drinking and
the manner in which alcohol is consumed are the family and the peer group
Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Use (cont.)
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Early Entry into Alcohol and Drug Use –
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Children who perceived that many of their friends had been drinking and who experienced
peer pressure to drink were more likely to drink
Children who were in classrooms where a larger number of children reported drinking were
also at greatest risk of drinking.
Perceptions of the amount of drinking that occurred in the family were also an important
predictor of early alcohol use
Binge Drinking
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Autonomy from Parents: Autonomy
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Achieving a psychological sense of autonomy from one’s parents must be
understood as a multidimensional task that is accomplished gradually over the
course of later adolescence and early adulthood
Autonomy is an ability regulate one’s own behavior with undue control from or
dependence on one’s parents
Autonomy requires independence of thoughts, emotions, and actions
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Autonomy from Parents: Autonomy (cont.)
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Beyond these physical requirements, autonomy involves a psychological sense of
confidence about one’s unique point of view and an ability to express opinions
and beliefs that may differ from those of one’s parents.
Differentiation, the family-system concept, has been associated with
psychosocial maturity and a healthy emergence of individuality in adolescence
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Autonomy from Parents: Leaving Home, the College Experience, and
Self Sufficiency
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Living away form one’s parent’s household may be a symbol of independence; however, it is not
as readily achievable in the age range of 18 to 24 as it was in the past
Parents and adolescent children have different views about the age at which children are expected
to leave home
Economic factors and social norms play a significant role in the timing of leaving home
Going away to college is a transition between parent’s home and living on your own
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Autonomy from Parents:
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College freshmen express a variety of attitudes that suggest different views about their desire to
be independent from their family
Revision of Attachment with Parents is revisited when entering college
For students who live on campus, preoccupation with thoughts and concerns about their parents
tends to diminish over the course of the first semester, while new relationships form and a new
confidence in their independent decision making builds
Making independent decisions, taking responsibility for one’s actions, and achieving some
degree of financial independence is part of establishing a sense of self-sufficiency
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Gender Identity: The Role of Culture
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Acquisition of a set of beliefs, attitudes, and values about oneself as a man or a woman in many
areas of social life, including intimate relationship, family, work, community, and religion
All cultures construct gender-differentiated roles, and people expect one another to behave in
certain ways because they are male or female
Others argue that men and women should be considered equal, but that they should be treated in
ways that take into account differences in their needs and capacities
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Gender Identity: Reevaluating Gender Constancy &
Reevaluating Old Sex-Role Standards and Learning New Ones
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Later adolescents can appreciate that the use of gender labels is a social convention and that,
apart form the genital basis of this label, there are wide individual differences within gender
groups in most traits and abilities
As later adolescents learn about cultural, institutional, interpersonal, and individual level genderrole expectations, they must integrate and synthesize them with their assessments of their
personal needs and goals
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Gender Identity: Revising One’s Childhood Identifications, Adding a
Sexual Dimension to Gender Identity and Finalizing Gender-Role
Preference
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The component of parental identifications that contributes to gender identity is also reviewed and
revised in later adolescence
During this time, young people begin to encounter a wide range of possible targets for
identification
In addition to revisions in parental identifications, later adolescents add a sexual dimension to
their gender identity that did not play much of a role in their child gender-role identifications
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Gender Identity:
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Notions of physical attractiveness become more salient during this time
Maturation of the hormonal system, which influences emotional arousal as well
as sexual urges, contributes to the development of one’s gender identity
If later adolescents become aware that their gender prevents them from having
access to resources, influence, and decision-making authority, they are likely to
experience a decline in their gender-role preference
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Internalized Morality
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New Cognitive Capacities & Experiences that Promote Moral Reasoning
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Later adolescents explore the distinction between social conventions and moral issues
Later adolescents bring new cognitive capacities to the arena of moral decision making
Later adolescents are able to consider the multiple perspectives that are possible in a moral
situation
They are increasingly aware of the rights and needs of others, and they are able to step outside
the situation in order to examine how an action may satisfy their own needs but harm others
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Internalized Morality:
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Through participation in thought-provoking discussions or
challenging life experiences, moral reasoning can advance to the next
higher level
Exposure to a diversity of information, relationships, and worldviews
stimulates moral reasoning
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Internalized Morality:
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Kohlberg’s View
Gilligan”s View
Eisenberg’s Model
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Psychosocial Crisis
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Individual Identity Versus Identity Confusion
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The Content Component of Identity
The private self is a sense of self, which refers to one’s uniqueness and unity, a
subjective experience of being self-reflective
The public self includes the many roles one plays and the expectations of others
The Evaluation Component of Identity
The significance one places on various aspects of the identity content
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The Psychosocial Crisis: Identity Formation for Males and Females
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Questions have been raised about the process of identity formation and its
outcome for young men and women in our society
Some investigators have argued that the concept of identity as It has been
formulated is a reflection of a male-oriented culture that focuses heavily on
occupation and ideology rather than on interpersonal commitments
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Psychosocial Crisis
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Men and women appear to handle the process of role experimentation
and identity achievement somewhat differently
Other researchers point out that Erikson’s construct of personal
identity is embedded in relational context
Other evidence of gender differences has been found in the content of
the identity
Adolescent Behavior and Development