LATIN FOR RESEARCH IN THE HUMANITIES
SEMINAR 16
CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
(1) Causal Clauses
Last week, we saw that cum + subjunctive can be used to mean ‘since’ and to express the
cause of or reason for the event described in the main clause. There are, however, a number of
other ways of constructing clauses in Latin to indicate cause and reason: these are collectively
known as ‘causal clauses’.
Quoniam (inasmuch as, since) can be used in much the same way as cum, but the words quod
and quia (because) very commonly introduce causal clauses. The subordinate verb following
quod or quia is either indicative or subjunctive, and its form depends on whether the causal
clause describes a factual reason for the event in the main clause, or refers (directly or by
implication) to a reason given by another person.
(a) quod or quia + indicative
When quod or quia introduce clauses which give a factual reason for the event described in
the main clause, the subordinate verb is in the indicative.
Asinus, quia obstinatus erat, progredi noluit.
The donkey, because it was obstinate, refused to go on.
(b) quod or quia + subjunctive
When quod or quia introduce clauses which refer to a reason give by another person (‘suboblique’ clauses), or which imply a reported reason (‘virtually sub-oblique’ clauses), the
subordinate verb is in the subjunctive.
Socrates damnatus est quod iuvenes corrumperet.
Socrates was condemned because (according to his accusers) he corrupted
young men.
This type of causal clause is effectively giving an alleged reason. Sometimes, it can be
translated as ‘for having …’ where there is a verb of accusing, blaming, claiming, etc. (e.g
‘Socrates was condemned for having corrupted young men’).
As a way of illustrating the difference between quod or quia + indicative and quod or quia +
subjunctive, compare the following two examples:
FACT:
Caesar milites punivit quod male pugnaverant.
Caesar punished the soldiers because they had fought badly.
SUB-OBLIQUE:
Caesar milites punivit quod male pugnavissent.
Caesar punished the soldiers because (he said) they had fought badly.
or Caesar punished the soldiers for having fought badly.
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(c) Rejected reasons – non quod and non quo
Often, a reason may be given for the event in the main clause which is denied or which is
untrue. These rejected reasons are expressed by clauses which have two constituent parts: (i)
they are introduced by non quod or non quo; (ii) they include a verb in the subjunctive. If
the true reason is subsequently given, it is given in a clause beginning with sed quia. Note
that the clause introduced by sed quia will be followed by a subordinate verb in the indicative.
Non quia salvos vellet, sed quia perire causa indicta nolebat. LIVY
Not because he wished them to be saved, but because he did not wish them
to die without trial.
(d) Relative clauses with causal meanings
Relative clauses can often have causal meanings. This causal meaning is indicated by a
subjunctive verb.
Hostes, qui adventum Caesaris ignorarent, flumen transierunt.
The enemy, since they were unaware of Caesar’s approach, crossed the
river.
The causal quality of a relative clause can be stressed by the word quippe before the relative
pronoun:
Consul, quippe qui praemonitus esset, haec exspectabat.
The consul, since he had been forewarned, was on the look-out for this.
(e) Referential words
When the author wishes to stress the reason rather than the main clause, quod and quia often
refer to eo, ideo, idcirco, or propterea in the main clause.
Quia natura mutari non potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt.
CICERO
Because nature cannot be changed, on that account true friendships are everlasting.
Exercises
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Candidato vestro non faveo, quia mendax est.
Mater filium vituperavit quod tardus e lecto surrexisset.
Mater filium vituperavit quod tardus e lecto surrexerat.
Domi mansit, non quod aeger esset, sed quia ego mansi.
Ideo te laudo quod iustus es.
(2) Concessive Clauses
In our discussion last week, we noted that cum + subjunctive could also concede a fact, and
could carry the meaning ‘although’. There are several other forms of ‘concessive clauses’ in
Latin. In concessive clauses, the thing being conceded may be either (i) a fact, or (ii) a
possibility or a notion. The identity of the thing conceded determines the structure used.
(a) Concessions of fact
Apart from cum + subjunctive, a clause expressing a concession of fact can be expressed
using the words quamquam, etsi, or tametsi with the indicative, or by quamvis and the
subjunctive. Often, the main clause will begin with the word tamen.
Romani, quamquam itinere fessi erant, tamen aciem instruxerunt.
The Romans, although exhausted by the march, formed up for battle.
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Quamvis strenue labores, non ad tempus opus conficies.
Although you may work hard, you will not finish the work in time.
or However hard you work, you will not finish the work in time.
(b) Concessions of possibility
Clauses expressing a concession of possibility are introduced by etsi or etiam si and the
subjunctive. These clauses can be translated as ‘even if…’ or ‘even though…’
Etiam si hinc effugiamus, fame pereamus.
Even if we escaped from here, we should die of hunger.
(c) Licet
Occasionally, an author can express a concession by using the impersonal verb licet as a
conjunction, together with a verb in the subjunctive.
Licet omnes laboremus, numquam opus conficiemus.
Even though we all work, we shall never finish the work.
(d) Concessive relative clauses
Relative clauses are nothing if not versatile and it will perhaps not come as a surprise to
observe that they can also convey a concessive meaning. Such concessive relative clauses
include a verb in the subjunctive.
Caesar, qui illud suspiciaretur, tamen obsides dimisit.
Although Caesar suspected that, he released the hostages.
Exercises
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Canis, quamquam ferociter resistit, a lupo superatus est.
Quamvis morbo affligeretur, senex ad forum ambulare conatus est.
Pecuniosus homo, quamvis sit nocens, damnari non potest.
At Caesar, etsi nondum eorum consilia cognoverat, tamen fore id quod accidit
suspicabatur.
Etsi magna turba puellae obstabat, ad portum mox pervenit.
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