Sustainable Transportation Funding for Maine’s Future
January 20, 2006
Prepared for: Maine Department of Transportation
In Response to: Transportation Research Problem and Statement:
Phase 2- Alternative Transportation Funding
University of Maine:
Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center
College of Business, Public Policy and Health
Caroline Lundquist Noblet
Gregory M. Gould
Dr. Jonathan Rubin
Dr. Daniel Innis
Charles Morris
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………
v
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………...
vi
LIST OF CASE STUDIES…………………………………………………………
vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS…………………………………………………………….
ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY………………………………………………………...
ES1
1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………
1
1.1 Maine’s Transportation Sector……………………………………………...
1
1.2 The Role of the Motor Fuel Tax-Current Revenue…………………………
2
1.3 Concerns for Erosions………………………………………………………
3
1.4 Reasons for Declining Revenues from Motor Fuel Excise Taxes………….
3
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ………………………………………………….
4
2.1 Highway Funding………………………………………………………….
4
2.2 Taxes ……………………………………………………………………..
5
2.2.1 Alternative Gas Tax Structures………………………………………
5
2.2.2 Local Option Transportation Taxes………………………………….
6
2.2.3 Taxation of Alternative Fuels………………………………………..
10
2.3 Road/Direct Pricing………………………………………………………..
11
2.3.1 Area Charging/Cordon……………………………………………….
11
2.3.2 Congestion Pricing…………………………………………………...
12
2.3.3 Distance Based Charges……………………………………………...
13
2.3.4 Managed Lanes/Value Pricing/ High Occupancy Vehicle Toll Lanes
(HOT) ……………………………………………………………………...
ii
15
2.3.5 Value Capture………………………………………………………..
16
2.4 Tolls………………………………………………………………………..
17
2.4.1 Facility Congestion Tolls…………………………………………….
17
2.4.2 Weight-Distance Tolls/Tax…………………………………………..
18
2.5 Fees………………………………………………………………………...
19
2.5.1 Distance Based Fees/Price Variability Programs……………………
19
2.5.2 Environmental Efficiency Charging (Emissions Fees) ……………...
20
2.6 Public –Private Partnerships ………………………………………………
21
2.6.1 Maine Department of Transportation: Public-Private Initiatives…..
23
2.6.2 Virginia Department of Transportation: Public-Private
25
Transportation Act…………………………………………………..
2.6.3 Washington State: Public Private Initiatives in Transportation Act....
25
2.6.4 Georgia Public-Private Initiatives……………………………………
26
2.7 Multi-Modal Transportation ……………………………………………….
27
3. EQUITY AND SUITABILITY CONSIDERATIONS…………………………
28
3.1 Equity………………………………………………………………………
29
3.2 Suitability and Criteria……………………………………………………..
30
4. ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION POLICY AND FINANCING……………..
32
5. DATA ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………..
34
5.1 Data Limitations and Sources……………………………………………...
34
5.2 Maine’s Vehicle Fleet……………………………………………………...
36
5.2.1 Maine’s Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet…………………………………..
36
5.2.2 Maine’s Heavy-duty Vehicle Fleet…………………………………
39
iii
5.2.3 Maine’s Vehicle Fleet by Fuel Type………………………………..
39
5.3 Changes in Fleet Fuel Efficiency………………………………………….
40
5.3.1 Fuel Consumption Projections…………………..…………………..
42
5.3.2 Revenue Projections…………………………………………………
47
5.4 Alternative Financing: Tax Revenue under Distance Based Charges.…...
49
6. RESULTS, IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH…………………..
52
6.1 Results and Implications…………………………………………………...
52
6.2 Future Research…………………………………………………………….
53
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..
55
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………...
61
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table ES.1
Literature Review Findings……………………………………… ES7
Table ES.2
Sample Evaluation Criteria for Financing Options………………
ES12
Table 1.
Maine Alternative Fuel Tax Rates……………………………….
11
Table 2.
Sample Evaluation Criteria for Financing Options…..…………..
31
Table 3.a. Maine’s Car Fleet ………………………….…………………….
38
Table 3.b. Maine’s Light-Duty Truck Fleet……………………………….
38
Table 3.c. Maine’s Light-Duty SUV Fleet……………..…………………… 38
Table 3.d. Maine’s Van Fleet ……………………………………………….
38
Table 4.
Maine’s Vehicle Fleet Composition……………………….…….. 39
Table 5.
SUV’s and Pickups in Maine’s Fleet ……………………………
39
Table 6.
Fuel Type of Maine’s Vehicles………………………………….
40
Table 7.
Hybrid Vehicles in Maine…………………………………….….
40
Table 8.
Mobile6 Vehicle Classifications…………………………………
43
Table 9.
Fuel Consumption Projections: Mid-Size Cars
Change in Fuel Economy (2006-2015)…………………………..
47
Table 10.
Total Revenue Impact……………………………………………
49
Table 11.
Expected Revenue from Mileage Charge at .174 cents per mile...
50
Table 12.
Division of Payment under Fuel Tax…………………………….
51
Table 13.
Division of Payment under Vehicle-Miles-Traveled Charge……
51
Table A.1 Data Limitations or Requirements……………………………….
61
Table A.2 Local Option Transportation Tax use in the United States ……...
62
Table A.3 Literature Review Findings……………………………………… 63
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure ES.1
Fuel Efficiency Trends…………………………………………
Figure ES.2
Maine Fuel Tax Revenue Projections………………………….. ES14
Figure 1.
Federal Highway Administration Assignment of Responsibility
for Public-Private Partnerships………………………………… 21
Figure 2.
Maine’s Light-duty Vehicle Fleet Composition ……………..
37
Figure 3.
Fuel Efficiency Trends…………………………………………
43
Figure 4.
Maine Fuel Tax Revenue Projections………………………….. 48
vi
ES13
LIST OF CASE STUDIES
Section
Financing Option
Case
2.2.2
Local Option
Transportation Tax
Georgia LOTT…..…………………………….…….
8
2.3.1.
Area Charging/Cordon
Fort Meyers, Florida Cordon Toll…………….…….
12
2.3.1
Area Charging/Cordon
Norway City Center Cordons……………………….
12
2.3.1
Area Charging/Cordon
London City Center Cordon………………………...
12
2.3.2
Congestion Pricing
Puget Sound (Washington)………………………….
13
2.3.3
Distance Based Charges
Netherland’s Mobimeter…………………………….
14
2.3.3
Distance Based Charges
University of Iowa, “New Approach” ……………
15
2.3.3
Distance Based Charges
Oregon Road User Fee Task Force…………………
15
2.3.4
Managed Lanes
California Orange County SR-91 and I-15…………
16
2.4.1
Facility Congestion Tolls
Fort Meyers Florida Cordon………………………
17
2.4.1
Facility Congestion Tolls
Tappan Zee Bridge Congestion Relief Study………..
18
2.4.2
Weight-Distance
Tolls/Taxes
Eurovignette and the New Kilometer Charge System
19
2.5.1
Distance Based Fees/Price
Variability
Georgia Institute of Technology Variable Cost
Study………………………………………………… 20
2.5.1
Distance Based Fees/Price
Variability
Minnesota DOT “Pay-as-You-Drive” (PAYD)……
2.5.1
Distance Based Fees/Price
Variability
Progressive Insurance/Norwhich Union “Variable
Insurance”…………………………………………… 20
2.5.2
Emissions Charges
Eurovignette and the New Kilometer Charge System
21
2.6.1
Public-Private Partnerships
Portland Transportation Center……………………...
24
2.6.1
Public-Private Partnerships
The Explorers……………………………………….
24
2.6.1
Public-Private Partnerships
Maine 511 System…………………………………..
24
2.6.2
Public-Private Partnerships
Richmond, Virginia Route 288……………………..
25
2.6.3
Public-Private Partnerships
SR 17/Tacomoa Narrows Bridge …………………..
26
vii
20
2.6.4
Public-Private Partnerships
I-75/575 PPI Proposal……………………………….
26
2.7
Multi-Modal
Denver’s T-Rex Project: A multimodel project…….
28
2.7
Multi-Modal
Virginia’s Statewide Multi-modal Long Range
Transportation Plan (Vtrans2025) …………………..
28
viii
LIST OF ACRONYMS
Acronym
AASHTO
AEO
AMFA
BTS
CAFE
IEA
NASHTU
Definition
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Annual Energy Outlook
Alternative Motor Fuels Act of 1988
Bureau of Transportation Statistics
Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards
International Energy Agency
National Association of State Highway and Transportation Unions
NCHRP
National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NHTSA
National Highway Transportation Safety Administration
ix
Executive Summary
Maine is dependant on its transportation infrastructure for continued economic strength
and growth, particularly on the 22,670 miles of public roads.1 Maine ranks fourteenth in
the nation for the largest number of highway miles traveled annually per capita - 14,912
per year. Maine is highly reliant on its road system because large areas of the State lack
transportation alternatives. This means that the current and future condition of the
roadways is a major concern. How such a crucial infrastructure will continue to be
supported and enhanced financially to meet the growing needs of the State must be
considered carefully.
In the United States, the second most utilized source of funding for transportation
is a motor fuel excise tax, second only to general funds. In 2004, this ‘gasoline tax’ was
3% of the State’s total revenue and 68% of the Highway Fund revenue, not including
taxes derived from diesel fuel. Of particular concern for the State is the erosion of motor
fuel excise taxes as a primary basis for funding Maine’s public road infrastructure.
Transportation policy makers have identified a number of threats to fuel tax
revenue including: tighter fuel economy standards, a possible increase in the market
share for alternative fuel and hybrid vehicles, the declining purchase power of motor fuel
tax revenue, and increasing demands on the transportation infrastructure coupled with
increasing costs of materials for transportation projects.
Maine is not alone in relying on the motor fuel taxes and in facing threats to this
revenue stream. A large body of research exists which examines alternatives for funding
and maintaining transportation infrastructure. This report utilizes an extensive literature
1
Sixty one percent of Maine’s roads are owned by town or municipal governments while 37% are owned
by the State.
ES-1
review to identify twelve financing options, many of which are simultaneously aimed at
generating revenue and addressing other transportation issues such as congestion. The
report also presents case studies from around the nation. To assist in presentation, four
categories of alternative funding options are used throughout the report: taxes,
road/direct pricing, tolls and fees. The findings of the literature review are summarized
in Table ES.1.
This report also recognizes that increasingly, transportation planning must
consider not only traditional issues of best practice, financing and safety, but also issues
of equity and suitability. As the number of transportation initiatives grows, along with
alternatives to finance them, more attention must be devoted to determining the
suitability of an option for a State’s specific needs. An additional important
consideration in transportation decisions and investments is the subsequent effect on
diverse economic groups. Such assessments of equity and suitability should be
considered as Maine looks ahead in transportation planning.
Other states have begun to tackle some of these same issues and have employed a
set of evaluation criteria as a means of identifying preferred options for funding
transportation infrastructure. The list of financing options presented in Table ES.1,
however, demonstrates that many of the alternatives were designed for major
metropolitan areas and may not be suitable for Maine. This report provides a
combination of suitability and equity considerations as helpful tools for evaluating the
applicability of alternative financing options for Maine. The criteria outlined in Table
ES.2 are intended to serve as a discussion point for policy makers.
ES-2
While the primary focus of this report is the identification of financing options
that public entities could employ for roadway financing, the report also investigates
public-private partnerships as a financing option. Three successful, Maine, publicprivate partnerships (the Portland Transportation Center, Island Explorer and Maine 511
System) are included as case studies in the report. Beyond the experience in Maine, the
report also discusses six possible levels of partnerships identified by the Federal Highway
Administration. The report finds that the primary benefits of such partnerships include
the ability to complete a greater number of projects at a faster rate as well as the potential
to decrease the cost of new projects. The concerns surrounding public-private
partnerships include the ability of public-private partnerships to meet the needs of the
public transportation sector, issues of public safety (i.e., whether private contractors will
meet the rigorous safety requirements of state and federal governments) and the
assignment of risk among the partners, particularly operating revenue risk.
The report briefly describes the growing prevalence of multi-modal transportation
projects as a response, in part, to the threats facing highway infrastructure funding. It is
important to note that one of the largest challenges facing multimodal and intermodal
project planning is that responsibilities for different modes are often held by different
state agencies. Successful implementation of multi-modal and intermodal projects
requires extensive communication among the relevant state agencies as well as the
public.
The report includes a discussion of the important role of national transportation
policies on Maine’s future fuel tax revenues. Specifically, Maine transportation planners
must continue to monitor the impacts of the Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA) and
ES-3
changes in the CAFE standards and other policies that intentionally increase fuel
efficiency and decrease the use of petroleum, but also, inadvertently, decrease highway
infrastructure revenues.
The data analysis component of the report utilizes Maine vehicle registration data,
as well as national data sources, to generate fuel consumption and motor fuel excise tax
revenue projections for Maine’s entire vehicle fleet, including both gasoline and diesel
vehicles. Current trends in fuel economy show only modest increases in fuel economy
due to the phasing in of higher CAFE standards for light-duty trucks (Figure ES.1).
These modest increases in fuel economy will likely yield a constant, or slightly
decreasing, nominal value of future gasoline revenues for Maine. Actual changes in
future fuel tax revenues also will depend on changes in the number of miles driven per
capita and changes in Maine’s population, both in size and in demographics. We examine
the potential revenue impacts of these modest increases in fuel economy over a twentyyear period (i.e., to 2025). This scenario is entitled ‘status quo’ throughout the
projections.
To examine the potential revenue impacts of larger changes, we project possible
5%, 15% and 30% increases in fuel economy for Maine’s vehicle fleet over a ten-year
period (i.e., to 2015).2 A graph of fuel efficiency trends for both the nation and Maine
(see Figure ES.1) shows that Maine closely mirrors national fleet fuel efficiency trends.
These projections are then used to calculate the impact of changing fuel economy on
2
The 30% increase was selected based on work by the National Research Council which indicates that
existing and emerging technologies could be used to increase the fuel economy of new vehicles by about
30% by 2015. At the same time, given choice, consumers might choose to purchase greater acceleration,
towing capacity, or other vehicle features that work against increased fuel economy. Efforts to project
revenue changes further into the future face the limitation of either assuming constant technology or
assuming development of new technology and therefore face unknown increases in fuel economy as a
result.
ES-4
Maine’s motor fuel excise tax revenue stream through 2015 (Figure ES. 2). It is clear
from these revenue projections that concerns of decreasing fuel tax revenue due to
changes in fuel economy are well founded. If steps are taken at the national level to
increase fuel efficiency standards, or consumers on their own choose to purchase more
fuel efficient vehicles, Maine could experience a decrease in revenue of up to 10% in the
next ten years. However, absent changes in national transportation energy policy or
changes in consumer behavior, these increases in fuel efficiency may not occur. The
revenue estimate under status quo assumptions is $214 million for 2015, representing a
2.53 % decrease in revenues. Extending the status quo projection to 2025 yields a
revenue projection of $209 million for 2025, representing a modest 5.03% decrease in
revenue from 2005. However, to the extent that the costs of highway maintenance and
construction rise above the overall rate of inflation, actual purchasing power could be
lower still.
The literature review section of this report discusses possible alternatives to
supplement or replace the revenue obtained from fuel taxes. One financing option
identified in the literature review, and currently employed both nationally and
internationally, is a mileage-based charge. The report calculates that a mileage-based
charge of 0.174 cents per mile would be required in order to maintain the current level of
revenue of $220 million from the gasoline tax.
Determining the alternative funding options most appropriate for Maine is
properly left for the State Legislature, the Governor and appropriate State agencies and
the public. However, it is evident that many of the alternatives discussed in the literature
review may not be preferred given Maine’s economic and geographic circumstances.
ES-5
The literature review and suggested evaluation criteria provide stakeholders much of the
information necessary for informed discussions on the future of Maine’s transportation
financing.
ES-6
.
Table ES.1 Literature Review Findings
Section
of
Report
Alternative
Financing
Option
Definition
2.2
Benefits
Concerns
Taxes
2.2.1
Alternative Gas
Tax Structure
Indexing gas tax
rates to a measure
of inflation.
2.2.2
Local Option
Transportation
Taxes
Implementation of
a tax at the local
level. Earmark
revenue for
transportation.
Fuel Tax
Percentage tax on
gasoline sales.
Revenue earmarked
for transportation.
1) Avoid politically charged
situation of increasing tax
rate
2) Maine currently uses an
alternative gas tax structure
1) Gasoline taxes are regressive (shift
tax burden to the poor & middle
class)
1) Easily administered by
local officials and local
control of revenue
2) Local drivers are the
source of revenue
1) Jeopardize competitiveness of
local businesses
2) Limited tax base therefore high
rate would be required to raise
revenue
3) Possible revenue decline over time
given increasing fuel economy
ES-7
.
Section
of
Report
2.2.3
Alternative
Financing
Option
Sales Tax
Definition
Benefits
Concerns
1) Broad tax base
2) High revenue for low
marginal tax rate; less
objectionable to consumers
3) Complies with horizontal
equity (all transportation
users pay)
4) Direct voter involvement
in implementing and
maintaining tax
5) Revenue obtained from
non-residents
1) Possible revenue instability during
recessions
2) No incentives for decreasing use
of the transportation infrastructure
3) Possibly jeopardize
competitiveness of Maine
businesses
Other: Natural Levy weight-based
Resource charge on natural
Extraction resource extraction.
1) Finance rural roads used
only by natural resource
industries
1) Jeopardize competitiveness of
resource based businesses
2) Roads often privately owned by
natural resource industries.
Other: Payroll Levy tax on
Tax businesses to
finance transit.
1) Finance urban transit
systems
2) Possibly inappropriate for Maine’s
rural makeup
1) Maine currently taxes
alternative fuels
1) Limited market penetration of
alternative fuel vehicles
Taxation of
Alternative
Fuels
Implementation of
a sales tax at local
or state level.
Earmark revenue
for transportation.
Levy tax on
alternative fuels
such as natural gas.
ES-8
.
Section
of
Report
Alternative
Financing
Option
Definition
2.3
Benefits
Concerns
Road/Direct Pricing
2.3.1
Area Charging/
Cordon
Implement charge
for operating
vehicle in specified
area.
1) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
2) Consistent with other
policy objectives
(reduction of pollution,
road wear, noise, etc.)
3) Large revenue base if
implemented in large area
1) Possible encouragement of sprawl
2) Creation of boundary effects;
motorists increase travel in order
to avoid charge
2.3.2
Congestion
Pricing
Implementation of
variable prices
dependant upon
time of travel and
level of congestion.
1) Reduction in congestion
2) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
1) Possible public opposition to fee
implementation at previously free
area
2.3.3
Distance Based
Charges
Implement variable
vehicle user fee
dependant upon
distance traveled
(i.e. per-mile
charge).
1) Stable revenue, not
affected by fuel economy
2) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
3) Gradual implementation
possible; lower public
resistance
1) Implementation of viable
technology on a wide scale
2) Invasion of motorist privacy
3) Evasion of tax
4) Possible shifting of burden to rural
areas
5) Capturing revenue from out of
state travelers
ES-9
.
Section
of
Report
2.3.4
2.3.5
Alternative
Definition
Financing
Option
Managed Lanes/ Vary price of lanes
Value Pricing
dependant upon
time of day and
level of congestion.
Value Capture
Require private
developers to pay
for maintenance of
roads created.
Benefits
Concerns
1) Present options to
motorists; allow motorist
to value own time
2) Congestion Management
1) Decrease amount of infrastructure
available to the general public
1) Local and State agencies
no longer fiscally
responsible for privately
created roads
1) Public safety (will developers
maintain road consistent with
standards of public agencies).
Tolls
2.4
2.4.1
Facility
Congestion
Tolls
Implementation of
variable user fees at
specific facilities
(ex: bridge),
dependant upon
congestion level.
1) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
2) Reduce congestion
1) Equity – fees may be used to
finance projects not related to the
tolled facility.
2) Tolls are regressive (shift payment
burden to the poor & middle class)
2.4.2
WeightDistance
Tolls/Tax
Heavy goods
vehicles must pay
facility toll or per
mile rate based on
weight.
1) Heavy goods vehicles pay
commensurate with
amount of damage inflicted
on roads.
2) Captures value of
roadways as ‘warehouses’
for commercial goods
1) Possible jeopardy to Maine’s
trucking reliant industries
ES-10
.
Section
of
Report
Alternative
Financing
Option
Definition
Benefits
Concerns
Fees
2.5
2.5.1
Distance Based Replace currently
fixed price of
Fees/
Price Variability vehicle ownership
with variable price
(ex: variable
registration fee
based on vehicle
miles traveled).
1) Motorists able to control
own savings/costs by
adjusting driving habits
2) Consistent with other
policy objectives
(reduction of pollution,
road wear, etc.)
1) Evasion
2.5.2
Emissions Fees
1) Consistent with other
policy objectives
(reduction of pollution)
2) Promote citizen awareness
of vehicle emissions
1) Availability of information on
emissions of all vehicles makes/models.
Levy variable user
fees dependant
upon vehicle
energy efficiency
and environmental
emissions.
ES-11
.
Table ES.2 Sample Evaluation Criteria for Financing Options
1
What is the revenue raising potential of this option?
2
Will this option meet equity standards (do people with equal ability to pay, pay
equally?)
3
Will this project meet pay-as-you-use standards (i.e. will those who use the
system more, pay more)?
4
Will citizens still be able to use the roadways/transportation mode under this
option, even if they have limited financial resources?
5
Will this option be enforceable and able to capture out of state travelers?
6
Is this option in alignment with other policy objectives?
7
Is this option politically feasible?
ES-12
.
Figure ES.1 Fuel Efficiency Trends
ME LDDV
40
ME LDGT1
ME LDGT2
35
FE (MPG)
ME LDGT3
ME LDGT4
30
ME LDGV
25
LDGV
LDGT1
20
LDGT2
LDGT3
15
LDGT4
10
1980
LDDV
1985
1990
1995
2000
LDDT12
LDDT34
Year
Abbreviation
ME LDDV
ME LDGT1
ME LDGT2
ME LDGT3
ME LDGT4
ME LDGV
LDGV
LDGT1
LDGT2
LDGT3
LDGT4
LDDV
LDDT12
LDDT34
2005
Description
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Light-duty Gasoline Vehicles (Passenger Cars)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 1 (0-6,000 lbs. GVWR; 0-3,750 lbs. LVW)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 2 (0-6,000 lbs. GVWR; 3,751-5,750 lbs. LVW)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 3 (6,001-8,500 lbs. GVWR; 0-5,750 lbs. ALVW)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 4 (6,001-8,500 lbs. GVWR; 5,751+ lbs. ALVW)
Light-duty Diesel Vehicles (Passenger Cars)
Light-duty Diesel Trucks 1 & 2 (0-6,000 lbs. GVWR)
Light-duty Diesel Trucks 3 & 4 (6,001-8,500 lbs. GVWR)
ES-13
.
Figure ES.2 Maine Fuel Tax Revenue Projections: Change in Fleet Fuel Efficiency
$230,000,000
Revenue (2005 Dollars)
$220,000,000
$210,000,000
$200,000,000
$190,000,000
$180,000,000
$170,000,000
$160,000,000
$150,000,000
2005
Status Quo
5% Increase
15% Increase
30% Increase
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
Year
ES-14
2017
2019
2021
2023
2025
.
1. Introduction
I.1 Maine’s Transportation sector
The state of Maine spans over 30,000 square miles and is connected by the 22,670 miles
of public roads3 that traverse the State, as well as the nine freight railroads, five major
transit systems4 and twelve toll ferries that serve the state. Over 32 million dollars of
freight shipments leave Maine each year while over 4 million tons of commodities are
transported by rail from Maine. Additionally, Maine is fourth in the nation in the number
of US-Canadian border crossings for commercial and passenger vehicles. Including these
figures with the fact that Portland is the 25th largest waterport by tonnage in the nation, a
clear picture emerges that Maine’s transportation infrastructure is a substantial
contributor to the Maine economy (BTS, 2004).
Maine is dependant on its transportation infrastructure for continued economic
strength and growth, particularly the public roads. Maine ranks fourteenth in the nation
for the largest number of highway miles traveled annually per capita - 14,912 per year.
Additionally, 89% of Maine’s work force commutes to work by passenger vehicle with
over 1 million passenger vehicles registered in the state of Maine (as of 2005: 499,554
cars, 222,998 light-duty pickup trucks, 167,665 SUVs and 80,515 vans; total fleet
including heavy-duty vehicles of 1,061,471). Maine is highly reliant on its road system
because large areas of the State lack transportation alternatives. This means that the
current and future condition of the roadways is a major concern. Twenty percent of
Maine’s public roads are listed in either “mediocre” or “poor” condition, while 69% are
3
Sixty-one percent of Maine’s roads are owned by town or municipal governments while 37% are owned
by the state.
4
The five transit systems and the municipalities served are: Greater Portland Transit (Portland), Casco Bay
Island Transit District (Portland), City of Bangor (Bangor), Western Maine Transportation System
(Lewiston-Auburn) and the Regional Transportation Program (Portland).
1
.
listed as ‘fair’ or worse (BTS, 2004). How such a crucial infrastructure will continue to
be supported and enhanced financially to meet the growing needs of the state must be
considered carefully.
1.2 The Role of the Motor Fuel Tax- Current Revenues
Currently in the United States the second most utilized source of funding for
transportation is the motor fuel tax, second only to general funds. Maine Statute Title 36
Part 5 ‘Motor Fuel Taxes’ governs Maine’s motor fuel excise taxation. Chapter 451 of
this Title dictates the motor fuel excise tax on gasoline at 25.9 cents per gallon effective
July 1, 2005 and is a crucial part of the financial support required to maintain and
enhance Maine’s transportation infrastructure (Maine Revenue Service, 2005(b)). In
2004, this ‘gasoline’ tax was 3% of the State’s total revenue, and 68% of the Highway
Fund, not including taxes derived from diesel fuel (Maine Revenue Service, 2005(c)).
Maine implements additional motor fuel taxes on other fuels under Title 36 Part 5
Chapter 459 entitled ‘Special Fuels.’ These special fuels include diesel fuel, propane,
compressed natural gas and others. Of particular relevance for this report, the diesel fuel
excise tax is 27 cents per gallon in Maine. A majority of the revenue generated from the
gasoline excise tax is designated to the highway fund, and all of the revenue from the
special fuel excise tax is dedicated to the highway fund.5 However, Maine’s excise tax
statutes also allow for refunds of the motor fuel excise tax for off-highway vehicles
including tractors used for agricultural purposes and recreational boats.
5
Revenue not designated to the highway fund is dedicated to the following state agencies depending on non-highway
vehicle use: Department of Marine Resources Boating Facilities Fund; for snowmobile purposes of the Department of
Inland Fisheries and Wildlife and the Department of Conservation; for ATV purposes split equally between the
Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife and the Department of Conservation. Source:
http://www.maine.gov/legis/ofpr/04compendium/2004compendium.htm#GASOLINE%20TAX
2
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1.3 Concerns for Revenue Erosion
Of particular concern for the State is the erosion of motor fuel excise taxes as a primary
basis for funding Maine’s public road infrastructure. Maine experienced a 10% decrease
in state per capita spending on transportation between 2002 and 2003, from $1.93 per
capita to $1.72 (AASHTO, 2004 pg. 3-9). This low per capita spending ranks Maine 29th
in the nation for per capita spending on transportation.
1.4 Reasons for Declining Revenues from Motor Fuel Excise Taxes
Transportation policy makers have identified a number of threats to fuel tax
revenue. First, tighter standards for light-duty trucks, SUV’s and mini-vans announced in
August 2005 are expected to increase the fuel efficiency of the vehicle fleet nationwide
(model year 2005 light-duty vehicles have the highest average fuel efficiency since
1996).
The increasing market share for alternative fuel and hybrid vehicles also may lead
to an erosion of the base of the motor fuel excise tax. This is especially true given the
recently adopted National Energy Bill 74-26, which gives incentives for alternative and
hybrid vehicles. These incentives include tax credits for purchases of hybrids, based on
fuel economy that will range from $250 to $3,400.6 Hybrids currently comprise 0.12% of
the Maine passenger vehicle fleet, and 1.52% of the model year 2005 vehicles available.
However, to date, the number of dedicated alternative fuel vehicles has been too small to
have a significant impact on fuel tax revenues. In fact, a provision of the AMFA, which
gives favorable CAFE treatment for flexible and dedicated fuel vehicles, may have led to
a decrease in fuel efficiency of the vehicle fleet and the increase in gasoline revenues
(NHTSA, 2005 (b)). In addition, in the current economic climate where per gallon
6
Tax credit range estimated by American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy.
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gasoline prices have reached a high of three dollars, citizens who cannot afford newer
fuel efficient vehicles may curtail their driving, although the empirical evidence suggest
the magnitude of these changes are small, especially in the short run.7
The declining purchase power of motor fuel tax revenue is also cause for concern.
While Maine, unlike other states, has tied the gas tax to an inflation index, this index is
not necessarily sufficient in retaining the strength of the gas tax against the pressures of
inflation.8 A NCHRP problem statement indicates that even accounting “for inflation and
fuel efficiency…, the motor fuel tax today generally provides approximately one-third of
the purchasing power it did in the 1960’s” (NCHRP, 2005).
Finally, the cost of materials for transportation projects increases more than the
general rate of inflation primarily due to demand for materials and labor. Despite the
declining ability of the motor fuel tax to provide sufficient revenue, the demand on this
revenue and the infrastructure it supports has experienced an increase. This increase
stems primarily from increased congestion and by the prevalence of other non-highway
activities that may be eligible for funding by motor fuel tax revenue.
2. Review of Literature – Transportation Funding Alternatives
2.1 Highway Funding
Maine is not alone in relying on the motor fuel taxes and in facing threats to this revenue
stream. A large body of research exists which examines alternatives for funding and
maintaining transportation infrastructure. Many of these are simultaneously aimed at
generating revenue and addressing other transportation issues such as congestion. This
7
"The demand for gasoline is quite insensitive to changes in the price of gasoline. Thus, even substantial
increases in the price of gasoline, especially in the short term, are likely to cause consumers to make only
small decreases in their consumption. The short-term and long-term price elasticities are generally taken to
be -.10 and -0.20, respectively. (Greene 1998)
8
Inflation Index information available at www.maine.gov/legis/ofpr/04compendium/c04opfl.htm
4
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section will report on alternative funding options identified through an extensive
literature review of nationally and internationally recognized leaders in the transportation
field including: Transportation Quarterly, Transportation Research Board and the
Brooking Institute’s Series on Transportation Reform. Each financing option will be
discussed with respect to benefits, concerns and available case studies. To assist in
presentation, four categories of alternative funding options are used as an organizational
tool. The four categories are: taxes, road/direct pricing, tolls and fees.
2.2 Taxes
2.2.1 Alternative Gas Tax Structures
One of the primary benefits of the motor fuel tax is that the tax is collected in small
increments, which typically makes it less objectionable to consumers. However, raising
the tax rate often becomes a politically charged situation as evidenced in Washington
State with Initiative 912.9 The political difficulty in raising the rate is a partial
explanation for the lagging purchase power of the gas tax. An example of this reduction
in purchase power can be seen in the federal motor fuel tax, which has declined from 18.3
cents per gallon in 1993 to 9.3 cents per gallon in 2003 (ME DOT, 2005).
An alternative gas tax structure known as ‘Inflation Responsive’ or ‘Variable Rate
Gas Tax’ involves indexing gas tax rates to a measure of inflation to combat erosion in
purchasing power, and to avoid the politically charged situations that often accompany
legislated increases in tax rates. Maine has taken one of the initial recommended steps in
pursuing this alternative by tying the tax rate to a measure of inflation, as authorized in
the Maine statutes by Title 36 Part 5 Chapter 465. One option for Maine to increase gas
9
See the Washington State Department of Transportation’s 2005 Transportation Tax Package Information
Site for more information on this issue at http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/Funding/2005/
5
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tax revenue would be to change the inflation index rate to one more in line with the
construction industry, such as the PPI.
A concern regarding the use of any type of fuel tax is that gasoline taxes are
generally considered regressive taxes, and disproportionately shift the burden of these
taxes to the poor and middle class, who typically are unable to purchase newer vehicles
that may be more fuel-efficient (Chernick and Reschovsky, 1997).
2.2.2 Local Option Transportation Taxes
The implementation of Local Option Transportation Taxes (LOTT) has become more
prevalent in recent years as states struggle to find options that can supplement, and
possibly replace, lagging motor fuel tax revenue. LOTT’s involve the implementation of
a tax at the local level, where revenue is earmarked for transportation use. The rate of
LOTT’s could therefore vary within a state and the revenue generated would be
controlled at the regional or local level. Following the categorization of LOTT options
used by Goldman and Wachs (2003), four variations of LOTT’s will be discussed: Fuel
Taxes, Sales Taxes, Vehicle Taxes and other options including Natural Resource
Extraction and Payroll Taxes. Currently, nine states authorize local option fuel taxes,
twenty-three states authorize sales taxes, and sixteen states authorize vehicle taxes
(Table A.2) (Goldman and Wachs, 2003).
Fuel Tax: A local option fuel tax calls for a percentage tax on gasoline sales, with
the percentage determined by local officials and the revenue set aside for local
transportation needs. The literature regarding LOTT fuel taxes indicates that this option
has limited benefits, and a number of issues, which may limit long-term viability. The
primary benefit of this alternative is that the tax is easily administered by local
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governments and provides for local control of revenues. In addition, local fuel taxes also
ensure that local vehicle drivers are the primary source of revenue for this tax, which
addresses some equity concerns (Goldman and Wachs, 2003). Another advantage of
gasoline excise taxes is that they are relatively stable (Goldman and Wachs, 2003). That
is, the income and price elasticity of demand are small, thus month-to-month and year-toyear revenues are relatively stable and predictable.
However, the presence of varied tax rates on fuel at the local level may jeopardize
competitiveness of local businesses. Given the limited tax base for a local tax, the rate
would need to be set at a level that, at a minimum, supports revenue collection. This
higher rate may in fact drive consumers to seek fuel outside the taxed area. A final
concern is that, as previously mentioned, motor fuel taxes may not be a long-term
solution to the transportation financing problem.
Sales Tax: The LOTT sales tax option has become more prevalent as twenty-three
states have authorized the use of local option sales taxes for transportation funding
(Goldman and Wachs, 2003). This financing option implements a sales tax at a local or
state level, and earmarks the revenue for transportation funding. LOTT sales taxes have a
number of benefits identified in the literature. First, if the sales tax is implemented at the
state level, a broad revenue base will be covered by the tax. In addition, such a tax will
garner high revenue for a low marginal tax rate, which may assist with the difficulty of
consumer acceptance of new taxes. Another attractive component of the LOTT sales tax
is the horizontal equity component. If revenue is used for a variety of transportation
systems (e.g., not just roads) the sales tax system will ensure that all transportation users
pay for maintaining the systems. Under the current fuel tax system, the transportation
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fund pays for bicycle and pedestrian projects; thus non-motorists do not necessarily pay
the fuel tax but do benefit. The LOTT sales tax ensures that all users pay. In addition,
the sales tax would allow for direct involvement by voters in implementing and
maintaining the taxation level, which may promote increased acceptance of new taxes. A
final benefit of the LOTT sales tax may be particularly applicable to Maine. The LOTT
sales tax would provide revenue from non-residents. As tourism constitutes a significant
portion of Maine’s sales, the implementation of a sales tax would garner revenue from
out-of-state visitors who utilize the transportation infrastructure.
As with all financing options, LOTT sales taxes have a number of issues which
may limit implementation viability. First, sales taxes are prone to revenue instability
since revenue may decline during times of recession. Second, LOTT’s do not encourage
more efficient use of transportation systems because all members of the community pay.
Thus, no incentives exist for decreasing use of the transportation infrastructure.
Case Study: Georgia
ƒ Georgia, “LOTT”: The State of Georgia has implemented the fuel tax variant of
the Local Option Transportation Tax statewide. Any Georgia business that holds
a ‘sales & use tax license’ must pay a local option sales tax based on net receipts.
In the event that a firm does not hold such a license, the fuel supplier is
responsible for collecting the local option fuel tax. This pre-paid LOTT tax
replaces the motor fuel tax.10 In total, local governments in fifteen states have
implemented LOTT fuel taxes for transportation funding purposes. It should be
noted, however, that many of these states have implemented such taxes only in
metropolitan areas (Goldman and Wachs, 2003).
10
Additional Information on the Georgia Tax, including rates, can be found at the Motor Fuel Tax site:
http://www.etax.dor.ga.gov/motorfuel/mf_prepaidtax_070105.pdf
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Vehicle taxes: Another LOTT option employed by portions of sixteen states is
the taxation of vehicles often based on value, age, class or a flat annual registration fee
(Goldman and Wachs, 2003). Six states employing this option require a public vote for
changes to the vehicle tax. States that collect vehicle taxes often contribute this revenue
stream to general funds, although the revenue also may be earmarked for transportation
needs (Goldman and Wachs, 2003). A discussion of how flat registration fees may be
varied to enhance revenue streams will be included under the ‘Fees’ portion of this
literature review.
Other, Natural Resource Extraction: Another LOTT option levies a weight-based
charge on natural resources extracted from a state. Since these industries often utilize
rural roads that are untouched by other users, a natural resource extraction tax can be
viewed as a means of financing maintenance of these roads (Goldman and Wachs, 2003).
In Maine however, many of these rural roads may be privately owned. The primary
obstacle in implementing or increasing this type of tax is political feasibility. Given
Maine’s natural resource based economy, implementing a natural resource extraction tax
may endanger the competitiveness of Maine businesses.11
Other, Payroll Tax: A payroll tax is a supplementary LOTT option. The benefits
of this option include the ability to finance urban transit, where businesses whose
employees utilize a transit system will be partners in funding the system. This particular
11
Title 36 (Sections 2721 through 2726) of the Maine constitution calls for the implementation of a
Commercial Forestry Excise Tax on landowners of more than 500 acres of commercial forestland. This tax is not a
resource extraction tax, as the purpose of the tax is to pay for forest fire protection expenditures. The cost is 32 to 38
cents per taxable acre annually. Additional information is available from the Maine Revenue Service at
http://www.maine.gov/revenue/propertytax/sidebar/commercialforestry.htm
9
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option may not be feasible for Maine, given the limited number of urban centers and the
lack of urban transit systems.
In summary, local option transportation taxes, particularly sales taxes, may
present an option that warrants further consideration in Maine. The primary benefits of
generating revenue from a broad base as well as obtaining revenue from non-residents
may be appropriate for Maine.
2.2.3 Taxation of Alternative Fuels
As noted earlier, alternative fuel vehicles and hybrids have become slightly more
prevalent in the vehicle fleet, particularly with the climbing price of gasoline. Light-duty
diesel vehicles are projected to experience a growth in market share from 1.5 percent of
total light-duty vehicles in 2003 to 4.4 percent in 2025. “Alternative fuel vehicles…are
projected to grow from 1.7 percent of the 2003 total to 2.2 percent in 2025” (AEO, 2005).
Additional high-technology case projections predict much greater advanced technology
and alternative fuel vehicle use. One financing option that may help to alleviate the
erosion in revenue due to alternative fuel vehicles is levying a tax on alternative fuels
used in such vehicles, including natural gas. Currently, the State of Maine levees such a
tax on diesel fuel, methanol, ethanol and compressed natural gas, all of which may be
alternative fuel sources (Table 1). Despite the rise in hybrid vehicles (0.72% of the
model year 2004 vehicles registered in Maine are hybrids), alternative fuel vehicles still
have a very limited market penetration in Maine (0.13 % of the Maine vehicle fleet are
hybrids). Accordingly, it is not likely that revenue obtained from these fuels will be able
to adequately supplement or act as a substitute for the motor fuel revenue stream.
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Table 1. Maine Alternative Fuel Tax Rates
Fuel Taxed
Tax Rate effective July 1, 200512
Cents/gallon
Diesel
.270
Propane
.188
Methanol
.147
Ethanol
.183
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
.224 (per 100 cubic feet)
2.3 Road/Direct Pricing
2.3.1 Area Charging/Cordon
Area Charging, also known as Cordons, are funding options that implement a charge for
operating a vehicle in a specified area, generally a metropolitan center. Existing cordons,
for example in London, Singapore and various Norwegian cities, utilize electronic
sensors to monitor the perimeter of the cordon area to ensure compliance. In addition,
the Singapore cordon charge varies by location of crossing, as well as by day and time of
crossing (TRB, 2003). While area charging or cordons are best known as congestion
management techniques, they also can be used as a revenue enhancement option.
The primary benefit of area charging or cordons is that these options encourage
increased use of mass transit and pedestrian travel. These policies are thus consistent
with long term policy objectives of reducing pollution, noise, fuel use and road wear.
Cordons also may serve to reduce economic losses from congestion. An additional
advantage is the presence of a large revenue base when cordons are implemented around
major metropolitan areas. One concern with cordons is the possible encouragement of
sprawl, as businesses and citizens move outside the area to avoid charges. With existing
cordons, such as in London, residents living within the cordon are generally given
12
Taxation rates obtained from the Maine Revenue Service:
www.maine.gov/revenue/fueltax/Tax%20Rates.html
11
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generous discounts to decrease the sprawl incentives. A second concern is that boundary
effects may be created, encouraging motorists to increase their miles traveled as a means
of avoiding the charged area.
Case Study: United States
ƒ
Fort Meyers, Florida Cordon Toll: Since 1998 Fort Myers has implemented a cordon
toll at facilities located at the north and south approaches to the island Town of
Fort Myers Beach.
Case Study: International
ƒ Norway City Center Cordons: The Norwegian cities of Bergen, Oslo and Trondheim
all have toll rings (or cordons) surrounding the city centers.
ƒ
London City Center Cordon: Since February 2003, a cordon has been in place around
London, England. The charge to enter between 7am and 6:30 pm is £5 ($8).
Feasibility studies regarding the use of cordons for Edinburgh and Leicester have
been proposed.
2.3.2 Congestion Pricing
Congestion pricing is the implementation of variable prices to motorists’ dependant on
time of travel and prevailing congestion level. This option may be implemented on select
roadways via lane management, or throughout an area by implementing electronic
tracking devices (see discussion of Puget Sound Case). This option typically is
considered a congestion management technique, but also may be used as a revenue
enhancement option. Currently, a number of examples of congestion pricing are present
in the United States. In California, State Route 91 utilizes a system of congestion pricing
where middle lanes are toll lanes and are priced based on congestion levels while the
remaining lanes continue to be toll-free. A second example exists in Lee County, Florida
where bridge tolls are reduced during off-peak periods to encourage drivers to travel
during these times (Rufolo and Bertini, 2003).
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The primary benefits of this option are reduction in congestion and promotion of
mass transit and/or carpooling. This option may face public resistance when varying toll
levels are implemented where previously fixed levels were in place.
Case Study: Puget Sound (Washington)
ƒ
Work by the Puget Sound Regional Council is investigating the feasibility of
electronic congestion pricing. Electronic units were installed in 500 pilot program
vehicles in 2004, and are able to detect when a vehicle travels on roadways
subject to congestion tolling; much like the former Maine Transpass system. The
units display the charge per mile for travel on the particular roadway. The study
is focused primarily on gauging driver reaction to congestion pricing (Puget
Sound, 2004).
2.3.3 Distance Based Charges
One of the most widely considered alternative financing options involves distance-based
charges, also known as vehicle-miles-traveled programs. These types of programs
consist of a vehicle user fee dependant on the distance traveled. There are a number of
programs either proposed or operating both internationally and within the U.S. that will
be discussed in the case studies below. Distance based charges may rely on technology
that tracks miles as they are traveled or may be based on odometer readings garnered at
state-mandated inspections or registrations.
There are a number of promising benefits associated with distance-based charges.
First, many of the trial programs foresee these charges serving as a replacement for the
fuel tax because the charges would not lose effectiveness from increasing fuel efficiency
in the vehicle fleet. Distance-based charges also may serve to encourage more efficient
behavior such as increased mass transit use and carpooling (Wachs, 2003). This set of
benefits is consistent with other policy initiatives, which promote decreased vehicle use
in an effort to improve environmental quality. In addition, this option may be
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implemented gradually, which may lower public resistance. In the Oregon case study,
motorists who chose to adopt the technology will begin paying the mileage fee, while
those who do not will continue to pay the fuel tax ensuring that all vehicles are
contributing revenue.
Concerns surrounding this option center on technology and privacy issues. While
a number of case studies have developed viable technology, concerns remain that such
technology cannot be implemented on a wide scale, or will invade the privacy of
motorists. In addition, GPS technology is “only as good as the base map telling the
system where vehicles are traveling”(NCHRP, 2005). Equity concerns also are raised in
that the tax burden may shift to more rural areas. Because fuel efficiency in city settings
is typically lower, urban drivers consume more fuel per mile. Thus, under a vehiclemiles-traveled plan, city drivers may contribute less revenue than under the existing fuel
tax system (Sorenson and Taylor, 2005). Additional concerns apply if distance based
charges are odometer-only based, because of possible high levels of evasion and
difficulty in capturing out of state travelers.
Case Studies: International
ƒ
Netherlands, Mobimeter: The Netherlands has proposed a system entitled
“Mobimeter,” a kilometer based charge on vehicle travel with operational
capacity in 2006. The initial pilot was intended to be revenue neutral, where
vehicle owners would pay no more under the “Mobimeter” than under the current
system if they drove less than 18,000 kilometers per year. The system may
eventually include a congestion control component, where the per kilometer
charge may vary depending on travel in congested areas (TRB, 2003).
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Case Studies: United States
ƒ
University of Iowa, “New Approach”: Work at the University of Iowa also has
centered on mileage-based fee systems. The researchers envision their work as a
possible long-term replacement of the fuel tax for passenger vehicles as well as
commercial vehicles. The University of Iowa system employs GPS and GIS, and
intends to distinguish the number of miles driven in an individual state by a vehicle.
The work also considers variable charging for commercial vehicles dependant on the
type of road the vehicle is traveling. (TRB, 2003; Sorenson and Taylor, 2005).
ƒ
Oregon, “Road User Fee Task Force”: One of the most promising examples of
implementing distance-based charges is being conducted by the Oregon Road User
Fee Taskforce. The Taskforce was created in 2001 under legislative action HB 3946
and charges the task force to investigate various alternative financing options, much
as the state of Maine is currently undertaking.13 The pre-pilot of 20 vehicles began on
October 24, 2005, with recruitment and installation of technology in up to 280
vehicles planned during Winter 2005. The pilot program will be implemented
throughout 2006 and 2007, with preliminary results by summer of 2007 and possible
legislative action thereafter. (TRB, 2003; Oregon DOT, 2005)
2.3.4 Managed Lanes/Value Pricing/ High Occupancy Vehicle Toll Lanes (HOT)
The premise of the managed lanes system, also known as value pricing, is to allow
vehicles to buy their way out of traffic. A related concept is High Occupancy Vehicle
Toll Lanes (HOT), which also will be discussed here. These options typically are utilized
for congestion management, and are best implemented in urban areas with a multiple lane
infrastructure. Individual lanes can be designated as high occupancy vehicle lanes, tollfree lanes or toll lanes. The cost of toll lanes may vary dependant on the time of day and
amount of congestion present. Under an HOT program, a single occupancy motorist may
pay a fee to travel in the HOV lane, where the fee may vary depending on time of day
and level of congestion.
One benefit of this type of program is the presentation of options to motorists who
can place a cost value on their own time (Muthusway and Levinson, 2003). This
13
Road User Fee Task Force Act:
http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/OIPP/docs/FinalReportA2003march.pdf
15
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approach also may assist in congestion management. However, equity becomes an issue
for these types of approaches. HOT and toll lanes have acquired the names of “Lexus
Lanes” indicating that generally only the wealthy utilize these lanes. In addition, it can
be argued that implementation of toll lanes decreases the amount of infrastructure
capacity available to the general public.
Case Studies
ƒ
California, Orange County SR-91 and I-15: State Route - 91 utilizes a variable
price for HOT lanes where the price is dependant on the level of congestion on
the roadway. Interstate-15 in San Diego uses the HOV lane as an HOT lane
where the price is adjusted every six minutes in order to maintain the required
service level mandated for HOV lanes (Rufolo and Bertini, 2003).
ƒ
Texas, I-10 and US 290: HOT lanes are operational in Texas on I-10 (Katy
Freeway) in Houston and on US 290 in Houston.
2.3.5 Value Capture
One source of infrastructure stress is the creation by private development of new
commercial or residential roads that tie into existing roadways. These new roads
generally become the responsibility of the municipality or state upon completion, putting
additional stress on limited resources. A financing option designed to assist with this
common problem is to require developers to pay for the maintenance of roads created
during development. The primary benefit of this option is that local and state agencies
are no longer fiscally responsible for the maintenance of these roads. However, a
primary concern of this option is public safety where developers may not maintain the
roads consistent with the standards of local and state agencies.
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2.4 Tolls
2.4.1 Facility Congestion Tolls
A widely used financing option is Facility Tolls and a variant, Facility Congestion Tolls.
Facility tolls are user fees paid by motorists to use a specific facility, such as a bridge or
tunnel, and are very common throughout the United States. Examples of the Facility Toll
include the Williams Tunnel in Boston, the Chesapeake Expressway and the Emerald
Mountain Expressway Bridge in Alabama. The Facility Congestion Toll varies the user
fee for the facility based on the congestion level present. One benefit of the Facility
Congestion Toll is that it may encourage use of mass transit as a means of avoiding the
toll. The toll also may manage or reduce congestion as motorists adjust their travels to
avoid high toll rates.
The primary concerns regarding this option center on equity. Facility Congestion
Tolls often are used to finance projects or improvements unrelated to the facility where
the toll was collected. In such cases the toll could no longer be considered a user fee,
since the benefits of the toll profit a group other than the facility user/payer (Peters and
Kramer, 2003). In addition, tolls are considered regressive because of the burden on poor
or middle class motorists. Finally, work by Peters and Kramer (2003) has shown that
generation of vehicle exhaust pollution is far greater at toll facilities than at highway
speeds and that the pollution costs up to 8.3% of the revenue collected at the tolls (Peters
and Kramer, 2003).
Case Studies
ƒ
Fort Meyers, Florida Cordon Toll: Since 1998 Fort Myers has implemented a
cordon toll at facilities located at the north and south approaches to the island
Town of Fort Myers Beach. The toll amount is congestion variant.
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ƒ
Tappen Zee Bridge Congestion Relief Study: A Federal Highway Administration
Congestion Pricing Pilot Project was conducted in 1998 on the Tappen Zee
Bridge. The flat fee of $1.00 was replaced during the study with a congestion
price dependant upon time of travel and also allowed for travel along the shoulder
for a varying fee. The study found that various congestion pricing led to
decreased net volume changes during peak hours as high as 11% (NY State,
1999).
2.4.2 Weight-Distance Tolls/Tax
A primary objective of an alternative financing option is to ensure that vehicle operators
internalize, or consider, the external cost they are imposing on the roadway infrastructure.
Heavy goods vehicles (HGV’s), frequently known as commercial trucks, impose a
greater external cost on roadways than passenger vehicles. Accordingly, an alternative
financing option should ensure that HGV’s support the high external cost they impose
(TRB, 2003). The Weight-Distance Toll/Tax option is based on the premise that HGV’s
should pay a higher user fee. There are a number of variations on this financing option.
First, HGV’s may pay a higher toll at toll facilities based on their weight (or some
variation such as axle configuration), as currently used by the Maine Turnpike Authority.
Second, in a variation based on distance charges, HGV’s would pay a higher per-mile
rate based on the weight of the vehicle.
One benefit of this financing option is that such tolls or taxes on HGV’s allow for
payment commensurate with the amount of damage that HGV’s impose on roadways. A
second benefit is that this system helps close the price variation between the rail and road
sectors, and captures more of the value associated with transporting goods (TRB, 2003).
Currently, highways are traveling warehouses where suppliers are not charged for
‘storing’ their goods on Maine’s roadways as they travel. Transporting these same
materials by rail would include a ‘storage’ surcharge as part of the price. One concern
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with this type of system is the impact on the competitiveness of Maine’s trucking reliant
industries. Given that the Maine economy relies heavily on resource extraction industries
that require the use of HGV’s to transport goods, the impact of weight-distance tolls or
taxes on these industries must be considered carefully.
Case Studies: International
ƒ
Eurovignette and the new Kilometer Charge System: The Eurovignette system
imposed a standard license charge on HGV’s for travel in Belgium, Denmark,
Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Sweden that varies based on the axle
configuration and emission standards (TRB, 2003). In fall of 2003 this system
was adjusted to a per-kilometer charge dependant on engine emission standards
and axle configuration. Vehicle operators may either use an on-board electronic
unit that tracks vehicle data including travel distance or manually pre-book a route
they intend to travel at a toll terminal or on the internet.
2.5 Fees
2.5.1 Distance Based Fees/Price Variability Programs
The premise behind variable price programs and distance-based fees is to replace the
currently fixed prices of automobile ownership with variable prices dependant on usage
(i.e., vehicle miles traveled) in an effort to accurately capture the external cost imposed
by vehicle use. Examples of current fixed programs that would be affected by this option
include insurance rates, registration fees and title fees. The primary benefit of these
programs is that vehicle operators will be able to control their own savings or costs by
adjusting their driving habits. In addition, this option compliments other policy
initiatives including encouraging less vehicle travel to promote lower emissions.
One of the primary concerns surrounding this option is the probability of evasion.
Given that people may resist variation in previously fixed fees, they may take steps to
evade the fees.
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Case Studies: United States
ƒ
Georgia Institute of Technology, “Variable Cost Study”: Work at the Georgia
Institute of Technology has centered on variable price initiatives, including the
feasibility of tying vehicle registration to per-mile costs. The first year of study has
been focused on driver response to variable fees but research is ongoing and a report
of findings is not expected for at least two years (TRB, 2003).
ƒ
Minnesota Department of Transportation, “Pay as you Drive (PAYD)”: The
Minnesota DOT is investigating mileage based options for previously fixed costs
such as vehicle leasing and insurance. Given the private market nature of some of
these possibilities, the DOT enlisted private partners to join in the study, but have
encountered difficulties in maintaining partnerships (TRB, 2003). A summary
evaluation of findings was initially scheduled for 2005, but efforts have been unable
to locate any such publication.
Case Studies: International
ƒ Progressive Insurance/Norwich Union, “Variable Insurance Cost Study”: Progressive
Insurance Company teamed with Norwich Union of the United Kingdom in 2003, to
follow up on a 1998–2001 study investigating driver discounts based on driving
habits, including fewer miles traveled (TRB, 2005). The partnership was expected to
complete the data-gathering phase of the project in late 2004. Norwich Union is
currently offering Pay-As-You-Drive insurance as part of their insurance programs
(Norwich Union, 2005).
2.5.2 Environmental Efficiency Charging (Emissions Fees)/Fuel Efficiency Fee
In an invited presentation to a 2002 Conference held by the Transportation Research
Board, William Ankner suggested that user fees for vehicle use (such as registration fees)
could be levied on the basis of a vehicle’s energy efficiency and environmental emissions
(TRB, 2003). The primary benefit of this option is that it is inline with other policy
initiatives such as the promotion of buying “greener” cars. This option also may create
incentives for the public to obtain additional knowledge regarding the environmental
information of vehicles.
This option may meet with substantial resistance from consumers as well as auto
manufacturers.
20
.
Case Studies: International
ƒ Eurovignette and the new Kilometer Charge System: Germany, as part of the
comprehensive Kilometer Charge System, varies the per-kilometer charge for HGV’s
based on the engine emission standards of the vehicle (TRB, 2003).
2.6 Public-Private Partnerships
A number of states are turning to public-private partnerships in an effort to meet the
changing demands of infrastructure maintenance and creation. The role of private
companies in transportation infrastructure typically has been limited to serving as
consultants to public agencies or acting as independent contractors to provide
construction services, equipment and materials pursuant to low-bid contracts (Yarema,
2002). This approach is sometimes referred to as “design-bid-build” procurement where
the public sector retains responsibility for financing, operating and maintaining the
infrastructure produced during a project (FHWA, 2005(b)). Increasingly however, publicprivate partnerships have led to mounting responsibility by the private sector. The
Federal Highway Administration has created a diagram that indicates the level of
responsibility held by the public or private sector under various partnership types.
Figure 1. Federal Highway Administration’s Assignment of Responsibility
For Public Private Partnerships
Design Bid -Build
Private Contract
Fee Services
DesignBuild
Build-OperateTransfer
Design-Build
Build-Own
Finance-Operate Operate
While design-bid-build has been the traditional partnership structure, the ‘private contract
fee service’ expands the role of the private contractors by transferring responsibility for
services generally handled by state agencies to private sector companies through a
21
.
competitive bidding process. Operations/maintenance or financial management are two
of the services that many state agencies are turning over to private sector partners
(FHWA, 2005(b)). Another partnership type is a ‘design-build’ arrangement where
private companies provide final design elements together with construction in a single
contract for new-capacity projects. These contracts typically are publicly funded and
owned, although the private contractor may provide some financing in the form of
development cost advances or other mechanisms. Following along this continuum
towards greater private sector involvement are forms of partnerships called ‘buildoperate-transfer’ and ‘design-build-operate-maintain.’ These types of contracts allow for
a private entity to complete an entire project, with public funding, with the private entity
providing long-term operation and maintenance on the project at a cost previously
arranged with the public partner. Some ‘design-build-operate-maintain’ contracts can
allow the private contractor to own or lease the facility under contract, and to utilize
private financing (Yarema, 2002). The ‘design-build-finance-operate’ option combines
the responsibilities for designing, building, financing and operating into one private
sector contractor. Some ‘design-build-operate-maintain’ contracts can also allow for the
private contractor to own or lease the facility under contract, and to utilize private
financing (Yarema, 2002). These types of projects are “either partly or wholly financed
by debt leveraging revenue streams dedicated to the project” (FHWA, 2005(b)). A
common revenue source is direct user fees or tolls as discussed in Section 2.4. The final
public-private partnership arrangement grants the right to “develop, finance, design,
build, own, operate, and maintain a transportation project” to a private sector partner
(FHWA, 2005(b)).
22
.
The benefits of the various public-private partnership types described above
include the ability to complete a greater number of projects at a faster rate. In addition,
some states are turning to these partnerships as a means of decreasing the cost of new
projects (TRB, 2002). There is still concern in the transportation field regarding the
ability of public-private partnerships to meet the needs of the public transportation
agencies. Moreover, NASHTU reports have indicated that contracting out to accomplish
transportation work may actually cost more money, citing the example of Boston’s “Big
Dig” which experienced overruns in amounts greater than one billion dollars (Kusnet,
2002). Another concern with public-private partnerships is the issue of public safety and
whether private contractors will meet the rigorous safety requirements of state and federal
governments. The assignment of risk, particularly operating revenue risk, is of particular
concern as public-private partnerships evolve.
There are a number of cases where state transportation agencies have entered into
partnerships with private entities; the State of Maine is no exception.
2.6.1 Maine Department of Transportation: Public-Private Initiatives
The Maine Department of Transportation has successfully completed a number of
projects, for both roadways and intermodal or transit projects, utilizing public-private
partnerships. Three successful roadways projects, including the Waldo-Hancock Bridge,
the Sagadahoc Bridge in Bath and the Cushnoc Crossing located in Augusta, have all
been completed using the design-build partnership arrangement.
Maine also has successfully joined public-private partnerships to fund intermodal
and transit facilities. Three of the most prominent projects are included as case studies.
23
.
Case Studies
ƒ Portland Transportation Center: The Maine DOT in partnership with Concord
Trailways developed the Portland Transportation Center, which serves rail and bus
passengers. This partnership could be classified as a Build-Own-Operate partnership.
The Portland Transportation Center was formerly a Concord Trailways bus station until
partnership with the DOT expanded the services offered at the Center to include Amtrak
rail and metro bus service. Concord Trailways financed the expansion of the building to
accommodate the differing transportation forms, with design input by the Maine DOT.
This on-going partnership includes building ownership and maintenance by Concord
Trailways with ownership of the rail platform held by the DOT.
ƒ The Explorers (Island Explorer, Mountain Explorer and Shoreline Explorer):
The Island Explorer, a free bus service for all passengers, is a well-known sight around
Mount Desert Island and Acadia National Park. The bus service stems from a unique
public-private partnership. The need for the Island Explorer was motivated by a study
administered by Acadia National Park and the Department of the Interior to gauge how
congestion was affecting consumer enjoyment of the park. The study found that
congestion, safety concerns due to parked vehicles, and pollution were hindering positive
visitor experiences at the park. Additionally, there was interest throughout the
communities and businesses of Mount Desert Island to provide transportation for visitors
and residents to various areas of the island, including access to the cruise ship ports. A
public-private partnership developed between the Maine DOT, Acadia National Park and
the communities and businesses of the island. LL Bean joined the partnership in an effort
to provide extended service by the Island Explorer into the fall months.
A 2000 study found that intelligent transportation technology improvements to the
Island Explorer fleet, including passenger counts, automated announcements, automated
departure signs throughout the island and automatic bus tracking systems improved the
visitor experience. This unique and enduring partnership has served as a model for other
‘Explorers’ around Maine, including the Mountain Explorer and the new Shoreline
Explorer. The Mountain Explorer operates in the Bethel area and is a partnership
between the Maine DOT, the Bethel Chamber of Commerce, Sunday River Ski Area and
area businesses. The Shoreline Explorer, to be unveiled this summer, is a multi-modal
public-private partnership which partners three private trolley companies, a public trolley
company, the municipalities of York, Wells, Kennnebunkport and Ogunquit in
collaboration with the Maine DOT.
ƒ Maine 511 System: Maine in collaboration with the states of New Hampshire and
Vermont, as well as Castlerock, a private partner, worked to develop a traveler
information system. This system, known as the 511 System provides information via
web (www.511maine.org) or phone regarding road conditions, accidents and tourism
attractions/events. The system also includes advisory signs on Maine’s roadways. This
partnership has extended to 22 states that use the 511 System. However, Maine continues
to lead with innovations as Island Explorer information is available on 511, and all
information is also available in French.
24
.
2.6.2 Virginia Department of Transportation: Public-Private Transportation Act
The Public-Private Transportation Act (PPTA) of 1995 allows the Virginia Department
of Transportation (VDOT) to enter into partnership with private entities in order to
design, build and maintain their infrastructure.14 According to Shirley J. Ybarra of the
VDOT, the original intent of the PPTA legislation was to generate projects faster and
cheaper. She also noted in a discussion session at a 2003 TRB conference, that in publicprivate relationships, the most costly risk is often held by the public sector and that
improvement in risk sharing should be a goal for future projects.
The VDOT evaluates public-private proposals based on a six phase process: 1)
quality control, 2) independent review panel, 3) Commonwealth Transportation Board
recommendation, 4) detailed proposal submission, 5) negotiation, and 6) interim and/or
comprehensive agreement.
A comprehensive list of projects completed under the PPTA is available from the
VDOT and a case study is included below for reference.
Case Study
ƒ
Richmond, Virginia Route 288: Under the Public-Private Transportation Act of 1995
(PPTA), the Virginia Department of Transportation awarded a $236 million contract
to APAC-Virginia, Inc. of Danville for the completion of Route 288. The Virginia
Department of Transportation (VDOT) expected the project to save $47 million and
seven months in construction time. The project was completed in November 2004.15
2.6.3
Washington State: The Public-Private Initiatives in Transportation Act
Washington State passed legislation similar to that of Virginia with the 1993 PublicPrivate Initiatives in Transportation Act. The act created the authority for the
Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) to “solicit proposals from
14
15
Information regarding the PPTA is contained at: http://www.virginiadot.org/business/ppta-default.asp
Additional information on the Route 288 project is available at: http://www.route288.com/
25
.
private companies to plan, design, finance, construct, and operate transportation facilities,
and to impose user fees or tolls to recover all or a portion of the cost of the project and to
earn a reasonable rate of return on their investment.” (Washington State Legislature,
2000). In further modification of the act, the legislature allowed for public opposition to
any project to enter into the project planning (the Advisory Election Clause).
Case Study
ƒ
SR 16/Tacoma Narrows Bridge: One of the first six projects identified by the State as
qualifying for the Public-Private Initiatives Act was the State Route 16/Tacoma
Narrows Bridge Project. The initial plan for re-construction was to utilize toll
revenue from the bridge to finance the project. However a 2000 court decision placed
the project on hold citing the fact that the WSDOT did not have the authority to toll
the existing bridge. A 2002 legislative decision allowed for tolling on the bridge.
This legislative decision also called for an investigation into the structure of publicprivate partnerships, resulting in the Yarema (2002) article previously cited.16
2.6.4
Georgia Public Private Initiatives
The 2003 Public Private Initiative (PPI) Legislation, revised in 2005, allows the Georgia
Department of Transportation to begin entering into public private partnerships. This
legislation allows for solicited proposals (via RFPs) and unsolicited proposals from
private entities seeking to improve the transportation infrastructure in Georgia. The first
project moving forward in Georgia is the proposed I-75/575 construction, which is
included below as a case study (Georgia DOT, 2005).
Case Study
ƒ
I-75/575 PPI Proposal: The first project to move towards the negotiation phase under
the PPI legislation is the addition of managed lanes and bus lanes to I-75 and 575. As
of October 2005, the proposal is scheduled for public hearing, which will determine if
further negotiation will continue. The proposed project was an unsolicited proposal
16
Additional information on this project is available at
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/sr16narrowsbridge/
26
.
from Georgia Transportation Partners, a joint-venture of construction companies
based in Georgia.17
2.7
Multi-Modal Transportation
Discussion in the transportation literature indicates that continuing to focus efforts
primarily on funding highway infrastructure may not be a long-term sustainable prospect,
given the threats to revenue sources, the growing problem of congestion management and
the inconsistency of supporting gasoline powered vehicles that are incompatible with
existing energy policies. This recognition has led many states to examine multi-modal
transit options as a means of addressing transportation needs. Increasingly, states have
begun to focus on “transportation’s role in achieving such societal goals as efficiency,
equity, a sound environment, livability, and a good overall economy” (Pederson, 2000
pg. 2). However, multi-modal and intermodal planning face the challenge that
responsibilities for different modes are often held by different state agencies. Successful
implementation of multi-modal and intermodal projects requires extensive
communication among the relevant state agencies as well as the public.
The Maine Department of Transportation, as noted in Section 2.6.1, has worked to
expand transportation options in Maine beyond the roadways. The Office of Passenger
Transportation is devoted to exploring transit options in Maine, and to providing
information to Maine’s residents and visitors regarding the various transit options as
evidenced by the Explore Maine website available at www.exploremaine.org.
Continuing efforts to plan multi-modal projects should include review of
documented successful projects. Examples of successful planning efforts are noted
below.
17
Additional information on this project is available at http://www.dot.state.ga.us/ppi/index.shtml
27
.
Case Studies
ƒ
Denver’s T-Rex Project: A Multi-Modal Project
The Denver I-25 project is a unique example of the ability of collaborative partnerships to
combine in an effort to address highway and rail financing in a single multi-modal
project. The project, started in 2001, will add 19 miles of light rail alongside the major
road corridors of travel into Denver including new stations. The roadway also will be
enhanced during this project via added lanes and reconstructed interchanges. In addition,
in an effort to encourage bicycle and pedestrian travel, the project will add shoulders to
sections of the roadway. A final component of the multi-modal project is a proposed bus
service in the southeast metro area (T-Rex, 2005).
ƒ Virginia’s Statewide Multi-Modal Long-Range Transportation Plan (Vtrans 2025)
The Commonwealth of Virginia currently is planning a long-range statewide
transportation plan entitled VTrans2025. The plan is being developed jointly by the
four state transportation modal agencies: the Department of Aviation (DOAV), the
Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT), the Port Authority (VPA), and
the Department of Transportation (VDOT). A primary element of the VTrans2025
project is a multi-modal investment network also known as a MIN (VDOT, 2005).
Virginia planners envision MINs to be a group of aligned projects. They have classified
projects as “anchor projects” and the aligning projects would be “supporting projects”.
An example of such ‘aligned projects’ is the Denver T-Rex, where road enhancement is
the “anchor project” and the “supporting projects” include the rail system and pedestrian
access. Currently the VTrans 2025 initiative is considering eleven possible project sites
including routes from North Carolina to West Virginia such as Interstate 77,
Route 52 and Route 100. The VTrans 2025 initiative is still in the planning phase, but
has already developed a working set of criteria for plans to be considered.
3.0 Equity and Suitability Considerations
Increasingly, transportation planning must consider not only traditional issues of best
practice, financing and safety, but also issues of equity and suitability. As the number of
transportation initiatives grows along with alternatives to finance them, more attention
must be devoted to determining the suitability of options for a state’s specific needs. The
alternative financing options presented in this report would have radically different
effects on groups within Maine’s population. Accordingly, equity and suitability issues
should be considered simultaneously with the options presented above. This section
28
.
briefly discusses some of the equity and suitability issues that surround transportation
planning.
3.1 Equity
An important consideration in transportation decisions and investments is their
subsequent effects on diverse economic groups. An example of equity consideration can
be seen in the current gas tax. The gas tax often is considered regressive, because lower
income populations pay a higher proportion of their income in gas taxes than do higher
income populations. In addition, the burden of the gas tax may be disproportionately
shifted onto low-income populations who may not be able to purchase the most fuelefficient vehicles. The lower economic population therefore pays a larger fee. While
many consider the gas tax to be a user fee, the current system charges less fuel efficient
vehicles a higher fee although they may not create a greater level of damage to the
roadways. On the other hand, such vehicles require more fuel and are thus more costly to
operate, typically create more pollution than more fuel-efficient vehicles, and are
contrary to other environmental and energy policies. Another income related equity
consideration is citizen access to work places. A minimal level of access to employment
should always be assured. Given the limited mobility choices in rural areas, lowerincome workers spend a higher proportion of their income to access employment
(Pederson, 2000). Such equity assessments of the distribution of benefits from statewide
transportation decisions and investments should be considered as Maine looks ahead in
transportation planning.
29
.
3.2 Suitability and Criteria
Other states that have begun to tackle some of the same issues as Maine (e.g., declining
revenue and purchase power from gasoline taxes and threats to sustainability of
transportation infrastructure) have employed a set of evaluation criteria as a means of
identifying preferred options (Oregon, 2005). The list of alternative financing options
presented in Section 2, and summarized in Table A.3, demonstrates that many of these
alternatives, which were designed for major metropolitan areas, may not be suitable for
Maine. A combination of some of these suitability issues, as well as the previously
mentioned equity issues, should be helpful tools in evaluating the applicability of
alternative financing options to Maine. The criteria outlined below are intended to serve
as a discussion point for policy makers in identifying such evaluation criteria.
The ability of an option to generate sufficient revenue is an evaluation criterion to
consider. To this end, Section 4 of this report projects the revenue that may be raised
under a few of the alternative financing options outlined above. Other criteria could
address some of the equity issues outlined above. Horizontal equity standards typically
dictate that people with equal ability to pay (i.e., similar economic status) should pay
equal amounts. In addition, economists typically agree that a user-fee is the most
efficient system of fee collection. Thus, another evaluation criterion could be the extent
to which the alternative represents a pay-as-you-use standard (i.e., will those who use the
system more, pay more?).
A fourth evaluation criterion could address access. This criterion measures the
extent to which all citizens will be able to use roadways/transportation modes under a
particular financing option. Since many of the alternatives outlined above can be
30
.
intended to be long-term replacements for the gasoline tax, a fifth criterion that addresses
evasion and enforceability must also be considered. Enforceability may be particularly
applicable in efforts to capture revenue from out-of-state travelers. Maine has a large
tourism based economy and out-of-state visitors inflict damage to Maine’s roadways.
Alignment with existing policy objectives is a sixth evaluation criterion that
should be considered. Environmental and energy policies, such as decreasing air
pollution and sprawl, increasing mass transit use and non-motorized transportation, are
all current policy priorities. Implementation of a financing option which is at odds with
existing policy may send confusing signals to citizens. A final criterion for measuring
financing options is political feasibility. A summary of these possible evaluation criteria
is contained in Table 2.
Table 2. Sample Evaluation Criteria for Financing Options
1
What is the revenue raising potential of this option?
2
Will this option meet equity standards (do people with equal ability to pay, pay
equally?)
3
Will this project meet pay-as-you-use standards (i.e. will those who use the
system more, pay more)?
4
Will citizens still be able to use the roadways/transportation mode under this
option, even if they have limited financial resources?
5
Will this option be enforceable and able to capture out of state travelers?
6
Is this option in alignment with other policy objectives?
7
Is this option politically feasible?
31
.
4.0 Issues in Transportation Policy and Financing
Transportation planning is a complex and evolving field. Many recent energy and
environmental initiatives influence nationwide transportation policy and may impact
Maine’s future fuel tax revenues. This section presents some of the issues that may affect
fuel economy and revenues from motor fuel taxes.
With respect to alternative fuel vehicles and hybrids, the Alternative Motor Fuel
Act (AMFA) creates a set of incentives that may have long-term impacts on fuel
economy and revenue. Currently the AMFA allows flexible fuel vehicles (FFV) to be
treated as half gasoline and half alternative fuel, although most vehicles produced in this
category are used by consumers as gasoline vehicles. The net effect of this set of
regulations is that manufacturers may count the fuel efficiency of flexible fuel vehicles as
much higher for CAFE purposes than they are being used. This has had the effect of
allowing some vehicle manufacturers to decrease the fuel efficiency of the rest of their
fleet, resulting in a larger number of lower fuel-efficient vehicles being available to
consumers. Thus, the AMFA inadvertently has provided incentives that allow for
decreasing fuel efficiency (NHTSA, 2002). As previously noted, the recent Energy Bill
has created some additional incentives for consumers to purchase hybrids. However,
many hybrid engines have been employed as a means of increasing performance and not
necessarily fuel efficiency. The impact of these incentives on hybrid consumption should
be monitored, as well as any subsequent indications that hybrids actually have increased
the fuel efficiency of the fleet.
A second issue is the common conception that the fuel economy of the US fleet
(and by extension Maine) is increasing, and therefore revenue from motor fuel taxes is
32
.
under immediate threat. The U.S. fleet fuel economy actually has been decreasing since
its height in 1987-88 (NHTSA, 2002). The model year 2005 light-duty vehicle average
fuel economy (21.0 mpg) is five percent lower than the 1987-1988 average but is the
highest average since 1996 (Heavenrich, 2005). The fuel economy changes are due
partially to the composition of the fleet where light-duty trucks are expected to account
for 50 percent of all light-duty vehicles in model year 2005, up from 28% in 1987
(Heavenrich, 2005). Thus, the fleet fuel economy is not necessarily currently increasing,
and therefore revenue concerns may not be as immediate as previously anticipated.
Recent national transportation policy initiatives will affect future fleet fuel efficiency and
should be considered in future efforts to project revenue.
A third important issue is the role that vehicle-miles-traveled plays in
transportation revenue. The Federal Highway Administration indicates that, on average,
vehicle-miles-traveled has experienced a historical growth rate of 1.7 to 2.6% (2005).
The net effect of this VMT increase has been an increase in gas tax revenue. The data
analysis presented in Section 5 assumes a constant VMT, and will therefore over estimate
the revenue impacts that increasing fuel economy will have.
A final issue to consider is rebound effects. Two rebound effects have been
discussed in transportation policy literature: micro and macro. The micro effect also is
known as the primary effect, the direct rebound effect, or the take-back effect. The
primary effect states that increased fuel efficiency will actually lower the cost of driving
for consumers due to lower fuel consumption. If driving a vehicle becomes a cheaper
transportation option, rebound effects indicate that consumers will actually drive their
passenger vehicles more. While rebound effects are still under discussion by energy
33
.
economists, the current estimates range from 10 to 20% (IEA, 2005).18 That is, raising
fuel efficiency by 10% reduces gasoline demand by only 8% to 9% because consumers
drive more. The macro effect considers the rebound impact on a larger base. If the cost
of driving becomes less expensive, this may increase the competitive nature of Maine
industries. The question that remains is whether increasing transportation efficiency (and
more competitive industries) will induce enough expansion in GDP to offset the fuel
efficiency gain.
Maine transportation planners must continue to monitor the impacts of the
Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA) and changes in the CAFE standards and other
policies that intentionally increase fuel efficiency and decrease the use of petroleum, but
also, inadvertently decrease highway infrastructure revenues.
5.0 Data Analysis
5.1 Data Sources and Limitations
This section discusses the sources of data used in the analysis and data limitations. In
Section 5.4 we perform detailed data analysis on financing options given these limitations
in the data available. We also note instances in which Maine already employs some of
the financing options. Appendix Table A.1 identifies the type of data that would be
required to perform analysis or revenue projections for all alternative financing options.
Maine vehicle fleet information used in the data analysis was obtained from the
Maine Bureau of Motor Vehicles, through Information Resources of Maine (InforME).19
18
These ranges were determined based on fuel price and fuel economy changes over a 25-year period.
19
Vehicle data from: Maine vehicle registration records as of 3/31/2005, provided by InforME,
http://www.maine.gov/informe/
34
.
The data includes all Maine vehicle registrations from 2004 and 2005 as of March 31,
2005. Regrettably, the Maine Bureau of Motor Vehicles and InforME do not maintain
electronic files of previous years’ registration data, which makes identifying trends and
creating projections challenging. Due to the lack of historical Maine data, we also use
data from national sources. Every effort has been made to utilize Maine data sources and
to note the source of data. In addition, we note data collection and retention procedures
as well as research areas that are of high priority for further study.
A key component of the data analysis involved decoding vehicle identification
numbers (VIN) to obtain the fuel economy of individual vehicles. The VIN decoding
services supplied by ESP Data Solution, Inc., provided fuel economy data.20 The exact
fuel economy of vehicles in the Maine fleet older than model year 1996 was
unobtainable. However, the EPA/Mobile6.2 model utilizes fuel economy data for pre1996 vehicles and this information was applied to vehicles of the Maine fleet older than
model year 1996.21 In an effort to ensure that the nationwide data were compatible with
Maine data, a weight was utilized to reflect the difference between Maine and National
average fuel economy for each year.22
The registration information for heavy-duty vehicles (e.g., vehicles weighing over
8,500 lbs) was contained in the Bureau of Motor Vehicles data. However, the EPA does
not regularly test the fuel economy of heavy-duty vehicles and therefore fuel economy
could not be obtained by VIN decoding. Thus, a national survey implemented by the
20
ESP Data Solutions maintains a large database able to match vehicle identification number to
manufacturers specifications for a vehicle, including fuel economy estimates from the US EPA. As
recommended by the EPA, the fuel economy estimates posted by manufacturers were reduced by 15% to
reflect expected on road performance.
21
Light Duty Fuel Economy Data for Model Years 1996-2005 from: ESP Data Solutions Inc, Lawrence,
MA, 2005
22
EPA Mobile6 model information available from: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/m6.htm. Details regarding the
sources of EPA's estimates are available at: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models/mobile6/p02005.pdf
35
.
Bureau of Transportation Statistics was used to determine average fuel economy for
heavy-duty vehicles.23
An additional component of the data analysis was determination of the vehiclemiles-traveled (VMT) by Maine’s vehicle fleet. For light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty
pickups and SUV’s (i.e., personal vehicles exceeding the 8,500 lbs weight limit) the
vehicle-miles-traveled data were obtained from the 2001 National Household
Transportation Survey administered by the U.S. Department of Transportation. Other
heavy-duty vehicle’s vehicle-miles-traveled information is based on a survey conducted
by the United States Census, which provides heavy-duty VMT information by state.24,25
5.2 Maine’s Vehicle Fleet
5.2.1
Maine’s Light-duty Vehicle Fleet
In order to obtain an accurate picture of Maine’s current vehicle fleet, the Bureau of
Motor Vehicles registration data were analyzed by class of vehicle and by fuel type.26
Figure 2 presents the basic composition of the Maine light-duty vehicle fleet.27 Lightduty vehicles make up 84% of Maine’s total vehicle fleet, and are a crucial component of
the revenue base. It should be noted that the type of vehicle and their prevalence within
the fleet are important aspects in future efforts to identify how fleet changes will affect
revenue.
23
Heavy-Duty Fuel Economy from: Tables 4-13 & 4-14, National Transportation Statistics 2005, Bureau of
Transportation Statistics, 2005,
http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/2005/index.html
24
Heavy-Duty Vehicle VMT Data, excluding Buses : Table 3a Maine: 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use
Survy Geographic Area Series, US Census Bureau, 2003, http://www.census.gov/svsd/www/02vehinv.html
25
Bus VMT Data from: Table 4-15, National Transportation Statistics 2005, Bureau of Transportation
Statistics, 2005, http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/2005/index.html
26
Vehicle classification data from: ESP Data Solutions Inc, Lawrence, MA, 2005
27
Light-Duty Vehicles are defined as vehicle weighing under 8,500 lbs. Heavy-Duty Vehicles are defined
as vehicles weighing over 8,500 lbs.
36
.
Figure 2. Maine’s Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet Composition
Van
8%
SUV
17%
Car
52%
Truck
23%
Within each class of vehicle, further specific categories were utilized in the
analysis. An example is the car class. Within this class there are small, mid-size and
large cars, and within each of these categories some vehicles utilize gasoline and some
use diesel. Tables 3a-d show the composition of Maine’s vehicle fleet by vehicle class
and include the percentage of that vehicle type on the road, average vehicle miles
traveled, average fuel economy, total vehicle-miles-traveled and total fuel consumption.28
The data contained in these tables will be used repeatedly throughout the analysis.
Section 5.3 examines how changes in the fuel economy of the fleet will impact fuel
consumption and revenue. Section 5.4 investigates the revenue ramifications of
implementing a distance per-mile charge, which employs the vehicle-miles-traveled data.
28
Motorcycles and ‘Other’ unclassified vehicles comprise 7.77% of the total vehicle fleet (i.e. light-duty
and heavy-duty). These vehicles will be included in the data analysis but are not included in Tables 3a-d.
37
.
Table 3.a Maine’s Car Fleet
VehicleClass
FuelType
Percentage
Avg VMT
Avg MPG
0.029
6,502
28.47
Gasoline
Diesel
Gasoline
Diesel
Gasoline
Diesel
12.69
0.16
51.48
0.35
34.37
0.030
10,638
7,082
10,785
11,226
10,997
9,908
19.48
28.81
20.24
32.59
22.28
31.39
Gasoline
Electric
0.94
0.00
10,840
-
20.85
-
Large Car
Diesel
Large Car
Mid-size Car
Mid-size Car
Small Car
Small Car
Unknown
Unknown
-
Total VMT
Fuel Consumption (gal)
104,038
674,429,349
5,637,319
2,773,833,451
19,634,191
1,888,279,167
29,725
50,894,412
3,654
34,621,224
195,693
137,057,714
602,401
84,760,338
947
2,440,731
-
-
Table 3.b Maine’s Light-Duty Truck Fleet
VehicleClass
FuelType
Percentage
Avg VMT
Avg MPG
Fuel Consumption
(gal)
Total VMT
Large Pickup Truck Gasoline
63.40
11,918
13.50
Small Pickup Truck
Small Pickup Truck
Unknown
Unknown
-
Diesel
Gasoline
Diesel
Gasoline
Electric
0.03
34.79
0.02
1.76
0.01
2,898
11,991
2,898
11,944
0
25.62
16.25
25.62
14.47
-
-
NG/Propane
0.00
0
-
1,685,112,361
179,673
930,361,491
130,408
46,773,356
124,863,707
7,012
57,257,351
5,090
3,232,189
-
-
-
-
Table 3.c Maine’s Light-Duty SUV Fleet
VehicleClass
FuelType
Percentage
Avg VMT
Avg MPG
Fuel Consumption
(gal)
Total VMT
Large SUV
Gasoline
13.14
12,359
13.02
Mid-size SUV
Small SUV
Unknown
Unknown
Gasoline
Gasoline
Diesel
Gasoline
55.38
31.34
0.00
0.13
12,776
12,852
12,745
15.02
17.71
15.60
-
NG/Propane
0.01
-
-
272,314,546
1,186,386,282
675,282,234
20,912,014
78,966,237
38,124,378
-
-
2,701,970
173,156
-
-
Table 3.d Maine’s Van Fleet
VehicleClass
FuelType
Percentage
Avg VMT
Avg MPG
Total VMT
Large Van
Gasoline
17.25
11,495
13.74
Mini Van
Unknown
-
Gasoline
Gasoline
Electric
82.69
0.05
0.01
12,851
12,617
-
16.72
16.21
-
-
NG/Propane
0.00
-
-
29
30
There are 16 vehicles on-road.
There are 3 vehicles on-road.
38
Fuel Consumption (gal)
159,670,786
855,680,276
529,926
11,618,683
51,175,553
32,698
-
-
-
-
.
5.2.2 Maine’s Heavy-Duty Vehicle Fleet
Maine’s vehicle fleet includes 90,674 heavy-duty vehicles, which comprise 8% of the
total vehicle fleet (Table 4).
Table 4. Maine’s Vehicle Fleet Composition
Type
Current on Road
Count
Percent
Model Year 2004
Count
Percent
Light-duty
Heavy-duty
Motorcycles
Other
Total
970,797
90,674
30,063
84.35
7.88
2.61
56,962
7,808
3,079
83.87
11.50
4.53
59,418
5.16
0.11
1,150,952
100.00
72
67,921
100.00
Under current standards many passenger vehicles qualify as heavy-duty. SUV’s and
pickup trucks constitute 54% of heavy-duty vehicles in the Maine Fleet (Table 5). A
second interesting aspect from a policy and revenue standpoint is that 29% of these
heavy-duty passenger vehicles are diesel. This is of interest given that the sale of some
diesel-fueled passenger vehicles is currently illegal in the state of Maine (in terms of
California emissions standards) and will be until 2007.
Table 5. SUV and Pickup’s in Maine’s Fleet
SUV's and Pickup Truck's
Class
Count
Light-duty
390,698
Heavy-duty
48,774
% of Class
40.25
53.79
5.2.3 Maine’s Vehicle Fleet by Fuel Type
The extent to which alternative fueled vehicles capture larger portions of the passenger
vehicle market may cause a decline in gasoline excise tax revenues. Table 6 documents
the type of fuels being used by Maine’s vehicle fleet.
39
.
Table 6. Fuel Type of Maine Vehicles
Fuel
Fuel Type
Diesel
Gasoline
NG/Propane
Diesel/NG
Electric
Current on Road
Count
Percent
44,490
4.08
1,046,944
95.91
57
0.01
87
0.01
43
0.00
Model Year 2004
Count
Percent
3,024
4.67
61,725
95.30
2
0.00
19
0.03
0
0.00
From a revenue generation perspective, another source of concern is the increase
of hybrid and other higher efficiency vehicles into the passenger vehicle market. As
shown in Table 7, Maine’s hybrid fleet is only 0.13% of total light-duty passenger
vehicles. However, these vehicles constituted 0.72% of the model year 2004 vehicles
registered in Maine, which may be an early indicator of approaching trends. Section 5.3
addresses the revenue ramifications of changes in fleet fuel efficiency.
Table 7. Hybrid Vehicles in Maine
Hybrids
Make
Model
Toyota
Prius
Honda
Accord
Honda
Civic
Honda
Insight
Ford
Escape
Total
% of Light-duty Vehicles
Total
797
14
278
91
38
1218
0.13
Count
MY 2004
308
0
100
2
0
410
0.72
5.3 Changes in Fleet Fuel Efficiency
The objective of this section is to project Maine’s revenue from the motor fuel excise tax
under various fuel efficiency changes to the vehicle fleet over time. Work by the
National Research Council (NRC, 2002) identified packages of existing and emerging
technologies for light-duty vehicles that could be introduced over the next 10 to 15 years
that would result in fuel economy improvement up to the point where further increases in
fuel economy would not be reimbursed by fuel savings. Given a number of important
40
.
assumptions, the NRC determined that fuel economy improvements of about 30% are
possible by 2015. 31 The break-even fuel economy levels are not recommended fuel
economy goals. Rather, they reflect technological possibilities as well as economic
realities and assumptions.
However, these fuel economy increases will take an act of Congress to
implement. Without Congressional action, current trends in fuel economy show only
modest increases in fuel economy due to the phasing in of higher CAFE standards for
light-duty trucks (Figure 3). These modest increases in fuel economy will likely yield a
constant or slightly decreasing nominal value of future gasoline revenues for Maine.
Actual changes in future fuel tax revenue will also depend on changes in the number of
miles driven per capita and changes in Maine’s population, both in size and
demographics. We examine the potential revenue impacts of these modest increases in
fuel economy over a twenty-year period (i.e., to 2025). This scenario is entitled ‘status
quo’ throughout the projections.
If, however, Congressional action were to increase fuel economy standards in
response to concerns over petroleum dependence or emissions of gasses linked to global
warming, this could lead to a substantial increase in the fuel efficiency of the U.S. lightduty vehicle fleet.32 This would lead to a considerable decrease in motor fuel excise tax
revenues for Maine and the nation. To examine the potential impacts of these actions we
31
As the NRC notes, these break-even calculations depend critically on the assumptions one makes about a
variety of parameters including: price of gasoline, number of miles driven, actual on-the-road fuel
economy (NRC Table 4.1). Consumers may also choose to purchase greater acceleration, towing capacity,
or other vehicle features that work against increased fuel economy.
32
Actions may include raising CAFE standards or a voluntary agreement similar to that between Canada
and vehicle manufacturers associations.
41
.
project a possible 5%, 15% and 30% increase in fuel economy for Maine’s vehicle fleet
over a ten-year period (i.e., to 2015). 33
5.3.1 Fuel Consumption Projections
As noted above, Maine’s revenue stream from the gasoline tax may be threatened by
measures taken at the national level to mandate increases in fuel efficiency. This section
will identify factors that may increase vehicle fuel economy, and project the potential
impacts that increasing fuel efficiency may have on fuel consumption in Maine.
In order to examine the potential impacts of increasing fuel efficiency, data were
obtained on the fuel efficiency of vehicles at the national level from 1980 to 2005. As
discussed above, we were able to decode fuel efficiency information only for vehicles
model year 1996 or newer in the Maine vehicle fleet. Figure 3 shows the fuel efficiency
trends both in Maine and nationwide. The vehicle categories are described in Table 8.
Figure 3 demonstrates that Maine closely mirrors national fleet fuel efficiency trends.
33
Efforts to project further into the future are limited in reliability. Extended projections face the limitation
of either assuming constant technology or assuming development of new technology and therefore face
unknown increases in fuel economy as a result.
42
.
Figure 3. Fuel Efficiency Trends
40
ME LDDV
ME LDGT1
ME LDGT2
35
ME LDGT3
ME LDGT4
FE (MPG)
30
ME LDGV
LDGV
25
LDGT1
LDGT2
20
LDGT3
LDGT4
15
LDDV
LDDT12
10
1980
LDDT34
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Year
Table 8. Mobile6 Vehicle Classifications
Abbreviation
ME LDDV
ME LDGT1
ME LDGT2
ME LDGT3
ME LDGT4
ME LDGV
LDGV
LDGT1
LDGT2
LDGT3
LDGT4
LDDV
LDDT12
LDDT34
Description
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Maine Fleet of below
Light-duty Gasoline Vehicles (Passenger Cars)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 1 (0-6,000 lbs. GVWR; 0-3,750 lbs. LVW)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 2 (0-6,000 lbs. GVWR; 3,751-5,750 lbs. LVW)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 3 (6,001-8,500 lbs. GVWR; 0-5,750 lbs. ALVW)
Light-duty Gasoline Trucks 4 (6,001-8,500 lbs. GVWR; 5,751+ lbs. ALVW)
Light-duty Diesel Vehicles (Passenger Cars)
Light-duty Diesel Trucks 1 & 2 (0-6,000 lbs. GVWR)
Light-duty Diesel Trucks 3 & 4 (6,001-8,500 lbs. GVWR)
As noted above, the fleet fuel efficiency gains assumed during the projections
may come from a variety of sources including changing national regulations regarding
efficiency standards, increases in the price of motor fuels, and a growing market-share of
hybrid vehicles and/or diesel fueled vehicles. This market share may experience more
43
.
rapid growth than initially anticipated by market analysts due to federal tax credit
purchase incentives.34
A second possible impetus for change in fuel efficiency stems from the role of
diesel fueled vehicles, particularly with respect to changing Maine state law. The state
will allow the sale of diesel passenger vehicles in Maine in 2007. As shown in Figure 3,
diesel vehicles of the same class achieve higher average fuel economy. Additional
evidence of this can be seen in the car class data (Table 3.a). Gasoline fueled cars
achieve an average fuel economy of 20.6 miles per gallon. In contrast, diesel fueled cars
achieve an average fuel economy of 29.95 miles per gallon. Diesels also may be
experiencing a nationwide trend of increasing market share. In 2002, light-duty diesel
vehicles comprised 2.2% of the market and accounted for 2.9% in 2004. In addition,
more automakers are offering diesel models in the United States. In 2004, eleven diesel
models were available in the United States. This number has grown to fourteen models
in 2005 (Welsh, 2005).
As previously discussed, changing national regulations also may factor into the
future fuel economy of Maine’s vehicle fleet. Announced in August 2005 Reformed
CAFE standards, an update to the current CAFE standards, would increase fuel economy
across all vehicle types. The current standards for light-duty trucks are 21 miles per
gallon in 2005 with an increase in fuel efficiency to 22.2 miles per gallon for model year
2007 (NHTSA, 2005). To the extent that efficiency increases are not offset by increased
driving, the revenue stream from motor fuel excise taxes could decline in nominal terms
34
Citizens purchasing a hybrid vehicle of market year 2001 or newer (of certain makes and models), are
eligible to receive a $2000 dollar tax credit if these vehicles are registered by December 31, 2005. The tax
credit structure will be changing in 2006 but may still offer tax credits to consumers who purchase hybrid
vehicles. Information available at: http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/tax_hybrid.shtml
44
.
in addition to their decline in real purchasing power due to the effects of increases in
inflation.35 The potential impact on revenue streams due to the new CAFE standards are
included in the status quo projections presented below.
The analysis presented here is based on a number of assumptions. First, we
assume that the fuel economy of the newest model year increased by 5%, 15% or 30% by
the year 2015. Thus we assume an incremental increase in fuel economy for all years
between the base (2005) and the final (2015) year. We assume a constant rate of
replacement (i.e., the fleet does not grow) and that the composition of the fleet remains
constant. We assume the vehicle-miles-traveled was constant.36 In addition, since the
data spanned two years and new tax rates are effective as of July 1, we employ a mix of
the 2004 and 2005 tax rates.37 Thus, revenue projections are in 2005 dollars and are
based on the percent change in miles per gallon and subsequent change in fuel
consumption, but do not account for increases in miles traveled. The effect of increasing
vehicle-miles-traveled is discussed at the end of this section.
In the case of a 5% increase in fuel efficiency between 2005 and 2015, the
projections assume a 0.5% increase in fuel efficiency in each year of the ten-year span.38
Given the example of Maine’s mid-size gasoline cars that achieve on average 20.24 miles
per gallon and travel collectively 2,773,833,451 miles per year, this produces a fuel
consumption rate of 137,057,714 gallons for the year 2005 using Equation 1.
35
National statistics indicate a trend of increasing vehicle miles traveled however, Maine Department of
Transportation traffic count data from 2004 indicates that Maine vehicle miles traveled may be decreasing.
36
As noted in Section 4, the historical rate of VMT growth nationally is 1.7 to 2.6%.
37
2004 tax rate of .252 and 2005 tax rate of .259 for gasoline and diesel rates of .263 and .270.
38
Due to recently released CAFE standards for upcoming model years, the increase in fuel efficiency per
year for the overall fleet was adjusted to .0003 for this scenario. Similar adjustments were made for the 15
and 30% increases.
45
.
Equation 1: Fuel Consumption = Vehicle-miles-traveled Annually
(1 + % change in yearly fuel efficiency * 20.24)
Under a 5% increase in fuel efficiency, fuel consumption in Maine’s mid-size
gasoline cars would decrease to 137,022,635 gallons in the year 2006, or a 0.03% change
in fuel consumption. By 2015, the fuel consumption for this category of car would
decrease to 135,154,669 gallons per year, a 1.39% decrease from 2005 as shown in Table
9. Continuing with the same example of Maine’s mid-size gasoline cars under a 15% and
30% increase in fuel efficiency, the fuel consumption in 2015 would decrease by 4.50%
(to 131,502,839 gallons) and 7.79% (to 126,380,698 gallons) respectively (Table 9). This
example clearly demonstrates that changes in fuel efficiency can have a rapid, and
profound effect on fuel consumption. The example analysis given above was performed
for each vehicle class (and category within class) for both diesel and gasoline vehicles in
order to generate the revenue estimates discussed in Section 5.3.2.
As previously mentioned in this report, the assumption of constant vehicle-milestraveled may overstate the decrease in fuel consumption. Applying the national VMT
growth rate trend of 2% annually to the 5% change in fuel economy projections results in
40% of the anticipated decline not materializing due to increasing vehicle miles
traveled.39
39
In the 15 and 30% fuel economy increase scenarios, the decrease in fuel consumption is over stated by 13
and 6%, respectively.
46
.
Table 9. Fuel Consumption Projections: Mid-Size Cars
% Change in Fuel Economy from 2005 to (2006-2015)
15%
5%
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
5.3.2
Gallons
137,022,635
136,952,531
136,847,509
136,707,730
136,533,407
136,324,806
136,082,242
135,806,081
135,496,737
135,154,669
40
% Change
-0.03%
-0.08%
-0.15%
-0.26%
-0.38%
-0.53%
-0.71%
-0.91%
-1.14%
-1.39%
Gallons
136,952,531
136,742,648
136,429,027
136,013,097
135,496,737
134,882,257
134,172,370
133,370,166
132,479,076
131,502,839
30%
% Change
-0.08%
-0.23%
-0.46%
-0.76%
-1.14%
-1.59%
-2.11%
-2.69%
-3.34%
-4.05%
Gallons
136,847,509
136,429,027
135,806,081
134,984,283
133,970,916
132,774,780
131,406,006
129,875,847
128,196,463
126,380,698
% Change
-0.15%
-0.46%
-0.91%
-1.51%
-2.25%
-3.12%
-4.12%
-5.24%
-6.47%
-7.79%
Revenue Projections
In this section the change in fuel consumption generated in Section 5.3.1 is
translated to revenue impacts. Given that gasoline and diesel fuel are assessed different
taxation rates, the data were divided by fuel type in order to continue the analysis. For
each year, the total fuel consumption projections for all vehicles of one fuel type were
summed. For example, the 2006 fuel consumption projections for all gasoline vehicles
were summed to 701,318,005 total gallons of gasoline consumed. Since gasoline taxes
are effective as of July 1, the 2004 gasoline tax was in effect for six months of 2005 and
the 2005 gasoline tax was in effect for the second sixth months of 2005, the per gallon
gasoline tax applied for the revenue projections was an average of the two tax rates.41
The steps outlined above for calculating total fuel consumption and taxation rate was
repeated for all diesel vehicles. To complete the analysis, these two projections were
summed to provide total revenue estimates under the fuel economy scenarios outlined
40
To calculate total percent change between each year and the base year of 2005 the following equation
was used: (gallons consumed in [YEAR] – gallons consumed in 2005)/gallons consumed in 2005.
41
Gasoline Tax for 2005 = (.252+.259)/2 = .2555. Diesel Tax 2005 = (.263 + .27)/2 = .2665
47
.
above. The impact on revenue from changing fuel economy is shown in Figure 4. The
data used to create Figure 4 are contained in Table 10 for reference.
Absent changes in national transportation policy or changes in consumer
behavior, these increases in fuel efficiency may not occur. The revenue estimate under
status quo assumptions is $214 million for 2015, representing a 2.53% decrease in
revenues. Extending the status quo projection to 2025 yields a revenue projection of
$209 million representing a modest 5.03% decrease in revenue from 2005.
Figure 4. Maine Fuel Tax Revenue Projections: Change in Fleet Fuel Efficiency
$230,000,000
Revenue (2005 Dollars)
$220,000,000
$210,000,000
$200,000,000
$190,000,000
$180,000,000
$170,000,000
$160,000,000
$150,000,000
2005
Status Quo
5% Increase
15% Increase
30% Increase
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
Year
48
2017
2019
2021
2023
2025
.
Table 10. Total Revenue Impacts42
Status Quo
Revenue
$219,771,139
$219,339,959
$218,699,877
$218,067,690
$217,443,250
$216,826,418
$216,217,055
$215,615,025
$215,020,198
$214,432,445
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
15%
5%
% Change
-0.10%
-0.29%
-0.59%
-0.87%
-1.16%
-1.44%
-1.71%
-1.99%
-2.26%
-2.53%
Revenue
$219,703,607
$219,138,435
$218,511,546
$217,824,159
$217,077,579
$216,273,197
$215,412,476
$214,496,951
$213,528,221
$212,507,942
% Change
Revenue
-0.13% $219,568,672
-0.39% $218,736,531
-0.67% $217,714,455
-0.98% $216,508,323
-1.32% $215,124,876
-1.69% $213,571,616
-2.08% $211,856,716
-2.50% $209,988,918
-2.94% $207,977,424
-3.40% $205,831,799
30%
% Change
-0.19%
-0.57%
-1.03%
-1.58%
-2.21%
-2.92%
-3.70%
-4.55%
-5.46%
-6.44%
Revenue
$219,366,590
$218,136,520
$216,529,998
$214,564,993
$212,262,679
$209,646,884
$206,743,505
$203,579,919
$200,184,406
$196,585,607
It is clear from the revenue projections above that concerns of decreasing fuel tax
revenue due to changes in fuel economy are well founded. Section 2 of this report
discussed possible alternatives to supplement, or replace, the revenue obtained from fuel
taxes. Forecasts regarding the possible revenue obtained from these alternatives are
discussed in Section 5.4.
5.4
Alternative Financing: Tax Revenue under Distance Based Charges
In Sections 2.3.3 and 2.5.1, two alternative financing options were presented that
centered on varying costs to drivers depending on the vehicle miles traveled. Section
2.3.3 described systems of distance-based charges that track a driver’s mileage, some via
electronic tracking systems. Section 2.5.1 discussed varying registration fees based on
vehicle-miles-traveled from odometer readings. As both options are mileage based, the
following analysis can be useful in considering the revenue possibilities of these options.
42
To calculate total percent change between each year and the base year of 2005 the following equation
was used: (revenue in [YEAR] – revenue in 2005)/revenue in 2005.
49
% Change
-0.28%
-0.84%
-1.57%
-2.47%
-3.51%
-4.70%
-6.02%
-7.46%
-9.00%
-10.64%
.
Using data from the Maine Revenue Service, the revenue obtained from the
gasoline tax in 2004 was $175,970,766. A second category of ‘Special Fuel’ tax, which
includes diesel fuel taxes, garnered revenue in the amount of $40,391,130.43
Collectively, these two taxes amounted to $216,361,896 in 2004 revenue. Based on the
stated assumptions regarding the rate of taxation for diesel and gasoline for the 2005
fiscal year, the estimated 2005 tax revenue for Maine was calculated to be $219,988,083.
In order to maintain this level of revenue using a mileage-based charge instead of
a state gasoline tax, the charge required is1.74 cents per mile traveled. This rate was
calculated using the data contained in Table 11. For comparison purposes, the per-mile
charge currently used by the Oregon Road User Fee Task Force pilot program is 1.22
cents per mile traveled.
Table 11. Expected Revenue from Mileage Charge at 1.74 cents per mile
Expected Revenue
Fuel Type
Gasoline
Diesel
Total
Fuel
Total VMT
Consumption Fuel Revenue VMT Revenue
11,851,800,308 702,400,273 $181,921,671
$206,221,325
781,080,603 112,456,657 $30,363,297
$13,590,802
12,632,880,911 813,774,663$212,284,96844
$219,812,128
To compare equity in terms of burden of cost between the fuel tax and per-mile
charge alternatives, we performed analysis at the aggregate level. Tables 12 and 13
demonstrate that under the current fuel tax system, drivers of light-duty vehicles pay 79%
of the revenue generated from the gas tax. Under a vehicle-miles-traveled (VMT)
43
Revenue information obtained from www.maine.gov/legis/ofpr/04compendium/c04opf1.htm. The
“Special Fuel” tax provisions apply to: diesel, propane, methanol, ethanol and compressed natural gas per
www.maine.gov/revenue/fueltax/Tax%20Rates.html
44
This does not account for the 5.16% of the vehicle fleet classified as “unknown”. “Unknown” vehicles
were unable to be decoded typically due to older makes/models or error in the data. The revenue
projections in Section 4.3 include these “unknown” vehicles.
50
.
charge, which assumes a constant rate of VMT for both light-duty and heavy-duty
vehicles, light-duty vehicles would pay 89% of the revenue generated. In order for lightduty vehicles to pay 79% of the revenue, an adjusted charge (1.49 cents per mile) would
need to be implemented. Similarly, in order for heavy-duty vehicles to maintain 21% of
the revenue, would require an adjusted charge of 3.3 cents per mile for heavy-duty
vehicles. Further analysis of appropriate per-mile charges would be required to adjust the
burden of payment. Additional analysis also could consider the impacts, in terms of both
revenue and the competitiveness of Maine’s industries, of imposing higher mileage
charges on heavy-duty vehicles given that HGV’s typically create greater damage to
roadways.
Table 12. Division of Payment under Fuel Tax
Revenue Division
Fuel Consumption
Light-duty
646,050,771
Heavy-duty
166,762,630
Total
Fuel Rate
0.25945
0.266446
Fuel Revenue
$167,327,150
$44,425,565
$211,752,714
Percent Paid
79%
21%
100%
Table 13. Division of Payment under Vehicle-miles-traveled Charge
Revenue Division
Light-duty
Heavy-duty
Total
VMT
11,227,964,962
1,351,654,848
12,579,619,811
VMT Rate
$0.0174
$0.0174
45
VMT Revenue
$195,366,590
$23,518,794
$218,885,385
Percent Paid
89%
11%
100%
This rate is based on the fact that 99.9% of the light-duty vehicle fleet are gasoline fueled vehicle. Thus
the 2005 gasoline tax rate was applied.
46
This rate is a weighted average based on the fact that 67% of the heavy-duty vehicle fleet are diesel
fueled vehicles, while only 33% are gasoline fueled. The weight applied was [(.259*.33) + (.27*.67)].
51
.
6.0 Results, Implications and Future Research
6.1
Results and Implications
A result called for by the Maine Department of Transportation in commissioning this
work was to begin building “a body of information that considers (revenue) alternatives
within the economic context of Maine” (ME DOT, 2005(b)). The literature review
section is a first step in this process of identifying and providing information on existing
alternative financing options prevalent in the transportation literature and in use
internationally. For each alternative, the benefits and concerns are identified and, when
possible, reviewed with an eye towards the needs of Maine. The literature review section
also identifies case studies of alternative financing options currently being employed by
other states or nations. These case studies further contribute to the base of knowledge
regarding alternative options. In addition, these case studies provide information for
Maine policy planners to discuss experiences with other states or nations utilizing
alternative funding options, particularly with regard to transitioning from a motor fuel tax
program.
Determining the alternative funding options most appropriate for Maine is
properly left for the State Legislature, the Governor and appropriate state agencies and
the public. However, it is evident that many of the alternatives discussed in the literature
review may not be preferred given Maine’s economic and geographic circumstances
(Table A.3). Accordingly, Section 3.2 (Table 2) presents possible criteria for evaluating
alternative-financing options to address Maine’s specific needs. The literature review
and suggested evaluation criteria provide stakeholders much of the information necessary
for informed discussion on the future of Maine’s transportation financing.
52
.
The data analysis results further contribute to such discussions. First, the analysis
demonstrates that fears regarding diminishing revenues due to changes in fuel efficiency
are well founded. If steps are taken at the national level to increase fuel efficiency,
Maine could experience a decrease in revenue of up to 10% in the next ten years.
However, absent changes in national transportation energy policy or changes in consumer
behavior, these increases in fuel efficiency may not occur. The revenue under status quo
assumptions represents a modest 5.03% decrease in revenue in the next twenty years.
The information provided on the types of vehicles that comprise Maine’s vehicle fleet
will better enable policy makers to consider issues of equity and tax burden when
considering financing options. In addition, the data analysis demonstrates how an
alternative-financing option could generate revenue that is equal to or greater than current
gas tax revenue.
6.2 Future Research
As discussed in Section 5.1, a focus of future research should be to obtain and utilize
more comprehensive vehicle data. First, we recommend that the Bureau of Motor
Vehicles, through InforME, maintain electronic records of prior vehicle registration data
so that an historical electronic archive can be developed going forward. Such data will
provide an accurate picture of the Maine vehicle fleet and will allow for statistically
stronger analysis of trends across time. In addition, these data will allow Maine to
generate information specific to the state, without having to rely on national data. A
second focus of future research should be the collection and use of the type of data
presented in Table A.1. Such data can be used to determine the revenue impacts of other
alternative financing options.
53
.
This report presents a firm foundation for future studies related to the role that
alternative funding mechanisms may play in supporting Maine’s transportation
infrastructure. Future research should continue to monitor the successes and failures of
currently employed alternative funding mechanisms.
54
.
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Available at:
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Purpose: Software Program developed by the EPA to develop fuel economy
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Accessed: December 14, 2005
Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/vmt_grwt.htm
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Accessed: November 14, 2005
Available at: http://www.dot.state.ga.us/ppi/index.shtml
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Available at: www.epa.gov/otaq/fetrends.htm
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Contact: Dan Ehlers
Purpose: Obtain Vehicle Registration Data dated as of 3/31/05
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Kusnet, David (2002). “Highway Robbery: How Contracting-Out the Design,
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Littman, Todd
(2004) Pay-As-You-Drive Insurance Affordability. Victoria Transport Policy
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(1999) Distance Based Charges: A Practical Strategy for More Optimal Vehicle
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Accessed: October 17, 2005
Available at: http://www.vtpi.org/db_crg.pdf
56
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NCHRP (2005). Transitioning to Alternative Highway User Fee Structures. Problem
Number 2006-A-01.
Accessed: September 1, 2005
Available at: www.trb.org/nchrpballoting/ballotingDocs/A-01Prob.htm
National Highway Transportation Safety Administration [NHTSA] (2002). “Effects of
the Alternative Motor Fuels Act CAFE Incentives Policy”.
Accessed: December 14, 2005
Available at: http://www.nhtsa.gov/cars/rules/rulings/CAFE/alternativefuels/index.htm#content
National Research Council (NRC) (2002). “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate
Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards.” National Academy Press;
Washington D.C.
Maine Department of Transportation (ME DOT) (2005).
(a) Regional Transportation Forums. Presentation Entitled “The Funding
Challenge”
(b) Sustainable Transportation Funding for Maine’s Future, Request for Proposals
Maine Revenue Service (2005).
(a) Table OPF-1 Total Operating Funds-Revenue. Fiscal Years 2000-2004
Accessed: August 19, 2005
Available at: http://www.maine.gov/legis/ofpr/04compendium/c04opf1.htm or
http://www.maine.gov/legis/ofpr/04compendium/2004compendium.htm#GASOLINE%20TAX
(b) Tax Rates
Accessed: August 19, 2005
Available at www.maine.gov/revenue/fueltax/Tax%20Rates.html
(c) Highway Fund Revenue
Accessed: August 19, 2005
Available at: http://www.maine.gov/legis/ofpr/rfchfactuals.htm
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Allowing Trucks to Pay to Use the Ramp Meter Bypasses.” Transportation
Quarterly 57(1) (Winter): 81-92.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) (2005). Laws and
Regulations: Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards.
Accessed: November 19, 2005
Available at: www.nhsta.gov
(b) Analysis of the Effects on Energy Conservation and the Environment
Accessed: December 13, 2005
Available at:
http://www.nhtsa.gov/cars/rules/rulings/CAFE/alternativefuels/analysis.htm
57
.
New York State Thruway Authority (1999). “Tappan Zee Congestion Relief Study Final
Report : A Federal Highway Administration Congestion Pricing Pilot Project.“
Accessed: November 19, 2005
Available at: http://www.tzbsite.com/tzblibrary/studies/1999-08/study-199908.pdf
Norwich Union. “Pay-As-You-Drive Program Index”
Accessed: November 10, 2005
Available at: http://www.norwichunion.com/pay-as-you-drive/index.htm
Oregon Department of Transportation, Road User Fee Task Force (2005)
Accessed: September 22, 2005
Available at: http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/OIPP/mileage.shtml
http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/OIPP/docs/AppendixC.pdf
http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/OIPP/ruftf_presentations.shtml
Pederson, Neal J. (2000) “Multi-modal Transportation Planning at the State Level
State of the Practice and Future Issues” Transportation Research Board:
Committee on Statewide Multi-modal Transportation Planning.
Accessed: October 10, 2005
Available at: http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/millennium/00076.pdf
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Transportation Quarterly 57(3) (Summer): 17-31.
Puentes, Robert and Prince, Ryan. (2003). “Fueling Transportation Finance: A Primer on
the Gas Tax.” Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, The Brookings
Institution Series on Transportation Reform.
Puget Sound Regional Council, Traffic Choices Study (2004)
Accessed: October 27, 2005
Available at: http://www.psrc.org/projects/trafficchoices/background.htm
Rufolo, Anthony M. and Bertini, Robert L. (2003). “Designing Alternatives to State
Motor Fuel Taxes.” Transportation Quarterly 57(1) (Fall): 33-46.
Sorensen, Paul A. and Taylor, Brian D. (2005) “Review and Synthesis of Road-Use
Metering and Charging Systems: Report Commissioned by the Committee for the
Study of the Long-Term Viability of Fuel Taxes for Transportation Finance.”
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Accessed: October 28, 2005
Available at: http://www.trexproject.com/
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Tuttle, William and Wykle, Kenneth. (2003). “The Third Transportation Revolution.”
Transportation Quarterly 57(1) (Winter): 47-58.
Transportation Research Board
(2002). “Transportation Finance: Meeting the Funding Challenge Today,
Shaping Policies for Tomorrow.” Conference Proceedings 33, Transportation
Research Board; Chicago, Illinois October 27-30, 2002.
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34, Transportation Research Board; Key Biscayne, Florida November 19-22.
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Accessed: September 13, 2005
Available at: http://www.census.gov/svsd/www/02vehinv.html
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National Household Transportation Survey
Accessed: September 12, 2005
Available at: http://nhts.ornl.gov/2001/index.shtml
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(a) Mobile6 Information
Accessed: November 1, 2005
Available at: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/m6.htm
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models/mobile6/p02005.pdf
Virginia Department of Transportation (2005).
(a)
VTrans 2025 homepage.
Accessed November 15, 2005
Available at: http://www.sotrans.state.va.us/VTrans/home.htm
(b)
Public-Private Transportation Act homepage
Accessed November 10, 2005
http://www.virginiadot.org/business/ppta-default.asp
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.
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60
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Section
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.5.1
2.5.2
Table A.1 Data Limitation or Requirements
Alternative
Limitation/Requirements
Alternative Gas Tax
Maine already employs alternative gas tax
Structure
structure via inflation index.
LOTT: Natural Resource Require data on natural resource extraction
Extraction
activities, and use of rural roadways by industry.
LOTT: Payroll Tax
Require data regarding urban employment
LOTT: Sales Tax
Require data regarding volume of sales in Maine.
Taxation of Alternative
Maine already employs an alternative fuel tax
Fuel Source
Area Charging/Cordon
Require Data on traffic flow into major
metropolitan cities47
Congestion Pricing
Require data on congestion experienced in areas of
Maine.
Distance Based Charges
Data Analysis Component
HOT Lanes
Require data regarding areas with infrastructure
capacity for HOT’s
Value Capture
Require data on development of new roads, and
anticipated maintenance cost of these roads.
Facility Tolls/Facility
Maine currently employs facility tolls along the
Congestion Tolls
Maine Turnpike and for Ferry Service.
Require data on vehicles passing through various
tolling facilities and congestion experienced at
these facilities.
Weight Distance Tolls
Maine implements a modified version of this
option, as tolling along the Maine Turnpike is
dependant on number of axles of a vehicle.
Require data on distance traveled by HVG’s in
Maine.
Distance Based Fees
Data Analysis Component
Environmental Emissions Require Data on the emissions scores of Maine’s
Fees
vehicle fleet48
Fuel Efficiency Fee
Changes in fuel economy, are considered in the
data analysis as fuel economy applies to the gas
tax.
47
This type of data may currently be available from the Maine Department of Transportation at
http://www.state.me.us/mdot/traffic-counts/traffic-monitoring.php
48
This information could be extrapolated by applying the Environmental Protection Agency’s air pollution
score and/or greenhouse gas score to individual vehicles in Maine’s vehicle fleet. It should be noted that
these scores are only available for Model Year 2000 vehicles or newer.
61
.
Table A.2 Local Option Transportation Tax use in the United States
State Name
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Louisiana
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Virginia
Washington
Type of LOTT Employed
Fuel Tax, Sales Tax
Fuel Tax, Vehicle Tax
Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax
Fuel Tax, Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Fuel Tax, Vehicle Tax
Vehicle Tax
Fuel Tax, Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax
Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Fuel Tax, Vehicle Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax
Fuel Tax, Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Fuel Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Sales Tax
Fuel Tax
Vehicle Tax, Sales Tax
Data obtained from Goldman and Wachs, 2003. Tables 1, 2, 3a and 3b.
62
.
Table A.3 Literature Review Findings
Section
of
Report
Alternative
Financing
Option
Definition
2.2
Benefits
Concerns
Taxes
2.2.1
Alternative Gas
Tax Structure
Indexing gas tax
rates to a measure
of inflation.
2.2.2
Local Option
Transportation
Taxes
Implementation of
a tax at the local
level. Earmark
revenue for
transportation.
Fuel Tax
Percentage tax on
gasoline sales.
Revenue earmarked
for transportation.
1) Avoid politically charged
situation of increasing tax
rate
2) Maine currently uses an
alternative gas tax structure
1) Gasoline taxes are regressive (shift
tax burden to the poor & middle
class)
1) Easily administered by
local officials and local
control of revenue
2) Local drivers are the
source of revenue
1) Jeopardize competitiveness of
local businesses
2) Limited tax base therefore high
rate would be required to raise
revenue
3) Possible revenue decline over time
given increasing fuel economy
63
.
Section
of
Report
2.2.3
Alternative
Financing
Option
Sales Tax
Definition
Benefits
Concerns
1) Broad tax base
2) High revenue for low
marginal tax rate; less
objectionable to consumers
3) Complies with horizontal
equity (all transportation
users pay)
4) Direct voter involvement
in implementing and
maintaining tax
5) Revenue obtained from
non-residents
1) Possible revenue instability during
recessions
2) No incentives for decreasing use
of the transportation infrastructure
3) Possibly jeopardize
competitiveness of Maine
businesses
Other: Natural Levy weight-based
Resource charge on natural
Extraction resource extraction.
1) Finance rural roads used
only by natural resource
industries
1) Jeopardize competitiveness of
resource based businesses
2) Roads often privately owned by
natural resource industries.
Other: Payroll Levy tax on
Tax businesses to
finance transit.
1) Finance urban transit
systems
1) Possibly inappropriate for Maine’s
rural makeup
1) Maine currently taxes
alternative fuels
1) Limited market penetration of
alternative fuel vehicles
Taxation of
Alternative
Fuels
Implementation of
a sales tax at local
or state level.
Earmark revenue
for transportation.
Levy tax on
alternative fuels
such as natural gas.
64
.
Section
of
Report
Alternative
Financing
Option
Definition
2.3
Benefits
Concerns
Road/Direct Pricing
2.3.1
Area Charging/
Cordon
Implement charge
for operating
vehicle in specified
area.
1) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
2) Consistent with other
policy objectives
(reduction of pollution,
road wear, noise, etc.)
3) Large revenue base if
implemented in large area
1) Possible encouragement of sprawl
2) Creation of boundary effects;
motorists increase travel in order
to avoid charge
2.3.2
Congestion
Pricing
Implementation of
variable prices
dependant upon
time of travel and
level of congestion.
1) Reduction in congestion
2) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
1) Possible public opposition to fee
implementation at previously free
area
2.3.3
Distance Based
Charges
Implement variable
vehicle user fee
dependant upon
distance traveled
(i.e. per-mile
charge).
1) Stable revenue, not
affected by fuel economy
2) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
3) Gradual implementation
possible; lower public
resistance
1) Implementation of viable
technology on a wide scale
2) Invasion of motorist privacy
3) Evasion of tax
4) Possible shifting of burden to rural
areas
5) Capturing revenue from out of
state travelers
65
.
Section
of
Report
2.3.4
2.3.5
Alternative
Definition
Financing
Option
Managed Lanes/ Vary price of lanes
Value Pricing
dependant upon
time of day and
level of congestion.
Value Capture
Require private
developers to pay
for maintenance of
roads created.
Benefits
Concerns
1) Present options to
motorists; allow motorist
to value own time
2) Congestion Management
1) Decrease amount of infrastructure
available to the general public
1) Local and State agencies no
longer fiscally responsible for
privately created roads
1) Public safety (will developers
maintain road consistent with
standards of public agencies).
Tolls
2.4
2.4.1
Facility
Congestion
Tolls
Implementation of
variable user fees at
specific facilities
(ex: bridge),
dependant upon
congestion level.
1) Promote efficient
transportation behavior
(carpooling, mass transit)
2) Reduce congestion
1) Equity – fees may be used to
finance projects not related to the
tolled facility.
2) Tolls are regressive (shift payment
burden to the poor & middle class)
2.4.2
WeightDistance
Tolls/Tax
Heavy goods
vehicles must pay
facility toll or per
mile rate based on
weight.
1) Heavy goods vehicles pay
commensurate with
amount of damage inflicted
on roads.
2) Captures value of
roadways as ‘warehouses’
for commercial goods
1) Possible jeopardy to Maine’s
trucking reliant industries
66
.
Section
of
Report
Alternative
Financing
Option
Definition
Benefits
Concerns
Fees
2.5
2.5.1
Distance Based Replace currently
fixed price of
Fees/
Price Variability vehicle ownership
with variable price
(ex: variable
registration fee
based on vehicle
miles traveled).
1) Motorists able to control
own savings/costs by
adjusting driving habits
2) Consistent with other
policy objectives
(reduction of pollution,
road wear, etc.)
1) Evasion
2.5.2
Emissions Fees
1) Consistent with other
policy objectives
(reduction of pollution)
2) Promote citizen awareness
of vehicle emissions
1) Availability of information on
emissions of all vehicles makes/models.
Levy variable user
fees dependant
upon vehicle
energy efficiency
and environmental
emissions.
67