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Camel, the symbol of human survival in the desert, is associated with the history of the major nomadic civilizations of the arid areas of the northern hemisphere. The camel embodies one of the essential elements of the culture and agriculture of these regions. The camel is used for several purposes for which its role is essential. It is used as a beast of burden for transporting goods and people as well as for providing milk. Milk is often the only regular food source for its owners.
The camel’s meat, wool and leather are also widely utilized. In some parts of East Africa, the animal is bled regularly and its blood consumed fresh or mixed with milk. The camel is universally highly valued and provides social standing for its owner. The chief role of the camel relates directly to its remarkable adaptation to extremely harsh conditions. It can flourish where no other domestic animal can survive. Compared with other ruminants, the camel is distinguished by the high diversity of its diet. It can feed on herbaceous plants, shrubs, shoots, cacti and date stones. During the dry season, it often has to survive on thorny, withered plants low in protein but rich in fibre and cellulose.
Camel breeding and rearing is a traditional activity practised all over Oman, dating back to references in the Holy Quran. Omani camels are of medium size and known for their strength and speed. Camels are used in Oman for riding or racing and also for meat and milk. In accord with the wish of His
Majesty Sultan Qaboos to preserve the Omani heritage, a Directorate-General of Camel Affairs was established in the Diwan of Royal Court in 1989.
Located in the wilayat of Barka at Fulaij, it is equipped with the most modern race tracks and camel pens. This concern testifies to the esteem in which the ancient craft is held among Omanis.
The social, cultural and economic importance of camels in the life of Omanis has been duly recognized by the animal scientists at SQU who have put in great effort to bring the Third Conference of the International Society of Camelid Research and Development to this university. The conference slated to be held in January 2011 is the most prestigious international gathering of scientists, educationalists, industrialists, extension and social workers relating to camelid issues in the world.
30 December 2011 P2
Horizon invites contributions from SQU members of staff and faculty. Contributions in the form of articles, news, travelogues, stories of unique and interesting experiences, encounters, etc., are welcome. Contributions may be edited for the sake of clarity and length. Please send your contributions to horizon@squ.edu.om preferably, as MSWord attachments. Authors will be suitably credited.
Horizon is published three times a month by the Department of Public Relations and Information,
Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, P.C. 123, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.
Phone: +968 24141045
E-mail: horizon@squ.edu.om
Fax: +968 24413 391
Website: www.squ.edu.om

The second meeting of the Joint Committee between Sultan Qaboos University and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry was held recently at SQU. The
SQU side was led by HE Dr. Ali al Bimani, Vice Chancellor of the university, and the members from the Ministry were led by HE Eng. Ahmed bin Hassan Al
Dheeb, Undersecretary for Commerce and Industry.
During the meeting the committee discussed several topics related to research, training and joint activities, conferences and joint seminars. It has been agreed that the Ministry would strengthen its relation with the Innovation Affairs Department of the university with regard to fostering technical consultation and consultative research projects between the private industrial establishments and the university.
The committee also discussed on increasing participation of representatives from private sector and public sector industrial establishments in training courses and seminars organized by the university. The ministry would pay a prominent role in facilitating internship and training opportunities for the university students in various private sector companies during the summer.
At the end of the meeting, a working group was formed to activate more research partnerships and training opportunities for students and to jointly organise seminars and conferences.
Students of the College of Commerce & Economics at SQU participated in the first Oman Islamic Economic Forum (OIEF) which was held last week at Al Bustan Palace Hotel. The two-day forum, which was organised by Amjaad Development, brought together international experts in Islamic finance to discuss best practices in the industry, and the way forward for Oman, where Islamic banking and finance has recently been introduced. The event also served as a platform for companies to launch their Islamic finance and banking institutions in Oman.
Some of the key topics on the agenda of the Forum included ‘Competing
Islamic banking regulatory models’, ‘The structuring of Islamic finance products’, ‘Shariah issues in Islamic banking and finance’ and ‘Islamic banking as a tool for economic reforms’.
The SQU students who participated in the forum were praise for the event which shed light on different aspects of Islamic banking systems and the experiences of countries like Malaysia where the system is in place. Following the decision of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos to permit Islamic-based financial instruments to operate in Oman, some banks in the Sultanate have announced
Islamic banking services.
Khalfan al Toki, External Liaison Officer at the College of Commerce, who led the SQU students at the forum, said that the event was an opportunity for the students to know more about the concept of Islamic banking. In future, SQU business graduates could play a leading role in spreading awareness about
Islamic banking in the Omani society. The forum paved way for students to establish links with the financial organizations in Oman which will go into Islamic economic practices ”, he added.
The internship feedback presentation of the fifth batch of baccalaureate Nursing students at Sultan Qaboos University was held recently under the patronage of Dr. Said bin Ali al Yahayee, SQU
Deputy Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs & Community Services. The College of Nursing students completed their clinical internship at Sultan Qaboos University Hospital and abroad. The students went to international universities and affiliated hospitals to enhance their clinical skills, familiarize with international healthcare systems and new technologies in patient care.
Seven students completed internship abroad at California School of Health Sciences (California, USA) and associated hospitals such as Garden Grove Hospital and Medical Center. Six students completed internship abroad at Cardiff University (UK) and associated hospitals such as University Hospital of Wales. 17 students completed internship abroad at University of Hull (UK) and associated hospitals such as Hull Royal Infirmary and Castle Hill Hospitals in
Hull. All the 34 student spent part of their internship (4-6 months) at Sultan Qaboos University Hospital.
The students experiences included working in specialized Intensive care units, medical-surgical units, transplantation units, neuroscience units, hematology units and other clinical setting providing specialized patient care. In addition to clinical experiences the students had a chance to attend teaching-learning sessions conducted by specialists on subjects such as neurological assessment, ECG rhythm interpretation, Basic Life Support, Advanced Cardiac Life
Support, Pediatric Advanced Life Support, phlebotomy, advanced roles in cancer care, genetic screening of new born and primary and secondary assessment for heart attack patients.
During the presentations the students highlighted the different technologies used in patient care they worked with and made recommendations based on their experiences that could be used to enhance patient care and nursing practice in Oman. The students also reported that internship abroad was a very effective opportunity to perfect their English language, to learn about other cultures and explore the how other health systems are managed. The student got a chance to visit historical and popular sites such as
Universal Studios in California, the City of London and its major landmarks, Yorkshire Museum and others. In total the students emphasized that the internship period both at SQUH and abroad was a critical part of their learning at SQU and it enabled them to gain professional competencies, confidence and skills. The College of
Nursing expressed their gratitude to Daleel Petroleum (LLC) which sponsored the internship abroad program.
30 December 2011 P3

Oman is one of the countries located in an arid environment that is subject to flash flooding. Catastrophic floods and prolonged periods of drought are the main ‘water-related’ challenges facing the nation. Historical records of devastating floods date back to June-1890 when 270 mm of rainfall drowned more than
700 people of the contemporaneous 5000 population of Muscat. Modern records show that major flash floods occurred in Oman in 1989, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2005,
2007, and 2010. The first technically sound study on floods conducted in Oman was in 1987 by the Council of Environment Protection and Water Resources followed by another study in 1992. This was a flood risk mapping study showing low, medium, and high risk zones in Muscat. Since then, no updates have been made in accordance with the change in urbanization and fast rate development in the Sultanate.
Omani villages, whose settlement has been determined by water availability, exist mainly along the wadis. Based on this principle, the urban areas are located very close to, if not directly in the wadis. The capital, Muscat, is the fastest growing city in Oman. Due to the geographic location of the capital, which is surrounded by mountains, and the horizontal expansion of the urban areas, most of the wadis and the main channels have been occupied by urban development.
The literature review shows a direct relationship between the urban growth and the increase in water runoff. This could be more significant in Oman due to the lack of sewer and storm drainage systems in this area. enhance the accuracy of expected results. Lack of detailed wadi channel cross sectional surveying data is currently one of the main challenges that prevent predicting water inundation and risk zones during flash floods events. This study provides very important information and knowledge that will lead to better understand the hydrological processes in Oman and consequently mitigate flash floods. This include: greater investigation into infiltration rates and crusting in
Oman, using higher resolution data (e.g. DEM spatial resolution less than width of the narrowest wadi) to improve the accuracy of watershed characteristics (e.g. slope) and parameters of particular channel sections, incorporation of rainfall and runoff data for the same events in order to provide a better understanding of this region’s hydrological process, investigation on the effect of the rainfall’s spatial variability on runoff prediction by using remotely sensed rainfall data (e.g.
Radar satellite), detailed data on agricultural areas (e.g. crop and soil type) to be acquired to compute new values of curve number (CN) and runoff coefficient (C) specifically for these arid areas, and assessment of the gauge network in Oman wadis and installing few guage stations if possible.
Generally, flash floods generated in less than 6 hours can lead to rapid water level rises and falls. Flash floods are one of the most dangerous weather-related natural disasters in the world, and can create hazardous situations for people and cause extensive damage to property. Flash floods in arid environments are in fact common, but their occurrence is also poorly understood. The main hydrological factors contributing to flash flooding are the size, shape, topography, and land cover of the watershed. Flash flood hazard zones in arid regions in general, in the Gulf in particular and in the mountain catchments of Oman specifically, are often characterized by infrequent precipitation in the form of intense thunderstorms, steep slope topography, thin or no soil layers, outcrops of parent rock of low porosity and permeability, and a lack of dense vegetation.
All this amplifies the flood amplitudes and damage and makes the predictions and prevention measures developed in humid countries less reliable in specific geographical conditions of Oman.
Data from rainstorm events in the Rustaq watershed were used to develop heavy rainfall temporal distribution curves characteristic of arid climates. Orographic effects on rainfall were also investigated by separating the data into two regions, mountainous and coastal, and hyetographs were developed for both regions.
The results were compared to other standard established distributions derived for regions in Canada and the United States.
Relationships between 12 watershed characteristics and mean wadi flood-peaks in northern Oman are investigated. Drainage area (DA), wadi slope (WS), watershed mean elevation (BE), and agricultural/farm area (FR) were found to be the key variables affecting flood flows, with DA having the strongest relationship.
Bigger watersheds with high wadi slope, low altitudes, and less farms tend to have higher mean peak flow discharge (QMPF). Unlike past literature, this research shows that DA is positively related to flood peak discharge rates. A new approach is introduced by including FR impacts on runoff in Oman. The approach showed that FR improved the variance explanation by 11% over models using only traditional variables such as DA and BE.
Few reports and studies that are related to flash floods have been conducted.
Due to the rapid growth of population, industry, and tourism, studying flash floods has become very essential and inevitable. Because of insufficient information about flash flood hazard zones, even some of the new government projects are located on the wadi bed. Current maps for flooding in Oman are technically old-fashioned, i.e. made manually. In addition, they are too general and lack details. Past studies on flash floods in Oman did not include any information on the amount of rainfall and flow which lead to flash floods, and the extent of the area that could be affected by these floods for different return periods. This kind of accurate information is very important for many purposes, such as dam design and development planning. Therefore, researchers at the Civil Engineering
Department of the College of Engineering at SQU have taken up a comprehensive GIS-based study that will improve flash flood prediction by providing new knowledge and tools for arid regions in general and more specifically for Oman.
With the help satellite images and aerial photos back to the seventies, rapid urban expansion in the Wadi Aday watershed in Oman and its impact on wadi peak flow generation and flood frequency is investigated. New hydrologic curve number (CN) and runoff coefficient (C) tables were created specifically for this type of region and for its unique residential characteristics and arid soils. The effect of urbanization on wadi peak flow between 1970 and 2003 shows that the urbanized area increased by 92%; the average simulated wadi peak flows increased by 68%, time to peak decreased by 22.2 min; the weighted C increased from 0.302 to 0.417, and the weighted CN increased from 76 to 79. The results showed that the change of land-use (e.g. from the agricultural to residential purposes) in Muscat also has a significant contribution to the increase of surface runoff and consequently more potential for flash floods. The increase of greenness areas is highly recommended to reduce the hazard of flash floods in Muscat.
This study provides up-to-date rainfall and wadi flow frequency analysis that
30 December 2011 P4
This article is an analysis of the implications of Richard Whitley’s Theory of Intellectual and Social Organization of Sciences. In a rapidly changing and interdisciplinary world it is important to understand the nature and generation of knowledge, and its social organization. Increasing attention is paid in the social sciences and management studies to the constitution and claims of different theories, perspectives, and ‘paradigms’. This book is one of the most respected and robust analyses of these issues.
lectual priorities, the significance of research topics and preferred ways of tackling them”. These distinctions permit a 4x4 matrix in which 16 combinations can be identified. Eliminating non-viable or unstable combinations, Whitley arrived at a typology of seven major types of scientific fields, ranging from “fragmented adhocracies” (with low mutual dependence and high task uncertainty) such as management studies, to “conceptually integrated bureaucracies” (with high mutual dependence and low task uncertainty) such as post-1945 physics.
In his book, “the Intellectual and Social organization of Sciences” which was first published in 1984, Richard Whitley, a professor of organizational sociology at the
University of Manchester Business School, developed a conceptual framework for the study and comparison of scientific fields. Whitley looked at “...modern sciences as particular kinds of work organizations which construct knowledge in different ways in different contexts”. His work deals with “intellectual fields”, more frequently referred to as scientific fields, rather than disciplines, covering not only the natural sciences but all forms of modern scholarship, as “reputational systems of work organization and control” for the production and evaluation of knowledge. What is distinctive about such systems is that researchers have to produce new knowledge “novelty and innovations”, which inherently entails uncertainty about task outcomes as well as frequent innovations in techniques and procedures. At the same time, they depend on their colleagues for the establishment of their reputations. Their innovations are valued to the extent that they are useful to the work of other scientists, which implies adherence to common research strategies and procedures. Thus, “as systems of work organization and control, the modern sciences are distinguished by their commitment to producing novelty and innovations, on the one hand, and their coordination of research procedures and strategies through collective appropriation and use of their results, on the other hand”.
The main differences between the fields relate to intellectual aspects, “the configuration of tasks and problem areas”, and social or institutional aspects, “coordination and control processes”. Whitley further considered how degrees of mutual dependence and task uncertainty are related to the internal organizational structure of scientific fields, and the contextual factors that affect the structure of scientific fields, in each case characterizing the seven major types of scientific fields in terms of these factors. The final chapter takes a diachronic approach to relationships between scientific fields and changes in the organization of the sciences. Although the distinction between the intellectual and social organization of the sciences is not reflected in the structure of Whitley’s book, both the intellectual structures (including epistemological and methodological aspects) and the social organization (including institutionalization, identification and determination of domain boundaries, formation of research groups or academic schools or departments, and control of access to resources) are dealt with.
Whitley introduced the terms “task uncertainty” and “mutual dependence” to refer to these dimensions of scientific fields respectively and claimed that differences between the sciences can be explained in terms of these two distinct dimensions: the degree of mutual dependence between researchers in making competent and significant contributions and the degree of task uncertainty in producing and evaluating knowledge claims.
An important concept is that of reputational autonomy. A field which exhibits a high level of mutual dependence tends to deal with distinctive, highly specialized topics and to employ research procedures that are highly coordinated and standardized. Here there is limited scope, if any, for idiosyncratic, individualistic approaches, or for contributions by non-scientists such as laypersons or (by extension) practitioners in service professions. Such scientific fields are said to have a high level of reputational autonomy. On the other hand, a field which relies on theories and methods from other fields has a low level of reputational autonomy.
Diversity of the organizational affiliations is an example of low levels of mutual dependency. Whitley categorized social sciences fields as fields with lower mutual dependency and higher task uncertainty than natural sciences fields such as chemistry and physics, for example, which have higher level of mutual dependency and lower level of task uncertainty.
Whitley elaborated on this explanatory framework by making further distinctions within each dimension. He distinguished two aspects of mutual dependence: functional dependence between members of a field, “the extent to which researchers have to use the specific results, ideas and procedures of fellow specialists in order to construct knowledge claims” recognized by their peers; and strategic dependence, which refers to “the extent to which researchers have to persuade colleagues of the significance and importance of their problems and approaches”. Although these two are interconnected, some fields may have a higher degree of the one and a lower degree of the other. Whitley also distinguished two aspects of task uncertainty: technical task uncertainty refers to “the extent to which work techniques are well understood and produce reliable results”; while strategic task uncertainty is concerned with “uncertainty about intel-
Because Whitley discussed “intellectual” or scientific fields rather than disciplines, his theory lends itself not only to comparisons between fields, but also to comparisons of the same field in space and time. This is shown by Whitley’s use of examples such as German psychology before 1933, pre-Darwinian 19th century ornithology, and post-1945 physics. Thus, Whitley’s theory can be used to categorize and describe scientific fields in terms of their development in different countries or regions.
30 December 2011 P5

Oman is one of the countries located in an arid environment that is subject to flash flooding. Catastrophic floods and prolonged periods of drought are the main ‘water-related’ challenges facing the nation. Historical records of devastating floods date back to June-1890 when 270 mm of rainfall drowned more than
700 people of the contemporaneous 5000 population of Muscat. Modern records show that major flash floods occurred in Oman in 1989, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2005,
2007, and 2010. The first technically sound study on floods conducted in Oman was in 1987 by the Council of Environment Protection and Water Resources followed by another study in 1992. This was a flood risk mapping study showing low, medium, and high risk zones in Muscat. Since then, no updates have been made in accordance with the change in urbanization and fast rate development in the Sultanate.
Omani villages, whose settlement has been determined by water availability, exist mainly along the wadis. Based on this principle, the urban areas are located very close to, if not directly in the wadis. The capital, Muscat, is the fastest growing city in Oman. Due to the geographic location of the capital, which is surrounded by mountains, and the horizontal expansion of the urban areas, most of the wadis and the main channels have been occupied by urban development.
The literature review shows a direct relationship between the urban growth and the increase in water runoff. This could be more significant in Oman due to the lack of sewer and storm drainage systems in this area. enhance the accuracy of expected results. Lack of detailed wadi channel cross sectional surveying data is currently one of the main challenges that prevent predicting water inundation and risk zones during flash floods events. This study provides very important information and knowledge that will lead to better understand the hydrological processes in Oman and consequently mitigate flash floods. This include: greater investigation into infiltration rates and crusting in
Oman, using higher resolution data (e.g. DEM spatial resolution less than width of the narrowest wadi) to improve the accuracy of watershed characteristics (e.g. slope) and parameters of particular channel sections, incorporation of rainfall and runoff data for the same events in order to provide a better understanding of this region’s hydrological process, investigation on the effect of the rainfall’s spatial variability on runoff prediction by using remotely sensed rainfall data (e.g.
Radar satellite), detailed data on agricultural areas (e.g. crop and soil type) to be acquired to compute new values of curve number (CN) and runoff coefficient (C) specifically for these arid areas, and assessment of the gauge network in Oman wadis and installing few guage stations if possible.
Generally, flash floods generated in less than 6 hours can lead to rapid water level rises and falls. Flash floods are one of the most dangerous weather-related natural disasters in the world, and can create hazardous situations for people and cause extensive damage to property. Flash floods in arid environments are in fact common, but their occurrence is also poorly understood. The main hydrological factors contributing to flash flooding are the size, shape, topography, and land cover of the watershed. Flash flood hazard zones in arid regions in general, in the Gulf in particular and in the mountain catchments of Oman specifically, are often characterized by infrequent precipitation in the form of intense thunderstorms, steep slope topography, thin or no soil layers, outcrops of parent rock of low porosity and permeability, and a lack of dense vegetation.
All this amplifies the flood amplitudes and damage and makes the predictions and prevention measures developed in humid countries less reliable in specific geographical conditions of Oman.
Data from rainstorm events in the Rustaq watershed were used to develop heavy rainfall temporal distribution curves characteristic of arid climates. Orographic effects on rainfall were also investigated by separating the data into two regions, mountainous and coastal, and hyetographs were developed for both regions.
The results were compared to other standard established distributions derived for regions in Canada and the United States.
Relationships between 12 watershed characteristics and mean wadi flood-peaks in northern Oman are investigated. Drainage area (DA), wadi slope (WS), watershed mean elevation (BE), and agricultural/farm area (FR) were found to be the key variables affecting flood flows, with DA having the strongest relationship.
Bigger watersheds with high wadi slope, low altitudes, and less farms tend to have higher mean peak flow discharge (QMPF). Unlike past literature, this research shows that DA is positively related to flood peak discharge rates. A new approach is introduced by including FR impacts on runoff in Oman. The approach showed that FR improved the variance explanation by 11% over models using only traditional variables such as DA and BE.
Few reports and studies that are related to flash floods have been conducted.
Due to the rapid growth of population, industry, and tourism, studying flash floods has become very essential and inevitable. Because of insufficient information about flash flood hazard zones, even some of the new government projects are located on the wadi bed. Current maps for flooding in Oman are technically old-fashioned, i.e. made manually. In addition, they are too general and lack details. Past studies on flash floods in Oman did not include any information on the amount of rainfall and flow which lead to flash floods, and the extent of the area that could be affected by these floods for different return periods. This kind of accurate information is very important for many purposes, such as dam design and development planning. Therefore, researchers at the Civil Engineering
Department of the College of Engineering at SQU have taken up a comprehensive GIS-based study that will improve flash flood prediction by providing new knowledge and tools for arid regions in general and more specifically for Oman.
With the help satellite images and aerial photos back to the seventies, rapid urban expansion in the Wadi Aday watershed in Oman and its impact on wadi peak flow generation and flood frequency is investigated. New hydrologic curve number (CN) and runoff coefficient (C) tables were created specifically for this type of region and for its unique residential characteristics and arid soils. The effect of urbanization on wadi peak flow between 1970 and 2003 shows that the urbanized area increased by 92%; the average simulated wadi peak flows increased by 68%, time to peak decreased by 22.2 min; the weighted C increased from 0.302 to 0.417, and the weighted CN increased from 76 to 79. The results showed that the change of land-use (e.g. from the agricultural to residential purposes) in Muscat also has a significant contribution to the increase of surface runoff and consequently more potential for flash floods. The increase of greenness areas is highly recommended to reduce the hazard of flash floods in Muscat.
This study provides up-to-date rainfall and wadi flow frequency analysis that
30 December 2011 P4
This article is an analysis of the implications of Richard Whitley’s Theory of Intellectual and Social Organization of Sciences. In a rapidly changing and interdisciplinary world it is important to understand the nature and generation of knowledge, and its social organization. Increasing attention is paid in the social sciences and management studies to the constitution and claims of different theories, perspectives, and ‘paradigms’. This book is one of the most respected and robust analyses of these issues.
lectual priorities, the significance of research topics and preferred ways of tackling them”. These distinctions permit a 4x4 matrix in which 16 combinations can be identified. Eliminating non-viable or unstable combinations, Whitley arrived at a typology of seven major types of scientific fields, ranging from “fragmented adhocracies” (with low mutual dependence and high task uncertainty) such as management studies, to “conceptually integrated bureaucracies” (with high mutual dependence and low task uncertainty) such as post-1945 physics.
In his book, “the Intellectual and Social organization of Sciences” which was first published in 1984, Richard Whitley, a professor of organizational sociology at the
University of Manchester Business School, developed a conceptual framework for the study and comparison of scientific fields. Whitley looked at “...modern sciences as particular kinds of work organizations which construct knowledge in different ways in different contexts”. His work deals with “intellectual fields”, more frequently referred to as scientific fields, rather than disciplines, covering not only the natural sciences but all forms of modern scholarship, as “reputational systems of work organization and control” for the production and evaluation of knowledge. What is distinctive about such systems is that researchers have to produce new knowledge “novelty and innovations”, which inherently entails uncertainty about task outcomes as well as frequent innovations in techniques and procedures. At the same time, they depend on their colleagues for the establishment of their reputations. Their innovations are valued to the extent that they are useful to the work of other scientists, which implies adherence to common research strategies and procedures. Thus, “as systems of work organization and control, the modern sciences are distinguished by their commitment to producing novelty and innovations, on the one hand, and their coordination of research procedures and strategies through collective appropriation and use of their results, on the other hand”.
The main differences between the fields relate to intellectual aspects, “the configuration of tasks and problem areas”, and social or institutional aspects, “coordination and control processes”. Whitley further considered how degrees of mutual dependence and task uncertainty are related to the internal organizational structure of scientific fields, and the contextual factors that affect the structure of scientific fields, in each case characterizing the seven major types of scientific fields in terms of these factors. The final chapter takes a diachronic approach to relationships between scientific fields and changes in the organization of the sciences. Although the distinction between the intellectual and social organization of the sciences is not reflected in the structure of Whitley’s book, both the intellectual structures (including epistemological and methodological aspects) and the social organization (including institutionalization, identification and determination of domain boundaries, formation of research groups or academic schools or departments, and control of access to resources) are dealt with.
Whitley introduced the terms “task uncertainty” and “mutual dependence” to refer to these dimensions of scientific fields respectively and claimed that differences between the sciences can be explained in terms of these two distinct dimensions: the degree of mutual dependence between researchers in making competent and significant contributions and the degree of task uncertainty in producing and evaluating knowledge claims.
An important concept is that of reputational autonomy. A field which exhibits a high level of mutual dependence tends to deal with distinctive, highly specialized topics and to employ research procedures that are highly coordinated and standardized. Here there is limited scope, if any, for idiosyncratic, individualistic approaches, or for contributions by non-scientists such as laypersons or (by extension) practitioners in service professions. Such scientific fields are said to have a high level of reputational autonomy. On the other hand, a field which relies on theories and methods from other fields has a low level of reputational autonomy.
Diversity of the organizational affiliations is an example of low levels of mutual dependency. Whitley categorized social sciences fields as fields with lower mutual dependency and higher task uncertainty than natural sciences fields such as chemistry and physics, for example, which have higher level of mutual dependency and lower level of task uncertainty.
Whitley elaborated on this explanatory framework by making further distinctions within each dimension. He distinguished two aspects of mutual dependence: functional dependence between members of a field, “the extent to which researchers have to use the specific results, ideas and procedures of fellow specialists in order to construct knowledge claims” recognized by their peers; and strategic dependence, which refers to “the extent to which researchers have to persuade colleagues of the significance and importance of their problems and approaches”. Although these two are interconnected, some fields may have a higher degree of the one and a lower degree of the other. Whitley also distinguished two aspects of task uncertainty: technical task uncertainty refers to “the extent to which work techniques are well understood and produce reliable results”; while strategic task uncertainty is concerned with “uncertainty about intel-
Because Whitley discussed “intellectual” or scientific fields rather than disciplines, his theory lends itself not only to comparisons between fields, but also to comparisons of the same field in space and time. This is shown by Whitley’s use of examples such as German psychology before 1933, pre-Darwinian 19th century ornithology, and post-1945 physics. Thus, Whitley’s theory can be used to categorize and describe scientific fields in terms of their development in different countries or regions.
30 December 2011 P5

The opening ceremony of the first Green Chemistry Forum organized by the Chemistry Group in the College of Science at SQU was held under the patronage of HH Sayyida Dr. Muna Bint Fahad Al Said, Assist Vice
Chancellor External Cooperation. The event was organized in association with Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and Science. The
Forum marked the conclusion of the series of events that the Chemistry
Group organised during the past one year to celebrate the International
Year of Chemistry 2011 in Oman. The Group previously launched environmental campaign with the theme: “Protect it with our own hands and keep it for generations,” and it was followed by a series of workshops, lectures, trips and awareness campaigns within and outside the university.
Green chemistry is one of the important issues in science and engineering nowadays. A key principle of green chemistry is to design products and experiments that can produce less hazardous substances. Green chemistry principles have a wide range of applications in the production of industrial and consumer goods, including paints, dyes, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics, medicines, electronics, dry cleaning, energy generation, and water purification.
The Chemistry Group visited some schools around Muscat area to talk about the International Year of Chemistry, presented some lectures about the role of chemistry in our life and organized chemistry-oriented competitions. On the 19th of November 2011, the Group organized the first “Chemistry Carnival” which included many activities such as a Chemistry Magic
Show, Chemical Olympiad, exhibitions and a public lecture entitled “The
Chemistry of life” delivered by the international trainer, Ms. Helen Cyrus, in the College of Science.
The major goal of the Green Chemistry Forum in Oman was to gather students together to exchange experiences, in research and green chemistry projects. The Forum served as a knowledge-based network to publicize green chemistry principles and celebrate the International Year of Chemistry. The program of the Forum included presentations, scientific posters and workshops in areas such as water treatment and re-use; waste management and treatment; energy efficiency and sustainability; oil recovery efficiency; green lab experiment; and biofuels.
A stamp commemorating International Year of Chemistry in Oman was launched during the opening ceremony of the forum. In his opening address, Dr. Saif bin Nasser al Bahry, Dean, College of Science, congratulated the students and staff who worked hard to make the year long activities successful. At the function, Dr. Selvaraj Rengaraj, Visiting Consultant in the Department of Chemistry gave a talk on nanotechnology as a clean and green process for wastewater remediation. A number of scholars presented papers in the following sessions. Prominent amongst them were Dr. T. Peter Amaladhas from Higher Colleges of Technology, and Dr. Ardian Nengkoda from Petroleum Development Oman. Several students also presented poster sessions during the forum and two workshops were organized by
Dr. El Said El Shafey (Chemical Safety in our Health and Environment) and Dr. Haider Al-Lawati (Designing Microfludic Chips) on the first day of the Forum. Prizes were awarded for the best posters presented during the closing ceremony.
30 December 2011 P6
HE Dr. Ali al Bimani, Vice Chancellor of SQU, presided over a meeting of the National Committee of Bioethics which was held at SQU recently. The meeting approved the minutes of the previous meeting of the committee and discussed the draft report of bioethics in Oman.
The committee also discussed its reports on ethical aspects related to abortion, fetal sex determination, gender transformation, etc in order to put forward recommendations on these issues to the Council of Ministers. The committee reviewed the position of the Ministry of Health with regard to in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures, fertility clinics and treatment for infertility. The meeting also discussed on launching a website and scientific journal for the committee, organizing lectures and seminars on bioethics, and activities of bioethics committees in the
Sultanate.
An SQU mission consisting of 15 BSc Nursing students and 5 faculty members led by Dr. Samira Maroof, Head of the Department of Community & Mental Health Nursing visited Wadi Qurai in Samail on December 15 as part of their the latest community projects. A full and very well organised programme was on the agenda of the team. This included a visit to Wadi Beni Rawaha Health Centre, a tour of the village community of Wadi Qurai, health and social assessment of about
20 families from that community, several health education sessions presented by both male and female students to respective audiences on a range of subjects including pre-marital blood testing, breast selfexamination, diabetes mellitus and osteoporosis. The presentations were made in the community centre and almost every member of the community participated.
Commenting on the outcome of the activity, Dr. Samira Maroof said:
“This community project has exceeded all our expectations and more than achieved its goals. More than that, it was a great honour to be received by the whole community of Wadi Qurai led by Mr Abdul Salam
Al Rashidi (Head of the Office of Majles Al Shoura) and to be hosted so generously and so well throughout the day”. The show presented by the community which included a video about the village and a play with a theme on drug addiction emphasising constructive rapport and dialogue between sons and their fathers were a fantastic surprise. The play by the young men of the community was excellent in every aspect including the acting skills, the production and its constructive message”.

Khalid al Balushi is a Service Level Agreement Coordinator with
Exceed IT Services and Training Company in Oman. He is also functioning as an agreement consultant for Microsoft Solutions in their software contracts with various government and private sector organizations in the Sultanate. A graduate from the College of
Commerce & Economics at Sultan Qaboos University, Khalid visited the university recently and gave a talk on software piracy and its implications at a symposium organized by the Free and Open
Source Software Society at the university. Khalid spoke to Horizon on various aspects of software piracy.
Horizon: How would you define the term software piracy?
Khalid: Software piracy is an act that could be easily explained by comparing with purchasing a book and passing on to your friends or colleagues after reading it. However, in the case of proprietary computer software, you violate the licensing agreement with the manufacturer if you are giving it to another person after purchasing and using it for some time. Software licensing agreements vary from case to case. For example, some software can only be used on a single machine. In some cases, the customers are given the right to use the product in two or more machines as per the agreement. Before we install proprietary software, we agree all terms and conditions laid down by the manufacturer. When you breach any of the conditions, it can be termed as software piracy. Unlike other things you purchase, the software applications you buy don’t belong to you. Instead, you become a licensed user; you purchase the right to use the software on a single computer, but you can’t put copies on other machines or pass that software along to colleagues.
Horizon: What are the consequences of software piracy?
Khalid: Consequences could be classified into two types: on user’s side and on manufacturer’s side. The social or economic issues affecting the community come in between. If you make modifications in the original software, you can use it permanently in other computers even though the pirated version may lack some options as compared to the original. However, pirated versions are more prone to security threats such as hacking and timely maintenance and updates provided by the manufacturer do not reach the pirated versions. For example, if the manufacturer corrects some defects in the original software by timely updates, the user of pirated version is destined to use the original version which will continue to be defective or out-dated. Consumers can unknowingly put their computers at risk by installing pirated software that contains malware, viruses and other malicious software that can jeopardize the owner’s machine and sensitive data. On the manufacturers’ side, software privacy involves loss of revenue due to reduced number of customers as more and more people use pirated versions. This could badly affect the company’s capacity to develop more software in the future. If a software company closes down its operations due to financial problems, the impact will affect the whole society and the economy of the nation at large. Increased piracy forces the companies to charge heavily on honest customers. According to reliable sources, the software manufacturers incur a loss of USD 56 Billion per year due to software piracy.
In Oman the annual loss of software companies is USD 66 Million. The legal consequences associated with software piracy are there on the other side.
Horizon: For students, software copy right is often difficult to afford due to the high price of original versions. In schools and colleges, software budgeting may be often inadequate. How can we tackle this situation?
Khalid: In fact, software privacy often happens as a result of lack of awareness among users about possible and available alternatives. People tend to look at the negative side of proprietary software and wrongly find the option of using pirated versions. Since I am specialized in Microsoft Solutions, I could say that Microsoft is providing many discount and options for students and those who use the software for academic and study purposes. In some cases, the discount goes up to 90 per cent. Some solutions are given absolutely free to users.
This is the case with many multinational and local software manufacturers. My advice is that students should explore different options available on websites and find out the cheaper or free options in terms of installing software. Unauthorized copying of software or piracy is an illegal act or a crime. There are plenty of options where you could go for open source software or proprietary software at discounted rates. People tend to adopt shortcuts without spending time on finding alternatives. Open or free software are also available plentifully.