Journal of the Kentucky-Tennessee American Studies Association
/
r
Pubiiihed by Middle Tenneiiee State Univenity
2
Kentucky-Tennessee
American S t u d i e s Association
CONTENTS
" P R I D E 4ND DEPRAVITY" : A P R E L I M I N A R Y REEXAhIINATION
O F THE BEAUCHAhlP-SHARP A F F A I R
J . \V. C o o k e
L E T T E R S O F ANN COOK:
F r e d hl. J o h n s o n
F A C r OR F A C T O I D ?
THE R E S P O N S E O F PHILANTI-IROPISTS T O S E L F - S U P P O R T I N G
WOMEN I N AMERICA, 1880-1930
Margaret S p r a tt
WHAT MADE SENATOR TAYLOR RUN?
R o b e r t L. T a y l o r
P H I LANTHROPY AND ANTAGONI Shl :
SCIIOOLS I N THE 1 9 2 0 s
Nancy F o r d e r h a s e
KENTUCKY hfOUNTAIN
ENVIRONMENTAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FORhlATIVE INFLUENCES
ON CAROLINE GORDON AND EVELYN S C O T T , TMO C L A R K S V I L L E ,
T E N N E S S E E , WRITERS
E l e a n o r H. B e i s w e n g e r
PENHALLY AND BRACKETS:
BTJI 1.T
R e b e c c a R. B u t l e r
THE L I F E - A F F I R M I N G
Sandra L. B a l l a r d
THE HOUSES THAT CAROLINE GORDON
DOLLMAKER
THE BURDEN O F S U C C E S S :
J o h n hl. G l e n
HIGHLANDER,
1962-1982
EDITORS' NOTES
T h e p a p e r s i n t h i s i s s u e o f B o r d e r S t a t e s w e r e made a v a i l a b l e
t o t h e e d i t o r s by p a n e l i s t s a t t h e l a s t t w o m e e t i n g s o f t h e
Kentucky-Tennessee American S t u d i e s A s s o c i a t i o n ,
held i n 1985
a t B a r r e n R i v e r S t a t e P a r k , Kentucky, and i n 1986 a t F a l l Creek
F a l l s S t a t e Park, Tennessee.
B e c a u s e o f t h e u n u s u a l number
o f e x c e l l e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t t h e s e m e e t i n g s , t h e e d i t o r s were
f o r c e d t o e x c l u d e some p a p e r s n o t e x c l u s i v e l y f o c u s e d o n t h e
Kentucky-Tennessee r e g i o n .
I n o r d e r t o i n c l u d e as many o t h e r
papers a s possible, t h e e d i t o r s asked several authors t o reduce
t h e i r documentation t o simple b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l notes.
The a u t h o r s '
prompt a n d c o u r t e o u s c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e s e r e q u e s t s was d e e p l y
appreciated.
T h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s i s s u e o f B o r d e r S t a t e s w a s made
p o s s i b l e by f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t s u p p l i e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s :
B e t t e r E n g l i s h Fund, U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee, Knoxville
Department o f E n g l i s h , E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y
Department of E n g l i s h , Middle Tennessee S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Department o f H i s t o r y ,
E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y
Department of H i s t o r y , Middle Tennessee S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
U n i v e r i l t y o f Kentucky
The e d i t o r s w i s h t o e x p r e s s t h e i r g r a t i t u d e f o r t h i s s u p p o r t .
T h e e d i t o r s w i s h a l s o t o t h a n k Mrs. C i n d y Duke f o r h e r d e d i c a t i o n
i n t h e preparation of t h e manuscript.
I t was p r i n t e d a t M i d d l e
T e n n e s s e e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f Tony S n o o k .
"PRIDE AND DEPRAVITY":
d PRELIMIKARY REEXAMINATION
OF THE BEAUCIIAhIP-SHARP AFFAIR
J . W . Cooke Tennessee S t a t e University T h i s p a p e r i s a s e v e r e , b a r e bones r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a
n o t a b l y murky a n d g o r y i n c i d e n t t h a t o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e m i d d l e
1820s i n Kentucky.
F o r t h o s e who a r e u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e
Beauchamp-Sharp a f f a i r , t h i s w i l l b e , 1 b e l i e v e , a s u f f i c i e n t
introduction.
Those a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s bloody sequence
o f e v e n t s w i l l n o t e t h a t my r e c o n s t r u c t i o n m o d i f i e s e a r l i e r
v e r s i o n s i n two s i g n i f i c a n t ways.
F i r s t , I understand t h e
Beauchamp-Sharp
a f f a i r t o be an a f f a i r of honor, an a f f a i r
i n which p o l i t i c s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t b u t s e c o n d a r y r o l e .
And
s e c o n d , I h a v e s h i f t e d t h e l o c u s o f a c t i o n away f r o m t h e p u b l i c
a c t s o f C o l o n e l Solomon P . S h a r p a n d J e r e b o a m 0 . Bcauchamp
a n d p l a c e d i t , i n s t e a d , i n t h e p e r s o n o f Anna C o o k e B e a u c h a m p ,
a d i m i n u t i v e Fury whose p a s s i o n f o r r e v e n g e b r o u g h t v i o l e n t
death t o t h r e e people.
Anna w a s t h e f i f t h c h i l d a n d f i r s t d a u g h t e r o f G i l e s
She was
and A l i c i a P a y n e Cooke o f F a i r f a x C o u n t y , V i r g i n i a .
b o r n F e b r u a r y 7 , 1 7 8 5 ( o r 1 7 8 6 ) , a n d p r o b a b l y named f o r a y o u n g e r
sister of h e r mother.
G i l e s Cooke was a m o d e r a t e l y p r o s p e r o u s
p l a n t e r who h a d a c q u i r e d 1 , 1 1 5 a c r e s o f l a n d i n K e n t u c k y d u r i n g
t h e 1780s, probably a s a r e s u l t of s e r v i c e i n t h e V i r g i n i a
m i l i t i a d u r i n g t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n . He d i e d i n 1 8 0 5 , p e r h a p s
His
family
liquidated
their
in
straitened
circumstances.
V i r g i n i a p r o p e r t i e s a n d moved t o W a r r e n C o u n t y , K e n t u c k y , by
s t a g e s between 1806 and 1810.
The Cookes p r o s p e r e d m o d e s t l y ,
b u t between 1817 and 1823 d i s a s t e r s t r u c k .
F i v e b r o t h e r s and
S h e w a s now a l o n e i n t h e w o r l d e x c e p t
Anna's only sister d i e d .
f o r h e r mother and h e r younger b r o t h e r , Peyton.
T h e r e w a s a l s o a p e r s o n a l d i s a s t e r f o r Anna.
I n May
o r J u n e , 1820, s h e had g i v c n b i r t h t o a s t i l l b o r n c h i l d .
The
Her s i n s were
r e p u t e d f a t h e r w a s C o l o n e l Solomon P . S h a r p .
compounded b e c a u s e s h e h a d , p e r h a p s j u s t l y , a l r e a d y a c q u i r e d
a
reputation
as
a
bluestocking,
an
intellectual
with
unconventional h a b i t s and i d e a s , a t a t i m e and i n a c u l t u r e
that
tended
to
r e g a r d women w i t h
intellectual pretensions
skeptically.
S h e t o o k l o n g w a l k s i n t h e f i e l d s a n d woods o u t s i d e
B o w l i n g G r e e n , a n d d i s m i s s e d c o n t e m p t u o u s l y t h o s e who q u e s t i o n e d
thelr propriety.
She r e a d books and " d e l i g h t e d t o converse
upon s c e n e s o f romance a n d f i c t i o n . "
IIer r e l i g i o u s o p i n i o n s
were e q u a l l y unorthodox. She r i d i c u l e d C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a " f r a u d
upon mankind" a n d r e j e c t e d t h e i d e a s of Heaven a n d H e l l .
She
a l l e g e d l y s c o f f e d a t m a t r i m o n y a s w e l l , a n d avowed h e r s e l f
a " d i s c i p l e o f hlary M ' o o l s t o n e c r a f t " ( s i c ) .
Anna w a s a l s o a c c u s e d
of being s e x u a l l y promiscuous.
Her enemy, D r . L e a n d e r S h a r p ,
g a t h e r e d t h e t e s t i m o n i e s o f c o u n t l e s s men a n d women i n a n a t t e m p t
t o p r o v e t h a t Anna w a s g u i l t y o f t h e
t h e male p o p u l a t i o n of Bowling Green.
"criminal
act"
with
half
H e r m a r r i a g e t o a man s i x t e e n y e a r s h e r j u n i o r w a s , t o
s a y t h e l e a s t , u n c o n v e n t i o n a l , and t h e u n i o n evoked i n t e n s e ,
even b i z a r r e , emotions.
Anna's t e n a c i t y
i n seeking Sharp's
d e a t h was e x t r a o r d i n a r y .
S h e made h i s d e a t h a c o n d i t i o n f o r
marriage.
She p r a c t i c e d w i t h a p i s t o l s o t h a t s h e might d i s p a t c h
him
personally
and,
when
this
appeared
impossible,
she
collaborated
with
her
husband
in
planning
the
colonel's
assassination.
She sewed Beauchamp ' s d i s g u i s e and p o i s o n e d
She b r o u g h t laudanum
t h e t i p of t h e k n i f e he used t o k i l l Sharp.
a n d a f i l e w i t h h e r when s h e w a s c a r r i e d t o F r a n k f o r t a n d l o d g e d
w i t h h e r husband.
And i t w a s Anna who i n d u c e d Beauchamp t o
join her i n a suicide pact.
And l a s t , s h e w r o t e p o e t r y .
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , h e r v e r s e
is m a r k e d by a n o b s e s s i o n w i t h t h e i d e a o f h o n o r .
I t is n o t ,
h o w e v e r , a n i d e a o f f e m i n i n e h o n o r ; h,
i n t h e words of Bertram
Wyatt-Brown,
t o be
"subordinate
and
docile,"
t o abjure a
" r e v e n g e f u l s p i r i t , " and t o p r a c t i c e " r e s t r a i n t and a b s t i n e n c e "
i n t h e f a c e of h u m i l i a t i o n and s l a n d e r .
R a t h e r , Anna c o n c e i v e d
s h e h a t e d Sharp and s o u g h t t o
o f h o n o r i n m a s c u l i n e terms:
d e s t r o y h i m , i f n o t by h e r own h a n d t h e n by t h e h a n d o f a n o t h e r .
And s h e d i d .
S h a r p , was b o r n i n Washington
The v i c t i m ,
Solomon P .
H i s f a t h e r , Thomas, was
County, V i r g i n i a , August 2 2 , 1787.
probably Scotch-Irish.
B o r n i n P e n n s y l v a n i a , Thomas e m i g r a t e d
of
the
to
Washington
County
in
1770.
He w a s a
veteran
R e v o l u t i o n a r y War, h a v i n g s e r v e d w i t h I s a a c S h e l b y ' s r e g i m e n t
a t K i n g ' s Mountain.
After
p e a c e r e t u r n e d , Thomas moved t o
t h e v i c i n i t y o f N a s h v i l l e , a n d t h e n o n t o Logan C o u n t y , K e n t u c k y ,
w h e r e h i s name w o u l d a p p e a r i n c o u r t r e c . o r d s a s e a r l y a s 1 7 9 5 .
Solomon r e c e i v e d l i t t l e
formal
education,
although he
may h a v e a t t e n d e d Newton o r L o g a n A c a d e m i e s i n R u s s e l l v i l l e
H e was, n e v e r t h e l e s s , a d m i t t e d t o t h e b a r a t
for a t i m e .
n i n e t e e n and began t h e p r a c t i c e o f law a t R u s s e l l v i l l e i n 1806.
He s o o n d e c , i d e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t B o w l i n g G r e e n o f f e r e d a w i d e r
s c o p e f o r h i s a m b i t i o n , a n d moved t o t h e l a t t e r s e t t l e m e n t
s h o r t l y before 1810.
He t h e n e n t e r e d p o l i t i c s a n d r e p r e s e n t e d
w a r r e n - County i n t h e Kentucky l e g i s l a t u r e i n b o t h 3 8 1 0 and
1811.
Sharp next sought n a t i o n a l o f f i c e and r a n s u c c e s s f u l l y
f o r a s e a t i n t h e T h i r t e e n t h Congress.
He w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y
r e e l e c t e d t o a second term.
H i s r e c o r d was r e s p e c t a b l e b u t
unexceptionable,
although President
fdadison was r e p o r t e d t o
h a v e s a i d t h a t S h a r p w a s t h e " a b l e s t man o f h i s a g e t h a t h a d
ever crossed t h e mountains."
Sharp a l s o served h i s country
H e j o i n e d L t . C o l . Young E w i n g ' s
b r i e f l y i n t h e war o f 1 8 1 2 .
Regiment,
Kentucky
Mounted M i l i t i a ,
in
September,
1812, a s
a private.
L a t e r he was promoted t o c a p t a i n , t h e n t o m a j o r ,
and e v e n t u a l l y became A d j u t a n t - G e n e r a l o f t h e s t a t e .
The c o l o n e l
was e q u a l l y s u c c e s s f u l i n a c q u i r i n g l a n d .
Before 1824, he
had o b t a i n e d t i t l e t o 1 1 , 6 6 0 a c r e s i n N a r r e n , Logan, C h r i s t i a n ,
and L i v i n g s t o n C o u n t i e s , and a c q u i r e d a n o t h e r 1 , 8 7 0 a c r e s i n
partnership
with
his
younger
brother,
Dr.
Leander
Sharp.
Following s e r v i c e i n t h e m i l i t i a and i n Congress, Sharp r e t u r n e d
H e w a s s e n t t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t w i c e more
t o state politics.
by t h e v o t e r s o f W a r r e n C o u n t y i n 1 8 1 8 a n d 1 8 1 9 .
While i n
F r a n k f o r t , he m e t h i s w i f e , E l i z a b e t h , a d a u g h t e r of C o l . John
They were m a r r i e d
S c o t t o f t h e 1st R e g i m e n t , K e n t u c k y M i l i t i a .
December 1 7 , 1 8 1 8 .
Inevitably,
S h a r p became e m b r o i l e d i n t h e
famous Old
Court-New C o u r t
controversy
that
dominated Kentucky p o l i t i c s
between 1819 and 1829.
"No p e r i o d i n a l l K e n t u c k y ' s f i r s t
h u n d r e d v e a r s , " w r o t e A r n d t S t i c k l e s , "was m o r e e x a s p e r a t i n g
o r l a d e n w i t h p e r i l . . . . " The c o l o n e l e a r l y became a f e r v e n t
N e w C o u r t p a r t i s a n ; &,
he supported t h e claims of those
K e n t u c k i a n s who s o u g h t t o s a v e t h e i r p r o p e r t y f r o m f o r e c l o s u r e
by t h e p a s s a g e o f r e p l e v i n l a w s , i n l l a t i n g t h e c u r r e n c y , a n d
o t h e r expedients t o avoid bankruptcy.
New C o u r t p a r t i s a n s
a l s o urged t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e pro-creditor Court of Appeals,
a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f a new c o u r t t h a t w o u l d b e f r i e n d l y t o
debtors.
S h a r p seems t o h a v e b e e n o n e o f t h o s e R e l i e f c a n d i d a t e s
(as
the
New
Court
s u p p o r t e r s were
called)
who
"actively
cultivated t h e popular vote without regard t o t h e 'propriety'
of
t h e i r techniques."
That i s ,
he r e j e c t e d a p o l i t i c s of
deference.
I n t h i s s e n s e , h i s p o l i t i c a l r i s e may h a v e b e e n
Whatever t h e
perceived a s a t h r e a t to t h e established order.
r e a s o n , by t h e m i d d l e 1 8 2 0 s S h a r p w a s b e c o m i n g w h a t J i m K l o t t e r
c a l l s a " h i g h r i s k " p o l i t i c i a n - - a man w h o s e o p i n i o n s a n d a c t i o n s
make h i m a p o s s i b l e t a r g e t f o r v i o l e n c e , a n d a c e r t a i n t a r g e t
f o r v i t u p e r a t i o n and abuse.
I n 1 8 2 1 t h e c o l o n e l bec,ame a c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e s t a t e
s e n a t e from Warren County.
Two m o n t h s b e f o r e t h e e l e c t i o n ,
however, Governor John Adair o f f e r e d S h a r p a p o s i t i o n a s A t t o r n e y
General i n h i s pro-Relief administration.
The c o l o n e l a c c e p t e d
A d a i r ' s o f f e r , withdrew
from t h e s e n a t e r a c e ,
and went t o
F r a n k f o r t i n September f o r c o n f i r m a t i o n h e a r i n g s .
H i s family,
e s c o r t e d by D r . S h a r p , f o l l o w e d t h e n e x t m o n t h .
These hearings,
h e l d i n O c t o b e r , proved unexpectedly embarrassing.
I n June
a h a n d b i l l h a d a p p e a r e d r e h e a r s i n g a rumor t h a t S h a r p , a l t h o u g h
a l r e a d y a m a r r i e d man, h a d f a t h e r e d t h e s t i l l b o r n c h i l d o f
Anna Cooke o f B o w l i n g G r e e n .
The a u t h o r o f t h e h a n d b i l l was
p r o b a b l y John U . Waring, a l a w y e r , k i l l e r , and l a n d s p e c u l a t o r
who h a d b e c o m e S h a r p ' s b i t t e r e n e m y .
The s t o r y c o n c e r n i n g
Anna C o o k e w a s b r o u g h t u p by
someone a t t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n
hearings,
but
S h a r p ' s d e n l a l was a p p a r e n t l y c o n v i n c i n g a n d
h e was c o n f i r m e d unanimously October 30.
S h a r p c o n t i n u e d t o f i n d t h e campaign t r a i l a l l u r i n g ,
however, and i n 1825, h e a g r e e d t o oppose John J . C r i t t e n d e n ,
an o l d s u p p o r t e r , f o r a s e a t i n t h e l e g i s l a t u r e from F r a n k l i n
County.
He r e s i g n e d h i s p o s i t i o n
a s Attorney General
and
announced h i s candidacy on June 2 9 .
The c o n t e s t between t h e s e
t w o d i s t i n g u i s h e d K e n t u c k i a n s , w r o t e L . F . J o h n s o n , " s o o n became
of S t a t e and almost N a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t . "
Charges of f r a u d and
John U .
f a l s e h o o d were common; s o w e r e t h r e a t s o f v i o l e n c e .
Waring a n d P a t r i c k Henry D a r b y , a n O l d C o u r t l a w y e r , f o r m e r
editor
of
the
Frankfort
Constitution
and s p e c u l a t o r ,
were
p a r t i c u l a r l y vehement i n t h e i r d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f t h e c o l o n e l .
The l a t t e r was q u o t e d on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s a s p r e d i c t i n g t h a t
even i f Sharp s h o u l d be e l e c t e d , h e would n e v e r l i v e t o t a k e
his seat.
O u t o f some 1 , 6 0 0 b a l l o t s c a s t , S h a r p won t h e e l e c t i o n
by 6 9 v o t e s .
T h e l e g i s l a t u r e w a s s e t t o c o n v e n e o n Monday, November
7.
A t a b o u t two i n t h e morning o f t h e s e v e n t h , C o l o n e l Sharp
w a s c a l l e d t o a s i d e d o o r o f h i s home a t 4 0 8 M a d i s o n , F r a n k f o r t .
A f t e r a b r i e f c o n v e r s a t i o n , f o l l o w e d by a s t r u g g l e , h e was
stabbed t o death.
Dr. Sharp reached h i s b r o t h e r ' s s i d e within
minutes of t h e stabbing.
The d e a t h wound, a s h e l a t e r d e s c r i b e d
i t , was a b o u t o n e i n c h w i d e , s i x i n c h e s d e e p , and l o c a t e d a b o u t
two i n c h e s below t h e b r e a s t b o n e .
The c o l o n e l d i e d w i t h o u t
ever recovering consciousness.
T h e a s s a s s i n w a s J e r e b o a m 0. B e a u c h a m p , a y o u n g l a w y e r
He
l i v i n g i n Simpson County f i v e o r s i x m i l e s from F r a n k l i n .
w a s t h e s e c o n d s o n o f Thomas B e a u c h a m p , a f a r m e r a n d l a n d
s p e c u l a t o r o f t h e same c o u n t y .
Born i n S e p t e m b e r , 1 8 0 2 , young
Beauchamp w a s e d u c a t e d a t D r . B e n j a m i n T h u r s t o n ' s academy i n
Glasgow u n t i l h e was s i x t e e n .
Subsequently he t r i e d keeping
s t o r e and teaching school b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o Dr. Thurston's
a s a n a s s i s t a n t f o r two more y e a r s .
I t was w h i l e l i v i n g i n
Glasgow t h a t h e h e a r d o f C o l o n e l S h a r p ' s a l l e g e d s e d u c t i o n
o f Anna C o o k e .
A t e i g h t e e n Beauchamp moved t o B o w l i n g G r e e n w i t h t h e
i n t e n t i o n of reading law.
T h e r e h e made t h e a c q u a i n t a n c e o f
C o l o n e l S h a r p , a l r e a d y a w e l l known a t t o r n e y a n d p o l i t i c i a n .
T h e c o l o n e l may h a v e s o l i c i t e d Beauchamp t o s t u d y l a w w i t h
h i m b u t t h e y o u n g m a n , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own t e s t i m o n y , c u r t l y
rejected the idea.
S h a r p was a l r e a d y d i s h o n o r e d i n h i s e y e s
and h e wanted n o t h i n g t o do w i t h him.
A f t e r a few m o n t h s o f s t u d y Beauchamp r e t i r e d t o h i s
To h i s s u r p r i s e , h e l e a r n e d t h a t
f a t h e r ' s farm f o r a rest.
Anna C o o k e a n d h e r m o t h e r l i v e d n o t f a r a w a y .
Beauchamp s o o n
c o n t r i v e d a r e a s o n f o r a v i s i t t o t h e Cooke r e s i d e n c e .
There
h e met Anna f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e .
She t o l d him t h a t s h e d i d
n o t d e s i r e h i s c o m p a n y , b u t c o u r t e o u s l y o f f e r e d him t h e u s e
of
her library.
Beauchamp a c c e p t e d , c h o s e o n e v o l u m e , and
r o d e away.
He r e t u r n e d f r e q u e n t l y t o r e a d i n t h e l i b r a r y a n d
t o b o r r o w m o r e b o o k s , b u t h e saw n o m o r e o f Anna f o r some t i m e .
When t h e y m e t a g a i n Beauchamp r e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h h e r r e c l u s i o n ,
and r e q u e s t e d t h a t h i s s i s t e r s be a l l o w e d t o v i s i t h e r .
She
agreed, but did not return t h e i r v i s i t .
Eventually,
Beauchamp s u c c e e d e d i n p u t t i n g h i s v i s i t s
t o t h e Cooke f a r m o n a r e g u l a r b a s i s .
He f e l l v i o l e n t l y i n
l o v e , b u t when h e s p o k e o f h i s p a s s i o n t o Anna a n d p r o p o s e d
A t f i r s t she declined
marriage, she refused.
"Why?" h e a s k e d .
t o a n s w e r b u t a f t e r some h e s i t a t i o n e x p l a i n e d t h a t m a r r i a g e
t o h e r would e n t a i l a momentous o b l i g a t i o n :
" t o revenge t h e
( s i c ) had
done h e r . "
"She s a i d , " w r o t e
injury a villiam
Beauchamp i n h i s C o n f e s s i o n , t h a t " h e r h e a r t c o u l d n e v e r c e a s e
till
Colonel
Sharp
should
die
through
her
to
ache,
instrumentality.
. .
She would k i s s t h e hand, and a d o r e
t h e p e r s o n who w o u l d r e v e n g e h e r ; b u t t h a t n o o n e s a v e m y s e l f
s h o u l d d o i t . " Beauchamp a s s u r e d h e r t h a t h e a l r e a d y r e g a r d e d
S h a r p ' s d e a t h a s "necessary consequence" o f t h e i r m a r r i a g e .
1:pon
these terms, she consented t o be h i s wife.
Beauchamp
was t h e n e i g h t e e n , h i s f i a n c e e a t l e a s t t h i r t y - f i v e .
.
The c o u r t s h i p a n d p r o p o s a l a p p a r e n t l y o c c u r r e d i n t h e
s p r i n g a n d summer o f 1 8 2 1 .
The engagement c o n t i n u e d f o r t h r e e
years,
possibly
because
Thomas
Beauchamp
refused
his
son
p e r m i s s i o n t o m a r r y , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e , a s Beauchamp e x p l a i n e d ,
h e w a n t e d t o f i n i s h h i s s t u d i e s b e f o r e m a k i n g Anna h i s b r i d e .
A c c o r d i n g t o a n u n c o n f i r m e d a c c o u n t , Beauchamp r o d e t o
Frankfort
shortly
after
his
engagement
to
gain
immediate
H e had an i n t e r v i e w w i t h
s a t i s f a c t i o n from Colonel Sharp.
t h e o l d e r man i n w h i c h S h a r p a c k n o w l e d g e p a t e r n i t y o f t h e
s t i l l b o r n c h i l d , d e c l i n e d a d u e l ( a s Anna h a d p r e d i c t e d ) , a n d
b e g g e d Beauchamp r e p e a t e d l y n o t t o h u m i l i a t e him w i t h a p u b l i c
When t h e l a t t e r , h o w e v e r , w a r n e d t h e c o l o n e l t o
whipping.
e x p e c t d a i l y c h a s t i s e m e n t u n t i l h e would f i g h t a f o r m a l d u e l ,
Sharp s e c r e t l y l e f t Frankfort.
Beauchamp a n d Anna n e x t p l a n n e d t o a w a i t t h e c o l o n e l ' s
v i s i t t o t h e C i r c u i t C o u r t i n Bowling G r e e n , and t h e n l u r e
Anna w o u l d
him t o t h e C o o k e h o u s e w i t h a c o n c i l i a t o r y l e t t e r .
t h e n s h o o t him.
" S h e e v e r , " w r o t e Beauchamp a d m i r i n g l y , " s e e m e d
t o e s t e e m t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f k i l l i n g him w i t h h e r own h a n d ,
a s what s h e most d e s i r e d o f a l l t h i n g s i n t h e w o r l d . "
This
plan a l s o f a i l e d .
S h a r p d i d n o t rise t o t h e b a i t .
I n t h e i n t e r i m Beauchamp c o n t i n u e d h i s s t u d i e s , t a u g h t
a country s c h o o l , and p e r h a p s even s o l i c i t e d Sharp f o r l e g a l
business.
Anna a n d Beauchamp were f i n a l l y m a r r i e d i n J u n e ,
A s e c o n d e f f o r t w a s now made t o e n t i c e S h a r p t o B o w l i n g
1824.
Green.
Beauchamp d r a f t e d a l e t t e r u s i n g t h e name o f Z e b u l o n
Y. Y a n t i s a n d r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e c o l o n e l c o n s u l t w i t h h i m i n
Bowling Green c o n c e r n i n g some l a n d c l a i m s .
Sharp apparently
r e f u s e d t h e unknown Y a n t i s a d e f i n i t e a n s w e r , a n d Beauchamp
b e g a n t o b e l i e v e t h a t h e w o u l d h a v e t o h u n t t h e c o l o n e l down.
I n t h e summer o f 1 8 2 5 t h e y o u n g l a w y e r r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r
f r o m s o m e o n e i n F r a n k f o r t who w r o t e t h a t S h a r p h a d p u b l i c l y
denied t h e p a t e r n i t y of Anna's c h i l d .
Instead, the colonel
c l a i m e d t h e baby was a m u l a t t o , and o f f e r e d a c e r t i f i c a t e from
t h e m i d w i f e who h a d a t t e n d e d i t s b i r t h t o s u p p o r t h i s c o n t e n t i o n .
D r i v e n t o a n e v e n m o r e i n t e n s e h a t r e d by t h i s r e p o r t , Anna
a n d B e a u c h a m p now d e v i s e d a f o u r t h p l a n t o k i l l t h e c o l o n e l .
T h i s t i m e t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n would b e done i n s e c r e t , t h e young
lawyer w r o t e , b e c a u s e h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f foredoomed t o d e a t h
by G o v e r n o r J o s e p h D e s h a a n d o t h e r f r i e n d s o f S h a r p i f t h e i r
champion w e r e k i l l e d o p e n l y i n a d u e l .
Beauchamp r a t i o n a l i z e d
t h a t h e d i d n o t f e e l o b l i g e d t o obey any law ( a s , f o r example,
t h a t forbidding murder) i f it contravened t h e laws of honor.
C o n s i d e r i n g t h e e n o r m i t y o f S h a r p ' s c r i m e a g a i n s t Anna, "worse
t h a n m u r d e r i n g my w i f e , " w h a t e x c e p t d e a t h a t t h e h a n d s o f
t h e a v e n g i n g husband was a p p r o p r i a t e v i n d i c a t i o n ?
B e a u c h a m p f i r s t l e t i t b e known t h a t h e p l a n n e d t o s e l l
h i s p r o p e r t y a n d move t o M i s s o u r i , w h e r e h i s w i f e h a d r e l a t i v e s .
A b u s i n e s s t r i p t o F r a n k f o r t would b e n e c e s s a r y t o f a c i l i t a t e
t h e r e m o v a l , a n d w h i l e t h e r e Beauchamp p l a n n e d t o k i l l S h a r p .
On November 1 , t h e y o u n g l a w y e r d e p a r t e d f o r W a r r e n a n d
Edmonson C o u n t i e s t o w i n d u p h i s a f f a i r s t h e r e .
H e then rode
on t o t h e s t a t e c a p i t a l .
Beauchamp a r r i v e d a b o u t h a l f a n h o u r
b e f o r e s u n s e t o n S u n d a y , November 6 , a n d p r o c u r e d a room a t
J o e l S c o t t ' s , warden o f t h e s t a t e p e n i t e n t i a r y , and a r e l a t i v e
T h e r e h e u n p a c k e d h i s d i s g u i s e , a mask t h a t
o f Mrs. S h a r p .
would g i v e him a N e g r o i d a p p e a r a n c e , and a b u t c h e r k n i f e w i t h
a p o i s o n e d p o i n t , b o t h p r e p a r e d f o r h i m by h i s l o v i n g s p o u s e .
H e l e f t S c o t t ' s a b o u t n i n e p.m.
Someone w h o s e i d e n t i t y t h e
young l a w y e r n e v e r r e v e a l e d had a l r e a d y g i v e n him t h e l o c a t i o n
of S h a r p ' s house, and, perhaps, t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e c o l o n e l ' s
bedroom.
Beauchamp s t r o l l e d a b o u t F r a n k f o r t
and, while passing
t h e mansion h o u s e , c a u g h t a g l i m p s e o f h i s i n t e n d e d v i c t i m .
H e t h e n p o s i t i o n e d himself s o t h a t he might k i l l t h e c o l o n e l
b e f o r e t h e l a t t e r e n t e r e d h i s home.
Beauchamp a l s o o b s e r v e d
Dr. Sharp walking by.
H e had a n t i c i p a t e d k i l l i n g t h e l a t t e r
a s w e l l a s his older brother,
b u t Anna,
he claims,
pled
successfully
for the physician's l i f e .
She argued t h a t t o
k i l l C o l o n e l S h a r p would b e punishment enough f o r t h e d o c t o r .
I n f a c t , s h e s a i d , i t would b e a g r e a t e r c h a r i t y t o k i l l Leander
a f t e r k i l l i n g C o l o n e l S h a r p , s o g r e a t would b e t h e g r i e f of
t h e former a t t h e death of h i s i d o l i z e d o l d e r b r o t h e r .
Beauchamp f a i l e d t o i n t e r c e p t S h a r p b e f o r e t h e c o l o n e l
gained h i s residence.
IIe t h e r e f o r e p u t o n h i s m a s k , d r e w h i s
d a g g e r , and knocked t h r e e t i m e s a t a s i d e d o o r .
According
t o Beauchamp, t h e f o l l o w i n g d i a l o g u e t o o k p l a c e :
Colonel
Sharp
said,
"Who's
there?"
"Covington, "
I replied.
Quickly C o l o n e l S h a r p ' s f o o t was h e a r d
upon t h e f l o o r .
I saw u n d e r t h e d o o r , h e a p p r o a c h e d
I d r e w my mask f r o m my f a c e , a n d
without a l i g h t !
immediately Colonel Sharp opened t h e door.
I advanced
i n t o t h e room a n d w i t h my l e f t h a n d , I g r a s p e d h i s
The v i o l e n c e
r i g h t w r i s t , as w i t h a n i r o n h a n d .
o f t h e g r a s p made C o l o n e l S h a r p s p r i n g b a c k a n d
trying
t o
disengage
his
wrist,
he
said,
"What
I r e p l i e d , "John A . Covington,
Covington is t h i s ? "
sir."
" I know J o h n W . C o v i n g t o n . "
"My n a m e , " s a i d
I , "is J o h n A . C o v i n g t o n , " a n d a b o u t t h e t i m e I
s a i d t h a t , Mrs. S h a r p , whom I h a d s e e n a p p e a r i n
t h e p a r t i t i o n door a s I entered t h e o u t e r door,
disappeared.
S h e h a d become
alarmed,
I
imagine,
b y t h e l i t t l e s c u f f l e C o l o n e l S h a r p made when h e
s p r a n g b a c k t o g e t h i s w r i s t l o o s e f r o m my g r a s p .
Seeing her disappear,
I s a i d t o Colonel Sharp, i n
a t o n e a s though I was d e e p l y m o r t i f i e d a t h i s n o t
knowing m e :
"And d i d you n o t know m e s u r e e n o u g h . "
"Not w i t h y o u r h a n d k e r c h i e f a b o u t y o u r f a c e , " s a i d
Colonel
Sharp.
For
the
handkerchief
w i t h which
I h a d c o n f i n e d my mask u p o n my f o r e h e a d w a s s t i l l
round
my
forehead.
I
then
replied
in
a
soft
conciliating persuasive
tone
of
voice,
"Come
to
t h e l i g h t C o l o n e l a n d y o u w i l l know me."
And p u l l i n g
him by t h e a r m , h e came r e a d i l y t o t h e d o o r .
I
s t e p p e d w i t h one f o o t b a c k upon t h e f i r s t s t e p o u t
a t t h e d o o r , a n d s t i l l h o l d i n g h i s w r i s t w i t h my
l e f t h a n d , I s t r i p p e d my h a t a n d h a n k e r c h i e f f r o m
o v e r my f o r e h e a d a n d h e a d , a n d l o o k e d r i g h t u p i n
. . . IIe s p r a n g b a c k a n d
Colonel Sharp's f a c e .
exclaimed i n t h e d e e p e s t t o n e of a s t o n i s h m e n t , dismay,
a n d h o r r o r a n d d e s p a i r I e v e r h e a r d , " G r e a t God! !
I t ' s him!"
And a s h e s a i d t h a t h e f e l l o n h i s k n e e s ,
a f t e r f a i l i n g t o j e r k l o o s e h i s wrist f r o m my g r a s p .
A s h e f e l l on h i s k n e e s I l e t g o h i s w r i s t a n d g r a s p e d
h i m by t h e t h r o a t , a n d d a s h i n g h i m a g a i n s t t h e f a c i n g
o f t h e d o o r , I c h o a k e d him a g a i n s t i t t o k e e p him
f r o m h a l l o w i n g , a n d m u t t e r e d i n h i s f a c e , " d i e you
villain."
And a s I s a i d t h a t , I p l u n g e d t h e d a g g e r
t o his heart.
Beauchamp now d e l i b e r a t e l y e x p o s e d h i m s e l f t o M r s . S h a r p ' s
view i n h i s d i s g u i s e a s a Negro.
He t h e n f l e d t h e s c e n e ,
d i s p o s e d of h i s c l o t h i n g , b u r i e d h i s k n i f e , and d r e s s e d a g a i n
i n t h e c l o t h e s h e had been w e a r i n g e a r l i e r i n t h e e v e n i n g .
The a s s a s s i n t h e n r e t u r n e d t o J o e l S c o t t ' s a n d s l i p p e d u p s t a i r s
t o h i s room.
He b u r n e d t h e m a s k , a n d w a s h e d h i s h a n d s .
Then,
w i t h i n f i v e m i n u t e s , he f e l l i n t o a sound and l a s t i n g s l e e p .
Beauchamp d i s c u s s e d t h e c r i m e w i t h S c o t t t h e n e x t m o r n i n g
and t h e n went t o t a k e c a r e o f some l a n d w a r r a n t b u s i n e s s , t h e
ostcnsible reason f o r h i s v i s i t t o t h e s t a t e c a p i t a l .
To h i s
dismay, however, h e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e w a r r a n t s had n o t been
prepared.
Beauchamp now d e c i d e d t o l e a v e F r a n k f o r t a s q u i c k l y
a s possible.
S c o t t q u e s t i o n e d him w h i l e t h e young l a w y e r ' s
h o r s e was b e i n g r e a d i e d f o r t h e journey s o u t h .
I t was c l e a r
t h e l a n d l o r d was s u s p i c i o u s .
B e a u c h a m p l e f t F r a n k f o r t e a r l y o n t h e m o r n i n g o f November
o n l y remembering l a t e r t h a t h e had l e f t a handkerchief s o i l e d
H e r o d e o n , however,
w i t h a few d r o p s o f o l d b l o o d a t S c o t t ' s .
toward t h e Green R i v e r c o u n t r y , t e l l i n g s e v e r a l p e o p l e a l o n g
t h e way a b o u t t h e m u r d e r w h i l e w i t h h o l d i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
from o t h e r s .
N e a r s u n s e t o n November 1 1 , h e r e a c h e d h i s home.
A s p r e a r r a n g e d , Beauchamp h o i s t e d a " f l a g o f v i c t o r y , " a r e d
handkerchief t h a t s i g n a l l e d success i n k i l l i n g Colonel Sharp.
T h e f l a g w a s p r e s e n t e d t o A n n a , who f e l l o n h e r k n e e s , e m b r a c e d
him, c r i e d , a n d t h e n c a l l e d "upon t h e s p i r i t s o f h e r f a t h e r ,
her b r o t h e r ' s ( s i c ) , and h e r sister t o b l e s s m e and t o i n t e r c e d e
with a j u s t Providence, t o protect m e . . . f o r t h e righteous
deed I had done."
7,
Meanwhile, i n F r a n k f o r t , $4,000 had been v o t e d a s a reward
A p o s s e was
f o r t h o s e who w o u l d a p p r e h e n d S h a r p ' s a s s a s s i n .
q u i c k l y f o r m e d , a n d s e t o u t f o r S i m p s o n C o u n t y , some 1 6 0 m i l e s
away,
t o a r r e s t t h e most
likely suspect.
They r o d e i n t o
B e a u c h a m p ' s f r o n t y a r d o n t h e e v e n i n g o f November 1 2 .
William
Jackson,
spokesman f o r t h e g r o u p ,
requested
t h a t Beauchamp
accompany them b a c k t o F r a n k f o r t f o r i n t e r r o g a t i o n .
Beauchamp
a g r e e d , a l t h o u g h r e m i n d i n g them t h a t h e was g o i n g v o l u n t a r i l y ,
"as a gentleman."
Had o n e o f t h e p o s s e b e e n a S h a r p , h e t e l l s
u s , h e would have f o u g h t it o u t .
A s r e q u e s t e d , Beauchamp p r o d u c e d h i s d i r k f o r e x a m i n a t i o n
and allo\%ed h i s s h o e s t o b e measured.
The l a t t e r measurement
a l o n e c o n v i n c e d some o f t h e p o s s e t h a t t h e young l a w y e r was
t h e murderer.
The h a n d k e r c h i e f l e f t a t S c o t t ' s was a l s o produced
b y t h e p o s s e a s e v i d e n c e , some o f t h e m c l a i m i n g t h a t i t h a d
been found a t S h a r p ' s door.
Beauchamp, h o w e v e r , managed t o
d i s p o s e o f t h i s p o t e n t i a l l y d a m a g i n g i t e m o n t h e way t o F r a n k f o r t
by s t e a l i n g i t f r o m o n e o f t h e g u a r d s w h i l e t h e l a t t e r w a s
drunk and t h e n t h r o w i n g it i n t o t h e f i r e .
B e a u c h a m p a n d t h e p o s s e a r r i v e d a t t h e c a p i t a l o n November
15.
Speculation concerning t h e motive f o r t h e assassination
was r i f e .
Amos K e n d a l l , e d i t o r o f t h e A r g u s , seems t o h a v e
been t h e f i r s t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o l o n e l ' s d e a t h was a
p o l i t i c a l m u r d e r , t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f a p r o m i n e n t New C o u r t
man by a p a r t i s a n o f t h e O l d C o u r t .
T h i s pleased t h e fancy
o f t h e S h a r p s , c l a i m e d Beauchamp, b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n o t wish
i t t o b e t h a t t h e c o l o n e l was "not s o immaculate a s h i s f a m i l y
would have t h e w o r l d b e l i e v e . "
I t w a s Amos K e n d a l l a n d o t h e r N e w C o u r t l e a d e r s who s e a l e d
h i s f a t e , B e a u c h a m p t h o u g h t , by u n i t i n g b o t h O l d a n d New C o u r t
f a c t i o n s a g a i n s t him.
T h i s w a s d o n e by f a b r i c a t i n g a c o n s p i r a c y
t o a s s a s s i n a t e S h a r p b e t w e e n Beauchamp a n d P a t r i c k H e n r y D a r b y .
Beauchamp t r e a t e d D a r b y w i t h u t t e r c o n t e m p t i n t h e C o n f e s s i o n :
"one o f t h e g r e a t e s t f o o l s 1 e v e r m e t w i t h i n t h e w o r l d . "
Fool
o r n o t , t h e l a w y e r ' s t e s t i m o n y c o n t r a d i c t e d much o f w h a t w a s
c l a i m e d b o t h hy t h e a s s a s s i n a n d by D r . S h a r p .
Darby t e s t i f i e d
h e met Beauchamp o r s o m e o n e who m i g h t h a v e b e e n Beauchamp n e a r
D u n c a n ' s Well i n Simpson County a b o u t September 1 , 1 8 2 4 , and
t h a t t h e l a t t e r a s k e d Darby t o r e p r e s e n t him i n c o l l e c t i n g
a d e b t owed h i s w i f e b y C o l o n e l S h a r p .
During t h e course of
t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n , D a r b y a v e r r e d , t h e a l l e g e d Beauchamp h a d
threatened t o k i l l Sharp.
Dr.
S h a r p , on t h e o t h e r hand, b e l i e v e d Darby t o h a v e
H e a s s e r t e d t h a t Darby had
i n s p i r e d h i s b r o t h e r ' s murder.
w r i t t e n from F r a n k f o r t
t o Beauchamp,
f a l s e l y claiming t h a t
C o l o n e l S h a r p had s a i d A n n a ' s baby was a m u l a t t o , a n d t h a t
t h e l a w y e r h a d s u b s e q u e n t l y v i s i t e d Beauchamp i n S i m p s o n C o u n t y .
Dr. S h a r p f u r t h e r c h a r g e d t h a t Darby had c a l l e d upon t h e c o l o n e l
f o r s i n i s t e r r e a s o n s t h e day b e f o r e t h e l a t t e r ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n ,
a n d t h a t h e h a d p r o b a b l y shown S h a r p ' s h o u s e t o B e a u c h a m p ,
and i d e n t i f i e d t h e c o l o n e l ' s bedroom.
Darby , o f c o u r s e , d e n i e d
any c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c r i m e .
Beauchamp w a s q u e s t i o n e d by t w o j u s t i c e s o f t h e p e a c e
o n November 1 6 , a n d a p r e l i m i n a r y G r a n d J u r y e x a m i n a t i o n w a s
s e t f o r t h e f i r s t Monday i n J a n u a r y , 1 8 2 6 .
On t h e t h i r d Monday
i n March h e w a s i n d i c t e d .
J o h n P o p e a n d Thomas L a c y o f
S p r i n g f i e l d a n d S a m u e l Q . R i c h a r d s o n o f L o u i s v i l l e were e m p l o y e d
by S e n a t o r J . 0 . B e a u c h a m p , "Old J e r r y , " t o d e f e n d h i s n e p h e w .
C h a r l e s S . B i b b a n d J . W . Denney p r o s e c u t e d f o r t h e Commonwealth
w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f D a n i e l h l a y e s , a l a w y e r r e t a i n e d by t h e
Sharp family.
J u d g e Henry D a v i d g e p r e s i d e d .
It lasted thirteen
A f t e r t w o d e l a y s t h e t r i a l b e g a n May 8 .
days e x c l u s i v e of Sundays.
T h i r t y w i t n e s s e s w e r e c a l l e d by
t h e prosecution, twenty f o r t h e defense.
Beauchamp d i d n o t
t a k e t h e s t a n d i n h i s own d e f e n s e .
The j u r y r e t i r e d a b o u t
f i v e i n t h e a f t e r n o o n o n F r i d a y , May 1 9 , a n d a f t e r a b o u t a n
h o u r ' s d e l i b e r a t i o n brought i n a v e r d i c t of g u i l t y .
Anna, m e a n w h i l e , h a d b e e n b r o u g h t t o F r a n k f o r t a n d l o d g e d
On May 20 s h e w a s e x a m i n e d by J u s t i c e s
i n her husband's cell.
o f t h e P e a c e J o h n Brown a n d E . S . C o l e m a n t o d e t e r m i n e i f s h e
should
be
charged
as
accessory.
Four
persons
presented
i n c r i m i n a t i n g t e s t i m o n y , i n c l u d i n g C a p t a i n .John Low, a S i m p s o n
C o u n t y n e i g h b o r who h a d a l r e a d y d o n e much t o c o n v i c t Beauchamp.
The m a g i s t r a t e s , h o w e v e r , w e r e c l e a r l y u n e a s y w i t h t h e i r r o l e .
C o n f e s s i n g " t h e y f e l t some d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e c a s e , " t h e j u s t i c e s
recommended d i s m i s s a l o f t h e c h a r g e . And s o i t w a s d o n e .
Beauchamp w a s now s e n t e n c e d t o d i e J u l y 7 b e t w e e n t w e l v e
and t h r e e i n t h e a f t e r n o o n .
He r e c e i v e d t h e v e r d i c t c a l m l y ,
J o h n Pope
losing neither "his
f o r t i t u d e o r s e l f command."
sought t o overturn h i s c l i e n t ' s conviction, but h i s e f f o r t s
were u n s u c c e s s f u l .
Both Judge Davidge and t h e C o u r t of Appeals
r e j e c t e d h i s a r g u m e n t s f o r a new t r i a l w i t h o u t c o m m e n t .
Beauchamp, m e a n w h i l e , had begun h i s a p o l o g i a .
He h a d ,
i n f a c t , sought a postponement of h i s execution s o t h a t he
might have " t i m e t o w r i t e something f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h o s e
n e a r e r a n d d e a r e r t o him t h a n l i f e i t s e l f " ( h i s e m p a h s i s ) .
O r i g i n a l l y , t h e r e were two c o n f e s s i o n s .
T h e f i r s t , f o r some
r e a s o n , was d e s t r o y e d .
Only t h e s e c o n d , e x p u r g a t e d v e r s i o n
e x i s t s today.
A f t e r a n a p p e a l f o r a s e c o n d d e l a y i n t h e e x e c u t i o n had
b e e n r e j e c t e d , Anna a n d Beauchamp d e t e r m i n e d t o e n d t h e a f f a i r
by k i l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h d o s e s o f l a u d a n u m t h a t Anna h a d
On J u l y 5 , s h e made h e r w i l l .
Husband
brought to Frankfort.
and w i f e t o o k t h e p o i s o n t o g e t h e r a b o u t t e n t h a t e v e n i n g , and
Beauchamp c o m p o s e d a p o s t s c r i p t t o h i s c o n f e s s i o n j u s t i f y i n g
their action.
By t w o t h e n e x t a f t e r n o o n , h o w e v e r , i t w a s c l e a r
t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t d i e by t h i s m e a n s .
Anna v o m i t e d m o s t o f
t h e laudanum, and a second dose proved e q u a l l y i n e f f e c t u a l .
T h e d e s p e r a t e l o v e r s now d e c i d e d t o s t a b t h e m s e l v e s t o
d e a t h w i t h a b u t c h e r k n i f e which had been smuggled i n t o t h e i r
cell.
I t was Anna's w i l l which, once a g a i n , p r e v a i l e d o v e r
"I c a n r e f u s e h e r n o t h i n g s h e p r a y s o f
t h a t of h e r husband.
me t o d o , " h e a d m i t t e d .
On t h e m o r n i n g o f J u l y 7 Beauchamp
Anna t h e n
took t h e k n i f e and d r o v e i t deep i n t o h i s stomach.
w r e s t l e d t h e weapon f r o m h i s hand and s t a b b e d h e r s e l f .
IIis
wound w a s s e r i o u s b u t n o t m o r t a l ; h e r i n j u r y p r o v e d f a t a l .
She
w a s d e a d by 1 2 : 3 0 , a b o u t a n h o u r b e f o r e h e r h u s b a n d w a s h a n g e d .
Shortly a f t e r Anna's
d e a t h Beauchamp w a s r e a d i e d
for
h i s journey
t o t h e gallows.
He demanded a f i n a l i n t e r v i e w
w i t h D a r b y , a n d p u b l i c l y e x o n e r a t e d him o f a n y c o m p l i c i t y i n
Sharp's death, although continuing t o a s s e r t t h a t t h e Frankfort
lawyer
had
perjured
himself
concerning
the
Duncan's
Well
interview.
T h e w o u n d e d man w a s t h e n l i f t e d i n t o a d e a r b o r n
and,
accompanied by
the bugles,
fifes,
and drums o f
the
Twenty-second Kentucky, c a r r i e d t h r o u g h t h e streets o f F r a n k f o r t .
H i s p r o g r e s s w a s o b s e r v e d b y s o m e s i x t h o u s a n d s p e c t a t o r s who
l i n e d t h e s t r e e t s and surrounded t h e gallows e r e c t e d a t t h e
i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e Lexington and G l e n n ' s Creek r o a d s .
Upon
h i s a r r i v a l , t h e c o n d e m n e d man w a s r e m o v e d t o a s m a l l c a r t
H e was t h e n asked it
a n d p l a c e d u p r i g h t o n h i s own c o f f i n .
h e had any l a s t r e q u e s t .
Beauchamp c a l l e d f o r a g l a s s o f w a t e r ,
and e n t r e a t e d
t h e musicians
of
t h e 'Iiventy-second
t o play
The r o p e was t h e n a d j u s t e d a b o u t h i s
"Bonaparte's Retreat
n e c k , a n d t h e c o n d e m n e d man w a s t o l d t h a t a l l w a s i n r e a d i n e s s .
Beauchamp w a s h e l p e d t o h i s f e e t a n d , t u r n i n g t o J o h n M ' I n t o s h ,
h e s a i d , " D r i v e O f f , I am r e a d y t o d i e . "
."
The h o r s e s w e r e s t a r t e d .
Beauchamp s t r u g g l e d b r i e f l y
b u t , w i t h i n t e n m i n u t e s , h e was dead.
The body was t h e n t u r n e d
o v e r t o h i s f a t h e r a n d h i s u n c l e , who d e p a r t e d F r a n k f o r t b e f o r e
n i g h t f a l l c a r r y i n g t h e c o r p s e t o Bloomf i e l d .
T h e r e Beauchamp
a n d h i s b e l o v e d Anna w e r e b u r i e d t o g e t h e r i n a d o u b l e c o f f i n ,
h i s arm a r o u n d h e r s h o u l d e r , h e r h e a d o n h i s b r e a s t .
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Although a l l a r e s u s p e c t , t h e r e a r e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h r e e
i n d i s p e n s a b l e s o u r c c s f o r s t u d e n t s who w a n t t o p u r s u e t h e murky
c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e Beauchamp-Sharp
affair.
F i r s t , and most
(Frankfort, 1826).
Much
r e l i a b l e , is Beauchamp's T r i a l .
l c s s t r u s t w o r t h y a r e D r . Leander S h a r p ' s V i n d i c a t i o n of t h e
C h a r a c t e r of t h e L a t e C o l . Solomon P . S h a r p .
. (Frankfort,
1 8 2 7 ) a n d The C o n f e s s i o n of Jereboam 0. Beauchamp, e d . R o b e r t
D . Bamberg ( B l o o m f i e l d , Ky . , a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 8 2 6 , 1 9 6 6 ) .
The l a t t e r two a r e o f t e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d s e l f - s e r v i n g .
They
are t o b e u s e d w i t h g r e a t c a r e a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e s k e p t i c i s m .
T h e L e t t e r s o f Ann Cook . . . ( W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1 8 2 6 ) , a s
Fred Johnson h a s s o s k i l l f u l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d , a r e s p u r i o u s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e y may b e o f some v a l u e i n s u g g e s t i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
set a n d t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y o f t h e i r s u b j e c t .
. .
.
I n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r o b a b l e s o c i a l m i l i e u i n which t h e
p r i n c i p a l s moved, t h e Autobiographv o f P e t e r C a r t w r i g h t , e d .
C h a r l e s L. W a l l i s (New York a n d N a s h v i l l e , 1 9 5 6 ) ; Edward C o f f m a n ,
The S t o r y o f Logan County ( N a s h v i l l e , 1 9 6 2 ) ; a n d R i c h a r d Maxwell
Brown, " T h e A m e r i c a n V i g i l a n t e T r a d i t i o n , " i n Hugh D a v i s Graham
a n d Ted R o b e r t G u r r , e d s . , The H i s t o r v of V i o l e n c e i n America
(New Y o r k , 1 9 6 9 ) w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l f o r S h a r p .
F o r A n n a , s e e Ann F i r o r
1 9 7 9 ) ; Nan N e t h e r t o n , e t .
( F a i r f a x , Va. , 1 9 7 8 ) ; ~ a t h p r
(New Y o r k ,
1 9 8 2 ) ; and Jan
Cambridge, Eng., 1 9 8 3 ) .
S c o t t , T h e S o u t h e r n Lady ( c h i c a g o ,
F a i r f a x Count :
A Historv
i n eC l i n t o n , T h e P l a n z a t i o n h l i s t r e s s
Lewis, The P u r s u i t of Haopiness
Q.,
I n t r y i n g t o c o m p r e h e n d R e a u c h a m p ' s m o t i v e s , Dickman D.
Bruce, J r . , V i o l e n c e and C u l t u r e i n t h e Antebellum South ( A u s t i n
and London, 1 9 7 9 ) ; J a c k K . W i l l i a m s , D u e l i n g i n t h e O l d S o u t h :
V i g n e t t e s o f S o c i a l H i s t o r v i n t h e 1 9 t h C e n t u r y American S o u t h
(New Y o r k , 1 9 0 4 ) ; B e r t r a m W y a t t - R r o w n , S o u t h c r n H o n o r ( O x f o r d ,
1 9 8 3 ) ; E d w a r d L.
Ayers,
Vengeance a n d J u s t i c e :
Crime and
P u n i s h m e n t i n t h e 1 9 t h - C e n t u r y A m e r i c a n S o u t h (New Y o r k , 1 9 8 4 ) ;
a n d E l l i o t t J . G o r n ' s "Gouge a n d B i t e , P u l l H a i r a n d S c r a t c h :
The S o c i a l S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F i g h t i n g i n t h e S o u t h e r n B a c k c o u n t r y , "
The A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , 9 0 , 1 ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 8 - 4 3 ,
w e r e most e n l i g h t e n i n g .
The i n t e n s e , v i o l e n t p o l i t i c a l w o r l d o f K e n t u c k y i n t h e
mid-1820s i s d e s c r i b e d i n Arndt S t i c k l e s , The C r i t i c a l C o u r t
S t r u g g l e i n Kentucky.
1819-1829
(Bloomington,
1 9 2 9 ) ; L.
F.
J o h n s o n , Famous K e n t u c k v Tragedies a n d T r i a l s ( C l e v e l a n d , 1 9 1 6 ,
1 9 3 3 , 1 9 4 3 ) , 5 8 - 6 7 ; Thomas B. J o n e s , " N e w T h o u g h t s o n a n O l d
Theme," R e g i s t e r o f
t h e Kentucky S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t v ,
6 9 , 4 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 7 1 ) , 292-312; D a l e M a u r i c e R o y a l t y , "Banking,
P o l i t i c s , a n d t h e Commonwealth, K e n t u c k y , 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 2 5 , " u n p u b l i s h e d
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U o f K e n t u c k y , 1 9 7 1 ; a n d F r a n k F . M a t h i s ,
"The R e l i e f a n d C o u r t S t r u g g l e :
Half-Way H o u s e t o P o p u l i s m , "
Register of the Kentuckv State Historical Societv, 71, 2 (April, 19731, 154-176. Sharp's rise to prominence and the decline of the Cookes
is in part recorded in Warren Countv Will Books B and C ; Warren
Countv Index of Taxpa~ers. 1797-1810, Warren Countv Kentuckv
1810 United States Census; and Willard Rouse Jillson, Kentuckt
Land Grants (Louisville, 1925), 162, 289, 339-400, 708-709. There are, of course, significant gaps in the record.
Beauchamp may have written an earlier version of his confession
but it apparently no longer exists.
The published account
was censored. Dr. Sharp hinted at the existence of incriminating
documents, but they are not to be found today. Patrick Darby
apparently left only a few newspaper articles defending his
character from calumny.
Amos Kendall was remarkably reticent
concerning the affair.
Court records from Simpson County
(Beauchamp's home) are virtually nonexistent before 1880. LETTERS OF ANN COOK:
FACT OR FACTOID?
Fred I¶. Johnson
E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y
T h e L e t t e r s o f Ann Cook . . . T o H e r F r i e n d i n M a r y l a n d
c o n s i s t s o f f o u r t e e n letters p u b l i s h e d anonymously a t Washington,
D.C. , i n 1 8 2 6 , j u s t a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e K e n t u c k y T r a g e d y ,
P r e v i o u s items c o n c e r n i n g
then at a kind of apogee of i n t e r e s t .
the event
included,
of
course,
The C o n f e s s i o n o f
Jereboam
Beauchamp,
three accounts of h i s t r i a l ,
a n d many n e w s p a p e r
articles.
L e t t e r s i s , t h e r e f o r e , o n e o f a l a r g e number o f
Indeed, had t h e Sharp family
items r e l a t e d to t h e Tragedy.
attempt t o salvage
not decided t o suppress its Vindication--an
the reputation
of
t h e murdered
"seducer"--there
would h a v e
been y e t a n o t h e r v e r s i o n of t h e e v e n t s by 1827.
I n a n odd s e n s e , a l l o f t h e s e a c c o u n t s , even t h e more
s e l f - s e r v i n g , s u c h as C o n f e s s i o n a n d V i n d i c a t i o n , c o n t a i n moments
when t h e y r i n g t r u e , a n d e v e n s q u a r e w i t h t h e f a c t s .
But t h e r e
is s o m e t h i n g a b o u t L e t t e r s t h a t g i v e s o n e t h e f e e l l n g t h a t
I n f a c t , J. Winston
t h e y a r e somehow j u s t n o t q u i t e r i g h t .
Coleman's Bibliographv of Kentuckv H i s t o r v g i v e s L e t t e r s t h e
" ~ e t t e r so f a n i n t i m a t e a n d
following skeptical annotation:
c o n f i d e n t i a l n a t u r e p u r p o r t i n g t o h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b y Mrs.
Beauchamp d u r i n g h e r y o u t h a n d t h r o u g h t h e p e r i o d o f h e r i n t i m a c y
a n d a l l e g e d s e d u c t i o n by C o l o n e l S h a r p , t o h e r s c h o o l g l r l
chum i n M a r y l a n d . "
An i d e n t i c a l v o l u m e a l s o e x i s t s , w i t h t h e
title page s a y i n g t h a t t h e addressee is Ann's f r i e n d i n England.
This a l s o g i v e s one pause.
Norman Mailer c o i n e d a u s e f u l term f o r t h o s e k i n d s o f
l e g e n d a r y e l e m e n t s t h a t c a n ' t b e i g n o r e d a n d w o n ' t g o away.
H e c a l l e d them f a c t o i d s - - t h i n g s
t h a t may n o t b e t r u e o r e v e n
v e r y p l a u s i b l e , b u t a r e somehow " p a r t o f t h e r e c o r d u - - t h o s e
t h i n g s t h a t " e v e r y b o d y knows" b u t w o n ' t s w e a r t o .
Letters,
I hope t o show, i s f a c t o i d .
The f i r s t problem w i t h t h e s e letters
is t h a t t h e y d o n ' t r e a d l i k e l e t t e r s , b u t a s i f someone h a s
a f a b r i c of
rodomontade
over
a scaffolding of
stretched
For
notoriety, t h e r e s u l t being a short epistolary novel.
it
is
the
overly
literarv
tone
permeating
Letters
that
contributes t o t h e i r u n b e l i e v a b i l i t y , although it is not t h e
only factor.
Let u s examine t h i s " l i t e r a r i n e s s . "
devices used i n L e t t e r s
T h e r e are t h r e e s t e r e o t y p i c a l
s t r a i g h t from t h e conventions of
the sentimental/epistolarp
novel.
F i r s t , t h e c o n v e n t i o n t h a t w h a t we a r e r e a d i n g i s a
r e c o r d of s o m e t h i n g t h a t a c t u a l l y happened, and j u s t happened
t o s u r f a c e when a n a u d i e n c e w o u l d b e m o s t i n t e r e s t e d .
This
is sometimes c a l l e d t h e " r e s u r r e c t e d manuscript" d e v i c e .
In
t h e case of L e t t e r s , t h e p r e s e n t e r / c d i t o r , one W
R
n,
h a s b e e n g i v e n t h e m a t e r i a l b y h i s w i f e , E l l e n , w h o , j u s t now
c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e f i n a l l e t t e r , h a s r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s was
Cook!
(At l e a s t t h i s seems t o b e what t h e a u t h o r w a n t s
us t o believe.)
The h u s b a n d d e c i d e s t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t s w i l l
p r o v i d e t h e p u b l i c w i t h an o b j e c t l e s s o n on t h e e v i l s o f t h e
p a s s i o n s , a n d s o r e l e a s e s them t o t h e w o r l d .
In t h i s manner,
t h e n , L e t t e r s j u s t happens t o t u r n up.
t h e Ann
-
Second of t h e n o v e l i s t i c c o n v e n t i o n s i s t h e e f f a c i n g of
names a n d d a t e s , w h i c h is a h i g h l y s u s p i c i o u s t h i n g t o see
h a p p e n i n g i n a document a l l e g e d l y a p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l
f o r Sharp, B
p f o r Ann's husband
record.
T h u s w e s e e S--p
and t h e l i k e .
Novelistically, the rationale for t h i s effacing
was t h e a t t e m p t ( o r p r e t e n s e ) a t v e r i s i m i l i t u d e , inasmuch a s
t h e a u t h o r would p r e t e n d t o b e p r o t e c t i n g t h e i d e n t i t i e s o f
"real" people.
E f f a c i n g d a t e s i s a l s o p a r t of t h i s p r o c e d u r e ,
t h e t h e o r y b e i n g t h a t one had t o avoid a t o o - s p e c i f i c
time
f r a m e f o r f e a r t h a t some l i t e r a r y s n o o p c o u l d d e d u c e e v e n t s
and t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i t i e s by c a l c u l a t i n g d a t e s .
I f o n e were
r e a l l y z e a l o u s a t t h i s , t h e names o f g l a c e s c o u l d b e l e f t b l a n k ,
a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r of L e t t e r s does n o t go t h i s f a r .
What
is d o n e , however, is t h a t t h e p l a c e s m e n t i o n e d i n L e t t e r s a r e
u s u a l l y j u s t wrong, o f w h i c h m o r e a n o n .
Third
is t h e e l a b o r a t e
pattern
of
foreshadowings
and
p a r a l l e l s e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l y on i n t h e L e t t e r s .
Ann h a s h e r
c h a r a c t e r and t y p i c a l e x p e r i e n c e brushed i n r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y ,
a s i t w e r e , " p r e p a r i n g " t h e r e a d e r i n L e t t e r s I and I 1 f o r
t h e " p u b l i c r e c o r d " Ann o f t h e T r a g e d y .
Her o p i n i o n s , t a s t e s ,
and d e e d s a s a c h i l d and y o u t h r e f l e c t what s h e w i l l l a t e r
c a l l b e i n g " t r e m b l i n g l y a l i v e t o e v e r y t h i n g l i k e i n s u l t and
n e g l e c t . . . whether r e a l o r imaginary ."
W e a l s o l e a r n of
h e r d e s i r e t o b e "placed i n a s i t u a t i o n where I c o u l d be
d i s t i n g u i s h e d and a p p r e c i a t e d . "
She a l s o i n s i s t s upon h e r
" c o n t e m p t f o r t h o s e meek a n d h u m b l e b e i n g s who t a m e l y s u b m i t
t o b e t r a m p l e d upon, and p a t i e n t l y e n d u r e every s p e c i e s o f
. What may b e t h e
wrong t h a t c a n b e heaped upon them. .
consequence of i t , t i m e w i l l unfold."
Of
course, t i m e did
just this.
.
The q u a l i t i e s Ann d i s p l a y s i n h e r d e e d s a n d m o t i v a t i o n s
i n L e t t e r s I a n d I 1 i n e v e r y way p r e d i c t w h a t s h e w a s t o b e c o m e .
F o r e x a m p l e , we a r e t o l d o f h e r n e a r l y d r o w n i n g l i t t l e F r a n k
D
, who h a d t o l d a l i e a b o u t A n n ' s s i s t e r Mary; o f h e r
b r a i n i n g a n o v e r s e e r w i t h a r o c k f o r b e a t i n g an e i g h t - y e a r - o l d
s l a v e ; o f h e r penchant f o r wandering a l o n e through sublime
landscapes;
o f h e r n u d e swimming ( w i t h t h e by-now
matronly
E l l e n , who s u r e l y w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p r e c i a t e d b e i n g r e m i n d e d
o f t h i s i n d i s c r e t i o n ! ) ; and o f o t h e r r e a c t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s
c o n c e r n i n g men, l i t e r a r y t a s t e s , a n d t h e l i k e .
What s t r i k e s
one a s s t r a n g e a b o u t t h e s e f i r s t two L e t t e r s i s t h a t t h e y d e a l
w i t h e v e n t s t h a t t h e p u t a t i v e E l l e n w o u l d a l r e a d y h a v e known
a b o u t , y e t a r e p r e s e n t e d i n a form t h a t c a n o n l v b e c a l l e d
novelistic exposition.
The s t y l e , i n o t h e r w o r d s , i s t h a t
of an e p i s t o l a r y novel, n o t , s t r i c t l y speaking, e p i s t l e s .
Having e s t a b l i s h e d
Ann's t y p i c a l experience
i n Letters
1-11,
the
author
now
intensifies
the
foreshadowing
and
parallelisms-the
p r e d i c t o r s , a s i t w e r e , o f w h a t Ann w a s t o
become d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e T r a g e d y .
We h e a r Ann c o m p l a i n
a b o u t t h e b a n a l i t y of t h e l o c a l s u i t o r s ; of h e r r e s c u e of one
o f t h e m when h e f r e e z e s o n a m o u n t a i n l e d g e b e c a u s e o f h i s
a c r o p h o b i a ; more s e r i o u s l y , h e r s h o o t i n g o f h e r sister M a r y ' s
s e d u c e r , who a l s o j u s t h a p p e n s t o b e t h e s w i n d l e r who c a u s e d
h e r f a t h e r ' s f i n a n c i a l r u i n ; o f h e r t a k i n g on t h e b u r d e n o f
b e i n g h e r a g i n g p a r e n t s ' s o l e c o m f o r t u p o n t h e s u i c i d e o f Mary
A s for her l i t e r a r y tastes, her
and h e r b r o t h e r ' s d e a t h .
f a v o r i t e poem i s P o p e ' s E l o i s a t o A b e l a r d ; a n o t h e r f a v o r i t e
is William Dunlap's play P i z a r r o i n Peru:
O r . t h e Death of
Rolla
(1800).
Ann's
interpretation
o f t h e s e w o r k s is t h a t
t h e y a r e a b o u t h e r o i n e s whose l o v e r s p r o v e unworthy o f them.
I n t h e c a s e of E l o i s a , A b e l a r d ' s f a i l i n g is t h a t h e is g u i l t y
of
u n d e r v a l u i n g and u n d e r a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e l o y a l
Eloisa;
in
t h e c a s e of E l v i r a , t h e heroine i n P i z a r r o , R o l l a ' s f a i l i n g s
a r e more s e r i o u s , r e q u i r i n g t h a t E l v i r a s t a b him t o d e a t h .
foreshadowing/parallel
technique
should
be
apparent
by
The
now.
Ann i s M a r y , s e d u c e d a n d a b a n d o n e d , b u t s h e ' s a l s o h e r
avenger--both
v i c t i m and v i c t o r .
The E l v i r a / A n n
combination
intensifies the technique,
f o r here t h e heroine r e s o r t s t o
a c a l c u l a t e d , coldbooded stabbing.
Inasmuch a s Solomon P .
S h a r p h a d b e e n s t a b b e d t o d e a t h , t h i s is n a t u r a l l y s o m e t h i n g
t h a t a n a u d i e n c e would h a v e been q u i c k t o n o t i c e .
are
numerous
throughout
Letters
of
the
Examples
treachery/avenger motif
i n t h e l i v e s o f o t h e r s b e s i d e s Ann.
O t h e r women, s h e r e p o r t s - - o f c o u r s e w i t h o u t c i t i n g a n y n a m e s - - a r e
a b a n d o n e d by h u s b a n d s ,
have t h e i r
life-savings
stolen,
and
g e n e r a l l y a r e v i c t i m i z e d by u n t r u s t w o r t h y h u s b a n d s o r l o v e r s .
B u t i t i s i n h e r own r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S h a r p b e g i n n i n g i n L e t t e r
VII t h a t t h e f o r e s h a d o w i n g b e g i n t o o v e r s t r a i n c r e d u l i t y .
After
t h e i r involvement h a s matured--although
a s p e t unconsummated-Ann s t a r t s h a v i n g l u r i d n i g h t m a r e s i n w h i c h s h e d i s c o v e r s t h a t
Sharp h a s betrayed her w i t h another.
Given what w e have s e e n
she stabs
o f Ann, i t s h o u l d b e e a s y t o g u e s s w h a t o c c u r s n e x t :
A s i n t h e c a s e o f M a r y , Ann i s
him t o d e a t h , t h e n awakens.
p r e g n a n t , making t h e b e t r a y a l a l l t h e more h e i n o u s and d e s e r v i n g
of t h e condign punishment meted o u t .
This all-too-neat episode
s t r i k e s one a s l i t e r a r y t o a f a u l t , even f o r what might be
c a l l e d " s p i r i t u a l " a u t o b i o g r a p h y s u c h as R o u s s e a u ' s C o n f e s s i o n s .
I n f a c t , i t w a s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t I b e c a m e c o n v i n c e d , many
y e a r s a g o , t h a t L e t t e r s was s p u r i o u s , t o p u t i t m i l d l y .
However, i t was j u s t t h i s i m p l a u s i b i l i t y t h a t h a d s u f f u s e d
t h e a c c o u n t s of t h e v e r y f a c t s i n t h e T r a g e d y , and had c r e a t e d
t h e enormous i n t e r e s t
i n t h e event i n i t i a l l y .
The e p i s o d e
w a s l a r g e r t h a n l i f e , a m e l o d r a m a t h a t w a s somehow a l s o " r e a l . "
I n Beauchamp, t h e r e seemed t o b e t h e p e r f e c t a v e n g e r o f wronged
womanhood; i n S h a r p , t h e p e r f e c t s l i m y , s e d u c e d v i l l a i n .
In
Ann, t h e p e r f e c t l o v e l y woman who h a d " s t o o p e d t o f o l l y . "
That
h e r vengeance was t e r r i b l e , a l l acknowledged, b u t a s t h e p u t a t i v e
R
n, says:
e d i t o r of L e t t e r s , W
T h i s awful tragedy w i l l , I t r u s t , have a b e n e f i c i a l
m o r a l t e n d e n c y , by e x h i b i t i n g t h e d r e a d f u l e f f e c t s
of
seduction and t r e a c h e r y ,
and t h e
consequences
which flow from t h e f i r s t f a t a l a b e r r a t i o n from t h e
The d r e a d f u l
p a t h s of v i r t u e and innocence. . . .
end of C o l o n e l Sharpe [ s i c ] , t o o , s t r i k i n g l y admonishes
t h e y o u n g a n d v i c i o u s t o b e c a u t i o u s how t h e y t r i f l e
a tender
and
confiding
with
the
affections
of
t h e tragedy
lately
. . . must b e
female. . . .
a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s criminal seduction of t h e i l l - f a t e d
w r i t e r of
t h e f o l l o w i n g l e t t e r s ; and on h i s head
s h o u l d p r i n c i p a l l y r e s t . . . t h e odium a n d t h e c e n s u r e
and though i n t h i s c a s e vengeance
of society . . .
. . cast
s h o u l d h a v e b e e n l e f t t o God . . . we
o v e r t h e i r g u i l t and t h e i r f r a i l t y t h e m a n t l e of
extenuation.
.
H e r e we s e e t h e s o r t o f s p e c i a l p l e a d i n g t h a t i n s t r u c t s o n e
how t o r e a d t h e L e t t e r s .
That t h e a u d i e n c e p r o b a b l y wanted
t o r e a d t h e m i n j u s t t h i s way i s p e r f e c t l y i n k e e p i n g w i t h
the
more-sinned-against-than-sinning
essence
of
the typical
female c h a r a c t e r i n t h e sentimental novels of t h e day.
A r e a d e r a l e r t e d by s u c h c o n t r i v e d l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s m i g h t
w e l l q u e s t i o n t h e h i s t o r i c a l a c c u r a c y of t h e L e t t e r s and s e e k
v e r i f i c a t i o n elsewhere.
T h i s r e a d e r would b e a d v i s e d , f i r s t
of a l l , t o do a s I d i d and c o n s u l t J a c k Cooke, P r o f e s s o r of
and a d e s c e n d a n t of
h i s t o r y a t Tennessee S t a t e University,
our subject.
D r . C o o k e r e f e r r e d me t o a g e n e a l o g y o f t h e C o o k e
f a m i l y c o m p i l e d by D r . a n d M r s . W i l l i a m C a r t e r S t u b b s , p u b l i s h e d
i n 1923 i n New O r l e a n s and e n t i t l e d Decendants o f hlordecai
Cooke.
Loren J. K a l l s e n ' s 1963 e d i t i o n o f t h e C o n f e s s i o n s ,
S h a r p ' s V i n d i c a t i o n , a n d D a n a a n d T h o m a s ' s s h o r t h a n d summary
of Beauchamp's t r i a l a l s o a f f o r d p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t
w i l l a l l o w an i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r t o e x t r a p o l a t e e a s i l y back
a n d f o r t h f r o m t h e L e t t e r s t o w h a t we c a n s t a t e a s h i s t o r i c a l
"fact."
A l s o u s e f u l are t h e v a r i o u s n e w s p a p e r a c c o u n t s a n d
Armed w i t h
broadsides published at t h e time of t h e events.
t h e s e s o u r c e s , a p e r p e t u a l c a l e n d a r , and a modest "fudge f a c t o r , "
w e can e s t a b l i s h a highly c r e d i b l e version of t h e s e f a s c i n a t i n g
e v e n t s , o n e c l e a r l y more i n a c c o r d w i t h h i s t o r i c a l p l a u s i b i l i t y
than t h e Letters.
When I f i r s t b e c a m e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e L e t t e r s a r o u n d t w e n t y
p e a r s a g o , h o w e v e r , I d i d n o t know a b o u t t h e S t u b b s e s ' D e s c e d a n t s
o r those o t h e r h e l p f u l secondary sources.
For t h i s reason,
t h e o n l y means a v a i l a b l e t o test t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f L e t t e r s
w a s by i n t e r n a l a n a l y s i s , t o s e e w h e t h e r t h e u n i v e r s e i t p o s i t e d
w a s v i a b l e e v e n i n i t s own t e r m s .
A s it turned o u t , t h e author
n o t o n l y w a s i g n o r a n t o f t h e f a c t s o f Ann C o o k ' s l i f e , b u t
was also inept a t constructing a believable narrative.
Although
D e s c e n d a n t s r e n d e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s a c a d e m i c i n a number
o f s e n s e s , I h o p e t o show t h a t e v e n w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f t h a t
s t u d y , s u f f i c i e n t doubt can be generated t o v i t i a t e L e t t e r s
a s canonical i n t h e Tragedy.
I choose
o f l e t t e r s n u m b e r e d V I I I t h r o u g h XIV.
for
analysis the
group
According t o E l l e n , an a s s i d u o u s a n n o t a t o r and m o r a l i s t i c
n a g , t h e r e w a s a g a p b e t w e e n V I I a n d V I I I o f "many m o n t h s . "
T h e n a p p e a r s a " s h o r t l e t t e r " ( n o t c o l l e c t e d f o r some r e a s o n ) ;
then "another year" p a s s e s and f i n a l l y E l l e n r e c e i v e s L e t t e r
V I I I , " a f t e r two y e a r s o f a n x i o u s e x p e c t a t i o n . "
Ann i s l i v i n g
i n L a u r e n c e b u r g , Kentucky ( a n e g r e g i o u s v a r i a t i o n of t h e f a c t s )
a n d w h i l e s h e a v e r s t h a t t h e K e n t u c k i a n s a r e f r i e n d l y , Ann
bemoans h e r d e c l i n e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
How l o n g is t h e i n t e r v a l ?
I t can be calculated variously, i n keeping with t h e a u t h o r ' s
technique of t h e "elastic internal."
I t c o u l d b e two y e a r s
i n a l l , w h i c h w o u l d b e t h e c o m m o n s e n s e way o f f i g u r i n g i t ;
o r t h e t o t a l o f "many m o n t h s , " " a n o t h e r y e a r , " a n d " t w o y e a r s . "
On t h e l a t t e r b a s i s t h e i n t e r v a l w o u l d b e c l o s e t o f o u r y e a r s .
B u t i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e f r o m L e t t e r V I I w o u l d make i t a t l e a s t
five years.
I n V I I , d a t e d J u l y 1 0 , 18-,
Ann h a d r e f e r r e d
t o h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h " l a s t Wednesday e v e n i n g a f t e r a l i n g e r i n g
i l l n e s s of s e v e r a l weeks."
The a u t h o r a c t u a l l y n e e d e d G i l e s
t o l i n g e r y e t a w h i l e l o n g e r f o r t h e r e a l d a t e was September
26, 1805.
Ann a c t u a l l y a r r i v e d i n R o w l i n g G r e e n a r o u n d 1 8 1 0 ,
s o even t h e most " e l a s t i c "
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f a i l s by a l m o s t a
year of s q u a r i n g w i t h t h e f a c t s , not t o mention Ann's g e t t i n g
t h e d a t e of G i l e s ' s d e a t h wrong.
B u t i t i s L e t t e r V I I I we
need t o examine.
L e t t e r V I I I r e l a t e s A n n ' s i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h Sharp and S h a r p ' s
response.
They e x c h a n g e m e a n i n g f u l g l a c e s , c o n v e r s e e a r n e s t l y ,
Ann
and d o m o s t of t h e t h i n g s t y p i c a l i n s e n t i m e n t a l n o v e l s .
mentions n o t o n l y a d a t e , b u t a weekday, a l t h o u g h s h e i s s t i l l
effacing the year.
I n a n e n t r y l a b e l l e d W e d n e s d a v , Ann a l l u d e s
t o a b a l l s h e attended with Sharp t h e "previous night."
Since
i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e j u s t how l o n g w r i t i n g t h e l e t t e r
r e q u i r e d o r j u s t how many d a y s e l a p s e d b e t w e e n t h e e v e n t s w i t h i n
i t a n d t h e w r i t i n g , t h e commonsense r e a d i n g o f "Tuesday" f o r
is not necessarily compelling.
So, let u s p o s i t
"previous"
blonday,
o r Tuesday.
Consulting a
perpetual
calendar
gives
The l a t t e r i s
u s Monday A u g u s t 4 i n e i t h e r 1 8 1 7 o r 1 8 2 3 .
c o m p l e t e l y o u t o f c o u r t b e c a u s e A n n ' s i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d was
b o r n i n 1 8 2 0 , w h i c h we know f r o m many s o u r c e s .
The y e a r 1817
is i m p o s s i b l e a l s o b e c a u s e i t b e c o m e s c l e a r d u r i n g t h e n e x t
few L e t t e r s t h a t t h e a f f a i r w a s a b r i e f o n e , e v e n t u a t i n g a l m o s t
immediately i n A n n ' s becoming p r e g n a n t .
(This is, of course,
n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e r e a l Ann a n d S h a r p m i g h t n o t h a v e " c a r r i e d
on" f o r a much l o n g e r p e r i o d , b u t t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e i n
Letters' universe.)
I f we a s s u m e t h a t A u g u s t 4 w a s i n d e e d
a Tuesday, t h e n t h e y e a r s a r e 1812 and 1 8 1 8 , n e i t h e r c o n g r u e n t
with t h e d a t e of Ann's s t i l l b o r n c h i l d ' s a r r i v a l .
But i f w e
a s s u m e t h a t Ann h a s h e r w e e k d a y w r o n g , a n d t h a t i t w a s i n f a c t
on Wednesday t h a t t h e d a t e f e l l , t h e n we g e t t h e y e a r 1 8 1 9 ,
well w i t h i n t h e time-frame
f o r Ann's becoming p r e g n a n t and
delivering.
However,
Letters
IX a n d
X
afford us
some a d d i t i o n a l
inferential materials.
Although t h e y e a r 1814 is n o t remotely
p o s s i b l e i n a n y c a s e , Ann d o e s t e l l u s t h a t s h e ' s r e a d i n g B y r o n ' s
C o r s a i r , p u b l i s h e d t h a t year--so
t h i s L e t t e r cannot be before
that date.
But more t o t h e p u r p o s e , I X is d a t e d September
1 , a n d S h a r p h a s a n n o u n c e d t o Ann t h a t h e m u s t r i d e t o F r a n k f o r t
f o r t h r e e weeks, b u t w i l l r e t u r n .
T h i s r e t u r n is announced
But t h e e v e n t s
i n X, d a t e d O c t o b e r 5 , a g o o d f i v e w e e k s l a t e r .
d e s c r i b e d t h e r e i n o c c u r on Tuesday 22nd and Thursday 2 4 t h ,
which o n e c a n o n l y assume a r e i n September, and which c o i n c i d e
n i c e l y w i t h S h a r p ' s three-week
absence.
Presumably t h e d a t e
i s O c t o b e r 5 b e c a u s e Ann h a s b e e n s p e n d i n g t h e n e a r t h r e e - w e e k
i n t e r v a l screwing her courage t o t h e sticking-place t o confess
t o t h e c e n s o r i o u s E l l e n t h a t s h e h a s " y i e l d e d " on what t u r n s
o u t t o b e T u e s d a y 2 2 n d , when s h e a n d S h a r p c o n s u m m a t e t h e i r
a f f a i r w i t h unseemly h a s t e on t h e v e r y day o f h i s a r r i v a l '
However, t h e y e a r c o n t a i n i n g s u c h a d a t e t u r n s o u t t o b e 1 8 1 8 ;
c l o s e , b u t s t i l l o f f by a y e a r .
i l l u s t r a t e e v e n more
The e v e n t s a s r e c o r d e d i n X I - X I V
graphically
the
degree
t o which
chronology
and
fact
are
distorted.
I n X I , d a t e d A p r i l 1 4 , Ann c o n f e s s e s , " I am a
mother."
The c h i l d is a l i v e , n o t , a s was a c t u a l l y t h e c a s e
s t i l l - b o r n , a n d E l l e n comments t h a t t h e r e had b e e n "an i n t e r v a l
of n e a r t w e l v e months" s i n c e r e c e i v i n g X .
Given t h e l e n g t h
o f XI i t may w e l l h a v e t a k e n t i m e t o c o m p o s e , a n d i n d e e d ,
i n c l u d e s e v e n t s t h a t i n t h e r e a l w o r l d had r e q u i r e d two y e a r s
t o transpire--Sharp's
m a r r i a g e t o E l i z a S c o t t i n 1818 and t h e
b i r t h o f A n n ' s baby i n 1820.
But t h e p u r p o r t e d n a r r a t i v e of e v e n t s goes l i k e t h i s i n
XI.
Ann s a y s t h a t S h a r p w a s " a t t e n t i v e t o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s
a f t e r my f a t a l w e a k n e s s " a n d t h a t s h e w a s u n a b a s h e d e v e n t h o u g h
"The f r u i t s o f o u r i n t e r c o u r s e b e g a n t o b e a p p a r e n t . "
But
a c l o s e r examination of t h i s p u t a t i v e chronology r e v e a l s c e r t a i n
anomalies.
F o r example, a l t h o u g h t h e i n t e r v a l between X and
X I is s t a t e d t o b e n e a r l y t w e l v e months, L e t t e r X had been
dated October 5.
T h i s h a s t o mean t h a t :
Ellen c a n ' t count,
f o r O c t o b e r t o A p r i l i s b u t s e v e n m o n t h s ; t h a t Ann may n o t
h a v e g o t t e n a r o u n d t o m a i l i n g XI a t a t i m e e v e n c l o s e t o i t s
d a t i n g ; t h a t t h e r e has a been an unusual delay i n mail d e l i v e r y
(however, d u r i n g t h e 1 8 2 0 s even t h e s l o w e s t d e l i v e r y t i m e between
N a s h v i l l e and Washington was e l e v e n weeks, t h e u s u a l t i m e b e i n g
e l e v e n d a y s ) ; o r t h a t t h e c h i l d was b o r n p r e m a t u r e l y , l i v e d
one month, t h e n d i e d , g i v i n g u s t h e seven months.
In the real
w o r l d , o f c o u r s e , none of t h i s a p p l i e s , b u t even i n L e t t e r s '
e l a s t i c t i m e - f r a m e s i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o accommodate t h e a l l e g e d
e v e n t s o c c u r r i n g t h e r e i n w i t h any p l a u s i b l e
intervals.
It
is r a t h e r l i k e t h e a t t e m p t s of non-Copernican astronomers t o
make t h e s o l a r s y s t e m c o n f o r m t o t h e P t o l e m a i c m o d e l , b y p o s i t i n g
" c y c l e upon e p i c y c l e , o r b on o r b . "
The t e r g i v e r s a t i o n r e q u i r e d
t o maintain it twisted it a p a r t .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t became
e a s i e r t o a c c e p t t h e new m o d e l t h a n t o m a i n t a i n t h e o l d .
So
it is w i t h L e t t e r s .
Even w i t h o u t t h e S t u b b s e s ' h e l p , t h e r e
is n o way t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e r r o r s o f f a c t we a r e c o n f r o n t e d
x i t h a t e v e r y t u r n , a n d e v e n l e s s c a n we b e l i e v e i n t h e
c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s w i t h i n w h i c h t h e " h o w l e r s " are s c a t t e r e d .
I n L e t t e r X I I , d a t e d May 4 , t h e o s t e n s i b l e e v e n t - c h a i n
has t o run something l i k e t h e following.
Ann s a y s t h a t a f t e r
S h a r p a b a n d o n e d h e r , s h e f e l l i n t o a d e l i r i u m f o r "some w e e k s , "
r e c o v e r e d s u f f i c i e n t l y t o c o n f r o n t Sharp once more, b u t r e l a p s e d
i n y e t a n o t h e r p e r i o d o f d e l i r i u m , a g a i n l a s t i n g "weeks. " Then,
The baby l i v e s
Ann s a y s , " I n a s h o r t t i m e I b e c a m e a m o t h e r . "
only s i x months.
A l l t h i s w h i l e Beauchamp h a s b e e n i n c o n s o l i n g
But
attendance.
Then t h e y are "some m o n t h s a f t e r " m a r r i e d .
i f we r e c a l l t h e d a t e o n t h e p r e c e d i n g L e t t e r , XI ( A p r i l 1 4 )
wc a r e a g a i n b r o u g h t u p s h o r t .
The p e r i o d c a n n o t b e o n l y a
( s h o r t ) month.
Furthermore,
the usually pedantic Ellen has
mentioned nothing about a gap or i n t e r v a l .
The a u t h o r h a s
made a s e r i o u s m i s c a l c u l a t i o n h e r e , f o r t h i s i n t e r v a l h a s t o
be
thirteen
months.
Even
this
emendation,
however,
while
allowing t i m e f o r a c h i l d t o be c a r r i e d t o term, still does
n o t accommodate i t s a l l e g e d d e a t h a t s i x months.
L e t t e r X I 1 1 is d a t e d May 1 2 , b u t i t i s , a g a i n , n o t t h e
The a u t h o r h a s a v a i l e d
e i g h t days later t h a t one might t h i n k .
ploy.
This time
himself/herself
of
t h e "elastic i n t e r v a l "
it is E l l e n ' s family problems t h a t occasion a h i a t u s i n t h e
correspondence:
"considerable
time e l a p s e d b e f o r e I had an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o a n s w e r A n n ' s l e t t e r . " F u r t h e r l e e w a y is p r o v i d e d
by A n n ' s n o t r e p l y i n g u n t i l " s e v e r a l m o n t h s a f t e r . "
One h a s
t o i n f e r , t h e n , t h a t a t l e a s t o n e y e a r h a s p a s s e d b e t w e e n XI1
and X I I I .
Ann a l l u d e s t o t h e m i s c e g e n a t i o n l i b e l S h a r p i s
a l l e g e d to have used on h e r , and t o t h e f a c t t h a t h e h a s "married
another."
The u s e o f t h e p r e s e n t p e r f e c t t e n s e i m p l i e s t h a t
t h e marriage has been a comparatively r e c e n t one, t h e r e f o r e
( I n f a c t Sharp had been married t o E l i z a
m a k i n g t h e y e a r 1818.
S c o t t f o r n i n e m o n t h s b e f o r e h i s "real world" s e d u c t i o n o f
But what t h e
Ann o n 18 S e p t e m b e r 1819 i n h i s l a w o f f i c e . )
a u t h o r h a s r e a l l y d o n e w i t h t h e c h r o n o l o g y is t o t e l e s c o p e
it.
Using t h e m i s c e g e n a t i o n l i b e l a s t h e means, t h e a u t h o r
combines t h r e e s e p a r a t e d e f a m a t i o n s , t h o s e o f 1 8 2 0 , 1 8 2 1 , and
W
e know t h a t we a r e e x p e c t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s l i b e l
1825.
a s t h e o n e i n 1 8 2 5 , b e c a u s e Ann s a y s t h a t B e a u c h a m p i s e v e n
What t h i s
m o r e i n d i g n a n t a t S h a r p now " f r o m s o m e new c a u s e . "
Why Ann w a n t e d
new c a u s e m i g h t b e we a r e n o t t o l d u n t i l XIV.
t o k e e p E l l e n i n s u s p e n s e i s d i f f i c u l t t o f a t h o m i f we c o n t i n u e
t r y i n g t o b e l i e v e t h a t we a r e r e a d i n g r e a l l e t t e r s .
T h e "new
c a u s e " is o f c o u r s e t h e p a m p h l e t s u p p o s e d l y c i r c u l a t e d by J o h n
U . W a r i n g e x c o r i a t i n g S h a r p f o r h i s t r e a t m e n t o f Ann.
That
Beauchamp a c t e d o n t h i s s t i m u l u s i s a g r e e d u p o n b y a l l p a r t i e s
i n t h e T r a g e d y , e v e n t h o u g h i t may h a v e b e e n o n l y a g o o d , a s
opposed t o t h e r e a l , r e a s o n f o r k i l l i n g S h a r p .
A c c o r d i n g t o E l l e n , XIV a r r i v e d a f t e r " a n o t h e r i n t e r v a l
of s e v e r a l months."
T h i s o n e is d a t e d J u l y 4 , a n d comes from
Frankford [ s i c ] P r i s o n .
I n a s m u c h a s t h i s i s a y e a r we c a n
b e a b s o l u t e l y c e r t a i n of--1826--then
X I 1 1 s h o u l d a l s o be 1826
i f w e a r e t o accommodate E l l e n ' s " s e v e r a l m o n t h s . "
But a s
\ \ e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , E l l e n ' s method of numbering is odd.
Surely
May
t h e number o f m o n t h s i n t h e i n t e r v a l i s f a i r l y o b v i o u s :
Sharp
1 2 t o J u l y 4 r e p r e s e n t s 53 d a y s , o r c l o s e t o t w o m o n t h s .
h a d b e e n k i l l e d November
1 8 2 5 , Ann h a d b e e n a r r e s t e d
for
s u s p i c i o n o f b e i n g a n a c c e s s o r y a r o u n d May 1 8 , 1 8 2 5 , a n d h a d
b e e n i n j a i l w i t h h e r h u s b a n d s i n c e May 2 2 .
Inasmuch a s XI11
i s f r o m F r a n k l i n ' C o u n t y , w h e r e " F r a n k f o r d " i s l o c a t e d , we m i g h t
assume t h a t s h e ' s w r i t i n g from j a i l , b u t t h e r e ' s n o t h i n g of
t h i s n a t u r e i n t h e letter i t s e l f , n o r any mention o r h i n t t h a t
A s mentioned numerous t i m e s i n t h i s
s h e had been avenged.
e s s a y , A n n ' s g r a s p o f f a c t s and h e r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f them is
strange.
Why k e e p E l l e n i n s u s p e n s e a b o u t t h e m i s c e g e n a t i o n
c a l u m n y i n X I 1 1 when s h e ( a n d e v e r y b o d y e l s e f o r f o u r y e a r s ! )
knew t h e r e a s o n f o r B e a u c h a m p ' s " e x a s p e r a t i o n " ?
A f t e r a l l t h i s d i s c u s s i o n I hope s u f f i c i e n t doubt has
been c a s t upon t h e L e t t e r s a s a l e g i t i m a t e r e c o r d of t h e Tragedy.
Many o f A n n ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r e j u s t p l a i n w r o n g .
T h i s is a l m o s t
c e r t a i n l y d u e t o t h e a u t h o r ' s i g n o r a n c e o f t h e n o n - p u b l i c Ann:
F o r e x a m p l e , how many s i b l i n g s s h e h a d , h e r f a t h e r ' s f i n a n c i a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e d a t e o f h i s d e a t h , when s h e moved t o K e n t u c k y ,
where s h e l i v e d i n V i r g i n i a and Kentucky.
However, t h e a u t h o r
it s u i t s
d o e s b u i l d upon f a c t s w i t h i n t h e p u b l i c record--when
a n a r r a t i v e purpose.
Then, t h e a u t h o r w i l l f u l l y i g n o r e s c e r t a i n
t h i n g s t h a t could have been incorporated i n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e ,
h a d h e / s h e e x e r c i s e d j u s t a b i t more e f f o r t .
A l t h o u g h we may
b e a b l e t o excuse an ignorance of c e r t a i n f a c t s , what cannot
be
accepted
is t h e f i c t i o n
that
Ann's a f f a i r with
Sharp
eventuated i n a child t h a t lived.
Eclually i m p l a u s i b l e a r e
t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f h e r f i r s t m e e t i n g w i t h Beauchamp ( S h a r p
introduces
them!)
Nor
can
the
reader
swallow
the
eerily
p r e d i c t i v e e v e n t s of Ann's obviously f i c t i o n a l i z e d childhood.
To b e s u r e , t h e a u t h o r m a x i m i z e s t h e m o r e m e l o d r a m a t i c a s p e c t s
o f t h e r e a l Ann, b u t d o e s s o s e l e c t i v e l v , i g n o r i n g c e r t a i n
inconvenient
facts,
and
inventing others
evocative of
the
sentimental novel.
I n o t h e r words, t h e author could have done a b e t t e r job
w i t h w h a t was known.
T h e r e was r e a l l y no n e c e s s i t y t o r e s o r t
t o t h e e l a s t i c i n t e r v a l technique t o bridge over gaps i n t h e
record.
T r y a s o n e may, t h e r e i s n o method o f c o r r e l a t i n g
d a t e s and events with t h e r e a l world.
Even more damning i s
t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of e s t a b l i s h i n g a r a t i o n a l time-scheme even
i n L e t t e r s ' own u n i v e r s e .
What we a r e l e f t t o p o s t u l a t e i s
that
a moderately
talented
"catch-penny
scribbler1'--as
they
a r e c a l l e d i n V i n d i c a t i o n - - k n e w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e denouement
o f t h e Tragedy, t h e rumors c o n c e r n i n g t h e e v e n t s t h a t had l e d
up t o i t , A n n ' s p u b l i c r e p u t a t i o n which emerged d u r i n g t h e
trial,
her
subsequent
shared
imprisonment
and
death
with
Beauchamp,
and
her
c u l t u r e d background.
This writer
then
p r o c e e d e d t o c r e a t e a r e t r o s p e c t i v e c h i l d h o o d f o r t h e by-now
l e g e n d e d Ann C o o k ,
b r i d g i n g ox7er g a p s by
h a v i n g Ann f a l l
(uncharacteristically) silent during periods lacking melodrama,
and hoping for the best insofar as the audience's willing
I f Letters had been
suspension of disbelief i s concerned.
avowedly published as historical fiction, it would have been
better all around as far as the historical record is concerned. THE RESPOIiSE OF PHILANTHROPISTS TO SELF-SUPPORTING WOMEN IN AMERICA, 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 3 0 Margaret S p r a t t U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky Duringthe l a t t e r decades of t h e nineteenth century, t h e
progressive
reformers
identified
and became
concerned with
a new u r b a n p r o b l e m :
t h e "woman a d r i f t . "
Products of t h e
i n d u s t r i a l system,
t h o u s a n d s o f women l i v e d o n t h e i r own,
s u r v i v i n g w i t h o u t t h e economic a n d , o f t e n , e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t
of a family.
For social investigators, they presented a threat
t o e s t a b l i s h e d i d e a s of family s t r u c t u r e .
T h e s e women l i v e d
o u t s i d e o f a t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l y a t m o s p h e r e f o r many r e a s o n s .
P e r h a p s t h e y had b e e n u n s u c c e s s f u l i n f i n d i n g work n e a r t h e i r
homes:
p e r h a p s t h e f a m i l y had been broken up b e c a u s e o f d e a t h
o r d e s e r t i o n ; o r t h e y f e l t u n h a p p y a t home a n d d e s i r e d a
d i f f e r e n t way o f l i f e .
W h a t e v e r t h e r e a s o n s , by 1 9 0 0 s i n g l e
self-sufficient
women
comprised
approximately
one-fifth
of
t h e urban female l a b o r f o r c e .
Urban r e f o r m e r s l a b e l e d t h i s
g r o u p "women a d r i f t , " c o n j u r i n g u p i m a g e s o f h e l p l e s s women
d r i f t i n g through t h e i r working l i v e s i n t h e urban environment,
v i c t i m i z e d by r u t h l e s s e m p l o y e r s a n d i m m o r a l men.
T h e s e "women
a d r i f t " were seen a s innocent v i c t i m s of t h e c r u e l c i t y and
of f a i l e d family r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
I n 1922, t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e Boston S o c i e t y f o r t h e
C a r e o f G i r l s s e n t a l e t t e r t o p r o m i n e n t members o f t h e B o s t o n
elite.
They s t a t e d t h a t " F o r o v e r 1 2 2 y e a r s t h e B o s t o n S o c i e t y
f o r t h e Care of G i r l s h a s been performing an invaluable s e r v i c e
t o countless girls."
F o r $1.00 a f r i e n d o f t h e s o c i e t y c o u l d
help provide:
Summer v a c a t i o n s f o r worn o u t , d e j e c t e d g i r l s . Much n e e d e d c l o t h i n g . Food. C o m f o r t a b l e homes i n w h o l e s o m e s u r r o u n d i n g s . A c h a n c e f o r e d u c a t i o n and-- A c h a n c e f o r many g i r l s t o l e a d a c l e a n m o r a l l i f e . By g i v i n g t o t h e S o c i e t y , c o n t r i b u t o r s c o u l d
t h i s b i g m o v e m e n t , ' B e t t e r G i r l s , F i n e r Women."'l
be
"a
part
of
Charitable organizations
like
the
Boston
Society
for
t h e C a r e o f G i r l s h a d b e e n s o l i c i t i n g f u n d s f o r t h e i r work
w i t h women f o r d e c a d e s .
These o r g a n i z a t i o n s were concerned
w i t h t h e p l i g h t o f d e s t i t u t e women, a n d i n most c a s e s d i d n o t
s i n g l e o u t t h e s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g w o r k i n g woman a s t h e t a r g e t
I t w a s n o t u n t i l 1 8 5 9 when L u c r e t i a Boyd,
of t h e i r s e r v i c e s .
a
Boston
missionary,
recognized
the
unique
problems
of
i n d e p e n d e n t women w o r k e r s a n d a p p e a l e d t o a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f
c h u r c h women t o s u p p o r t a " p e r m a n e n t i n s t i t u t i o n . "
T h e s e women
f o u n d e d w h a t w a s t o b e c a l l e d t h e Young Women's C h r i s t i a n
Association.
By 1 8 7 3 t h e r e w e r e a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h i r t y - s i x
c i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t and Midwest.
The o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e
of
t h e YWCA w a s t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e " t e m p o r a l ,
m o r a l , and
r e l i g i o u s w e l f a r e o f women, e s p e c i a l l y y o u n g women, who a r e
As
the
dependent
on
their
own
exertions
for
support."
A s s o c i a t i o n grew a n d c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e d , t h e i r m e t h o d s , g o a l s
a n d i m a g e u n d e r w e n t many a l t e r a t i o n s , b u t t h e i r m a i n c o n c e r n
r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g woman.2
A l t h o u g h t h e c e n t r a l p u r p o s e o f t h e YWCA was t o m a i n t a i n
"A C h r i s t i a n Home" f o r w o r k i n g g i r l s , i t b e c a m e a p p a r e n t v e r y
e a r l y t h a t i n o r d e r f o r women t o f i n d s k i l l e d o r s e m i - s k i l l e d
jobs
they
needed
education,
particularly
in
the
trades.
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e h e a d o f t h e employment b u r e a u o f t h e C i n c i n n a t i
" I c o u l d make a f o r t u n e f o r t h e A s s o c i a t i o n , i f g i r l s
YWCA:
were competent.
What i s m o s t n e e d e d , i s a t r a i n i n g s c h o o l . "
This
was
a
difficult
problem
for
the
directors
of
the
A s e a r l y a s 1869 t h e C i n c i n n a t i branch addressed
Association.
t h e i s s u e when t h e y w r o t e i n t h e i r A n n u a l R e p o r t :
"Unskilled
l a b o r is a d r u g i n t h e m a r k e t , a n d i t seems a s u p e r f i c i a l c h a r i t y
m e r e l y t o s u p p l e m e n t by l o w - p r i c e d b o a r d t h e s m a l l w a g e s f o r
a f e w , i n s t e a d o f g i v i n g t h e means o f i n d u s t r i a l e d u c a t i o n
t o t h e whole c l a s s . " 3
T h e p r o b l e m o f t h e s k i l l e d woman w o r k e r s w a s u n i v e r s a l
throughout e v e r y major i n d u s t r y .
Seen a s t e m p o r a r y , " c a s u a l "
members o f t h e w o r k f o r c e , women w e r e o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d by t h e
e x p e r i e n c e d a n d s k i l l e d w o r k e r s who c o u l d h e l p t h e m r e c e i v e
t h e t r a i n i n g t h e y n e e d e d t o move i n t o b e t t e r p o s i t i o n s .
Also,
s k i l l e d w o r k h a d t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n h e l d by u n i o n i z e d c r a f t s m e n
who h a d n o d e s i r e t o e n c o u r a g e women t o j o i n t h e i r r a n k s .
N e g l e c t e d by t h e i r e m p l o y e r s a n d i g n o r e d by t h e i r f e l l o w m a l e
workers,
many
self-supporting
women
turned
to
charitable
organizations for help.
O t h e r women who w e r e t r y i n g t o e n t e r
Many
i n t o t h e w o r k f o r c e were i n d e s p e r a t e n e e d o f t r a i n i n g .
o f t h e s e women w i s h e d t o a v o i d d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e , o f t e n t h e
o n l y j o b o p e n t o a n i n e x p e r i e n c e d woman w i t h o u t much e d u c a t i o n .
T h e y , t o o , t u r n e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e YWCA f o r j o b
r e f e r r a l and i n d u s t r i a l e d ~ c a t i o n . ~
The YWCA w a s n o t a l o n e , h o w e v e r , i n o f f e r i n g t r a i n i n g
f o r t h e woman w o r k e r .
Many s e t t l e m e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y
w e r e e a r l y t o r e c o g n i z e t h e p r o b l e m a n d o f f e r c l a s s e s f o r women.
I n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l s w e r e a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d , some o f w h i c h i n c l u d e d
women a s s t u d e n t s .
For instance,
t h e S o u t h End I n d u s t r i a l
School i n Boston was f o u n d e d i n 1882 " f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n of
t h e poor t o t h e p o i n t of s e l f - s u p p o r t . "
Several labor a c t i v i s t s ,
such a s Leonora O ' R e i l l y , b e l i e v e d t h a t t r a i n i n g would " a c t
a s an i n c e n t i v e t o u n i o n i z a t i o n " and s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d t h e
establishment of
vocational schools specifically
f o r women.
The M a n h a t t a n T r a d e S c h o o l f o r G i r l s a n d t h e B o s t o n T r a d e S c h o o l
f o r G i r l s w e r e b o t h s t a r t e d t o t e a c h women " t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e b r a i n and t h e hands."
A l s o by t h e 1 9 0 0 s , p u b l i c s c h o o l
systems i n urban a r e a s w e r e o f f e r i n g night school c l a s s e s .
Many
o f t h e s e c l a s s e s w e r e s p e c i f i c a l l y a i m e d a t new i m m i g r a n t s ,
b u t w a g e - e a r n i n g women o f t e n t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e f r e e t u i t i o n
t o l e a r n a new t r a d e .
I n 1910, t h i r t y - t h r e e public night schools
i n New P o r k C i t y a d m i t t e d o n l y women.
Other organizations
w h i c h r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r c o n c e r n s s o l e l y t o women, s u c h a s t h e
women's E d u c a t i o n a l and I n d u s t r i a l Union,
provided l e c t u r e s
and c l a s s e s .
Many s o c i a l w o r k e r s f o u n d v e r y e a r l y t h a t o n e way t o
r e a c h s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women, who f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n s h u n n e d
t h e c l a s s r o o m , was t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f w o r k i n g g i r l s '
clubs.
G r a c e D o d g e , a s t r o n g a d v o c a t e o f e d u c a t i o n f o r women
a n d a m a j o r s u p p o r t e r o f t h e YWCA, b e l i e v e d t h a t a n i n f o r m a l
c l u b s e t t i n g w a s t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l way t o w o r k w i t h y o u n g
women.
I n 1881, s h e began m e e t i n g w i t h a s m a l l group of working
women o n T u e s d a y e v e n i n g s i n New York C i t y .
Dodge l i k e d t o
c e n t e r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f h e r c l u b around t a l k s s h e would g i v e
t h e g i r l s on " p r a c t i c a l "
matters s u c h a s p e r s o n a l h y g i e n e ,
fashion trends,
s e t t i n g an a t t r a c t i v e t a b l e ,
morality,
and
other current issues.
T h e y s o o n b e c a m e known a s t h e 3 8 t h S t r e e t
rew i n t o a network
Working G i r l s S o c i e t y , and w i t h i n t e n y e a r s
o f s e v e n t y - f i v e c l u b s w i t h o v e r 2 1 0 0 m e m b e r s . C?
T h e c l u b s w e r e i n many w a y s s e l f - g o v e r n i n g ,
but they
u s u a l l y w e r e l e d a n d a d v i s e d by a g o v e r n i n g b o a r d o f m i d d l e - c l a s s
s u p p o r t e r s a n d w o r k i n g women.
I f , however, t h e c l u b m e e t i n g s
were h e l d i n a s e t t l e m e n t h o u s e , t h e s o c i a l w o r k e r s oversaw
their activities.
T h e Shawmut C l u b o f B o s t o n , p a t t e r n e d on
Grace D o d g e ' s 3 8 t h S t r e e t Working G i r l s ' S o c i e t y , was d e s c r i b e d
by E d i t h Howes a s f o l l o w s :
I t i s now i n i t s t w e l f t h y e a r , h a s i t s own r o o m s ,
a n d r e p r e s e n t s a h i g h d e g r e e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and
The c l u b h a s a s t r o n g
c h a r a c t e r i n i t s membership.
intellectual bent.
The f e e l i n g a n d t h e h a b i t of
independence
are
studiously
inculcated,
and
the
relations existing
b e t w e e n t h e women
of
leisure
who t a k e t h e l e a d a n d t h e y o u n g w o r k i n g women h a s
t h a t w h o l e s o m e n e s s w h i c h comes o f m u t u a l r e s p e c t
and long-continued c o o p e r a t i o n .
These working g i r l s ' s o c i e t i e s were extremely popular f o r a
r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t h e 1880s and 1890s.
They s t r e s s e d
the
importance
of
ladylike behavior,
dress, morality,
and
p r o m i s e d t h e w o r k i n g woman t h a t s h e w o u l d b e r e w a r d e d w i t h
a p l e a s a n t and u s e f u l l i f e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f s h e was t o m a r r y .
By t h e l a t e 1 8 9 0 s , w o r k i n g g i r l s '
s o c i e t i e s were n o t
a s p o p u l a r a s they once had b e e n , b u t t h e c l u b i d e a d i d not
disappear.
C l u b s f o r w o r k i n g women,
school-age
girls,
and
m o t h e r s were h e l d i n p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y s e t t l e m e n t h o u s e i n
urban a r e a s throughout t h e country.
F o r e x a m p l e , i n N e w York
City i n 1911, a t l e a s t t h i r t y - f o u r settlement houses had g i r l s '
o r women's c l u b s .
T h e YWCA a l s o a d o p t e d t h i s a p p r o a c h f o r
r e a c h i n g s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women who l i v e d o u t s i d e t h e i r w a l l s .
T h e g r o u p o f w a g e - e a r n i n g women t h a t c a u s e d t h e YWCA t h e m o s t
c o n c e r n was t h e f a c t o r y w o r k e r s o r t h e " i n d u s t r i a l g i r l s , "
as t h e y were l a b e l e d .
These workers were d i f f i c u l t t o t e a c h
b e c a u s e t h e y o f t e n w o r k e d a n d l i v e d f a r f r o m t h e YWCA c e n t e r s .
a n d work was p h y s i c a l l y e x h a u s t i n g .
T h e i r h o u r s were l o n g ,
Even i f t h e y h a d t h e d e s i r e t o a t t e n d n i g h t c l a s s e s o r c u l t u r a l
e v e n t s a t a Y\\'CA o r o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w o u l d
often prevent t h e i r participation.
By 1 9 0 0 , t h e N a t i o n a l R o a r d
o f YWCA, r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e i r b r a n c h a s s o c i a t i o n s were r e a c h i n g
v e r y few f a c t o r y w o r k e r s , e m b a r k e d o n " e x t e n s i o n w o r k . "
The
e s s e n c e o f t h e e x t e n s i o n i d e a was t h a t i f t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r
c o u l d n o t come t o t h e YWCA, t h e YWCA w o u l d g o t o h e r . 9
The
Cincinnati
chapter
of
the
YWCA
established
its
I n d u s t r i a l G i r l s ' C l u b i n 1 9 0 7 , t h e same y e a r i t s B u s i n e s s
a n d P r o f e s s i o n a l Women's C l u b w a s b e g u n .
I n most c i t i e s , t h e
I n d u s t r i a l and B u s i n e s s Departments had been combined o r i g i n a l l y ,
b u t t h e n a t i o n a l b o a r d s t r e s s e d t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two g r o u p s
very e a r l y .
They c o n v i n c e d t h e b r a n c h a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t h a v i n g
two d e p a r t m e n t s would n o t o n l y b e more e f f i c i e n t , b u t would
it
also
be beneficial
to
t h e women
involved.
Obviously,
s e p a r a t e d women w o r k e r s i n t o t w o d i s t i n c t g r o u p s :
low-paid,
poorly educated, u n s k i l l e d f a c t o r y workers and s a l e s g i r l s ;
a n d t h e h i g h e r - p a i d , w h i t e c o l l a r o f f i c e a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l women.
The YWCA n o l o n g e r v i e w e d s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women a s a m o n o l i t h i c
g r o u p w h o s e n e e d s a n d g o a l s w e r e t h e s a m e . lo
T h e YWCA's w o r k w i t h t h e " i n d u s t r i a l g i r l s " t o o k t h e m
i n t o t h e f a c t o r i e s and t h e neighborhood.
I n some a r e a s t h e
l o c a l YWCA w o u l d o p e n a l u n c h room " s u i t a b l e f o r g i r l s t o v i s i t . "
These b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e s were o f t e n d i s a s t e r s ;
for instance,
i n C i n c i n n a t i t h e YWCA w a s f o r c e d t o c l o s e t h e i r r e s t a u r a n t
i n t h e f a c t o r y d i s t r i c t j u s t a few m o n t h s a f t e r it h a d o p e n e d .
" W h e r e a s n u m b e r s o f y o u n g men
The r e a s o n f o r i t s f a i l u r e :
came, t h e g i r l s d i d n o t , a s a r u l e , l e a v e t h e f a c t o r y o n a c c o u n t
of a noon h o u r t o o s h o r t t o a d m i t o f t h e n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e from
w o r k i n g c l o t h e s t o s t r e e t d r e s s . 1 ' 1 1 T h e m a j o r s u c c e s s of YWCA
e x t e n s i o n w o r k , h o w e v e r , came i n r e c r u i t i n g w o r k e r s a n d i n
p e r s u a d i n g f a c t o r y o w n e r s t o u s e t h e i r f a c i l i t i e s f o r noon
I t w a s h o p e d t h a t o n c e a woman r e a l i z e d
meetings and c l a s s e s .
t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e YWCA d u r i n g h e r l u n c h b r e a k , s h e w o u l d
f i n d a way t o b e c o m e i n v o l v e d i n t h e o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e
YWCA.
The f a c t o r s w o r k i n g a g a i n s t e v e n i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n w e r e
c o n s i d e r a b l e , a n d w e r e l i s t e d i n t h i s way by o n e c l u b w o r k e r :
"the Catholic influence,
t h e e x t r a c a r f a r e and membership,
and t h e
wary,
weary
bodies
after
ten
hours
of
tedious
d e v i t a l i z i n g w o r k . "12
The I n d u s t r i a l G i r l s '
Clubs were t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t
s e l f - g o v e r n i n g , j u s t a s t h e Working G i r l s ' S o c i e t i e s had b e e n .
But
l i k e t h e i r predecessors,
t h e s e c l u b s were a l s o t i g h t l y
c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e YWCA w o r k e r s a n d t h e v o l u n t e e r s who w e r e
basically middle-class
women o f
leisure.
The a c t i v i t i e s o f
each c l u b r e f l e c t e d t h e major i n t e r e s t s and i d e a s of behavior
t h a t t h e l o c a l and n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s espoused.
The noon
meetings i n t h e f a c t o r i e s , and later i n t h e department s t o r e s ,
i n c l u d e d d i s c u s s i o n s r a n g i n g from "what is b e s t t o g i v e a b e a u
f o r C h r i s t m a s " t o "which h o s p i t a l i s b e s t t o e n t e r f o r t r a i n i n g . "
C l a s s e s w e r e a l s o o f f e r e d , many o f w h i c h s t r e s s e d t h e n e e d
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , many
f o r education
i n homemaking s k i l l s .
o f t h e women s h o w e d t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n m o r e
recreational activities.
For i n s t a n c e , i n 1918 t h e C i n c i n n a t i
YWCA o f f e r e d c l a s s e s i n c o o k i n g , q u e s t i o n h o u r ( c u r r e n t e v e n t s ) ,
dramatics,
dressmaking,
needlework,
gymnasium,
and
ukelele.
The most
popular c l a s s e s were i n dramatics,
gymnasium,
and
ukelele;
the
least p o p u l a r were
cooking,
dressmaking,
and
needlework.
T h e d e c i s i o n as t o w h a t c l a s s e s t o o f f e r w a s o f t e n
b a s e d on t r i a l a n d e r r o r .
For example, one r e p o r t s t a t e d t h a t
" t h e work
at
t h e P r o c t e r & Gamble f a c t o r y
h a s b e e n more
promising.
The B i b l e class . ,
h a s grown t o a n e n r o l l m e n t
of
thirty-three.
Both t h e soap and C r i s c o g i r l s have been
most
responsive,
and
entered
into
all
our
plans
most
enthusiastically.
The s e w i n g c l a s s w i t h a n e n r o l l m e n t o f t w e n t y ,
was f o r c e d t o d i s b a n d a f t e r t h r e e meetings."
T h e YWCA s o o n
f o u n d t h a t t h e b e s t way t o k e e p t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p s t r o n g w a s
to encourage p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in
recreational
activities,
and
s l i p i n a l i t t l e teaching on t h e s i d e . 1 3
.
W i t h t h e i r e x t e n s i o n work i n t h e f a c t o r y d i s t r i c t s o f
Cincinnati,
t h e YWCA b e g a n t o f a c e a d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m - - n o t
a l l of t h e " i n d u s t r i a l g i r l s " were w h i t e .
What t o d o w i t h
t h e " c o l o r e d " women b e c a m e t h e m a i n a r e a f o r d i s c u s s i o n i n
many m e e t i n g s d i r e c t l y b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g W o r l d War I .
In a
history of
t h e YWCA w r i t t e n i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s , t h e q u e s t i o n o f
s e g r e g a t i o n was d i s c u s s e d .
Although t h e a u t h o r defended t h e
p o l i c i e s o f t h e YWCA, s h e a d m i t t e d :
"There is e v i d e n c e t h a t
i n some p l a c e s N e g r o women a n d g i r l s n o t l i v i n g i n t h e N e g r o
community b u t coming t o t h e c e n t r a l A s s o c i a t i o n are r e f e r r e d
t o t h e Negro branch i f they wish t o e n t e r a c t i v i t i e s . "
This
w a s c e r t a i n l y t h e case i n b o t h C i n c i n n a t i a n d L o u i s v i l l e .
In
C i n c i n n a t i , b l a c k f a c t o r y women w e r e o r g a n i z e d i n t o t h e B l u e
Triangle Club.
T h e c l u b m e t a t e i t h e r f a c t o r y l u n c h rooms
o r b l a c k c h u r c h e s u n t i l t h e YWCA p u r c h a s e d a h o u s e i n 1 9 1 9 .
T h i s b r a n c h , known a s t h e West E n d , b y 1 9 2 3 h a d f a c i l i t i e s
f o r h o u s i n g a n d a " t e a r o o m " w h i c h s e r v e d t w o meals d a i l y .
T h e L o u i s v i l l e YKCA b e g a n t h e i r P h y l l i s W h e a t l e y B r a n c h i n
1 9 1 8 a n d r e c r u i t e d o v e r 8 0 0 members t h a t y e a r .
T h e YWCA w o r k e r s
c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e t o b a c c o p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s w h e r e many b l a c k
women
were
employed
and
the
"California"
neighborhood
of
Louisville,
"a
thickly
settled
colored
district."
They
established four clubs f o r "colored girls":
t h e hlerrp hlakers
C l u b , t h e G i r l s w i t h Pep C l u b , t h e L i t e r a r y a n d hlusical Club,
and t h e Betsy Ross Club.
The a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e b l a c k c l u b s
\rere v e r v similar t o t h o s e of
t h e YWCA's o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l
clubs .I4
'
T h e YWCA s t r e s s e d s e l f - i m p r o v e m e n t c l a s s e s a n d l e c t u r e s ,
b u t t o a t t r a c t s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women, i t o f f e r e d r e c r e a t i o n a l
a c t i v i t i e s t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e growing i n f l u e n c e o f commercial
recreational
establishments.
By
1 9 2 0 , many members o f
the
C i n c i n n a t i YWCA w e r e l o b b y i n g f o r a swimming p o o l .
T h i s was
n o t h i n g new t o t h e d i r e c t o r s , s i n c e c l u b members h a d p r e s s u r e d
their
leaders
into
allowing other
recreational
activities,
For i n s t a n c e , t h e C i n c i n n a t i
s u c h a s d a n c i n g , f o r some t i m e .
YWCA s p o n s o r e d " p a r t i e s i n r e t u r n f o r c o u r t e s i e s shown by men
friends" i n 1915.
Of c o u r s e , t h e d i r e c t o r s a l s o p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t t h e " g i r l s h a v e n o t n e g l e c t e d t h e more s e r i o u s m a t t e r s ,
s u c h as t h e s e n d i n g o f C h r i s t m a s b a s k e t s t o t h e p o o r , f l o w e r s
. . I t The i n h e r e n t problems o f c o n t r o l
and v i s i t s t o t h e s i c k .
o f r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women w e r e o f
m a j o r c o n c e r n t o many s o c i a l w o r k g r o u p s by 1 9 0 0 , n o t o n l y
the Y W C A . ~ ~
.
A l l
recognized
that
self-supporting
women
who w o r k e d
i n f a c t o r i e s and department s t o r e s l o n g h o u r s were going t o
s e e k some t y p e o f a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e w o r k d a y w a s f i n i s h e d .
In h e r p l e a f o r o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n ,
Belle
Israels said:
"Industrial
activity
demands d i v e r s i o n .
Industrial
idleness
cries out for rational recreation."
The problems o f r e c r e a t i o n
however.
After
and t h e s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g
woman w e r e u n i q u e ,
h e r work w a s c o m p l e t e d f o r t h e d a y , s h e h a d n o f a m i l y o b l i g a t i o n s
to fill.
Most s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women n a t u r a l l y s o u g h t o u t o t h e r
a c t i v i t i e s a f t e r washing c l o t h e s , p r e p a r i n g m e a l s , and o t h e r ,
l i m i t e d domestic d u t i e s were performed.
The real p r o b l e m ,
a t l e a s t t o s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s , w a s t h a t s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women
were o f t e n p a i d s u c h low wages, t h e y were f o r c e d t o a c c e p t
t h e h o s p i t a l i t y o f men.
S i n c e t h e s e women w e r e b e y o n d t h e
controlling
influence
of
a
family,
many
who
worked
with
c h a r i t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n s b e l i e v e d t h e y had a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t o provide those r e s t r a i n t s .
R o b e r t Woods, i n a b o o k t o y o u n g
working g i r l s , l i s t e d what h e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e f o u r major
1 ) deficiency
r e a s o n s f o r " m o r a l c o n f u s i o n " among w o r k i n g women:
2)
poorly
organized
industry,
3)
neighborhood
of
f amily ,
He a l s o s t a t e d
breakdown, and 4 ) c o m m e r c i a l i z e d r e c r e a t i o n .
t h a t " t h e young g i r l n a t u r a l l y c r a v e s a s h a r e i n t h e p r o f u s i o n
o f p l e a s u r e w h i c h s h e sees e v e r y w h e r e o n s a l e ; a n d , a s s u c h
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o n l y t o o o f t e n c a l l s f o r t h e more ample r e s o u r c e s
o f some m a n , t h e way i s o p e n f o r m o r a l c o m p r o m i s e . "
T h i s view
toward t h e t e m p t a t i o n s o f c o m m e r c i a l i z e d r e c r e a t i o n was h e l d
When d i s c u s s i n g
by p r a c t i c a l l y a l l s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s o f t h e t i m e .
the
lives
of
sales
women,
one
surveyor
observed:
"This
s t a r v a t i o n i n p l e a s u r e , a s w e l l a s low wages and o v e r w o r k ,
s u b j e c t s t h e women
i n t h e s t o r e s t o a temptation readily
She w e n t o n t o s u g g e s t t h a t m o s t women " f i n d
conceivable."
it wise, f o r f e a r of t h e worst s u s p i c i o n , t o forego a l l s o r t s
of normal d e l i g h t s and g a y e t i e s and y o u t h f u l p l e a s u r e s . "
This
abstention
seems
highly
unlikely,
however,
particularly
in
view o f t h e c o n c e r n growing o v e r a t t e n d a n c e a t d a n c e h a l l s ,
movie t h e a t r e s , s k a t i n g r i n k s , a n d amusement p a r k s .
Frances
Donovan, i n h e r s t u d y of w a i t r e s s e s i n C h i c a g o , remarked t h a t
a waitress spends p r a c t i c a l l y a l l her l e i s u r e time "at t h e
movies,
cabarets,
and r e s t a u r a n t s
where s h e goes w i t h h e r
' f r i e n d ' o r w i t h some o t h e r g i r l . " 1 6 '
One s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m w a s t o o f f e r a l t e r n a t i v e s
to
commercialized
recreation.
Robert
Woods
suggested
that
g l r l s be "encouraged t o a c q u i r e s k i l l i n embroidery and fancy
w o r k , t o r e a d a l o u d a t home, a n d t o v i s i t among f r i e n d s who
have a h e l p f u l and s t i m u l a t i n g i n f l u e n c e . "
When c o m p a r e d t o
s e e i n g a m o v i n g p i c t u r e s h o w , r e a d i n g a l o u d a t home w a s h a r d l y
s e e n a s a s t i m u l a t i n g d i v e r s i o n by m o s t s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g women.
C e r t a i n l y t h e YWCA a c k n o w l e d g e d t h i s by o f f e r i n g r e c r e a t i o n a l
a c t i v i t i e s f o r w o r k i n g women o t h e r t h a n t h e i r u s u a l c l a s s e s
and l e c t u r e s .
T h e many d i f f e r e n t c l u b s o f t e n h e l d t e a s , s u p p e r s ,
group s i n g s and o t h e r p a r t i e s , b u t t h e y had a d i f f i c u l t t i m e
c o m p e t i n g w i t h t h e d a n c e h a l l s , t h e a t r e s , a n d amusement p a r k s
t h a t s p r a n g up i n American c i t i e s i n t h e 1 9 1 0 s and 1920s.17
D a n c i n g was t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n t o most s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s
of t h e time.
T h e d a n c e h a l l w a s a m e e t i n g p l a c e f o r men a n d
women w i t h o u t t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t a c h a p e r o n e d e n v i r o n m e n t
provided.
One s o c i a l w o r k e r s t a t e d i n 1 9 0 9 t h a t t h e u n c h a p e r o n e d
d a n c e h a l l b r e d i m m o r a l i t y , f o r " t h e man i s e v e r o n t h e h u n t ,
and t h e g i r l is e v e r n e e d i n g t o f l e e . "
Commercial d a n c e h a l l s
were t h o u g h t t o b e p l a c e s of g r e a t e v i l , where l i q u o r flowed
and p r o s t i t u t e s were proc.ured.
Many b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e d a n c e
h a l l was o n e o f t h e o b v i o u s p l a c e s w h e r e y o u n g g i r l s w e r e d r u g g e d
and kidnapped i n t o w h i t e s l a v e r y .
O t h e r s were concerned over
t h e presence of
l i q u o r i n many o f
t h e h a l l s and dancing
a c a d e m i e s , s i n c e t h e y t h o u g h t a l c o h o l made " t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s
between r i g h t and wrong a l i t t l e more p u z z l i n g . " 1 8
The environment
of
t h e d a n c e h a l l was n o t
t h e only
o b j e c t i o n a b l e f e a t u r e of t h i s r e c r e a t i o n , however.
Many s o c i a l
w o r k e r s a l s o f e l t t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l a c t of d a n c i n g was i n d e c e n t
and immoral.
I n a s u r v e y o f s u b s i d i z e d w o r k i n g g i r l s ' homes
i n M a n h a t t a n , o n e matron was q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t t h a t s h e d i d
n o t a l l o w d a n c i n g i n h e r home.
She d i d concede, however, t h a t
"on a Wednesday o r S a t u r d a y n i g h t I p l a y a V i r g i n i a R e e l t u n e
and l e t them s k i p
. . . " R o b e r t Woods b e l i e v e d t h a t i t was
imperative
for
social
workers
to
try
to
eliminate
"the
d a n g e r o u s l y p r e v a l e n t i n d e c e n t d a n c e s o f t h e p a s t few y e a r s . "
U n d e n i a b l y , t h e f e a r o f d a n c i n g c e n t e r e d on t h e commonly-accepted
i d e a t h a t women w e r e b a s i c a l l y weak a n d c o u l d n o t r e s i s t t h e
c h a r m , m o s t l i k e l y w i c k e d , o f a man.
B e l l e I s r a e l s e.xpressed
t h i s i d e a when s h e s a i d :
"You c a n n o t d a n c e n i g h t a f t e r n i g h t ,
h e l d i n t h e c l o s e s t of s e n s u a l embraces, w i t h every e f f o r t
made i n t h e s t y l e o f d a n c i n g t o a p e a l t o t h e w o r s t t h a t i s
i n y o u , a n d r e m a i n u n s h a k e n by i t . "lg
.
I t w a s o b v i o u s t o m o s t s o c i a l w o r k e r s by t h e 1 9 1 0 s t h a t
Realizing t h a t organizations
dancing w a s not going t o disappear.
s u c h a s t h e YWCA m o u l d s u f f e r a l o s s o f p o p u l a r i t y i f t h e y
d i d n o t o f f e r d a n c e s a s p a r t o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , many s o c i a l
w o r k e r s a g r e e d t h a t d a n c i n g would h e a c c e p t a b l e i f s u p e r v i s e d .
I f a d a n c e w a s h e l d i n a s e t t l e m e n t o r YWCA, u n d e r t h e w a t c h f u l
e y e s o f r e s p o n s i b l e c h a p e r o n e s , and no i n d e c e n t d a n c e s were
a l l o w e d , i t c o u l d b e a h e a l t h y a n d i n n o c e n t amusement f o r young
men a n d women.
T h i s compromise would t a k e t h e s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g
woman o u t o f t h e p u b l i c d a n c e h a l l a n d p l a c e h e r w i t h i n t h e
confines of
a supervised environment.
In t h e words of one
s o c i a l worker,
t h e community
center
"affords protection
of
a high order i n helping t h e g i r l maintain h e r standards."
The
r u l e s w e r e o f t e n s t r i c t , a n d t h e number o f c h a p e r o n e s was o f t e n
A t t h e YWCA, t h e d a n c e s
excessive a t such organized dances.
were n o t o f t e n h e l d , and were used a s a k i n d o f reward f o r
participation in other activities.
For example, t h e C i n c i n n a t i
YWCA h e l d a " P o p u l a r i t y N i g h t " e v e r y F r i d a y e v e n i n g w h e r e t h e
women c o u l d e n j o y "Good F e l l o w s h i p , Good T i m e s , ' P e p S o n g s , '
S t o r y T e l l e r s , and S o c i a l Dancing."
Once a m o n t h , " b r o t h e r s
and s w e e t h e a r t s " w e r e i n v i t e d .
Another c l u b p o s t e d a s e t of
rules f o r t h e i r dances:
R u l e s f o r C o r r e c t Dancing
1 . C o r r e c t d a n c i n g p o s i t i o n must m a i n t a i n e d .
1. The m a n ' s h a n d must b e o n t h e g i r l ' s
above h e r w a i s t , between t h e s h o u l d e r s .
2 . The g i r l ' s l e f t arm must
a r m , NOT a r o u n d h i s n e c k .
3. Dancers'
be
on
the
man's
h e a d s must n o t t o u c h .
11. Any
dance
with
conspicuous
movements
of
h i p s or s h o u l d e r s is a b s o l u t e l y p r o h i b i t e d .
111.
back
the
No deep d i p s allowed.
IV. No u n d u e d i s p l a y o f h o s i e r y .
V. Chaperonage must b e p e r m i t t e d p l e a s a n t l y .
VI. The management r e s e r v e s t h e r i g h t t o e x p e l p e r s o n s
n o t f o l l o w i n g t h e s e r u l e s , o r who f o r g o o d r e a s o n s
seem ~ n d e s i r a b l e . ~ o
Dancing and dance h a l l s were n o t t h e o n l y commercial
r e c r e a t i o n s t o come u n d e r a t t a c k .
Other a c t i v i t i e s such a s
a t t e n d i n g t h e t h e a t r e or moving p i c t u r e show, r o l l e r s k a t i n g ,
o r g o i n g t o a n amusement p a r k w e r e h i g h l y s u s p e c t l e i s u r e
a c t i v i t i e s f o r i n d e p e n d e n t women.
The t h e a t r e " d e m o r a l i z e d . "
The m o v i n g p i c t u r e show w a s d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e o f " t h e c r o w d s
outside t h e door,
t h e l u r i d and s e n s a t i o n a l advertisements,
and t h e a b s e n c e o f a l l c h a p e r o n a g e . "
A l s o , t h e dim l i g h t s
in a movie house made possible the "danger of undue familiarity."
The roller-skating rink promoted "general promiscuity."
Worst
of all was the amusement park, such as Coney Island or Paradise
Park in New York. These recreational areas consisted of dance
halls, saloons, movie theatres, penny arcades, hotels, and
excursion boats. One advocate of organized recreation believed
that it was "the promiscuity of the evening that makes these
places
danerous,
as
well
as
their
opportunities
for
carousing. "28
To social reformers, there were two solutions to the
problem
of
commercialized
recreation:
either
provide
alternatives and hope that self-supporting women cooperate;
or, regulate the type and places where public recreation is
offered.
The YWCA, settlements, and girls' clubs tried the
first solution with varying degrees of success. Other reformers
believed
that
liquor
should
be
prohibited, prostitution
eliminated, and dance halls, if not outlawed, heavily supervised.
All of those social workers interested in the problems of
commercial recreation believed that the situation was the
responsibility of government and the social agenc,y. One advocate
voiced her solution when she wrote: Let us frankly recognize that youth demands amusement.
when the cities begin to see their duties to the
little ones, playgrounds come.
Youth plays too.
Instead of sand-piles give them dance platforms;
instead of slides and see-saws, theaters; instead
of teachers of manual occupations, give them the
socializing force of contact with good supervising
men and women.
Replace the playground, or more
properly, progress from the playground to the rational
amusement park.22 In many ways, self-supporting women were considered as
children.
Middle-class social reformers believed that these
women must be supervised at work, at home, and at play.
Charitable organizations believed it was their responsibility
to provide instruction and protection for the independent woman
who lacked the traditional social restraints of a family
environment.
The self-supporting woman had few alternatives
to the structured life which organizations such as the YWCA
provided.
She could either cooperate and prepare herself for
a traditional feminine role, or ignore the social workers and
run the risk of losing the label of respectability.
It was
a difficult choice to make. NOTES
l ~ o u i s aH u n n e w e l l t o Mrs. B i g e l o w , 3 J u l y 1 9 2 2 , T h e B o s t o n
Society f o r t h e Care of G i r l s Papers.
2b1a~y S.
Sims,
The
Natural
History
of
a
Social
I n s t i t u t i o n - - T h e Young Women's C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n (New Y o r k ,
1 9 3 6 ) , 6 - 7 ; M a r i o n 0 . R o b i n s o n , E i g h t Women o f t h e YKCA (New
Y o r k , 1 9 6 6 ) , 6 ; C i n c i n n a t i Young Women's C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n ,
F i r s t A n n u a l R e p o r t ( 1 8 6 8 ) , 1 , h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as t h e C i n c i n n a t i
YWCA.
3 ~ e ~ o or ft t h e Employment B u r e a u , C i n c i n n a t i YWCA, T w e l f t h
Annual R e p o r t ( 1 8 8 1 ) ; Twenty-Xinth Annual R e p o r t ( 1 8 9 8 ) , 2 2 .
4 ~ a r yVan K l e e c k , Women i n t h e B o o k b i n d i n g T r a d e (New Y o r k ,
A Series of Articles
1 9 1 3 ) , 207; V i r g i n i a Penny, Think and Act:
P e r t a i n i n g t o Men a n d Women, Work a n d Wages ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 8 6 9 ) ,
5 3 ; A n n i e M a r i o n M a c L e a n , W a g e - E a r n i n g Women (New Y o r k , 1 9 1 0 ) ,
1 7 5 ; Women i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (New Y o r k , 1 9 8 2 ) , 1 7 1 .
j ~ e eR o b e r t Woods a n d A l b e r t J . K e n n e d y , e d s . , Handbook o f
New York,
1970) f o r a l i s t i n g of
Settlements
(1911;
rpt.
s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e U. S. i n 1911 and a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i r
a c t i v i t i e s ; S e e E l l e n C o n d l i f f e L a g e m a n n , A G e n e r a t i o n o f Women:
E d u c a t i o n i n t h e L i v e s o f P r o g r e s s i v e R e f o r m e r s ( C a m b r i d g e , MA,
1979), 102-08,
f o r a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of Leonora O ' R e i l l y ' s
involvment i n t h e Manhattan Trade School f o r G i r l s .
6 ~ a g e m a n n , 21-22;
I n 1 8 8 7 , Dodge p u b l i s h e d A B u n d l e o f
L e t t e r s t o Busy G i r l s o n P r a c t i c a l M a t t e r s ( r p t . i n G r a c e Dodge:
Her L i f e a n d Work, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 4 ) w h i c h i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l o f h e r
" p r a c t i c a l " t a l k s a i m e d a t women who c o u l d n o t a t t e n d a c l u b ;
Robinson, 1 6 .
7 ~ r a c e H . D o d g e , e d . , T h o u g h t s o f Busv G i r l s Who Have
1 , i t t l e T i m e f o r S t u d y Y e t F i n d Much T i m e f o r think in^ ( 1 8 9 2 ) ,
Dodge:
H e r L i f e , 1 3 3 ; S e e a l s o 1 0 5 , 1 3 7 ; R o b e r t Woods a n d A l b e r t
J . K e n n e d y , Young W o r k i n g G i r l s :
A Summarv o f E v i d e n c e f r o m Two
Thousand S o c i a l Workers ( B o s t o n , 1 9 1 3 ) , 133-34.
8 ~ p e e c h o n t h e Shawmut C l u b t o t h e W . E . I . U . ,
24 October
1936,
Marion
Niles
Papers;
Robert
Woods,
ed.,
The
City
A S e t t l e m e n t S t o r v (1911; r p t . New York, 19701, 262.
Wilderness:
g ~ o o d sa n d K e n n e d y ,
G i r l s
in
Wage-Earning
H o u s i n ~ ,Food, R e c r e a t i o n
rpt.
i n Working G i r l s i n
44.
Handbook, 188-244; F r a n c i s I r i n s R i c h ,
Cincinnati:
The
Wages.
Ernplovment.
a n d E d u c a t i o n o f a Sample Group (1927 ;
C i n c i n n a t i , New York, 1 9 7 4 ) , 6 1 ; S i n s ,
1 0 ~ o u i s v i l l e YWCA, A n n u a l R e p o r t ( 1 9 2 8 ) .
l l ~ i n c i n n a t iYWCA, T h i r t v - F o u r t h
l2Louisville
November 1 9 1 2 .
YWCA,
Renort
Annual R e p o r t
(1903).
on t h e I n d u s t r i a l Committee,
18
1 3 ~ i m s , 6 0 ; L o u i s v i l l e YWCA, R e p o r t o n t h e I n d u s t r i a l
C o m m i t t e e , 1 8 Kovember 1 9 1 2 ; C i n c i n n a t i YWCA, R e p o r t o f t h e
I n d u s t r i a l Committee, 1 9 1 8 ; F o r t y - S i x t h Annual R e p o r t ( 1 9 1 5 ) .
1 4 s i m s . 1 7 4 - 7 5 : C i n c i n n a t i YWCA. "West End B r a n c h H i s t o r y " ;
L o u i s v i l l e ' ~ C A , ~ n d u s t r i a l R e p o r t df P h y l l i s W h e a t l e v ranch,
March, 1 9 1 9 , A p r i l 1919.
1 5 ~ i n c i n n a t i YWCA,
Letter
to
Board
from
Industrial
D e p a r t m e n t , 6 J u l y 1 9 2 0 ; F o r t y - S i x t h Annual R e p o r t ( 1 9 1 5 ) .
I 6 ~ e l l eL i n d e r I s r a e l s , " T h e Way o f t h e G i r l , " T h e S u r v e v ,
2 2 ( 3 J u l y 1 9 0 9 ) . 4 8 6 ; Woods a n d K e n n e d y , Young W o r k i n g G i r l s ,
2 - 6 ; S u e X i n s l i e C l a r k a n d E d i t h F r a n k l i n W y a t t , Making B o t h E n d s
Meet:
T h e I n c o m e a n d O u t l a y o f New York W o r k i n g G i r l s (New Y o r k ,
19111, 28-29;
F r a n c i s D o n o v a n , T h e Woman Who W a i t s ( B o s t o n ,
l 7 w o o d s a n d K e n n e d y , Young Worlkilng G i r l s , 1 2 6 .
l 8 ~ o o d s and
Kennedy,
Young
Working
Girls,
109;
Israels,
495.
1 9 ~ s t h e rP a c k a r d , "The O r ~ a n i z e d Homes. " A S t u d y o f L i v i n g
C o n d i t i o n s o f S e l f - S u u i n g Women i n New York C i t y (Kew Y o r k ,
1 9 1 5 ) , 1 4 2 ; Woods a n d K e n n e d y , E u n W
~ orking G i r l s , 1 0 9 ; I s r a e l ~ ,
495.
2 0 ~ o o d s a n d K e n n e d y , Young W o r k i n g G i r l s , 1 1 6 ; C i n c i n n a t i
YWCA, P o s t e r o f " P o p u l a r i t y N i g h t , " n . d . ; " R u l e s f o r D a n c i n g , "
n . d . , hlarion N i l e s P a p e r s .
21b'oods
and
I s r a e l s ,\$lay," 4 9 1 . Kennedy,
Young
Working
Girls,
114-16; z 2 ~ h e National
League
of
Women
Workers,
"'Getting A P l e a f o r C o o r d i n a t i o n i n R e c r e a t i o n Work," J u n e Together':
1 9 1 7 , Marion Niles P a p e r s ; I s r a e l s , 497. WHAT MADE SENATOR TAYLOR RUN? Robert L. T a y l o r Middle Tennessee S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y A s t h i s p a p e r i s a s e q u e l t o t h e o n e r e a d by t h e a u t h o r
a t t h e 1985 m e e t i n g o f t h e Kentucky-Tennessee American S t u d i e s ,
A s s ~ c i a t i o n , i~t seems a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n w i t h a b r i e f r e s u m e
of t h e e a r l i e r paper.
Like its s e q u e l , i t concerned t h e f r e q u e n t
c a n d i d a c y o f T e n n e s s e e S e n a t o r R o b e r t Love T a y l o r , g r e a t - u n c l e
of t h e author and maternal grandfather of t h e w r i t e r , P e t e r
Taylor.
I n t h e e a r l i e r p a p e r it was a r g u e d t h a t S e n a t o r T a y l o r
s u f f e r e d from a compulsion f o r p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e and f o r a
p o l i t i c a l p a r t y - - t h e Democratic Party--and
t h a t t h a t compulsion
made h i m m i s e r a b l e .
I t was a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t S e n a t o r T a y l o r
H e could
had g r e a t g i f t s a s a n e n t e r t a i n e r and communicator.
make p e o p l e l a u g h a n d c o u l d u s e h i s f i d d l e t o p e r f o r m a n d t o
convey a n a p p e a l i n g image.
H i s manager s a i d t h a t h e was t h e
"king of t h e American p l a t f o r m f o r twenty y e a r s " and t h a t
His c r i t i c
l e c t u r i n g w a s " t h e t r u e d e s t i n y o f h i s talent^."^
Hooper
c a l l e d him
a n d p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t , G o v e r n o r Ben II.
" t h e g r e a t e s t p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n e r i n t h e S ~ u t h . " ~He e a r n e d
Y e t he
s u b s t a n t i a l income a n d p r a i s e a s a comic l e c t u r e r .
gave u p a f u l l - t i m e c a r e e r i n e n t e r t a i n m e n t t o s e e k a t h i r d
t e r m a s g o v e r n o r i n 1 8 9 6 , a p o s i t i o n t h a t h a d made h i m u n h a p p y
a n d p r o b a b l y i l l when h e f i r s t h e l d i t a n d w o u l d d o s o a g a i n .
He w a s h e a v i l y c r i t i c i z e d d u r i n g h i s g o v e r n o r s h i p f o r g r a n t i n g
H e was e l e c t e d t o t h e S e n a t e i n 1 9 0 7 ,
t o o many p a r d o n s .
f u l f i l l i n g a long-held
ambition.
Then h e j e o p a r d i z e d t h a t
happy c a r e e r by a g r e e i n g - - m y s t e r i o u s l y - - t o
run f o r a fourth
term a s governor i n 1910.
I n s o doing he demonstrated a
s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e commitment t o t h e D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y .
He l o s t
t h e r a c e , b u t t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i s was i n t e n t i o n a l .
My e a r l i e r p a p e r a r g u e d t h a t h e d i d some o f t h e s e t h i n g s b e c a u s e
h e o v e r i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a m a t e r n a l u n c l e , L a n d o n Carter H a y n e s ,
a former C o n f e d e r a t e s e n a t o r .
I n f a c t , my e n t i r e p a p e r t r i e d
t o demonstrate t h e imprisoning e f f e c t of h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
I did not attempt t o explain its o r i g i n , a s I w i l l t r y t o do
in t h i s paper.
Bob T a y l o r w a s b o r n J u l y 3 1 , 1 8 5 0 , t h e t h i r d s o n i n a
f a m i l y o f t e n ~ h i l d r e n . ~H i s p l a c e o f b i r t h w a s a f a r m known
a s Happy V a l l e y o n t h e W a t a u g a R i v e r i n C a r t e r C o u n t y , w h i c h
is n e a r t h e North C a r o l i n a l i n e i n n o r t h e a s t e r n T e n n e s s e e .
In 1851, h i s f a t h e r , N a t h a n i e l Greene T a y l o r , bought a t h o u s a n d
a c r e s of t h e farm o f N a t h a n i e l ' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ,
David Haynes.
I t was l o c a t e d o n l y t e n m i l e s t o t h e s o u t h w e s t a n d u p t h e B u f f a l o
The f a m i l y
C r e e k v a l l e y , w h i c h i s a n e x t e n s i o n o f Happy V a l l e y .
l i v e d on t h e f a r m f o r t e n y e a r s .
Bob T a y l o r w a s f r e q u e n t l y
ill d u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s , a n d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e h e d i d n o t s t a r t
s c h o o l u n t i l h e was n i n e ( T a y l o r s 6 0 f f . ) .
When t h e C i v i l War
b r o k e o u t i n 1 8 6 1 , t h e f a t h e r s o l d t h e B u f f a l o f a r m t o pay
o f f a d e b t w h i c h h e f i g u r e d t h e war m i g h t k e e p him from p a y i n g
Thus,
a n d t o o k t h e f a m i l y b a c k t o Happy V a l l e y ( T a y l o r s 8 0 ) .
i n 1861 Nathaniel Tyalor l o s t a portion o f h i s w i f e ' s f a t h e r ' s
achievement.
N a t h a n i e l T a y l o r ' s f a i l u r e s were n o t f i n a n c i a l o n l y .
After
graduating
from t h e
College of
New J e r s e y ,
now P r i n c e t o n
University,
i n t h e early-1840s,
h e had s e r v e d v a r i o u s l y as
a llethodist preacher, without a church, and a four-time candidate
for
First
Congressional
District
representative,
with
one
victory.
He w a s e l e c t e d a s a Whig i n t h e s p e c i a l e l e c t i o n
of 1854.
And t h o u g h h e w a s t o b e o n t h e v i c t o r i o u s U n i o n i s t
s i d e o f t h e C i v i l War, t o win o n e more t e r m i n C o n g r e s s i n
1 8 6 5 , t o s e r v e as Andrew J o h n s o n ' s C o m m i s s i o n e r o f
Indian
Affairs,
a n d e v e n t u a l l y t o t a k e a Church i n K n o x v i l l e , he
c o n t i n u e d t o s u f f e r d e f e a t s i n t h e t h i n g s t h a t may h a v e c o u n t e d
most t o " s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s . "
He h a d l i t t l e money a f t e r t h e
war and, i n 1865, t h e y e a r h i s brother-in-law
was f i n i s h i n g
h i s t e r m i n t h e Confederate S e n a t e , he lost a b i d f o r a United
States Senate seat.6
I t is noteworthy t h a t R. N. P r i c e , t h e
f r i e n d l y h i s t o r i a n of t h e Holston Conference of t h e Methodist
Church, regarded Nathaniel Greene Taylor a s only " p a r t i a l l y
successful."
He s a i d t h a t T a y l o r s p o k e w e l l , a n d w a s " f i n e l y
e d u c a t e d , w i d e l y r e a d , a man o f g r e a t d r a m a t i c p o w e r , a k e e n
wit,
an incomparable humorist,
a n d a p e r f e c t mimic."
But
"instead o f concentrating h i s energies on one t h i n g , he diffused
a n d d i s s i p a t e d t h e m i n t o o many u n d e r t a k i n g s .
He w a s a l a w y e r ,
farmer,
merchant,
preacher,
politician."
To P r i c e ,
h e was
"an a c c o m p l i s h e d f a r m e r " a n d a n " i n c o m p a r a b l e p r e a c h e r , " b u t
h e "began p a s t o r a l work t o o l a t e i n l i f e , a n d h e had n o t l e a r n e d
t h e a r t of preaching sermonettes."
H e was on1 y a " p a r t i a l l y
s u c c e s s f u l " p o l i t i c i a n , a f a i l u r e a s a m e r c h a n t , and h e "once
prepared a
l e c t u r e which he intended t o d e l i v e r throughout
B u t " h a v i n g d e l i v e r e d i t a few t i m e s a n d f i n d i n g
t h e country
i t d i d n o t draw a s w e l l a s h e w i s h e d , h e q u i t t h e
that
p l a t f o r m . !l7
."
On
paper,
at
least,
he
was
far
l e s s successful
in
v o t e g e t t i n g a n d o n t h e l e c t u r e p l a t f o r m t h a n h i s two s o n s ,
Bob a n d A l f ( A l f r e d A l e x a n d e r ) , w e r e t o b e .
A l f , t h e second
s o n , won t h e c o n g r e s s i o n a l s e a t t h r e e t i m e s a s a R e p u b l i c a n ,
and,
i n 1920, t h e governorship.
Bob won t h e c o n g r e s s i o n a l
s e a t once, t h e s e n a t e s e a t once, and t h e governorship three
times.
I n 1 8 8 6 , i n h i s f i r s t race f o r g o v e r n o r , h e d e f e a t e d
h i s o l d e r b r o t h e r -4lf.
The r e c o r d o f
Bob's early
l i f e depends h e a v i l y on a
biography L i f e and C a r e e r , published i n 1913.
The a u t h o r s
James P a t t o n
Taylor,
Alfred
were
his
surviving
brothers,
Alexander
T a y 1o r ,
and
Hugh
Lawson
Taylor.
Hereinafter,
r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s b o o k w i l l b e made b y d e s i g n a t i o n s o f t h e
authors--"the
surviving
brothers"
or
"the
surviving
The b o o k c o n t a i n s m e m o i r s o f t h o s e who knew Bob T a y l o r .
sons."
Bob T a y l o r d i d n o t i d e n t i f y w i t h h i s f a t h e r i n a p r i m a r y
way.
He i d e n t i f i e d w i t h h i s m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r , Landon C a r t e r
H a y n e s , a l t h o u g h , u p t o a p o i n t , N a t h a n i e l T a y l o r a n d Landon
H a y n e s l e d p a r a l l e l l i v e s a n d s h a r e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t Bob
Taylor acquired.
Both were p o l i t i c i a n s , g r a n d i l o q u e n t o r a t o r s
oP some s u c c e s s , a n d h a d t h e c o m i c t o u c h .
T h i s t o u c h f o r comedy
"He
was much more p r o n o u n c e d i n t h e f a t h e r t h a n i n t h e u n c l e .
was a b o r n c o m e d i a n a n d t r a g e d i a n c o m b i n e d , " t h e s u r v i v i n g
sons wrote,
and was s c a r c e l y s u r p a s s e d a s a mimic.
Although
n e v e r b e h i n d t h e f o o t l i g h t s i n h i s l i f e , he c o u l d ,
on o c c a s i o n , i n j e c t t h e s e a r t s i n t o h i s a d d r e s s e s ,
where p r o p r i e t y p e r m i t t e d , and c o n v u l s e a n a u d i e n c e
with l a u g h t e r almost t o t h e point of p r o s t r a t i o n ,
and t h e n p l u n g e them i n t o t e a r s and weeping a s i f
He w a s a man
t h e y were s o many h e l p l e s s i n f a n t s .
o f t h e m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l t y p e o f Edwin B o o t h , whom
.
(Taylors
h e somewhat r e s e m b l e d i n f e a t u r e s .
33)
.
.
The
prodigious
use
of
humor
became
the
primary
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h s e p a r a t e d t h e p l a t f o r m s t y l e o f Bob T a y l o r
from t h a t o f h i s u n c l e .
B u t , a s was demonstrated i n t h e
companion
paper,
the
chief
identification,
conscious
and
Landon
Carter
Haynes.
Taylor's
unconscious,
was
with
identification with h i s mother's brother can be traced t o the
p e r s o n a l i t y o f h i s m o t h e r , Emma H a y n e s T a y l o r .
Not much h a s
been w r i t t e n a b o u t h e r .
But f o r a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y h o u s e w i f e ,
s h e r e c e i v e d a f a i r amount of c o v e r a g e .
And t h e r e i s e n o u g h
i n f o r m a t i o n l e f t a b o u t h e r t o s u g g e s t a way t o u n d e r s t a n d a
m o t i v a t i o n o f h e r s o n , Bob.
T h e r e a r e two a c c o u n t s , b o t h
One i s t h e s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r s '
published around t h e y e a r 1913.
b i o g r a p h y o f Bob T a y l o r c i t e d e a r l i e r .
The o t h e r i s t h e volume
o f M e t h o d i s t h i s t o r y by P r i c e , a l s o q u o t e d e a r l i e r .
The s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r s r e c o r d t h a t Emma T a y l o r w a s b o r n
on A p r i l 2 0 , 1 8 2 2 , a t Mount P l e a s a n t , w h i c h w a s t h e name o f
her f a t h e r ' s homestead.
She was e d u c a t e d i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l s
of E l i z a b e t h t o n and J o n e s b o r o , which w e r e r e l a t i v e l y n e a r h e r
C a r t e r C o u n t y home.
They r e p o r t t h a t s h e s t u d i e d " i n a l l t h e
branches t h e r e i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m f o r young l a d i e s , i n c l u d i n g
m u s i c , i n w h i c h s h e w a s e x c e p t i o n a l l y p r o f i c i e n t , a n d , among
o t h e r f i n e a t t a i n m e n t s , became a n a c c o m p l i s h e d p i a n i s t . "
Price
says t h a t a s a n a d u l t s h e r e a d t h e p r o s e o f Addison and t h e
poetry o f S h a k e s p e a r e , M i l t o n , B u r n s , and " a l l t h a t was p u r e
The s u r v i v i n g s o n s a n d P r i c e
and n o b l e i n B y r o n " ( 3 8 3 - 8 4 ) .
r e p o r t t h a t s h e u s e d h e r m u s i c a l t a l e n t t o win h e r husband.
Nobody s a i d s h e l o o k e d l i k e a n a c t r e s s , b u t P r i c e w a s
obviously impressed w ith h e r p e r s o n a l i t y .
He g a v e t h r e e p a g e s
of h i s h i s t o r y (381-84) t o h e r .
Among h i s o t h e r r e l e v a n t r e m a r k s
" t o t h e p o o r a n d n e e d y s h e w a s t h e Lady B o u n t i f u l .
S h e s e e m e d t o f i n d h e r own h a p p i n e s s i n t h e h a p p i n e s s o f o t h e r s . "
I n a d d i t i o n , more t h a n i n r e a d i n g , " s h e d e l i g h t e d i n l i s t e n i n g
t o a good s e r m o n d e l i v e r e d by a f o r c e f u l a n d e l o q u e n t p r e a c h e r .
She d e s p i s e d t h e s o p o r i f i c p r e a c h e r w i t h h i s t h i r d l i e s and
sixthlies."
And f i n a l l y ,
" s h e was h e r s e l f
unconsciously
an
o r a t o r i n p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n , and t h a t w i t h o u t e f f o r t .
Her
s o u l was p o e t r y , and h e r t o n g u e was e l o g e n c e
were t h a t
."
She was one of t w e l v e c h i l d r e n - - s e v e n boys and f i v e g i r l s .
W h i l e t h e s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r s g i v e n o t h i n g b u t t h e name o f h e r
Because
m o t h e r , Rhoda, t h e y d e v o t e s e v e r a l pages t o h e r f a t h e r .
h e l i v e d u n t i l 1 8 6 8 t h e g r a n d c h i l d r e n p r o b a b l y knew him w e l l
(Taylors 3 5 f f . ) .
In a d d i t i o n ,
he was c o l o r f u l .
He w a s a
millwright,
farmer,
a n d s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s m a n who became a
f i e r y C o n f e d e r a t e s y m p a t h i z e r d u r i n g t h e C i v i l War.
But t h e
s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r s c a l l e d him a n " a r t f u l d o d g e r , " a s Alf would
c a l l Bob i n 1 8 8 6 . 8 P o s s i b l y Bob a c q u i r e d t h i s i d e n t i t y f r a g m e n t
f r o m t h e g r a n d f a t h e r , a l t h o u g h I am n o t p r e p a r e d t o s a y t h a t
h i s g r a n d f a t h e r was t h e o n l y o r e v e n t h e m a j o r s o u r c e .
I n speaking of t h e i r mother, t h e s u r v i v i n g sons t e s t i f y
t h a t s h e was "deeply r e l i g i o u s i n h e r f e e l i n g s and l e d a p i o u s
lifeU.9
Furthermore,
"in
orginality,
mental
grasp
and
b r i l l i a n c y , i n f o r c e of c h a r a c t e r , s t r e n g t h of w i l l , i n energy
o f a c t i o n and e x e c u t i v e a b i l i t y , s h e was l i k e h e r f a t h e r , b u t
u n l i k e him i n h e r e q u a b i l i t y o f t e m p e r , e q u a n i m i t y o f s o u l
a n d g e n t l e n e s s o f n a t u r e - - e x c e p t when a r o u s e d by some i n t o l e r a b l e
provocation."
When a r o u s e d , s h e c o u l d b e c o m p a r e d by t h e s o n s
t o a " t h u n d e r s t o r m or a t o r n a d o " a n d h e r " i n d i g n a t i o n t o t h e
forked l i g h t n i n g s or a whirlwind."
The o f f e n d e r s w e r e t h e n
a s s a i l e d by h e r w r a t h i n t h e f o r m o f " t h u n d e r b o l t s a n d f i e r y
d a r t s of
righteous denunciation,
w h i c h w o u l d make u s young
s i n n e r s f e e l s m a l l enough t o c r a w l i n t o a n e l e c t r o n and never
come o u t a g a i n !
B u t , l i k e t h e t o r n a d o , i t was a m a t t e r of
b u t a few m o m e n t s , a n d t h e n a l l w a s o v e r . "
N e v e r t h e l e s s , a p o r t r a i t o f Emma T a y l o r
is l i m i t e d , t h e s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r s w r i t e .
greater capacity for gentleness
. . . and
"overflowed w i t h sympathy and compassion f o r
unfortunate."
T h i s compassion no d o u b t had
B o b , t h e s o n who w o u l d become known, p a r t l y
p u b l i c i t y , a s a pardoning governor.
a s fear-inspiring
She had a
"far
affection."
She
t h e s i c k and t h e
i t s i n f l u e n c e on
t h r o u g h h i s own
But s h e had s t a n d a r d s .
The s u r v i v i n g s o n s r e p o r t t h a t
" s h e l o v e d h e r own k i n d r e d a n d h e r h u s b a n d ' s p e o p l e , a n d was
p r o u d o f a l l among t h e m who w e r e w o r t h y of p r i d e " [my i t a l i c s ] .
I t s e e m s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t a woman o f s u c h e x a c t i n g s t a n d a r d s
might
make
her
love
for
her
children
as
conditional
on
p e r f o r m a n c e a s h e r p r i d e i n t h e m , e s p e c i a l l y when t h a t c o n d i t i o n
was c o u p l e d w i t h h e r a m b i t i o n .
To t h a t e x t e n t ( a s w e l l a s
i n h e r p i e t y a n d good d e e d s ) , s h e r e s e m b l e d t h e f r u s t r a t e d
m o t h e r o f t h a t o t h e r s o u t h e r n s t o r y - t e l l i n g p o l i t i c i a n , Lyndon
Johnson.lO
My c o n t e n t i o n is t h a t Emma T a y l o r t h e r e b y c r e a t e d
i n h e r " p e t " s o n a need t o g o o u t and do t h e t h i n g s t h a t n e i t h e r
s h e n o r h e r husband had been a b l e t o do--to b e S e n a t o r , j u s t
The s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r s r e p o r t
a s h e r b r o t h e r , Landon, had.
t h a t t h e i r mother:
f e l t a s p e c i a l p r i d e i n h e r b r o t h e r , Landon C . H a y n e s ,
t h o u g h s h e d i f f e r e d f r o m him i n p o l i t i c s b e f o r e a n d
d u r i n g t h e g r e a t C i v i l War.
One d a y d u r i n g t h a t w a r h e w a s c h i d i n g h e r f o r b e i n g
on t h e U n i o n s i d e , t o w h i c h s h e r e p l i e d , n o t i n a n g e r ,
but with r e a l s i s t e r l y affcction:
"My d e a r b r o t h e r ,
i t is m o s t f o r t u n a t e f o r y o u t h a t I am o n t h a t s i d e ,
f o r t h e d a y w i l l s u r e l y come when I s h a l l o b t a i n
y o u r p a r d o n , f o r t h e p o l i t i c a l m i s t a k e you a r e m a k i n g ,
from t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e United S t a t e s . "
Emma T a y l o r ' s p r o p h e c y came t o p a s s ( p o s s i b l y
concocted its d e t a i l s a f t e r t h e e v e n t ) .
because her
sons
Finally, t h e surviving brothers wrote:
s h e w a s a woman o f h i g h a n d n o b l e i d e a l s a n d o f
towerinv
ambition
for
hcr
husband
a n d sons [my
italics].
S h e a l w a y s t h a n k e d God t h a t among a l l
h e r c h i l d r e n t h e r e w e r e no i d i o t s [ h e r s o n s ' p o l i t i c a l
o p p o n e n t s n o d o u b t b e l i e v e d t h a t s h e h a d h a d some
c l o s e c a l l s ] nor c r i m i n a l s nor w o r t h l e s s vagabonds.
I t was h e r d a i l y aim a n d e f f o r t t o mould t h e c h a r a c t e r s
and d e v e l o p t h e minds of h e r s o n s f o r h o n o r a b l e and
u s e f u l c a r e e r s i n l i f e , a n d s h e n e v e r c c a s c d her
e f f o r t s a s l o n g a s h e l i v e d [my i t a l i c s ] .
According
t o t h e brothers, Nathaniel
Taylor prohibited
y o u t h f u l farm d e b a t e s b e c a u s e t h e y d i s t r a c t e d t h e " h i r e d men,"
b u t t h e f a t h e r w a s " h a r d l y e v e r a t home."
Emma T a y l o r , h o w e v e r ,
was " f r i e n d l y t o t h i s s y s t e m o f f o r e n s i c t r a i n i n g " a n d a l l o w e d
the debates t o continue i n Nathaniel's absence, although she
would n o t " t o l e r a t e t h e l e a s t d i s p 1 . a ~ o f i l l - t e m p e r "
(Taylors
112-13, 2 3 ) .
.
B u t i f Emma T a y l o r h a d h o p e s f o r h e r h u s b a n d a n d s o n s ,
A s the surviving
she e s p e c i a l l y had hopes f o r o n e o f them.
sons s a i d :
"One o f h e r s p e c i a l a m b i t i o n s w a s t o see h e r s o n ,
R o b e r t , made a U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t o r , b u t [ s i n c e s h e d i e d i n
18911 s h e d i d n o t l i v e t o s e e t h e f r u i t i o n o f h e r h o p e " ( 5 3 ) .
B u t why w a s Bob s i n g l e d o u t ?
James, t h e e l d e s t b r o t h e r ,
s a y s t h a t Bob " w a s a g r e a t p e t o f h i s m o t h e r " b e c a u s e o f h i s
childhood i l l n e s s ( T a y l o r s 6 2 ) .
There a r e two c o n v i n c i n g r e a s o n s
e x p l a i n i n g why s h e w a n t e d Bob t o b e s e n a t o r , a s o p p o s e d t o
governor o r a c t o r o r t y c o o n .
In a family of twelve c h i l d r e n ,
i t would b e r e m a r k a b l e i f t h e r e were no s i b l i n g r i v a l r y .
Emma
T a y l o r ' s b r o t h e r w a s a s e n a t o r a n d h e r h u s b a n d , who l o s t a
s e n a t e b i d i n 1 8 6 5 , n e v e r won t h e o f f i c e .
But Landon C a r t e r Haynes had gone t o t h e wrong s e n a t e .
He h a d made a s e r i o u s " p o l i t i c a l m i s t a k e . "
H e g a v e Emma r e a s o n
t o b e l i e v e t h a t h e was no b e t t e r t h a n s h e s i n c e s h e had been
f o r c e d t o r e s c u e him f r o m h i s f o l l y .
P r i c e had s a i d t h a t s h e
was " u n c o n s c i o u l y a n o r a t o r . "
Might s h e n o t p l a u s i b l y c o n s i d e r
Y e t T e n n e s s e e law d i d n o t
herself of s e n a t o r i a l c a l i b e r ? l l
a l l o w a woman t o b e a s e n a t o r .
F r u s t r a t e d b y a s o c i e t y t h a t w o u l d n o t a l l o w Emma T a y l o r
t o f u l f i l l t h e a m b i t i o n s h e r t a l e n t s may h a v e q u a l i f i e d h e r
f o r , s h e b e c a m e a woman s e e k i n g w h a t t h e p s y c h i a t r i s t H e l m
S t i e r l i n h a s c a l l e d " a bound d e l e g a t e . " l 2
"Such a d e l e g a t e , "
h e h a s w r i t t e n , "tries t o s u s t a i n o r recoup h i s p a r e n t ' s ( o r
l o r d ' s ) a p p r o b a t i o n a n d l o v e , a l o v e now made c o n t i n g e n t on
O r , a s h e p u t i t i n more
how h e e x e c u t e s h i s m i s s i o n ( s ) . "
technical
language,
"where
the
delegate principally
serves
h i s p a r e n t ' s e g o - i d e a l , h e is s e n t o u t i n t o l i f e t o r e a l i z e
H e adds t h a t "the
unfulfilled parental
aspirations"
(49).
p a r e n t e x p e c t s t h e a d o l e s c e n t t o become t h e a c t o r , s c i e n t i s t ,
physician, o r f i n a n c i a l tycoon t h a t t h e parent himself f a i l e d
t o become."
The p s y c h o a n a l y s t ,
Erik Erikson,
s u p p l i e s an additonal
explanation.
I n w r i t i n g o f t h e t e e n a g e American b o y , E r i k s o n
o b s e r v e s t h a t " t h e b o y ' s male i d e a l is r a r e l y a t t a c h e d t o h i s
father, a s lived with i n daily l i f e .
I t is u s u a l l y a n u n c l e
o r f r i e n d of t h e family, i f not h i s grandfather, a s presented
t o h i m ( o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) by h i s m o t h e r . " l 3 I n Bob T a y l o r ' s
c a s e , h i s m a l e i d e a l a n d model was t h e u n c l e , Landon C a r t e r
H a y n e s , e v i d e n c e o f w h i c h w a s p r e s e n t e d i n "The C a s e o f S e n a t o r
Taylor:
Part I."
Emma T a y l o r , i n a d d i t o n t o g u i d i n g h e r s o n Bob t o a c q u i r e
her
brother's
oratorical
style
and
office,
gave
him
his
commitment t o h i s p o l i t i c a l p a r t y .
When t h e s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r s
s a i d t h a t s h e d i f f e r e d f r o m Landon C a r t e r Haynes " i n p o l i t i c s
b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e g r e a t C i v i l War" ( 5 3 1 , t h e y m u s t h a v e
meant t h a t s h e opposed s e c e s s i o n .
Elsewhere, they w r i t e t h a t
l i k e h e r b r o t h e r s h e was a Democrat ( 3 2 3 ) .
And i n t h e f i r s t
paragraph
of
h i s o p e n i n g s p e e c h i n t h e 1886 g u b e r n a t o r i a l
c a m p a i g n , Bob T a y l o r s a y s o f h i s b r o t h e r a g a i n s t whom h e was
running:
"Our p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r i e s v a r y i n t h i s , t h a t i n my
budhood I was t r a n s p l a n t e d
t e n d e r and l o v i n g h a n d s [my
i t a l i c s ] i n t o t h e s w e e t g a r d e n o f p u r e Democracy; w h i l e he,
l i k e t h e ' l a s t r o s e o f summer, ' i n t h e d e s e r t o f R e p u b l i c a n i s m ,
was l e f t blooming a l o n e . " 1 4
A l t h o u g h Bob T a y l o r p r o f e s s e d n o t t o w a n t t h e b u r d e n s
o f p u b l i c l i f e , h e d i d n o t c o n s c i o u s l y l i n k h i s m o t h e r t o them
o r c o n f e s s t h a t h e wished t o e s c a p e h e r a s he wished t o escape
them.
On
the
contrary,
throughout
his
life--literally--he
exprcssed h i s wish t o be with h e r .
An u n i d e n t i f i e d w r i t e r
described t h e following deathbed scene.
Bob T a y l o r h a d s u f f e r e d
a s e v e r e g a l l s t o n e a t t a c k i n W a s h i n g t o n a n d was t o d i e on S u n d a y ,
March 3 1 , 1 9 1 2 .
"On S a t u r d a y b e f o r e h e d i c d , " t h e w r i t e r
recalled:
a b o u t m i d d a y , h e s u d d e n l y r e t u r n e d t o a moment o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , opened wide h i s e y e s , and w i t h a s m i l e
brighter
than
had
ever
been
seen
to
light
his
countenance i n t h e v i g o r of h e a l t h , h e r a i s e d himself
o f f o f h i s p i l l o w , a n d a t t h e same t i m e e x t e n d i n g
"Mother!
h i s arms a s i f t o e m b r a c e h e r , h e e x c l a i m e d :
Mother!
Mother!"
T h e n h e s a n k b a c k a n d t h i s was
h i s l a s t c o n s c i o u s moment.
The s m i l e o n h i s f a c e
was n e v e r b r i g h t e r , h i s e y e s w e r e n e v e r more b r i l l i a n t ,
H i s watchers affirm
and h i s v o i c e never c l e a r e r .
t h a t he w a s e n t i r e l y conscious.
T h i s happy i n c i d e n t , t a k e n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
t h e S e n a t o r ' s touching remark, o f t repeated, i n s p i r e s
t h e c o n s o l i n g t h o u g h t t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f "Our Bob"
I t must have been accompanied
did not depart alone.
by t h e A n g e l M o t h e r .
( T a y l o r s 265-66)
T h e same w r i t e r r e p o r t s t h a t d u r i n g Bob T a y l o r ' s l a s t
t r i p t o T e n n e s s e e , when h e w a s o v e r s i x t y y e a r s o l d , h e t o l d
" a c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s , " t h a t "when I d i e , I e x p e c t my m o t h e r
t o b e a r o u n d a n d a b o u t my d e a t h - b e d , w a i t i n g t o t a k e me w h e r e
Here i s a t r u l y i r o n i c i n v e r s i o n , b e c a u s e
s h e is" ( T a y l o r s 2 6 5 ) .
i n l i f e s h e had a c t e d t o s e n d him where s h e c o u l d n o t h e r s e l f
go.
NOTES
l ~ h i s p a p e r , when p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1 9 8 6 m e e t i n g
Kentucky-Tennessee
American
Studies Association,
was
"The C a s e o f S e n a t o r T a y l o r :
P a r t 11."
2 ~ h e f i l m b a s e d on P e t e r T a y l o r ' s
Forest,"
was
shown d u r i n g t h e n i g h t
Conference.
of t h e
titled,
s h o r t s t o r y , "The O l d
session
of
the
1986
3 ~ eL,ong R i c e ,
"A
T r i b u t e by IIon.
De Long R i c e , o f
N a s h v i l l e , T e n n . , a Life-Long
F r i e n d , A s s o c i a t e , and Admirer
o f t h e L a t e S e n a t o r R o b e r t Love T a y l o r , " q u o t e d i n " A d d r e s s
Mr.
[Luke] Lea,
of
Tennessee,"
i n R o b e r t Love T a v l o r ;
of
M e m o r i a l A d d r e s s e s D e l i v e r e d . i n t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e House o f
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , 62nd C o n g . , 3 r d s e s s .
(Washington, 1913) , 15,13.
4 ~ v e r e t t Robert
Boyce,
ed.,
A u t o b i o g r a p h v o f G o v e r n o r Ben W .
70.
The
Unwanted
Boy:
The
Hooper
(Knoxville,
1963),
5 ~ l fA . T a y l o r , Hugh L . T a y l o r , a n d J a m e s P . T a y l o r , Life
a n d C a r e e r of-Senator
R o b e r t Love T a y l o r ( O u r B o b ) ( N a s h v i l l e ,
1 9 1 3 ) , 26.
H e r e i n a f t e r t h i s book w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s T a y l o r s .
6 ~ h o m a sB . A l e x a n d e r ,
( N a s h v i l l e , 1 9 5 0 ) , 76.
P o l i t i c a l Reconstruction i n Tennessee
7 ~ .N . P r i c e , H o l s t o n M e t h o d i s m :
From i t s O r i g i n t o t h e
P r e s e n t Time, Vol. 5 :
From t h e Y e a r 1 8 7 0 t o th_e Y e a r 1 8 9 7
N a s h v i l l e , 1913 o r 19141, 379.
T h e c o p y r i g h t f o r t h i s book
is l i s t e d a s 1913; t h e t i t l e page d a t e i s 1914.
Hereinafter
t h i s volume w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s P r i c e .
8 ~ a s h v i l l eA m e r i c a n , 2 9 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 .
g ~ a t e r i a l f o r t h i s and t h e
t a k e n from p a g e s 48-53 of T a y l o r s .
losee Doris Kearns,
(New Y o r k , 1 9 7 6 ) , 3 8 5 - 8 6 ,
following
Lvndon J o h n s o n
and 24ff.
five
paragraphs
and t h e American
is
Dream
ll~ccording to
her
obituary,
Emma
Taylor
had
an
" i n t e l l e c t u a l b r i l l i a n c y and f o r c e equal i f not superior t o
t h a t o f h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d b r o t h e r , Landon C . H a y n e s , " K n o x v i l l e
J o u r n a l 1 7 November 1 8 9 0 .
12~elm Stierlin,
Adolph
Hitler:
(New Y o r k :
paperback e d . , 1976), 45.
1 3 ~ r i k E r i k s o n , Childhood and
a n d e n l a r g e d (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 3 ) , 3 1 2 .
1 4 ~ a s h v i l l eA m e r i c a n ,
A
Society,
1 0 September 1886
F w l v
2nd
Persaective
ed.,
revised
PHILANTHROPY AND ANTAGON ISM : KENTUCKY MOUNTAIN SCHOOLS IN THE 1 9 2 0 s Nancy F o r d e r h a s e E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y In 1911, a fund-raising
letter s o l i c i t i n g support f o r
a new s c h o o l i n t h e m o u n t a i n s o f K e n t u c k y w e n t o u t t o p o t e n t i a l
donors :
L e t m e t e l l y o u how a r e m o t e c o u n t r y p e o p l e o f t h e
is
the
purest
Kentucky
mountains,
whose
stock
Anglo-Saxon i n America a n d whose o l d f a s h i o n e d s p e e c h
and customs, h a r k i n g back two hundred y e a r s , g i v e
them
a
singularly
romantic
interest,
are
longing
a n d l o n g i n g f o r a s c h o o l , I b e l i e v e you w i l l t h i n k
t h a t we c a n d o o u r c o u n t r y a u n i q u e s e r v i c e i f we
h e l p t h e s e "contemporary" a n c e s t o r s t o do what they
a r e b e s e e c h i n g u s f o r . . . . They h a v e t h e p r i m i t i v e
virtues
of
the
Anglo
Saxon
kindness,
bravery,
hospitality,
and
loyalty.
Immense
resources
of
s t r e n g t h a r e l a t e n t i n them.
W
e b e l i e v e t h e r e is
no b e t t e r material
i n t h e United States t o t r a i n
f o r t h e u s e s o f good c i t i ~ e n s h i p . ~
Compare t h i s a p p e a l f o r f u n d s a t P i n e M o u n t a i n S e t t l e m e n t
School i n Harlan County, Kentucky, w i t h a n o t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n
o f m o u n t a i n s o c i e t y f r o m Caney C r e e k Community C e n t e r i n K n o t t
County, Kentucky, w r i t t e n i n 1917:
The T h r e e 1 ' s - - I s o l a t i o n ,
Ignorance, Inter-marriage
and t h e Three D's--Degeneration:
mental and p h y s i c a l ,
"When a r a c e o f p e o p l e i n
Disease, Death.
ISOLATION,
l e d by IGORANCE, h a s b e e n m a r r y i n g i t s
own d o u b l e a n d t w i s t e d c o u s i n s f o r a c e n t u r y ,
it
is n o t a n y w o n d e r t h a t a s i n g l e s t r a i n h a d d e t e r i o r a t e d
i n t o p r o d u c i n g as i t s s o l e a s s e t t o t h e n a t i o n : - - a
2 8 y e a r o l d i d i o t , b l i n d e d by r e d - s o r e - e y e s , s t i f f e n e d
i n t o a p e r p e t u a l f i t by c o n g e n i t a l h a n d i c a p s . "
I t i s n e e d l e s s t o e x p l a i n how DEGENERATION, m e n t a l
and p h y s i c a l h a s been produced through such c o n d i t i o n s .
I t i s n e e d l e s s t o s u p p l y s t a t i s t i c s t o show t h e
p r e v e n t a b l e DISEASE
that
has
sapped
the
strength
o f t h e s e Anglo-Saxon p e o p l e ; i t is n e e d l e s s t o d w e l l
o n p r e m a t u r e DEATH t h a t h a s k i l l e d o f f h u n d r e d s t h r o u g h
i n f e c t i o n , exposure, h a r d s h i p , bad l i ~ i n g . ~
. . .
The c o n t r a s t i n g s t y l e s e x h i b i t e d i n p r o m o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e
o f P i n e M o u n t a i n S e t t l e m e n t S c h o o l a n d C a n e y C r e e k Community
Center could n o t have been g r e a t e r .
B o t h w e r e w r i t t e n b y women
f r o m t h e E a s t who h a d come t o t h e A p p a l a c h i a n r e g i o n t o w o r k
w i t h the m o u n t a i n peopxe
T h e f i - r s t , mo-re o p t i m i s t i c d e s c - r i p t i o n
.
came f r o m E t h e l d e l o n g , g r a d u a t e o f S m i t h C o l l e g e a n d p r i n c i p a l
o f t h e P i n e Mountain S e t t l e m e n t S c h o o l .
The a u t h o r o f t h e
second, n e g a t i v e assessment of t h e p l i g h t of t h e mountain people
was A l i c e Geddes L l o y d o f Caney C r e e k i n K n o t t C o u n t y , K e n t u c k y ,
a f o r m e r n e w s p a p e r woman f r o m B o s t o n who h a d a t t e n d e d R a d c l i f f e
College.
The
differing
styles
exhibited
in
promotional
l i t e r a t u r e were symptomatic of a r i v a l r y which developed i n
t h e l a t e t e e n s a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e s b e t w e e n t h e Caney C r e e k S c h o o l
a n d t h e s i s t e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f Hindman S e t t l e m e n t S c h o o l a n d
P i n e hlountain School.
Hindman S c h o o l a n d P i n e M o u n t a i n S c h o o l w e r e e x e m p l a r y
m o d e l s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t i d e a d e v e l o p e d by J a n e Addams a n d
others.
What w a s u n u s u a l a b o u t t h e s e e f f o r t s i n t h e m o u n t a i n s
o f Kentucky was t h e a t t e m p t t o a d a p t t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e u r b a n
s e t t l e m e n t house t o a r u r a l environment.
Katherine P e t t i t
a n d May S t o n e , t h e f o u n d e r s o f Hindman S c h o o l , h a d w o r k e d a t
Neighborhood House,
a
settlement institution i n Louisville,
K e n t u c k y , a n d w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h s e t t l e m e n t work i n C h i c a g o
through c o n t a c t s with Sophonisba Breckinridge,
t h e prominent
K e n t u c k y woman who w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o .
I n 1 9 0 2 , w i t h f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f r o m t h e Woman's C h r i s t i a n
T e m p e r a n c e U n i o n , t h e s e t w o women o p e n e d t h e f l e d g l i n g s c h o o l
1oc.ated
near
the
tiny
town
of
Hindman.
Despite
several
potentially
disastrous fires,
t h e school survived.
By 1 9 1 2
i t was a n a c c e p t e d i n s t i t u t i o n i n K n o t t C o u n t y .
I n 1913 a f t e r s e v e r a l t r i p s t o Harlan County, Katherine
P e t t i t f o u n d e d a new s c h o o l i n t h a t r e m o t e s e c t i o n o f e a s t e r n
I t appears that
Kentucky on t h e " f a r s i d e " o f P i n e Mountain.
she
was
eager
t o
escape
the
negative
aspects
of
the
rapidly-developing
a r e a n e a r Hindman w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d h a d
penetrated
the
region,
and
coal
mining
and
its negative
consequences were d i s r u p t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l l i f e i n t h e mountains.
I n i t s i n i t i a l s t a g e s , t h e i s o l a t e d site of t h e proposed Pine
hfountain S c h o o l was f a r removed from t h e k i n d s o f problems
which accompanied a r a p i d l y modernizing p r o c e s s .
While P e t t i t
hoped t h a t t h e c h e r i s h e d v a l u e s s h e found i n t h e mountain c u l t u r e
c o u l d b e r e t a i n e d i n t h e h i l l c o u n t r y , s h e a l s o worked t o develop
a p r o g r a m t o e q u i p t h e m o u n t a i n e e r s w i t h s k i l l s w h i c h would
e n a b l e them t o c o p e w i t h t h e modern w o r l d . 4
F o r t h e work a t P i n e M o u n t a i n , P e t t i t r e c r u i t e d E t h e l
d e L o n g , a s c h o o l t e a c h e r f r o m New J e r s e y .
E t h e l de Long's
p r e s e n c e a s p r i n c i p a l o f P i n e hlountain S c h o o l was e s s e n t i a l
n o t o n l y t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e academic
p r o g r a m b u t a l s o b e c a u s e a s a S m i t h C o l l e g e g r a d u a t e , s h e had
v a l u a b l e c o n t a c t s w i t h p h i l a n t h r o p i c i n t e r e s t s i n t h e East
where n e c e s s a r y f u n d s f o r o p e r a t i n g t h e s c h o o l had t o be r a i s e d .
Furthermore,
de
Long
frequently
used
those
school-girl
c o n n e c t i o n s t o r e c r u i t i d e a l i s t i c y o u n g women t o w o r k a t P i n e
A h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of t h e w o r k e r s a t b o t h P i n e hlountain
Mountain.
were
graduates
of
Smith,
Vassar
and
and
Hindman
Schools
W e l l e s l e y , a l l e l i t e e a s t e r n women's c o l l e g e s .
A l i c e Lloyd, t h e d a u g h t e r of well-to-do p a r e n t s , graduated
from Chauncy H a l l , a p r e p a r a t o r y s c h o o l i n B o s t o n .
She a t t e n d e d
Radcliffe College f o r a year.
H o w e v e r , when h e r f a t h e r d i e d ,
She
s h e l e f t c o l l e g e , and launched a c a r e e r i n j o u r n a l i s m .
p u b l i s h e d a weekly newspaper, t h e Cambridge P r e s s , i n Boston
f o r a t i m e , a n d l a t e r moved w i t h h e r h u s b a n d t o W a k e f i e l d ,
h l a s s a c h u s e t t s , where s h e became managing e d i t o r of t h e W a k e f i e l d
C i t i z e n and ~ a n n e r
.
The d e t a i l s o f
L l o y d ' s move t o K e n t u c k y a r e u n c l e a r .
A p p a r e n t l y s h e , h e r h u s b a n d , a n d m o t h e r came t o t h e r e m o t e
l o c a t i o n i n Knott County, Kentucky, i n 1916.
A f t e r a few m o n t h s ,
a
local
mountaineer,
Abisha
Johnson,
donated t h e land t o
e s t a b l i s h a s c h o o l o n C a n e y C r e e k , a n d a o n e room s c h o o l w a s
b u i l t t o house t h e f i r s t p u p i l s i n t h e neighborhood.
By 1 9 1 9 ,
Lloyd h a d opened a h i g h s c h o o l ; i n 1 9 2 4 , i t became t h e K n o t t
L l o y d l i k e t h e women l e a d e r s
County High S c h o o l a t P i p p a P a s s e s .
a t Hindman a n d P i n e M o u n t a i n S c h o o l s , d e p e n d e d u p o n w e a l t h y
c o n t r i b u t o r s from t h e E a s t f o r f u n d s , and r e c r u i t e d b o t h t e a c h e r s
a n d c o m m u n i t y w o r k e r s f r o m t h e e l i t e e a s t e r n w o m e n ' s college^.^
On a s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l ,
therefore,
t h e t h r e e mountain
C e r t a i n l y , t h e Hindman
s c h o o l s appeared t o be very similar.
and P i n e Mountain w o r k e r s e n j o y e d c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r
denominational schools i n t h e mountains a s w e l l a s w i t h workers
i n c o m m u n i t y c e n t e r s s p o n s o r e d by s u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s t h e
P r e s b y t e r i a n Church.
B o t h Hindman a n d P i n e M o u n t a i n w o r k e r s
wcre a c t i v e i n t h e C o n f e r e n c e o f S o u t h e r n M o u n t a i n W o r k e r s .
Frequent
correspondence
among m o u n t a l n
schools revealed
an
a c t i v e network
of
d e d i c a t e d w o r k e r s who s h a r e d
i d e a s and
c o o p e r a t e d i n s e n d i n g s t u d e n t s from s c h o o l t o s c h o o l .
Yet,
t h i s c o r d i a l i t y d i d n o t e x i s t i n r e g a r d t o A l i c e Lloyd and
t h e C a n e y C r e e k Community C e n t e r .
By 1 9 1 8 , May S t o n e , K a t h e r i n e
P e t t i t , a n d E t h e l d e Long h a d d e v e l o p e d a d e e p - s e a t e d a n t a g o n i s m
toward t h e Caney C r e e k S c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r .
This hostility
c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e m i d - 1 9 2 0 s , when i t g r a d u a l l y a b a t e d .
One o f t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s o f t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e s c h o o l s
was e v i d e n t i n t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g
t o t h e mountain c u l t u r e .
A f t e r A l i c e Lloyd had been i n t h e
mountain f o r a y e a r , s h e p r e p a r e d a n d c i r c u l a t e d a r e p o r t ,
e n t i t l e d "Constructive P l a n s f o r 1917."
Lloyd d e s c r i b e d t h e
For
plight of t h e mountaineers i n very u n f l a t t e r i n g t e r m s .
example, a t y p i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f mountain l i f e from t h i s r e p o r t
d e s c r i b e d C a n e y C r e e k i n h a b i t a n t s i n t h i s way:
Each y e a r , n o t h a v i n g t h e i n c e n t i v e o f m a r c h i n g w i t h
an a d v a n c i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
they have been s i n k i n g
l o w e r a n d l o w e r i n t h e s c a l e o f human t y p e s u n t i l
i n t h i s g e n e r a t i o n many are n o t b o d i l y clean, are
i n f e s t e d w i t h f l e a s and o t h e r vermin, have no r e g u l a r
habits,
and l i v e more a k i n t o h i b e r n a t i n g a n i m a l s
t h a n 2 0 t h c e n t u r y human being^.^
I n s p i t e o f t h i s k i n d o f d i s c o u r a g i n g p o r t r a i t , L.loyd's
r e p o r t proposed an ambitious plan f o r "constructive regeneration
o f t h i s Anglo-Saxon
s t o c k ; a remedy t h a t i s n o t a s e d a t i v e
t o ease a
dying race;
but
a cure."
She c a l l e d f o r t h e
construction
of
better
roads,
schools,
improved
farming
techniques,
pure
water
supplies
and
improved
sanitation
f a ~ i l i t i e s . ~
L l o y d ' s s e n s a t i o n a l , j o u r n a l i s t i c p o r t r a i t of c o n d i t i o n s
i n A p p a l a c h i a n Kentucky r e p r e s e n t e d a n a p p r o a c h t o mountain
p r o b l e m s t h a t w a s d i s t a s t e f u l t o t h e w o r k e r s a t Hindman a n d
P i n e Mountain S e t t l e m e n t S c h o o l s .
Since t h e i r e a r l i e s t days
i n t h e h i g h l a n d s , w o r k e r s a t b o t h s e t t l e m e n t s c h o o l s had l a b o r e d
t o p r e s e n t a p o s i t i v e image o f
the people residing i n t h e
mountains.
A l l
publicity
efforts
and
fund-raising
letters
t h a t were s e n t o u t s i d e t h e region consciously avoided negative
comments a b o u t m o u n t a i n d w e l l e r s .
While a d m i t t i n g t h a t p e o p l e
in
Appalachia
lacked
material
comforts,
adequate
school
f a c i l i t i e s , and h e a l t h c a r e and s a n i t a t i o n , s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
were c a r e f u l t o p o r t r a y t h e m i n a p o s i t i v e l i g h t .
F o r example
when t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l C h i l d L a b o r C o m m i t t e e
came t o t h e m o u n t a i n s t o c o n d u c t a s u r v e y o f c o n d i t i o n s i n
c o a l m i n i n g c a m p s , E t h e l d e Long Z a n d e r e a d t h e i r i n i t i a l r e p o r t
and s u g g e s t e d t h a t w h i l e i t was i m p o r t a n t t o d e s c r i b e t h e
p h y s i c a l shortcomings of t h e s e mountain communities, t h e r e p o r t
s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l n o t t o make d i s p a r a g i n g r e m a r k s a b o u t m o u n t a i n
life.
As s h e p u t i t :
.
.
. t h e pamphlet w i l l have g r e a t s t r a t e g i c v a l u e
i f you r e f e r o n c e o r t w i c e t h r o u g h i t t o t h e f a c t
t h a t the c h i l d r e n l i v i n g i n such deplorable conditions
a r e t h e c h i l d r e n who a f e w y e a r s a g o w o u l d h a v e h a d
t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d m o u n t a i n h a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e i r own,
w i t h i t s t r a d i t i o n o f good m a n n e r s ,
i t s wholesome
h a r d work,
i t s f r e e p l a y i n b e a u t i f u l c o u n t r y and
its h e r i t a g e of song and p l a y .
.
I t h i n k i t would
b e w e l l t o make i t c l e a r t h a t r e s t r i c t e d a s m o u n t a i n
l i f e h a s b e e n i n many w a y s a n d u n h y g i e n i c a s i t h a s
s t i l l t h e r e a r e s p i r i t u a l r i c h e s t o redeem
been,
t h e s e v e r i t i e s of l i f e . 1 °
.
.
A s much a s w a s p o s s i b l e , P e t t i t a n d d e L o n g Z a n d e m o n i t o r e d
p u b l i c i t y a b o u t P i n e Mountain S c h o o l .
I n 1 9 2 3 , when a woman
from B e r e a , w r i t i n g a n a r t i c l e a b o u t P i n e Mountain f o r t h e
C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e Monitor, r e q u e s t e d photographs of t h e school,
t h e y a s k e d t o see t h e a r t i c l e b e f o r e i t w a s p r i n t e d , e x p l a i n i n g
were e a g e r t o a v o i d p u b l i c i t y w h i c h w o u l d b e
that
they
o b j e c t i o n a b l e t o t h e mountain p e o p l e .
They e x p l a i n e d :
W e have s o f a r been a b l e t o avoid t h e s o r t of
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d s t r a i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t come
when
t h e mountain p e o p l e
feel the institution is
a l l o w i n g t h e m t o b e w r i t t e n u p i n a way w h i c h i s
not quite t o t h e i r liking. . .
Hindman h a d a number
.
of
h i g h l y u n f o r t u n a t e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d we a r e j u s t
praying,
every year,
t h a t we may g e t t h r o u g h t h e
y e a r w i t h o u t h a v i n g a n y t h i n g p u b l i s h e d about u s which
i n e v i t a b l y w i l l g e t b a c k t o t h e m o u n t a i n s i n some
Of c o u r s e , we w e l c o m e e v e r y e f f o r t made
way. . . .
t o w i n new f r i e n d s f o r u s , b u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d
t h e most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g f o r u s is t o c o n s e r v e o u r
f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a l l o u r n e i g h b o r s . l1
Experience had proven t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t workers t h a t s e n s a t i o n a l
accounts of mountain l i f e always r e t u r n e d t o t h e mountains
and c a u s e d i l l f e e l i n g s among t h e l o c a l p o p u l a c e .
Another e a r l y s o u r c e o f c o n f l i c t between A l i c e Lloyd and
t h e H i n d m a n / P i n e X o u n t a i n women a r o s e f r o m L l o y d ' s a g g r e s s i v e
f u n d r a i s i n g e f f o r t s among e a s t e r n p h i l a n t h r o p i s t s .
When s h e
began s o l i c i t i n g m o n e y , t h e C a n e y C r e e k a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , c l a i m i n g
t h a t h e r w o r k w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h E t h e l d e Long a n d P i n e
M o u n t a i n , s e n t a p p e a l s t o a l u m n a e o f S m i t h , R a d c l i f f e , Mount
Holyoke a n d W e l l e s l e y C o l l e g e s .
An a d d i t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e t o
a t t r a c t a l u m n a e s u p p o r t came f r o m t h e p u b l i c i t y g i m m i c k o f
Cottage,
naming b u i l d i n g s a f t e r t h e v a r i o u s s c h o o l s - - R a d c l i f f e
Mount H o l y o k e P u b l i c S c h o o l , a n d W e l l e s l e y R e c r e a t i o n H a l l . l 2
In p r o t e s t
against Lloyd's use of
h e r name i n t h e s e
p u b l i c i t y e f f o r t s , E t h e l d e Long w r o t e a l e t t e r t o L l o y d , d e n y i n g
her p e r s o n a l e n d o r s e m e n t o f t h e Caney C r e e k S c h o o l .
She a l s o
w r o t e t o t h e S m i t h Alumnae Q u a r t e r l y , a s she p u t i t , " d i s c l a i m i n g
any c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h e r a n d s a y i n g t h a t I b e l i e v e d h e r l i t e r a t u r e
h a d many m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n i t . l 3
A l i c e Lloyd responded
by t h r e a t e n i n g a l i b e l s u i t a g a i n s t t h e Q u a r t e r l y i f i t p r i n t e d
de Long's d e n i a l statement without i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s t a t e m e n t s
included i n h e r l e t t e r .
She continued t o send o u t thousands
of l e t t e r s c o n t a i n i n g d e L o n g ' s e n d o r s e m e n t . 1 4
A p p a r e n t l y L l o y d ' s t h r e a t a g a i n s t d e Long w o r k e d , b e c a u s e
from 1 9 1 8 o n , t h e P i n e M o u n t a i n s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l w a s v e r y c a r e f u l
n o t t o make a n y n e g a t i v e p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s a g a i n s t A l i c e L l o y d ' s
mountain work.
T h e s e w e r e y e a r s when P i n e M o u n t i a n S c h o o l
was
involved
in
an
extensive
construction
program
and
aggressively
sought
out
eastern
financial
support,
so the
administrators wanted t o avoid any adverse p u b l i c i t y .
Yet
t h e P i n e Mountain School r e c o r d s abound w i t h examples o f t h e i r
d i s t r u s t of A l i c e Lloyd.
I n d i s c r e e t l e t t e r s t o d o n o r s who
i n q u i r e d a b o u t t h e Cancy Creek o p e r a t i o n , t h e y u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d
inquiries
to
John
C o r O l i v e Dame C a m p b e l l ,
the
leading
a u t h o r i t i e s on t h e southern Appalachian r e g i o n .
I f t h e y knew
t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n t s w e l l , t h e y were m o r e c a n d i d i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s
and a d v i s e d t h e m n o t t o g i v e money t o A l i c e L l o y d whom t h e y
d e s c r i b e d a s s i n c e r e , b u t e m o t i o n a l l y u n s t a b l e . l5
I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s t h e women a t t h e
Mountain S c h o o l s i n p r i v a t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
and f r i e n d s i n t h e E a s t b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y
Hindman a n d P i n e
w i t h one another
c r i t i c a l of Alice
Lloyd's fund r a i s i n g techniques.
Lloyd had a c q u i r e d a v a l u a b l e
c o n t a c t , M r . E l l i o t Robinson, t h e author of t h e popular song
" S m i l e s , " who w a s p r o v i d i n g i n t r o d u c t i o n s i n t o i m p o r t a n t c l u b s
and schools i n t h e Boston area.16
I n an e f f o r t t o s o l i c i t f u n d s from s y m p a t h e t i c a u d i e n c e s ,
hlrs. Lloyd b r o u g h t young c h i l d r e n w i t h h e r on t h i s a n d o t h e r
expeditions.
Her p u b l i c i t y l e t t e r s , a d d r e s s e d t o f r i e n d s of
t h e C r u s a d e r s , made e x t r a v a g a n t c l a i m s t h a t 4 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e h a d
h e a r d t h e i r p l e a s f o r money, a n d o t h e r P i l g r i m a g e s w e r e p l a n n e d .
The f o l l o w i n g c l a i m is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e :
"The C r u s a d e r s a r e
poised.
T h e y c a n make t h e i r m e s s a g e known c l e a r l y t o a s many
thousands a s gather.
They a r e s p o n t a n e o u s .
They a r e e q u a l l y
a t home a t a n y m e e t i n g . . . . 1117
May S t o n e , t h e c h i e f a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f t h e Hindman S c h o o l ,
h a p p e n e d t o b e i n B o s t o n when L l o y d w a s s p e a k i n g a n d s o a t t e n d e d
one of t h e s e meetings.
She r e p o r t e d t o t h e P i n e Mountain workers
t h a t s h e had been s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d t h a t M r s . Lloyd was a r a t h e r
uninspiring
speaker.
The Caney
Creek
promoter
gained the
s y m p a t h y o f t h e c r o w d , h o w e v e r , by u s i n g y o u n g c h i l d r e n t o
d e l i v e r memorized s p e e c h e s e x t o l l i n g t h e v i r t u e s o f t h e mountain
school.
S t o n e was c r i t i c a l of L l o y d ' s e x t r a v a g a n t c l a i m s t h a t
s h e had given e x t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t e s f o r t r a i n i n g teachers
f o r t h e m o u n t a i n s , a n d was e s p e c i a l l y a p a l l e d a t t h e u s e of
t h e c h i l d r e n f o r h e r f u n d - r a i s i n g p u r p o s e s .?8
Ethel
d e Long
Zande e x p r e s s e d
s e t t l e m e n t s c h o o l s on t h e s u b j e c t of
r a i s i n g i n t h i s way:
t h e sentiments of
using children for
the
fund
T h e r e i s n o d o u b t b u t w h a t a n y o n e who sees m o u n t a i n
I t is a wonderful
c h i l ~ d r e ni s e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e m .
W
e have seldom t a k e n c h i l d r e n
kind of
publicity.
o n s p e a k i n g t r i p s o u r s e l v e s , b e c a u s e t h e few t i m e s
when t h e c h i l d r e n h a v e h e l p e d t o make s p e e c h e s , t h e
e f f e c t on them h a s been u n d e s i r a b l e .
I t r e a l l y amounts
t o e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e c h i l d r e n , s u c h a s we w o u l d n ' t
e x p o s e o u r own c h i l d r e n t o , a n d i t t a k e s a c h i l d
a l o n g t i m e t o g e t o v e r even a l i t t l e p u b l i c i t y . 1 9
In
1921
school
officials
at
Pine
Mountain
began
c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h Geddes S m i t h , t h e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e N a t i o n a l
Information Bureau.
Describing i t s e l f a s "a cooperative e f f o r t
for
the
standarization
of
national
social,
civic
and
philanthropic
work
and
the
protection
of
the contributing
p u b l i c , " t h e N a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Bureau i n v e s t i g a t e d a wide
v a r i e t y o f c h a r i t a b l e a s s o c i a t i o n s t o a s c e r t a i n i f t h e y were
legitimate concerns.
Among i t s many s t a n d a r d s c i t e d f o r a p p r o v a l
were:
an
active
and
responsible
governing
body
holding
regular
meetings,
or
other
satisfactory
form of
administrative
control;
a
l e g i t i m a t e purpose with
no
avoidable
duplication
of
t h e work
of
another
e f f i c i e n t l y managed o r g a n i z a t i o n ; r e a s o n a b l e e f f i c i e n c y
. no s o l i c i t o r s on commission
i n c o n d u c t o f work .
. .
e t h i c a l methods o f p u b l i c i t y , promotion and
solicitation
of
funds;
agreement
to
consult
and
co-operate with t h e proper s o c i a l agencies i n l o c a l
communities
.
. complete annual audited accounts
p r e p a r e d by a c e r t i f i e d p u b l i c a c c o u n t a n t o r t r u s t
company;
and i t e m i z e d and c l a s s f i e d a n n u a l budget
estimate~.~o
.
.
.
P i n e Mountain s u b m i t t e d t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u e s t e d
by t h e N a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n B u r e a u , a n d r e c e i v e d i t s e n d o r s e m e n t
as a
legitimate charity.21
That endorsement, however,
was
n o t e x t e n d e d t o t h e C a n e y C r e e k Community C e n t e r .
The N a t i o n a l
Information Bureau d e s c r i b e d t h e K n o t t County e n t e r p r i s e i n
t h i s manner:
T h e Community c e n t e r i t s e l f c o n s i s t s o f a s e t t l e m e n t
school with
a
variable
attendance,
together with
Its s e l f s t a t e d
c e r t a i n p i e c e s o f Neighborhood work.
p u r p o s e is t o t r a i n s e l e c t e d b o y s and g i r l s , c h i e f l y
b o y s , f o r l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e i r own c o m m u n i t i e s .
The
emphasis
is
therefore
laid
on
ethical
training
especially
i n connection w i t h a c u r i o u s pedagogic
scheme, c a l l e d " t h e p u r p o s e road" and on t h e t r a i n i n g
o f t e a c h e r s t o a p o i n t where t h e y can q u a l i f y u n d e r
the
rather
lax
Kentucky
laws
for
public
school
certificates.
.
T h e c e n t e r h a s f a i l e d t o meet
the
Bureau's
technical
standards
for
endorsement
with
its
financial
administration.
The
accounts
o f t h e C e n t e r a r e k e p t by Mrs. L l o y d ' s m o t h e r a n d
a r e f a r from b u s i n e s s l i k e .
There h a s a l s o been an
a c c o u n t f o r t h e R n o t t C o u n t y Community I m p r o v e m e n t
A s s o c i a t i o n and t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e two a c c o u n t s
have been very l o o s e l y handled.
I t is impossible
t o s e c u r e a n a d e q u a t e f i n a n c i a l s t a t e m e n t . 22
.
.
T h i s r e f u s a l t o e n d o r s e t h e Caney C r e e k e n t e r p r i s e d i d
n o t d e t e r A l i c e L l o y d , who c o n t i n u e d t o r a i s e f u n d s f r o m a r o u n d
the country.
I n 1 9 2 2 a n e w s l e t t e r f r o m t h e C a n e y C r e e k Community
Center c o n t a i n e d a n u r g e n t
request
f o r supporters t o send
American f l a g s a n d b a s k e t b a l l s t o t h e c h i l d r e n o f K n o t t C o u n t y .
She a l s o m a n a g e d t o r e c r u i t y o u n g women f r o m e a s t e r n c o l l e g e s
t o work a t C a n e y C r e e k .
One s u c h w o r k e r w a s J u n e B u c h a n a n ,
a g r a d u a t e o f W e l l e s l e y C o l l e g e who h a d come t o t h e m o u t a i n s
i n 1919.
B u c h a n a n , who r e m a i n e d a t t h e s c h o o l o n a p e r m a n e n t
b a s i s , b e c a m e a l o y a l s u p p o r t e r o f Alice L l o y d a n d a n i m p o r t a n t
l i n k w i t h f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s i n t h e ~ a s .24
t
A n o t h e r e a r l y w o r k e r w a s O l i v e M a r s h , a y o u n g woman who
l e f t Caney C r e e k t o b e g i n community work a t a n e x t e n s i o n c e n t e r
a t D i r k Kentucky.
I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s hlarsh c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h
E t h e l d e Long a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m s o f m o u n t a i n w o r k .
Marsh w a s
a w a r e t h a t d e Long Z a n d e , P e t t i t , a n d May S t o n e d i d n o t t o t a l l y
Mrs. L l o y d ' s u n o r t h o d o x m o u n t a i n w o r k ,
but
she
a p p r o v e of
d e f e n d e d t h e B o s t o n woman:
While 1 b e l i e v e t h a t i n t h e p a s t t h e r e h a s been p l e n t y
o f j u s t c r i t i c i s m of t h e work and methods of Caney,
c h i e f l y t h e methods--at
t h e same t i m e , I d o t h i n k
t h e r e h a s been c o n s i d e r a b l e unfounded p r e j u d i c e a s
well.
Having been t h e r e n e a r l y two y e a r s m y s e l f ,
I c a n ' t help seeing both sides.
Mrs.
Lloyd is a
s t r a n g e m i x t u r e , b u t s h e c e r t a i n l y h a s h e r good p o i n t s ,
a s w e l l a s t h o s e w h i c h may p e r h a p s m o s t b e c h a r i t a b l y
b e d e s i g n a t e d a s h e r " o t h e r " p o i n t s , and s h e h a s
d o n e much g o o d work . 2 5
I n 1923 Evelyn Wells,
t h e s e c r e t a r y a t P i n e Mountain,
and a g r o u p o f o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t w o r k e r s v i s i t e d Caney C r e e k .
A s t h e y r e p o r t e d , t h e y r e c e i v e d t h e impression t h a t "our v i s i t
w a s b e i n g t a k e n as a n o f f i c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n by P i n e h l o u n t a i n ! "
The v i s i t o r s e n j o y e d
I m p r e s s i o n s of L l o y d ' s e f f o r t s w e r e mixed.
m e e t i n g and t a l k i n g w i t h t h e young p e o p l e i n t h e s c h o o l and
. . dealing
w i t h t h e Nrorkers, "working t o g e t h e r r e s p o n s i b l y
w i t h t h e s a m e p r o b l e m s w e a l l h a v e i n much t h e s a m e w a y ; s o
e a g e r t o know a b o u t o t h e r m o u n t a i n s c h o o l s . " 2 6
.
A t t h e same t i m e , t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e Caney Creek
less
than
facilities,
recorded
in
this
letter,
were
flattering:
" . . r a m s h a c k l e b u i l d i n g s f a l l i n g down t h e s i d e
o f t h e h i l l i n a d i s o r g a n i z e d way t h a t r e m i n d s y o u o f t h e most
s q u a l i d mining town."
They a l s o w o n d e r e d a b o u t t h e p r e s e n c e
of u n s a n i t a r y p r i v y c o n d i t i o n s , i n a d e q u a t e a c c e s s t o a pure
w a t e r supply and l a c k o f t y p h o i d i n n o c u l a t i o n s .
One a c c o u n t
d e s c r i b e d t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m a s " B i l l y Sunday on e d u c a t i o n . "
.
In s p i t e of
the negative sentiments expressed i n the
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f A l i c e L l o y d ' s s c h o o l , i t a p p e a r s t h a t by 1 9 2 4 ,
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s a t P i n e M o u n t a i n a n d Hindman S c h o o l became
l e s s concerned about t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s c h o o l .
In that
y e a r , t h e N a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Bureau announced i t was e n d o r s i n g
t h e C a n e y C r e e k Community C e n t e r s i n c e A l i c e L l o y d h a d c o m p l i e d
w i t h i t s bookkee i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s and was k e e p i n g a b e t t e r
accounting system. 7
3
The a t t i t u d e a f t e r 1 9 2 4 seemed t o b e o n e o f " l i v e and
l e t l i v e " a l t h o u g h i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e women o f P i n e h l o u n t a i n
a n d Hindman n e v e r w h o l l y a p p r o v e d o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a t Caney
Creek.
From t h e i r e a r l i e s t d a y s i n t h e A p p a l a c h i a n r e g i o n
of Kentucky,
S t o n e , P e t t i t , d e L o n g , a n d o t h e r s a t Hindman
and P i n e Mountain had s o u g h t t o c r e a t e a p o s i t i v e image of
t h e mountain p e o p l e .
They v i e w e d t h e i r w o r k a s a p r o f e s s i o n
and
worked
hard
to
establish
and
maintain
high
quality
educational
standards
in
their
institutions
and
in
their
community
work
at
large.
In
their
view,
Alice
Lloyd's
sensational,
journalistic
approach
to
mountain
work
was
undermining t h e image o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l mountain w o r k e r s .
They b e l i e v e d L l o y d ' s e x t r a v a g a n t c l a i m s o f a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e
mountains t o b e e x a g g e r a t e d , i f n o t u n t r u e , and were s k e p t i c a l
of h e r e d u c a t i o n a l
goals.
F i n a l l y , dependent a s t h e y were
upon o u t s i d e p h i l a n t h r o p i c
s u p p o r t , t h e l e a d e r s a t Bindman
and P i n e M o u n t a i n h a d c r e a t e d a n i m a g e o f m o u n t a i n c u l t u r e
that appealed t o p o t e n t i a l wealthy donors.
I t is o b v i o u s t h a t
t h e y r e s e n t e d Caney C r e e k ' s n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e
mountaineers and A l i c e L l o y d ' s a g g r e s s i v e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r funds
from t h e s a m e s o u r c e s who w o u l d p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r Hindman
and P i n e Mountain s c h o o l s .
By t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f p r o g r e s s i v e l e a d e r s h i p
p r o v i d e d b y t h e f o u n d e r s o f Hindman a n d P i n e M o u n t a i n w a s c o m i n g
A s s u p p o r t f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and improved s c h o o l s
t o an end.
came t o t h e m o u n t a i n s o f K e n t u c k y , t h e o r i g i n a l o b j e c t i v e s
of t h e s e p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s w e r e r e v i s e d , a n d l e a d e r s s e a r c h e d
f o r new w a y s t o s e r v e t h e A p p a l a c h i a n p e o p l e .
T o d a y Hindman
School s u r v i v e s a s a c e n t e r f o r t e a c h i n g d y s l e x i c c h i l d r e n
and a s a c o n f e r e n c e c e n t e r .
P i n e M o u n t a i n S c h o o l h a s become
an e n v i r o n m e n t a l c e n t e r w h e r e g r o u p s f r o m a r o u n d t h e s t a t e
and n a t i o n m e e t .
Alice Lloyd's f l a i r f o r publicity helped her school t o
survive.
I n 1 9 5 5 s h e a p p e a r e d on R a l p h E d w a r d s ' t e l e v i s i o n
program, T h i s is Your L i f e .
T h e s t o r y o f t h e l i t t l e woman
from B o s t o n who l a b o r e d t o p r o v i d e a n e d u c a t i o n f o r d i s a d v a n t a g e d
c h i l d r e n i n t h e i s o l a t e d mountain r e g i o n o f Kentucky c a u g h t
t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f Americans.
Donations poured i n .
Although
her p u b l i c i t y methods may,
a t t i m e s , have been unorthodox,
t h e B o s t o n j o u r n a l i s t h a d managed t o p e r s e v e r e .
Today A l i c e
Lloyd C o l l e g e , named i n h e r h o n o r , s u r v i v e s a s a f o u r - y e a r
c o l l e g e i n Knott County.
NOTES
l ~ t h e l d e L o n g t o My D e a r F r i e n d , [ c . 1 9 1 1 1 , M i c r o f i l m
e d i t i o n of
t h e P i n e Mountain
Settlement
School C o l l e c t i o n ,
B e r e a C o l l e g e A r c h i v e s , h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s PMSS.
2 ~ r t h u rW . L l o y d , A l i c e S p e n c e r G e d d e s L l o y d , " C o n s t r u c t i v e
Plans f o r 1917," pp.
1 , 3 , Linda N e v i l l e Papers
(Special
C o l l e c t i o n s , Margaret I . King L i b r a r y , U n i v e r s i t y of Kentucky).
H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s L. N e v i l l e P a p e r s .
3 ~ l l e n S e m p l e , " A New D e p a r t u r e i n S o c i a l S e t t l e m e n t s , "
A n n a l s o f t h e A m e r i c a n Academv o f P o l i t i c a l a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e s
1 5 ( M a r . 1 9 0 0 1 , 3 0 1 ; Mary A n d e r s o n H i l l t o Alice C o b b , O c t .
1 , 1 9 4 2 , PMSS.
4 ~ a m e s S.
Greene,
111,
"Progressives
in
t h e Kentucky
hlountains:
The F o r m a t i v e Y e a r s o f t h e P i n e M o u n t a i n S e t t l e m e n t
S c h o o l , 1913-1940"
(Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
1 9 8 2 1 , 37-39.
G ~ a r b a r a S i c h e r m a n a n d C a r o l Hurd G r e e n , e d s . ,
Notable
A m e r i c a n Women:
T h e Modern P e r i o d ( C a m b r i d g e :
Belknap P r e s s
o f IIarvard U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 2 1 , 423-4;
W i l l i a m S . D u t t o n , Stav
On. S t r a n g e r (New Y o r k :
F a r r a r , S t r a u s and Young, 1 9 5 4 ) , 15-17.
7 ~ o t a b l eA m e r i c a n Women, 4 2 3 - 4 ;
November 6 , 1 9 1 8 .
8 ~ l o y da n d L l o y d , " C o n s t r u c t i v e P l a n s f o r 1 9 1 7 , " 2
g ~ l o y da n d L l o y d , 4 - 5 .
l o E t h e l Z a n d e t o M a b e l Brown E l l i s , n . d .
[1919].
General
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e f i l e , 1 9 1 9 , PMSS.
I n 1 9 1 8 , E t h e l d e Long m a r r i e d
L u i g i Zande,
a n I t a l i a n s t o n e m a s o n who h a d b e e n w o r k i n g a t
P i n e Mountain S c h o o l .
T h e r e f o r e , when I am u s i n g r e f e r e n c e s
a f t e r t h e i r m a r r i a g e I r e f e r t o h e r a s d e Long Zande i n t h e
text.
l l E t h e l Zande
f i l e , 1 9 2 3 , PMSS.
t o Muriel Kinney,
August
1 0 , 1 9 2 3 , Gen. C o r r .
1 2 g t h e l d e Long t o M r s . W . W .
Adams, J a n u a r y 2 3 , 1 9 1 8 ,
Gen.
Corr
file,
1918;
Copy
of
Wellesley
College
Alumnae
A s s o c i a t i o n , a b r i d g e d r e p o r t , J u n e 1 8 , 1 9 2 3 , Gen. C o r r . F i l e ,
1 9 2 3 , PMSS.
1 3 E t h e l Zande
1 9 2 3 , PMSS.
1 4 g t h e l Zande
f i l e , 1 9 1 9 , PMSS.
t o Mary L a n e , A p r i l 2 ,
to
Breta
[Child],
May
1 9 2 3 , Gen. C o r r .
29,
1919,
Gen.
file,
Corr.
1 5 ~l e t t e r f r o m J o h n C. C a m p b e l l t o Miss N e v i l l e , hlarch
2 1 , 1 9 1 8 , r e f l e c t s h i s s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t t h e work b e i n g c a r r i e d
on a t Caney C r e e k , L . N e v i l l e P a p e r s .
1 6 ~ a y Stone t o
f i l e , 1 9 2 2 , PMSS.
Ethel
Zande,
April
20,
1922,
Gen.
17copy of
letter
from A l i c e Lloyd
t o "Friend
C r u s a d e r s , " J a n a u r y , 1 9 2 3 , Gen. C o r r . f i l e , 1 9 2 3 , PMSS.
18May S t o n e t o
f i l e , 1 9 2 2 , PMSS.
Ethel
Zande,
April
20,
1922,
l g ~ t h e lZ a n d e t o A l i c e D a n f o r t h ,
f i l e , 1 9 2 2 , PMSS.
March 2 4 ,
2 0 ~ a m p h l e t from
t h e National
1 9 2 2 , Gen. C o r r . f i l e , 1 9 2 2 , PMSS.
Information
2 1 ~ e d d e s Smith t o E t h e l
f i l e , 1 9 2 1 , PMSS.
Zande,
October
1,
Corr.
of
Gen.
1 9 2 2 , Gen.
Bureau,
1921,
Gen.
the
Corr.
Corr.
Inc.,
Corr.
22May S t o n e t o E t h e l Z a n d e , A p r i l 2 0 , 1 9 2 2 , Gen. C o r r .
f i l e , 1 9 2 2 , PMSS.
S t o n e ' s l e n g t h y l e t t e r c o n t a i n s a copy of
t h e l e t t e r from Geddes Smith of t h e N a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Bureau
where e n d o r s e m e n t o f Caney C r e e k i s d e n i e d .
2 3 ~ a n e y Creek
f i l e , 1 9 2 2 , PMSS.
Newsletter,
2 5 0 1 i v e Marsh t o E t h e l
f i l e , 1 9 2 3 , PMSS.
2 6 [ ~ v e l ~W
n ells]
f i l e , 1 9 2 3 , PMSS.
June
Zande,
and
December
t o O l i v e Marsh,
2 7 ~ i n i f r e d Putnam t o K a t h e r i n e
C o r r . f i l e , 1 9 2 4 , PMSS.
July,
Dec.
Pettit,
Gen.
Corr.
1 5 , 1 9 2 3 , Gen.
Corr.
22,
1922,
1923,
June
24,
Gen.
1924,
Corr.
Gen.
ENVIRONLIENTAL AND PS'ICHOLOG1C:'iL FORIlATIVE INFLUENCES ON CAROLINE GORDON AND EVELYS SCOTT, TKO CLARKSVILLE, TENNESSEE, WRITERS Eleanor H. Beiswenger Austin Peay State University The lives and works of Caroline Gordon and Evelyn Scott
epitomize two clear and contradictory impulses in the history
of
American
culture.
One
impulse
in
this
symbolic
tug-of-war--Scott's-strains toward discovering new frontiers
of independent thought, it embodies skepticism and criticism
of the status quo, and it makes a fierce commitment to
individualism.
The other--Gordon's--pulls toward creating an
established community of citizens who declare a loyalty to
defined codes of conduct and convention, and who desire to
conserve and preserve time-honored traditions and values.
It
is especially interesting that these divergent philosophies
derive from important local influences on the two writers and
that they are traceable in their lives as well as their published
works. Because Gordon and Scott were born within two years of
each other (1895 and 1892, respectively), and only a few miles
apart, one might expect more similarities than differences
in their beliefs and values.
They did share certain key
observations.
Both perceived a significant moral crisis in
post-Civil War southern society as money values became pervasive.
Both writers examined the transformation of southern life with
an unrelenting eye. They pointed to the importance and necessity
for discovering a new faith by which to live. Finally, Gordon
and Scott demonstrated in their fiction and in their lives
that it required an individual effort to achieve salvation. At the same time, they arrived at these similar views
from diametrically opposing poles of thought. Gordon believed
in values that had been internalized in the individual, having
their source in family commitment to the land and to traditions
of courtesy and hospitality.
Along with this went a fully
codified developed sense of honor and an expection that one's
behavior and reputation would be judged by family and community
members.
She grew up as part of an interdependent community
which imposed on each individual obligations to others.
In
her writing, Gordon implies that individuals achieve serenity
and self-approval when they can objectify their own behavior
in acts of generosity, compassion, and justice. Thus, it seemed
crucial for Gordon to find a balance between obligation to
the self and obligation to others in order to achieve personal
stability and fulfillment. While
individual
Scott recognized the same tension between the and the society, in her fiction she stresses the need to insulate and defend oneself from values that she saw as externally imposed by society. She rejected Gordon's idea that responsibility to others is a necessary obligation.
For Scott what seemed paramount was the commitment to self and to truth as defined by the self.
In fact, she believed that the individual became trapped and hurt by society's conventions, and that the individual was reduced to bitter unfulfillment when those conventions were adopted.
Her solution was to maintain the stance of a warrior on guard against vulnerability to the opinions and criticisms of others. She saw as especially debilitating the individual's need for acceptance and admiration by those outside the self. Gordon's set of internalized values rested fundamentally
upon those ancestral attitudes she absorbed as a child among
the Meriwether clan.
Beliefs in primogeniture, entailment
of property and extensive intermarrying among cousins to preserve
control of property were upheld and practiced on the extensive
plantations along the Tennessee-Kentucky state line between
Trenton and Guthrie.
Chance Llewellyn's thoughts in Gordon's
first novel, Penhallv, express these attitudes well: There was something about entailing property.
It
made a man feel that he was not really the owner,
or at least that he had heavy obligations to his
successor. He had noticed that about his grandfather.
He was sure that the old fellow--and he was the best
man of the whole caboodle--had never regarded himself
as owning a stick or stone. When he made any changes
on the place, cut down a piece of timber or anything
like that, he would say, "I think that will be all
right," reflectively, as if he were appealing to
the verdict of somebody else.
And he had made his
son, Chance's father, entail the property on his
eldest son as soon as he came of age. (232-33) The importance of extending courtesy and hospitality to
guests but especially to family members and close acquaintances
was also habitual, an honored convention in Gordon's fiction
and personal life.
These visits, of course, were not always
without ironic or troublesome consequences, such as one that
occurs in a late Gordon novel, The hlalefactors. Tom Claiborne's
Aunt Virginia was welcomed as a temporary guest for a couple
of months at most, but she took to her bed shortly after arrival
and continued in residence for several years,
usurping the
best bedroom in the house along the way.
In Gordon's own life
with husband Allen Tate, one period of which is captured in
her published letters to her friend Sally Wood, the household
was constantly expanded by the visits of many friends, relatives,
and acquaintances.
From the very start of the Gordon-Tate
marriage in the mid twenties, Sally Wood comments, the Tates
habitually extended a time-honored southern hospitality to
anyone who visited, despite their own real poverty at the time: Caroline had to cook far more than I , and this mas when her southerness became apparent.
Never did it occur to either of the Tates that they couldn't invite a guest for a meal.
Many were people they didn't even know, young men who came to discuss their work with Allen. To them, Caroline was the mistress of the plantation; Allen, a southern gentleman--despite the fact that these hereditary roles didn't fit the real scene. (15) At Benfolly during the thirties, Gordon's letters mention the names of those who have just departed and those who are next to arrive, some for extended periods of time and with the intention to write during the stay:
Ford !.ladox Ford, Andrew Lytle, Robert Penn Warren, Katherine Anne Porter, Robert Lowell. Even more important than courtesy and hospitality in
Gordon's life was the commitment to honor and to honorable
behavior.
To her, premarital and extramarital sex represented
serious breaches in family honor. When this deviation appears
in Gordon's fiction, her treatment of it implies that a
destruction of personal integrity takes place. The 1937 novel,
The Garden of Adonis, includes an example of the first sin
in the romance between Ote Mortimer and Idelle Sheeler, both
offspring of tenant farmers on Ben Allard's land. Idelle makes
clear that her father will expel her from the family if he
discovers her sexual waywardness.
The consequence is in fact
that the couple's hope for a life together is totally destroyed
soon afterward. However, infidelity to one's marriage partner seemed to
Gordon to be a more serious flaw.
The majority of Gordon's
novels dramatize this problem and inevitably cause a crisis
in
the
marital
relationship,
sometimes
with
disastrous
consequences.
In Green Centuries Cassy dies shortly after
discovering her husband Rion's affair with Ann Mulroon.
He
has been mainstay
and hero, and her disillusionment is
overwhelming.
In The Garden of Adonis Letty Allard's flight
with her married lover, Jim Carter, reflects the loss of honor
associated with the decline in the Allard family's position
in the community.
In Gordon's The Women on the Porch, equal
guilt must be borne by Catherine and Jim Chapman after each
drifts into an affair with someone else; their reconciliation
can only occur following repentance and redemption. The Strange
Children gives us both childish and adult narrative views of
marital infidelity when Uncle Tubby and Kevin Heardon's wife,
Isabel, run off together.
Here we see the bankrupt souls of
an egocentric pair. Finally, in The Malefactors, Tom Claiborne's
affair with Cynthia reflects his loss of faith and integrity
and a demoralized stage in his life. A kind of preoccupation
with this problem reflects Gordon's own dilemma concerning
her husband's periodic unfaithfulness.
From the beginning,
as a theme in her novels, it assumes importance as a social
concern; subsequently, she implies that the relationship between
p a r t n e r s must b e c l e a n s e d o f t h i s b r e a c h of
f o r g i v e n e s s , f o l l o w i n g c o n f e s s i o n and r e p e n t a n c e .
honor
through
A personal
code of
honor e x t e n d s beyond o n e ' s p a r t n e r
t o o n e ' s f a m i l y a s w e l l , a c c o r d i n g t o Gordon.
Respect f o r
I n t h e s t o r y "Old R e d , "
o n e ' s e l d e r s is t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d .
s h e d r a m a t i z e s a s i t u a t i o n b a s e d o n a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e when
S a r a h , A l e c k M a u r y ' s d a u g h t e r , r e m i n d s him h e is e x p e c t e d t o
a t t e n d t h e f u n e r a l n e x t day o f Aunt S a l l y Crenfew.
Sarah is
s c a n d a l i z e d t h a t he is p l a n n i n g t o f i s h i n s t e a d and "could
n o t s p a r e o n e a f t e r n o o n , o n e i n s i g n i f i c a n t summer a f t e r n o o n ,
from h i s f i s h i n g l o n g e n o u g h t o a t t e n d t h e f u n e r a l o f h i s c o u s i n ,
t h e c o u s i n o f a l l of them, t h e o l d e s t lady i n t h e whole f a m i l y
connection
(143).
. . ."
G o r d o n may h a v e n o t e d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t h e e c c e n t r i c i t i e s
and w e a k n e s s e s o f
o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y members, b u t s h e
n e v e r r e j e c t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e f a m i l y c o m m u n i t y i n human
life.
Her
l e t t e r s a n d memoirs r e v e a l e s p e c i a l l y G o r d o n ' s
d e d i c a t i o n t o h e r m a t e r n a l g r a n d m o t h e r , "Miss C a r r i e " M e r i w e t h e r .
Despite h e r grandmother's reputation
a s t h e family t y r a n t ,
C a r o l i n e always remained h e r f a v o r i t e , and M i s s C a r r i e h e l d
a special place i n her granddaughter's l i f e .
More t h a n o n c e
Gordon a n d h e r h u s b a n d s t a y e d a t M e r r y Mont f o r s e v e r a l w e e k s ,
and Gordon a p p a r e n t l y f o u n d i t e a s y t o d e a l w i t h M i s s C a r r i e ' s
obstinacy and e c c e n t r i c i t i e s .
One o f t h e s e h a b i t s i s m e n t i o n e d
when Andrew L y t l e r e f e r s t o Miss C a r r i e ' s r e f u s a l t o h a v e window
s c r e e n s i n h e r house b e c a u s e "it d i d n ' t s u i t h e r t o b r e a t h e
s i f t e d a i r " (Wood 6 ) .
G o r d o n t e l l s S a l l y Wood t h a t i t i s e a s y
t o f e e l " a t home" a t M e r r y M o n t :
"After you're here awhile
you s o r t o f s e t t l e i n t o t h e p l a c e .
The d i r t which a p p a l l s
a t f i r s t c o m e s t o seem a n a d v a n t a g e .
One s i m p l y p i c k s o n e ' s
it is a r e l i e f
way a b o u t o v e r s t a c k s o f o l d m a g a z i n e s - - a n d
never t o have t o t h i n k o f c l e a n i n g u p .
I am r e a l l y q u i t e
addicted t o t h e place .
. " ( 1 0 8 - 9 ) . Gordon d o e s n o t a t t e m p t
t o c r i t i c i z e o r change h e r grandmother; s h e a c c e p t s and l o v e s
her a s s h e i s , r e g u l a r l y a t t e n d i n g family holiday c e l e b r a t i o n s
with t h e i r " r i t u a l observances" (204).
.
These a t t i t u d e s c o n c e r n i n g c o u r t e s y and honor f i t i n t o
a l a r g e r framework o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e i n G o r d o n ' s l i f e .
Gordon
responded r e p e a t e d l y
t o f r i e n d s who n e e d e d h e l p .
Early i n
the T a t e s ' marriage, they o f f e r e d asylum t o t h ? poet Hart Crane
f o r s e v e r a l months.
( I t proved t o b e d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e T a t e s ,
u n f o r t u n a t e l y , a n d Gordon r e p o r t s t h a t communication a t t i m e s
was r e d u c e d t o s l i p p i n g n o t e s u n d e r d o o r s . )
Andrew L y t l e w a s
welcomed t o B e n f o l l y f o r a p e r i o d o f w e e k s when h e h i t a s n a g
i n h i s C i v i l War n o v e l ; G o r d o n b e l i e v e d t h a t h e w o u l d s o l v e
the problem, once i n t h e T a t e household with its productive
atmosphere.
In
return,
Gordon
felt
perfectly
a t ease
in
s u g g e s t i n g a v i s i t t o L y t l e ' s a n c e s t r a l home i n A l a b a m a when
s h e f e l t p r e s s u r e s i n t e r f e r i n g a t home.
Once a t C o r n s i l k ,
Gordon s e t u p a c a r d t a b l e i n t h e d i n i n g r o o m a n d p r o c e e d e d
t o make d a i l y p r o g r e s s o n h e r c u r r e n t n o v e l .
While Gordon o f f e r e d
encouragement
and o p p o r t u n i t y
to
o t h e r w r i t e r s , s h e a l s o e x p r e s s e d h e r c a n d i d o p i n i o n and judgment
o f t h e i r work a n d a n t i c i p a t e d t h e same o f them.
A l e t t e r t o S a l l y Wood i n May, 1 9 3 2 o f f e r s a n e x a m p l e :
. . .
I am g o i n g t o a s k - - i n d e s p e r a t i o n - Dear S a l l y :
what is p r o b a b l y t h e g r e a t e s t f a v o r I ' v e e v e r asked
It's to
of you.
I ' v e a s k e d it i n v a i n o f A l l e n .
r e a d t h e MS I ' m s e n d i n g .
Allen's t r i e d it twice
a n d e a c h t i m e b r e a k s down a n d s a y s h e s i m p l y c a n ' t
. .
. I f y o u f i n d y o u s i m p l y c a n ' t g o i t [ , I why
[ , I d o n ' t t r y [ , ] b u t i f y o u d o wade t h r o u g h t e l l
m e what you t h i n k . ( 1 1 2 )
.
A n o t h e r l e t t e r t o S a l l y Wood i n 1 9 3 4 s t a t e s :
I am n o t v a i n e n o u g h t o t h i n k t h a t F a t e s e n t y o u
j o u r n e y i n g down h e r e f o r my s p e c i a l b e n e f i t b u t I
d o n ' t know w h e r e I ' d b e now i f y o u h a d n ' t come.
I
knew I w a s o n t h e w r o n g t r a c , k b u t d i d n ' t know how
t o get o f f it--your
c o m m e n t s s e t m e r i g h t somehow.
( I r e f e r [ , 1 a s y o u may b y t h i s t i m e h a v e g a t h e r e d [ , 1
t o my b o o k . )
(158)
A t h i r d example o c c u r s i n a 1933 l e t t e r :
"He fixed her
Dearest S a l l y :
I have j u s t
read:
w i t h two s t e r n unwinking e y e s t h a t looked a s i f t h e y
w e r e made o f g l a s s . . . . " a n d _then y o u g o o n a n d
You
a d d " t h e y had s o l i t t l e e x p r e s s i o n t o them."
Why i n t h e name o f God d o
do t h i s a l l t h e t i m e .
you d o i t ? ? ? ?
I f t h e man's eyes looked a s i f they
w e r e made o f g l a s s o n l y a f o o l w o u l d t h i n k t h e y h a d
e x p r e s s i o n i n them.
I t p r a c t i c a l l y amounts t o t e l l i n g
your r e a d e r every second paragraph t h a t he is a f o o l ,
o r a t l e a s t h e h a s n ' t g o t enough s e n s e t o have a
r e a c t i o n t o t h e p i c t u r e y o u ' v e g i v e n him.
You make
t h e p i c t u r e a n d i t ' s a l w a y s g o o d , t h e n you t e l l t h e
. You h a v e g o t t o q u i t
reader t o react t o it. .
i t . I t p e r p l e x e s a n d e n r a g e s me.
(149-150)
.
When
Gordon p r a c t i c e d r e c i p r o c i t y w i t h o t h e r s a s w e l l .
s h e and T a t e p r e p a r e d t o l e a v e f o r P a r i s a f t e r h e r r e c e i p t
o f t h e Guggenheim award i n 1 9 3 2 , s h e a t t e m p t e d t o c o n v i n c e
h e r c o u s i n , M a r i o n M e r i w e t h e r , t o j o i n t h e m f o r t h e summer
A s Gordon w r i t e s t o S a l l y
and have a r e s t o r a t i v e experience.
Wood " S h e h a s n ' t h a d a v a c a t i o n i n God k n o w s when a n d l e a d s
t h e most d e s o l a t e l i f e i n t h a t g i r l s ' s c h o o l and h a t e s t h e
w h o l e t h i n g s o t h o r o u g h l y I jumped a t t h e i d e a o f h e r g o i n g "
(110).
In a d d i t i o n , she accepted a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o chaperone
t h e adolescent daughter of
acquaintances i n t h e Clarksville
a r e a d u r i n g t h e t r i p o v e r s e a s a n d t o see t h a t s h e a r r i v e d s a f e l y
a t a European s c h o o l .
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , Gordon a c c e p t e d t h e
invitation to deposit her daughter Nancy with her Aunt Margaret
Campbell in Chattanooga for the months she and her husband
would be in France.
The expectation of the give-and-take in
her close relationships was the norm for Gordon and made for
her a fuller experience. All of these examples point to Gordon's commitment to
a disciplined balance between a dedication to her writing career
and an equal dedication to satisfying the needs of her husband,
child, extended family and group of friends. She might complain
about her difficulties in combining the two from time to time,
but it appears that she did not expect her life to function
differently. For Scott (born, Elsie Dunn), however, the pressures to
adhere to societal conventions produced resistance and rebellion.
First of all, she did not experience an early environment with
landed traditions and customs.
Hers was a town environment,
and there was much less insulation between the life of her
immediate family and the lives of the other town families.
Although she was born in the Madison Street mansion between
Sixth and Seventh Streets and was encouraged by her mother
to identify with the Thomas family's luxury, privilege, and
eminence in Clarksville society, Scott was never able to claim
this environment as her own.
Before she reached the age of
two, she and her parents removed to a small cottage on Commerce
Street and to life on a much reduced scale of affluence. This
move seems to have coincided with the assumption of the mansion's
ownership by Scott's aunt and uncle.
Scott's mother, Maud
Thomas Dunn, bitterly resented her changed condition and seems
to have solicited pity from her daughter for her suffering. Mrs. Dunn apparently contributed to a developing ambivalence
in her daughter's mind toward a number of social issues. For
Maud
became
increasingly
preoccupied
with
presenting
the
appearance of affluence to the public, while privately she
indulged in self-pity and resentment. Scott presents a haunting
fictional example of Maud in her autobiographial work, Escapade,
a prose poem reflecting lean years spent in Brazil.
During
the poorest period of Nannette's long stay with the narrator,
her husband, and child, Nannette attempts to preserve the
appearance of earlier, more affluent times by carefully coif fing
her hair and changing her dress for the daily meal which consists
of an equivalent of our pork and beans. Because Scott's father,
Seely Dunn, was an L & N railroad executive, the family
frequently left Clarksville during Scott's first decade and
a half, spending weeks or months at a time in Russellville,
Kentucky ; St. Louis, Missouri; Evansville, Indiana; and Memphis,
Tennessee.
Seely Dunn apparently strove to provide living
quarters as close as possible to Maud's desires, and the family
occupied quarters, for example, in a St. Louis mansion turned
boarding house.
Here again, is the appearance of affluence
where the reality is a sharing of facilities with strangers.
Thus,
the
sensitive
young
Scott
early
perceived
c o n t r a d i c t i o n between r e a l i t y and a f a l s e l y c r e a t e d appearance
of r e a l i t y .
While i t is c r u e t h a t C a r o l i n e Gordon's immediate
f a m i l y moved f r e q u e n t l y , t o o , a s P r o f e s s o r G o r d o n t o o k u p new
teaching duties i n different locations, t h e pattern did not
b e g i n a s e a r l y i n h e r l i f e a s i t d i d i n t h e l i f e of Evelyn
Scott.
hloreover,
C a r o l i n e c o n t i n u e d t o i d e n t i f y w i t h Merry
hfont a s a home b a s e b e c a u s e h e r g r a n d m o t h e r , Miss C a r r i e , l i v e d
t h e r e u n t i l h e r d e a t h i n 1939.
Scott, too, regularly visited
t h e C l a r k s v i l l e mansion f o r weeks o r months d u r i n g e v e r y y e a r
u p t o h e r t w e n t i e t h b i r t h d a y , b u t t h i s e x p e r i e n c e n e v e r seemed
t o provide t h e f i r m conviction t h a t s h e belonged, o r had f i r m
roots there.
Instead,
her mother's preoccupation with t h e
c h a n g e f r o m l u x u r y t o a m o d e r a t e s t a n d a r d o f e x i s t e n c e seems
t o have encouraged,
from a d o l e s c e n c e onward,
an ambivalence
i n S c o t t toward upper c l a s s values and behavior.
Also u n l i k e Gordon, S c o t t a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t r e c e i v e a
c l e a r s e n s e o f f a m i l y s e c u r i t y o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n a n unambiguous
code of behavior.
Because s h e was a n o n l y c h i l d a n d f r e q u e n t l y
i n h e r m o t h e r ' s e x c l u s i v e company, s h e l o o k e d o n o t h e r s w i t h
some f e a r
and defensiveness.
Her m o t h e r a p p a r e n t l y
sought
Evelyn a s an a l l y a g a i n s t h e r husband S e e l y ,
i n s i s t i n g on
E v e l v n ' s f i r s t l o y a l t y and a f f e c t i o n .
I n S c o t t ' s The N a r r o w
House,
t h e young m o t h e r , Winnie, makes t h i s same a p p e a l t o
h e r l i t t l e d a u g h t e r , May.
Maud seems t o h a v e b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l a s w e l l i n p r e v e n t i n g
t h e development o f any c l o s e f r i e n d s h i p i n E v e l y n ' s childhood.
I n S c o t t ' s f i c t i o n a l i z e d a u t o b i o g r a p h y , Eva Gav, E v a ' s m o t h e r
s c r u t i n i z e s t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s and r e p u t a t i o n of every p o t e n t i a l
companion, and s h e s u c c e e d s i n r e v e a l i n g a weakness o r s t i g m a
time.
The
young
Eva
yearns
for
peer
approval
and
each
companionship, b u t can only achieve i t through daring a c t s
o r when s h e m i s b e h a v e s o r r e b e l s .
T h i s , i n f a c t , became a n
established p a t t e r n i n S c o t t ' s l i f e , beginning with childhood
e x p e r i e n c e s i n t e n d e d t o c o u r t a t t e n t i o n from o t h e r s .
Scott
recounts
several
traumatic
childhood
experiences
i n h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h y , Background i n T e n n e s s e e .
While r e c o v e r i n g
f r o m a b o u t w i t h m a l a r i a a t a g e f i v e , s h e w a s c r u s h e d when
h e r mother c u t a l l h e r long, golden c u r l s .
Apparently i n o r d e r
t o b o l s t e r h e r own s e l f - i m a g e ,
she accepted a boy's dare t o
c r o s s a s t r e a m by jumping from s l i p p e r y s t o n e t o s l i p p e r y s t o n e .
Sadly, she slipped, f e l l into the water,
and afterward h i d
A t age ten she daringly
i n shame f r o m p u b l i c view f o r h o u r s .
clambered along a dead l o g extending f a r o u t over t h e r i v e r
A t eleven s h e responded
i n w h i c h h e r c o u s i n s w e r e swimming.
t o her thirteen-year-old
c o u s i n ' s d a r e t h a t s h e hang f o r f i v e
minutes from a rope suspended over t h e r i v e r , although s h e
was u n a b l e t o swim.
Despite h e r d a r i n g , however, S c o t t records
i n Background i n Tennessee,
that the approval she received
She
was n o t s a t i s f y i n g b e c a u s e i t d i d n o t l a s t i n h e r mind.
p e r c e i v e d t h a t h e r c o u s i n ' s p r a i s e was somewhat c o n d e s c e n d i n g
because s h e was a
girl.
S h e r e c o g n i z e s h e r own l a c k o f
"His
excellent opinion of
self-confidence
when s h e w r i t e s ,
me h a d t o b e b o u g h t a n d r e b o u g h t " ( 2 8 2 )
And, s h e c o m m e n t s
f u r t h e r on h e r l a c k o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e :
" I t was a s though
I h a d , c o n t i n u a l l y , t o a c c u m u l a t e e v i d e n c e which would p r o v e
me ' n o t g u i l t y . ' T h o u g h I n e v e r r e a l l y knew o f w h a t I f e l t
myself t o b e a c c u s e d .
O n l y t h a t when
p r a i s e d me--even
t o t e l l m e I wore a becoming dress--1
somehow a l w a y s t h o u g h t
they were l y i n g "
(283-4).
A s a n a d u l t , S c o t t d i d form f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h s e v e r a l p e o p l e .
The c l o s e t i e s h e f o r m e d w i t h C y r i l K a y - S c o t t l a s t e d w e l l i n t o
t h e 1930s, a decade beyond t h e i r m a r r i e d l i f e t o g e t h e r .
However,
the d i f f i c u l t i e s t h i s r e l a t i o n
imposed upon
t h e ex-husband
By
a r e e x p r e s s e d i n h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , L i f e i s Too S h o r t .
t h e same t o k e n , S c o t t a n d L o l a R i d g e , a more c o m p a s s i o n a t e
sort of Gertrude S t e i n , maintained a strong friendship f o r
years.
Ironically,
R i d g e became
a l i e n a t e d from S c o t t o n l y
when t h e l a t t e r h u r t h e r p r i d e b y t r y i n g t o s o l c i t f u n d s f o r
the medical h e l p t h a t Ridge s o r e l y needed.
S c o t t and a n a r c h i s t
Emma Goldman b e c a m e a n d r e m a i n e d f r i e n d s t h r o u g h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
u n t i l t h e t i m e o f Goldman's d e a t h .
Another w r i t e r whose t a l e n t
S c o t t e a r l y r e c o g n i z e d , Kay B o y l e , b e c a m e a f r i e n d f o r s e v e r a l
decades,
again primarily
through
correspondence.
In
fact,
Boyle c o m m e n t e d s o m e w h a t w r y l y t h a t i t w a s much e a s i e r t o
maintain
the
relationship
through
letter-writing,
Scott's
a t t e n t i o n s e e m i n g t o b e e a s i l y d i s t r a c t e d b y o t h e r p e o p l e when
they were t o g e t h e r .
C l e a r l y , S c o t t ' s need f o r a t t e n t i o n and
approval from o t h e r s , and h e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o what s h e p e r c e i v e d
as s l i g h t s , p u t a s e r i o u s s t r a i n on h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
friends.
S c o t t a l s o began t o r e g a r d s e x and m a r r i a g e w i t h s u s p i c i o n
s k e p t i c i s m from a n e a r l y a g e .
I n a n Eva Gay f i c t i o n a l
a c c o u n t , Eva b e c o m e s t r a p p e d by a n o l d e r m a l e c o u s i n a n d s u b m i t s
t o a physical mauling.
S h e f e e l s t o o ashamed t o r e p o r t i t
because h e r mother h a s i n s t i l l e d i n h e r a n e a r l y f e a r and g u i l t
toward a n y t h i n g s e x u a l .
I n a s i m i l a r way, S c o t t p e r c e i v e d
that her f a t h e r took l i t t l e s e r i o u s i n t e r e s t i n h e r except
for a concern t h a t s h e preserve her v i r g i n i t y .
Even m o r e
importantly,
Scott's
observations
of
her
parents'
unhappy
m a r r i a g e a p p a r e n t l y c r e a t e d a f e e l i n g t h a t m a r r i a g e is a t r a p
f o r t h e two p e r s o n s c o n c e r n e d , and t h a t i t p r e v e n t s i n d i v i d u a l
fulfillment o r happiness.
A haunting fictional portrayal of
her p a r e n t s '
relationship
is given i n S c o t t ' s f i r s t n o v e l ,
The N a r r o w
House.
An
atmosphere of
unrelieved
gloom and
martyrdom p e r v a d e s t h e h o u s e h o l d o f t h e m i d d l e - a g e d
Mr.
and
Mrs. F a r l e y .
T h e y h a v e b e e n c o w e d by s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n i n t o
remaining
together,
though
their
mutual
unhappiness
is
demonstrated i n t h e i r e v e r y e x p r e s s i o n and g e s t u r e and i n t h e i r
mechanical p e r f o r m a n c e o f d a i l y d u t i e s .
and
S c o t t came t o b e l i e v e t h a t s h e must a v o i d any s i t u a t i o n
which might r e s u l t i n male d o m i n a t i o n o r t h e c r i p p l i n g of h e r
independence.
She t e s t e d t h i s b e l i e f
experientially during
a d o l e s c e n c e , a n d t h e u n f o r t u n a t e r e s u l t s o f two f i c t i o n a l i z e d
r o m a n c e s i n h e r n o v e l Eva Gav a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e h e r wary a t t i t u d e
concerning marriage.
I n t h e f i r s t e x a m p l e , a n a i v e Eva s u c c u m b s
t o Walter F o r d ' s seduction,
a n d s h e s u f f e r s i n t e n s e l y when
h e abandons h e r a f t e r w a r d s .
She is m i s t a k e n i n h e r c h o i c e
o f y o u n g men a s e c o n d t i m e w i t h Mat B e e r s , a l t h o u g h h e i s
approved
as
a
s u i t o r by
her
parents.
When F,lat s u d d e n l y
repudiates Eva's unconventional
i d e a s and informs h e r t h a t
h e expects h i s f u t u r e w i f e t o behave d i f f e r e n t l y , she breaks
t h e i r engagement i n a n g e r and d i s g u s t .
She becomes f u r t h e r
m o r t i f i e d when s h e r e c e i v e s M a t ' s i n s u l t i n g l e t t e r , w h i c h i m p l i e s
h e r c h a r a c t e r is n o t worthy o f h i s r e s p e c t .
Scott epitomizes
t h e s e v i e w s i n E s c a p a d e when s h e s a y s :
" T r u e l o v e is a b n e g a t i o n
o f s e l f a n d i n t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e s e x e s i t is i n a p p r o p r i a t e "
(4).
E v e l y n S c o t t a l s o became a m b i v a l e n t t o w a r d t h e r o l e s h e
herself w a s encouraged t o play.
She e n j o y e d , a s a growing
g i r l , t h e c o m p l i m e n t s s h e r e c e i v e d on h e r r e m a r k a b l e g r e y e y e s
a n d b l o n d b e a u t y , b u t s h e came t o d e t e s t t h e i m a g e o f t h e
H e r a d o l e s c e n t romances and h e r r e c o g n i t i o n
Southern B e l l e .
o f t h e k i n d s o f b e h a v i o r s h e w a s e x p e c t e d t o f o l l o w made t h e
f a l s i t y and hypocrisy.
Instead,
during
r o l e seem f u l l o f
a d o l e s c e n c e s h e c h a m p i o n e d t h e r i g h t o f women, n o t o n l y t o
r e c e i v e a good e d u c a t i o n , b u t t o b e a b l e t o employ it beyond
t h e d r a w i n g room e n v i r o n m e n t o f a s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e m a r r i a g e .
She n o t e d w i t h p i t y h e r m o t h e r ' s narrowed w o r l d , and l a m e n t e d
t h a t blaud's f i n e e d u c a t i o n a n d knowledge had no s a t i s f y i n g
outlet.
I n New O r l e a n s l a t e r S c o t t l e n t h e r s u p p o r t t o t h e
movement f o r w o m e n ' s s u f f r a g e , b u t s h e h a d b e g u n t o f o r m h e r
own i n d i v i d u a l p r i o r i t i e s a n d c o u l d n o t j o i n i n a n y o r g a n i z e d
efforts.
Scott r e j e c t e d t h e i d e a o r p r a c t i c e of interdependence
because of her skepticism.
S h e h a d o b s e r v e d many t i m e s t h a t
human i n t e r a c t i o n r e s u l t e d i n o n e p a r t y ' s d o m i n a t i n g a n d t h e
other party's being forced t o be subordinate.
Thus, s h e was
w i l l i n g and i n t e r e s t e d i n p e r f o r m i n g t h e r o l e of c r i t i c toward
t h e f i c . t i o n o f Kay B o y l e a n d F l a n n e r y O ' C o n n o r , b u t a p p a r e n t l y
n e v e r s u b m i t t e d h e r own w o r k t o o t h e r s .
She s t r u g g l e d a l o n e
t o p e r f e c t h e r c r a f t , w h i l e Gordon r e l i e d on t h e m e n t o r s h i p
Scott
o f F o r d Madox F o r d a n d h e r e d i t o r , M a x w e l l P e r k i n s .
a c h i e v e d c o n f i d e n c e i n h e r a b i l i t y t o w r i t e and t h e d i s c i p l i n e
t o p r o d u c e , b u t i t was a s o l i t a r y e n d e a v o r .
While S c o t t f e l t c o n c e r n from an e a r l y a g e a b o u t t h o s e
who w e r e r a c i a l l y ,
sexually,
o r economically e x p l o i t e d and
while s h e d e s i r e d s o l u t i o n s t o t h e s e problems, s h e nevertheless
vacillated
between
identifying with
the
exploited
underdog
and d e f e n s i v e l y i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h membership i n a p r e s t i g i o u s
Clarksville family.
She found i t d i f f i c u l t t o adopt e i t h e r
p o s i t i o n c o m p l e t e l y , a n d s h e b a c k e d away f r o m j o i n i n g a n y s o c i a l
group or organization.
She ultimately
concluded that the strengths of individualism served to found American society, and she would commit herself to it in her own life. She declared in Escapade while still in her twenties, "Because I alone of all the world can understnad and pity myself, I am God.
I alone of all the world can offer equality to myself" (187). The question of whether or not one should create a balance
between commitment to oneself and commitment to others did
not arise in Scott's mind.
She developed a singleminded
dedication to her writing, and apparently all other obligations
paled beside it.
She was not bothered to any great extent
by social or domestic concerns; her second husband for more
than thirty years, John Metcalfe, apparently occupied second
place and recognized her as the dominant partner in the marriage.
Scott paid little or no attention to domestic concerns or to
entertaining others; her meals were eaten in restaurants and
there was very little socializing during most of her adult
life.
The stance she adopted is an uncompromising one; the
early habit of deploring human compromise carried over into
her own personal life with a vengeance. Scott's formative experiences, then, contrast
sharply
to those of Gordon.
Instead of making a commitment to family
and community through the practice of hospitable and courteous
traditions, Scott expressed skepticism; she saw hypocrisy and
falsity expressed in most social interaction.
As an adult,
Scott perceived slights and insults regularly directed at her,
mirroring her mother's tendency.
She could trust no one but
herself, and s o she had to be true to herself in order to realize
a life of integrity.
Although many persons may have had early
experiences essentially similar to Scott's and yet have been
able to forge strong friendships and marriages, Scott interpreted
her own experiences as formative.
She implies that persons
cannot escape their consequences when she declares in Background
in Tennessee :
"We are such old men and women after five or six:
we know already all that we shall ever know.
Our
knowledge of that early period--a knowledge gained
before
its
day--is
really
ultimate;
is
never
superseded" (301). Evelyn Scott may here have had the last word concerning
the opposing directions her life and the life of Caroline Gordon
took.
The combination of security and expressed approval in
Gordon's youthful environment, along with an expectation of
responsibility to others, seems to have provided her with a
community from which she could draw beliefs and which could
allow her ultimately to seek security in Christian faith. These
factors were lacking or seriously undermined in Scott's formative
period.
As a result, she devised an individual faith which
recognized that life contains uncertainties and probable failure
for human hopes.
Her faith thus focused on embracing death,
which alone is certain, as a victory over life. WORKS C I T E D
Gordon,
Caroline.
Old
S c r i b n e r ' s , 1963.
---
.
Penhally.
N e w York:
Scott,
Evelyn.
Tennessee
--- .
Escagade.
Red
and
Stories.
Ken
York:
S c r i b n e r ' s , 1931.
in
-
New York:
Other
Tennessee.
Knoxville:
U
of
Thomas S e l t z e r , 1 9 2 3 .
Wood, S a l l y , e d .
The Southern Mandarins:
L e t t e r s of Caroline
B a t o n Rouge:
Louisiana
G o r d o n t o S a l l y Wood, 1 9 2 4 - 1 9 3 7 .
S t a t e UP. 1984.
PENHALLY AND BRACKETS:
THE HOUSES THAT CAROLINE GORDON BUILT Rebecca R. B u t l e r Dalton Junior College By t h e t i m e C a r o l . i n e G o r d o n b e g a n h e r w r i t i n g c a r e e r i n
the t h i r d decade of t h e t w e n t i e t h century, a l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n
of t h e s o u t h e r n p l a n t a t i o n had e x i s t e d f o r o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s
o r more.
That t r a d i t i o n , h a d , i n f a c t , been d e f i n e d and analyzed
by F r a n c i s P e n d l e t o n G a i n e s i n T h e S o u t h e r n P l a n t a t i o n :
A Studv
i n t h e Development and t h e Accuracy o f a T r a d i t i o n , p u b l i s h e d
i n 1924.
Those r o m a n t i c and s e n t i m e n t a l s t o r i e s o f t h e Old
South t h a t had been s o abundant a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e l o c a l c o l o r
movement h a d a l l b u t
disappeared.
The t i m e s demanded more
r e a l i s t i c f a r e , and G a i n e s d i s c e r n e d j u s t s u c h a s h i f t toward
a r e a l i s t i c treatment of t h e plantation materials a s e a r l y a s
1902 i n E l l e n G l a s g o w ' s T h e B a t t l e g r o u n d .
I n t h a t n o v e l Glasgow
pictured, a s Gaines put i t , "the extinction" of p l a n t a t i o n l i f e
" i n t h e f a c e o f new c o n d i t i o n s ,
i n t h e tragedy of a great
t r a n s i t i o n , i n t h e c l a s h o f a new d e m o c r a c y w i t h w h a t r e m a i n e d
of t h e o l d a r i s t o c r a c y " ( 9 1 ) .
I t was j u s t t h i s e x t i n c t i o n and
t r a g e d y t o which C a r o l i n e Gordon t u r n e d h e r a t t e n t i o n i n two
o f h e r e a r l y n o v e l s , P e n h a l l y a n d None S h a l l Look B a c k .
B e c a u s e s h e k e p t many o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a n d
b u i l t u p o n t h e m , much o f w h a t G a i n e s h a s t o s a y i n T h e S o u t h e r n
P l a n t a t i o n a p p l i e s t o G o r d o n ' s work.
I t s a p p e a r a n c e i n 1924
on t h e v e r y t h r e s h o l d o f t h e s o u t h e r n l i t e r a r y r e n a i s s a n c e m a k e s
Gaines'
study
a
particular] y
meaningful
d e m a r c a t i o n between
t h e t r a d i t i o n a s it e x i s t e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and t h e
revisions of t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t were j u s t emerging.
On t h e
one h a n d , a s G a i n e s saw i t , w a s t h e r o m a n t i c d r e a m , f i c t i o n
dominantly
idealistic,
sentimental,
and n o s t a l g i c ,
f e d by
a
) e a r n i n g f o r a n i l l u s o r y G o l d e n Age ( a y e a r n i n g , h e s t r o n g l y
On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
i m p l i e d , t h a t is s l a v e l i k e i n i t s a t t i t u d e ) .
the t r a d i t i o n was a l r e a d y p a s s i n g i n t o t h e p r e s e r v e o f w r i t e r s ,
l i k e Gordon, t a k i n g u p Glasgow ' s r i n g i n g c h a l l e n g e :
"more b l o o d
and i r o n y " ( 9 5 ) . W r i t i n g f r o m a r e l a t i v e l y d i s t a n c e d p e r s p e c t i v e ,
and d u r i n g a t i m e t h a t h e s a w a s i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e i n i t s
r e a l i s m , G a i n e s was i n t e r e s t e d i n more t h a n s i m p l y c a t a l o g u i n g
the d i s c r e t e elements of
mansion,
planter,
"genuine
darky,"
H e was e s p e c i a l l y
winsome b e l l e , d a s h i n g c a v a l i e r , a n d s o o n .
i n t e r e s t e d i n d e f i n i n g and e x p l a i n i n g t h e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n
of t h e p l a n t a t i o n , t h e i m a g e t h a t l i v e d i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e
g e n e r a l a u d i e n c e a c r o s s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h o s e who r e a d r o m a n c e s
(and p e r h a p s
serious
fiction,
too),
a t t e n d e d Negro m u s i c a l
comedies, o r a p e r f o r m a n c e o f The Emperor J o n e s , o r w a t c h e d
t h e v e r y new m o v i n g p i c t u r e s a n d s a w T h e K l a n s m a n .
I t is t h e image t h a t l i v e s i n t h e mind t h a t i n t e r e s t e d
C a r o l i n e G o r d o n , t o o , a n d i t i s t h e way t h e i m a g i n a t i o n w o r k s
t h a t seems s o o f t e n t o b e j u s t a s s i g n i f i c a n t a s t h e h i s t o r y
she r e t e l l s :
p r i m o g e n i t u r e and Nathan Bedford F o r r e s t
take
o n m e a n i n g i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s who t h i n k a b o u t t h e m ,
muse o v e r t h e m , o r remember them.
I t was n o t a w e a l t h o f
a u t h e n t i c h i s t o r i c d e t a i l , not i n v e n t o r i e s of t h e minutiae of
f u r n i s h i n g s , c l o t h i n g , t o o l s , w e a p o n s , a n d new a c c o u n t s o f t h e
period
t h a t s h e wanted.
I t was t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t l i v i n g
e x p e r i e n c e makes o n t h e minds o f p e r c e p t i v e w i t n e s s e s t h a t s h e
H e r m e t h o d w a s t o show t h e c o n c r e t e
saw a s c e n t r a l t o h e r a i m .
w o r l d i n t h e a c t o f b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d hy t h e mind, p r e s e r v e d
A number o f s o u t h e r n w r i t e r s o f t h e p e r i o d
by t h e i m a g i n a t i o n .
were a l s o producing r e v i s i o n s o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n s t o r i e s , b u t
what d i s t i n g u i s h e s G o r d o n ' s work i n t h i s a r e n a i s h e r d i s c i p l i n e d
r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e o b s e r v e d w o r l d , o f p e r c e p t i o n made c o n c r e t e ,
o f t h e h e a r t a n d m i n d o f i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s made v i s i b l e .
The o p e n i n g p a g e s o f b o t h n o v e l s p r o v i d e examples o f t h i s
c r e a t i o n o f v e r y s p e c i f i c p l a n t a t i o n images through t h e e y e s
of
a patriarch.
I n P e n h a l l v , N i c h o l a s L l e w e l l y n is l o o k i n g
o v e r h i s lawn a s h e w a l k s toward t h e s l a v e c a b i n s where h e h e a r s
A s h e p a s s e s o n e t r e e and a n o t h e r h e remembers
a woman c r y i n g .
when a s a boy h e f i r s t saw t h e s e t r e e s , " a l l a r o u n d t h e h o u s e .
. . The o l d p l a c e i n V i r g i n i a had been l i k e t h a t , a l o n g
I t was f a t e d
g r a y h o u s e , set i n t h e middle o f a n oak g r o v e .
(2-3).
A s Nicholas
t h a t a house should be b u i l t l i k e that"
w a l k s , drawing n e a r e r t h e u n p l e a s a n t n o i s e , he is preoccupied
w i t h h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r R a l p h ' s r e m o v a l f r o m t h e f a m i l y home.
Born i n t o a t r a d i t i o n i n which t h e e l d e r b r o t h e r e x e r c i s e s c o n t r o l
over t h e family resources, he can n e i t h e r understand nor accept
R a l p h ' s n e e d t o g o v e r n h i s own a f f a i r s , t o e s t a b l i s h a s e p a r a t e
residence.
R e a c h i n g a b r e a k i n t h e t r e e s , h e s t a r e s down a t
the cabins.
Even t h i s p r o b l e m i n t h e q u a r t e r s i s p a r t o f t h e
l a r g e r f a m i l y d i v i s i o n b e c a u s e t h e c r y i n g woman i s n a i l i n g a b o u t
b e i n g k e p t a t P e n h a l l y when h e r h u s b a n d i s g o i n g w i t h R a l p h
t o Mayfield.
.
its f o c u s on t h e
None S h a l l Look Back
opens
similarly,
p l a n t e r a n d o n h i s v i e w o f h i s home.
Fount A l l a r d watches h i s
d e p a r t i n g g u e s t s r o l l down h i s d r i v e , t h e n s l i p s away t o a
summerhouse where h e c a n e n j o y a j u l e p and l o o k back a t h i s
house, " t h e long west wing covered i n s c a r l e t V i r g i n i a c r e e p e r "
( 4 1 , a n d s e e h i s w i f e g u i d i n g some l i n g e r i n g f r i e n d s t o t h e
H e cannot
r o s e g a r d e n where h e r f a v o r i t e r o s e b u s h is i n bloom.
a c t u a l l y s e e t h e f l o w e r s from h i s s e a t , b u t h e can imagine t h e
women a d m i r i n g t h e y e l l o w r o s e s .
In both of
t h e s e s c e n i c o p e n i n g s Gordon i d e n t i f i e s t h e
plantation with t h e planter.
I t is through h i s e y e s t h a t h i s
s u r r o u n d i n g s t a k e on s h a p e and meaning.
And a l t h o u g h N i c h o l a s
i s b u i l t o n t h e l i n e s o f t h e s t r o n g - w i l l e d man o f a c t i o n w h i l e
F o n t a i n e is modeled on t h e more p a s s i v e g e n t l e m a n p l a n t e r ( s o
g r a c i o u s a n d s e l f - c o n t a i n e d t h a t when t h e F e d e r a l s l a t e r i n v a d e
h i s home h e s p e a k s n o t a w o r d ) , t h e i m p o r t a n t s i m i l a r i t y i n
t h e t w o p o r t r a i t s i s t h a t b o t h men c a r r y a b o u t w i t h t h e m i m a g e s
t h a t s e r v e a s i m p o r t a n t c o n n e c t i o n s between themselves and t h e i r
place i n t h e world.
These i n t e r i o r images a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h ,
in
harmony
with,
their
exterior
world.
In
both
cases,
f u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r o r d e r e d w o r l d s a r e on t h e v e r g e o f d i s r u p t i o n ,
a d i s r u p t i o n t h a t b r i n g s w i t h i t s t i l l more n o w - f a m i l i a r i m a g e s
of t h e Old S o u t h , b u t images u n d e r g o i n g a l t e r a t i o n .
To s h o w t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f s o u t h e r n p l a n t a t i o n c i v i l i z a t i o n
a s p l a n t e r s s a w i t , a s t h e y l i v e d i t , c a l l e d f o r , i n t h e words
of H e n r y J a m e s , " t h e v i v i d i m a g e a n d t h e v e r y s c e n e . "
And t h i s
was j u s t G o r d o n ' s f o r t e ; h e r i m a g i n a t i o n w a s , l i k e J a m e s ' s ,
a
visual
one.
Gordon's
debt
to
Henry
James
has
been
w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d e l s e w h e r e , n o t a b l y i n h e r own a n t h o l o g y - t e x t b o o k ,
The H o u s e o f F i c t i o n , a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y i n R o s e Ann F r a i s t a t ' s
A reader
C a r o l i n e G o r d o n a s N o v e l i s t a n d Woman o f L e t t e r s .
who k n o w s J a m e s ' s c r i t i c a l - t e c h n i c a l
concerns w i l l recognize
Gordon's d i s c i p l e s h i p i n h e r c r e a t i o n of c e n t e r s of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
"authoritative" p o i n t s of view, and her a t t e n t i o n t o "the v i v i d
image a n d t h e v e r y s c e n e , " i n c l u d i n g t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f a n i m a g e
i n t o a symbol.
Remarkably, s h e was a l r e a d y a d e p t i n t h e s e methods
F i r s t , s h e k n o w s how t o l o c a t e t h e
i n h e r earliest n o v e l s .
imagination i n t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d , and t h a t is w i t h t h e eye.
The
observed
world-the
house,
the
trees,
the
roses,
the
quarters--is
t h e s t a r t i n g point f o r t h e imagination.
Next i s
t h e e y e i t s e l f , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n None S h a l l Look B a c k , p r e s e n t e d
as t h e a c t u a l and t h e symbolic meeting p l a c e of t h e o u t e r , v i s i b l e
world,
and t h e i n n e r , mental w o r l d .
Finally, there is the
v i s i o n a r y image, p e r h a p s a dream, p e r h a p s an i n d e l i b l e mental
image o r c o m m i t m e n t .
With t h e s e t h r e e k i n d s o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n ,
Gordon e n l a r g e d t h e p l a n t a t i o n t r a d i t i o n b e y o n d t h e n i c h e made
She brought
f o r i t by l o c a l c o l o r a n d r e c o n c i l i a t i o n f i c t i o n .
t h e p l a n t a t i o n image s e c u r e l y i n t o t h e modern canon ( B r a d f o r d
3 7 5 , 3 7 9 ) , a n d as s h e d i d s o , s h e s h o w e d how i t h a d b e c o m e ,
f o r t h e S o u t h e r n e r s who h a d l i v e d w i t h i t , t h a t p o w e r f u l ,
transforming symbol.
Lucy C h u r c h i l l , F o u n t A l l a r d ' s g r a n d d a u g h t e r , is o n e o f
t h o s e p e r c e p t i v e w i t n e s s e s s who
finds
her
l i f e transformed
a b r u p t l y a n d r e p e a t e d l y a s s h e w a t c h e s t h e w a r sweep t h r o u g h
t h e Kentucky p l a n t a t i o n , t h e n t h e n o r t h G e o r g i a b a t t l e f i e l d ,
Chickamauga.
In c o n t r a s t t o t h e consciousness of t h e p l a n t e r
Allard,
t h r o u g h whose e y e s Gordon h a s i n t r o d u c e d t h e p l a c e ,
and f o r whom f a r m i n g i s t h e n o b l e s t o f o c c u p a t i o n s , L u c y ' s
a d o l e s c e n t n a i v e t e p r o v i d e s some d i s t a n c i n g i r o n y i n t h e e a r l y
c h a p t e r s o f None S h a l l Look B a c k .
When t h e t r o o p s v i s i t B r a c k e t s ,
s h e makes t h e a l m o s t c h i l d i s h e v a l u a t i o n o f G e n e r a l F o r r e s t
as looking "too stern"
and reaches a
similarly superficial
estimate o f t h e y o u n g men i n t h e i r u n i f o r m s b a s e d o n t h e l o o k s
of t h e i r m u s t a c h e s a n d t h e c o l o r o f t h e i r e y e s .
Then, o n l y
a s h o r t w h i l e l a t e r , a f t e r t h e y o u n g men h a v e g o n e t o w a r , s h e
b e g i n s t o s e n s e h e r own c h a n g i n g r e a l i t y , a n d t h i s i s a s s o c i a t e d
for her with t h e plantation house.
She s e e k s o u t a f a m i l i a r
haven, a p l a c e w h e r e t h e b r a n c h e s o f a hemlock a n d t h i c k v i n e s
c o v c r i n g t h e c o l u m n s o f t h e h o u s e g r o w t o g e t h e r s o as t o f o r m
a "cave" w h e r e s h e h a d a l w a y s f e l t s a f e as a c h i l d .
f e w m o n t h s a g o when s h e h a d b e e n away a t s c h o o l
s h e h a d t h o u g h t t h a t i f s h e c o u l d see t h e h e m l o c k
t r e e and t h e w h i t e columns under t h e i r g r e e n e r y , s h e
would b e p e r f e c t l y happy.
Soon a f t e r a r r i v i n g home
s h e h a d d a r t e d away f r o m t h e o t h e r s a n d h a d come a r o u n d
t o t h i s s i d e of t h e house merely f o r t h e pleasure
of t r a v e r s i n g t h e shady path.
I t w a s j u s t as u s u a l ,
t h e v i n e s a s g r e e n , t h e s h a d e o f t h e hemlock boughs
a s t h i c k a n d y e t t h e w h o l e s c e n e w a s i n some m y s t e r i o u s
(65)
way a l t e r e d .
A
Lucy i s m o v i n g away f r o m t h i s c o m f o r t i n g i m a g e , away f r o m t h e
i n n o c e n c e o f c h i l d h o o d t o t h e knowledge t h a t l i f e and l o v e c a n
She r e a l i z e s t h a t h e r unhappiness i n
be very "precarious. "
l i f e is j u s t a s l i k e l y a s s h e once thought h e r happiness t o
be.
T h i s s o r t o f t r a n s i t i o n o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n image a p p e a r s
w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e f r e q u e n c y t h r o u g h o u t b o t h n o v e l s , and always
Memory r i s e s
t h e f a m i l i a r i s l i n k e d w i t h t h e new, t h e s t r a n g e .
u p , i t s e e m s , t o make s e n s e o f some t h r e a t , some c h a n g e i n t h e
established order.
Among t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g o f t h e s e s c e n e s
i s t h e o n e i n w h i c h B r a c k e t s i s d e s t r o y e d by f i r e :
T h e smoke r o l l e d l o w so t h a t sometimes t h e y saw n o t h i n g ,
and t h e n l i c k e d by t h e wind a g r e a t f l a m e would r i s e
Mrs. A l l a r d saw o n e , a f i e r y m a s s t h a t
and tower.
seemed t o h a v e f i n g e r s t o t e a r t h e h o u s e a p a r t .
She
w a t c h e d t h e d i v i d i n g w a l l s m e l t away a n d s u d d e n l y
saw r e v e a l e d i n t h e b u r n i n g mass a r e c t a n g l e o f g l o w i n g
l o g s , a c a b i n , i t seemed, b u r n i n g i n s i d e t h e house.
S h e t o u c h e d C a l l y ' s arm.
"The o l d h o u s e , " s h e s a i d
q u i e t l y , "the o r i g i n a l o l d l o g house.
See it b u r n . "
(159)
A g a i n , Gordon h a s t a k e n a s c e n e l i k e many f o u n d i n b o t h h i s t o r i c a l
and f i c t i o n a l a c c o u n t s of t h e w a r , a n d , w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e o r i n t e n t , s h e h a s added symbolic d e p t h
t o a n e x p e r i e n c e o f awesome l o s s , a l o s s t h a t i s s e e n t o e x t e n d
i t s e l f across the generations,
i n some s e n s e o b l i t e r a t i n g a
f o u n d a t i o n t h a t had been l a b o r i o u s l y l a i d .
I n t h i s one burning
v i s i o n t h e p a s t and t h e f u t u r e a r e v i s i b l e i n t h e present
catastrophe.
I t is v i s i o n , i n one sense o r another, t h a t is t h e guiding
p r i n c i p l e of both novels.
Imagery and p o i n t of view o p e r a t e
convincingly t o g e t h e r b u t still do n o t completely account f o r
w h a t i t i s t h a t makes C a r o l i n e G o r d o n ' s p l a n t a t i o n w o r l d l i v e
i n t h e imagination.
S h e d o e s t h a t by c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n w h a t
I t could
h e r c h a r a c t e r s s e e a n d on how a n d why t h e y see i t .
b e a d r e a m , s u c h a s t h e o n e LUCY h a s o f a c o f f i n h o v e r i n g o v e r
h e r t h e f i r s t n i g h t s h e s l e e p s i n R i v e s ' s n o r t h G e o r g i a home
a f t e r t h e i r m a r r i a g e ; t h e c o f f i n t h e n d i s s o l v e s i n t o "an image
of t h e w a l l o f t h e B r a c k e t s house f l a m i n g h i g h e r and h i g h e r ,
and f a l l i n g w i t h a c r a s h i n t o t h e b l a c k e n e d w i s t e r i a v i n e " ( 1 7 5 ) .
S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r R i v e s a n d Lucy w a l k o u t o n h i s l a n d a n d s e l e c t
a s i t e f o r t h e home t h a t t h e y i n t e n d t o b u i l d a f t e r t h e w a r .
"She s h u t h e r e y e s .
I t seemed t o h e r t h a t s h e was s t a n d i n g
on t h e g a l l e r y . " L e a v i n g t h e h i l l , L u c y l o o k s b a c k o n c e :
"She
c o u l d a l m o s t see t h e h o u s e s t a n d i n g t h e r e " ( 1 7 8 ) .
These examples
a r e of t h e imaginary s o r t ; o t h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y those connected
with t h e legendary General F o r r e s t , a r e r e a l enough, and y e t
they t o o c r e a t e an imaginative appeal.
M o s t o f t e n h e is g l i m p s e d
riding past,
" a t o w e r i n g f i g u r e o n a g r a y h o r s e " ; when t h e
C o n f e d e r a t e g e n e r a l H i l l l e a r n s t h a t t h e famed F o r r e s t is a t
t h e B a t t l e o f Chickamauga, h i s e y e s t a k e on a n i n t e n t l o o k ,
" t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a c h i l d who i s s u d d e n l y p r o m i s e d a t r e a t .
I w a n t t o l o o k a t him"'
(254).
The
IIe s a i d : ' G e n e r a l F o r r e s t !
act
of
looking
is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y
an
a c t of
power,
of
p o s s e s s i o n , p e r h a p s , o f c r e a t i o n o r knowledge.
E v e n t h e e y e i t s e l f i s d r a w n t o o u r a t t e n t i o n as t h e o r g a n
where t h e p r i v a t e a n d t h e p u b l i c w o r l d s m e e t .
A g a i n f r o m None
S h a l l Look B a c k , t w i c e t h e e y e i s a s s o c i a t e d n o t m e r e l y w i t h
knowing b u t w i t h l i f e a n d d e a t h .
After the f i r s t battle, a t
F o r t D o n e l s o n , r e t r e a t i n g p a s t d e a d a n d d y i n g men, R i v e s p a s s e s
a wounded s o l d i e r .
A l t h o u g h i t seems i m p o s s i b l e t h a t h e w i l l
survive, t h e s o l d i e r has crawled t o a stream t o f i l l h i s canteen
and sits a g a i n s t a t r e e , c a r e f u l l y l i f t i n g t h e w a t e r t o h i s
lips:
" T h e man a s i f a r r e s t e d by R i v e s ' s c r u t i n y s u d d e n l y l o o k e d
up o v e r t h e e d g e o f t h e c a n t e e n .
H i s e y e s , enormous i n t h e
shadow o f h i s p e a k e d c a p , m e t R i v e s ' f o r a m o m e n t , t h e n h i s
l i d s f e l l " (117).
Musing o n what h e h a s s e e n , R i v e s d r a w s a
p r o p h e t i c meaning from t h e e n c o u n t e r :
I t s e e m e d t o R i v e s now t h a t t h e w o u n d e d s o l d i e r g a z i n g ,
a n d t h e n l e t t i n g h i s l i d s f a l l , h a d t u r n e d away much
a s h e [ h i m s e l f ] h a d t u r n e d away f r o m t h e w o u n d e d men
by t h e o t h e r f i r e s .
The d a r k g l a n c e had been e n i g m a t i c
but t h e r e had been i n it a f l i c k e r o f t h e h o s t i l i t y
w i t h w h i c h men l o o k o n a t u n b e a r a b l e s u f f e r i n g .
It
w a s a s i f t h e man d y i n g i n t h e c i r c l e o f f i r e l i g h t
c o u l d n o t e n d u r e t h e s p e c t a c l e o f t h e l i v i n g , who
(118)
were only r i d i n g toward death.
A second extended d e s c r i p t i o n of e y e s t h a t have looked
d e e p l y i n t o d e a t h c o m e s n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e n o v e l when Ned
C h u r c h i l l r e t u r n s t o B r a c k e t s f r o m F e d e r a l p r i s o n camp.
Ned's
b r o t h e r J i m n o t i c e s t h e "shrunken, w i t h e r e d " e y e s o c k e t s and
" . . . a s i f t h e man h a d s t o p p e d s e e i n g .
"something"
else:
. . a v e i l e d l o o k . H e t h o u g h t o f a t o a d t h a t h e and t h e
Yes
o t h e r b o y s f o u n d o n c e f a r b a c k i n a c a v e i n t h e w o o d s " (336).
Jim h a s t o f i g h t o f f t h e r e v u l s i o n h e f e e l s .
J i m looks through
Ned a s h e m i g h t l o o k t h r o u g h a window i n o n e o f J a m e s ' s h o u s e s
The i s s u e h e r e is o n e
of f i c t i o n , a n d w h a t h e sees i s f o u l .
J i m sees t h e S o u t h a s w h i p p e d a n d t h o s e
of c o m p e t i n g v i s i o n s .
who c o n t i n u e t o f i g h t a s f o o l s , j u s t a s h e sees B r a c k e t s a s
.
f i n i s h e d , a " d e s o l a t e burned-over place"
(338).
He is h a p p y
t o w o r k i n t h e B r a d l e y s t o r e a n d b e l i e v e s t h a t "a m a n ' s f i r s t
H e h a s no t r a n s c e n d e n t view
d u t y was t o h i s dependents" ( 3 3 2 ) .
o f w a r n o r o f h i s home a n d f a m i l y .
Ned, on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
i n s p i t e of
h i s almost f a t a l imprisonment, t h i n k s f i r s t of
reenlisting,
t h e n of moving back o u t t o B r a c k e t s .
Although
c o n v i n c e d by J i m t h a t n o r e g i m e n t w o u l d t h i n k h i m w o r t h f e e d i n g ,
"I r e c k o n
Ned r e m a i n s a d a m a n t a b o u t r e t u r n i n g t o t h e h o m e p l a c e :
.
The Yankees c o u l d n ' t b u r n t h a t
t h e l a n d ' s still there.
and t h e y a i n ' t s t r o n g enough t o c a r t it o f f " ( 3 3 7 ) .
Gordon
i s h e r e d r a m a t i z i n g i n two v i e w s t h e t e r m s o f s o u t h e r n s u r v i v a l ,
views t h a t would have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e of t h e South.
.
.
T h e t w o b r o t h e r s N i c k a n d C h a n c e i n P e n h a l l v see s i m i l a r l y
d i v e r g e n t v i s i o n s o f t h e house and l a n d .
The P e n h a l l y h o u s e
s u r v i v e d t h e c a t a c l y s m o f w a r , b u t t h e men a n d women o f t h e
f a m i l y d o n o t see t h e m s e l v e s a s o n e w i t h a c i v i l i z a t i o n , a way
of l i f e , a house--none
o f them b u t Chance, t h a t is.
Nick is
l i k e J i m , t h e a m b i t i o u s b r o t h e r who moves t o town a n d r u n s h i s
in-laws'
s t o r e i n None S h a l l Look B a c k .
N i c k sees f a r m i n g a s
a continual
financial drain,
and Joan P a r r i s h ' s p r o j e c t f o r
t u r n i n g t h e m a n s i o n i n t o a h u n t c l u b s e e m s l i k e a d r e a m come
true.
B u t t h e new i m a g e c r e a t e d by t h e r i c h , b o r e d J o a n P a r r i s h
s o v i o l a t e s Chance's deepest vision of h i s family i d e n t i t y t h a t
h e is d r i v e n t o avenge t h i s o u t r a g e .
T h e t r a g e d y o f None S h a l l
Look Back i s o n e o f f i r e a n d s w o r d a n d r u s h i n g c a v a l r y ; i t i s
impersonal and implacable.
The t r a g e d y o f P e n h a l l v is a d e l a y e d
t r a g e d y of f a m i l y d i v i s i o n and f r a t r i c i d e .
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e , i n a n e s s a y o f t h i s l e n g t h , t o d o more
t h a n o u t l i n e t h e m e t h o d by w h i c h C a r o l i n e G o r d o n f a s h i o n e d a f r e s h
t h e meaning o f t h e S o u t h e r n p l a n t a t i o n t r a d i t i o n f o r t h e t w e n t i e t h
century.
These examples s h o u l d s u g g e s t t h e importance of h e r
i d e a s about v i s u a l i z a t i o n t o h e r r e c r e a t i o n of t h a t t r a d i t i o n .
the
G o r d o n ' s r e p u t a t i o n is n o t t h a t o f a r e v i s i o n i s t - - q u i t e
reverse--and
s t i l l , s h e must b e g i v e n c r e d i t f o r modernizing
the
legend
and
its symbolic value.
Without
abandoning a
t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n c e ( h e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of s l a v e s and o t h e r
Negroes would b e a good e x a m p l e ) , s h e t a k e s t h e t r u l y r a d i c a l
l i n e t h a t t h e i r r e p a r a b l e d i v i s i o n s o c c u r on t h e p e r s o n a l l e v e l ,
not t h e s o c i a l , nor t h e national.
The d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t d o e s
t h e l a s t i n g damage comes n o t from w i t h o u t b u t w i t h i n f a m i l i e s ,
within t h e f a b r i c of
t h e s o u t h e r n community i t s e l f .
Thanks
t o h e r t a l e n t f o r making v i s i b l e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s between o u t e r
and inner worlds, t h e world of t h e eye and t h e world of t h e
heart,
her portraits of
the planters,
and of t h e p l a n t e r s '
d e s c e n d e n t s , d i s p l a y more o b j e c t i v i t y , more d i s t a n c e , a n d more
At
i r o n y t h a n do t h e t r e a t m e n t s of e a r l i e r t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s .
t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e w o r l d i s p i c t u r e d w i t h a s much p o i g n a n c e ,
d i g n i t y , and a u t h o r i t y a s i t has e v e r been.
Much t h e s i m p l e s t way t o i n d i c a t e w h a t G o r d o n a c c o m p l i s h e d
i n P e n h a l l y a n d None S h a l l Look Back i s t o r e t u r n t o H e n r y J a m e s ' s
f i g u r e of t h e house of f i c t i o n .
Penhally and Brackets a r e houses,
they are families, they are the highly visible architecturally
elite of the southern panorama.
The family observers are the
windows into the life of the house.
Furthermore, the house
as subject here coincides with the house as craft.
In making
the plantation image distinctly visible from her twentieth-century
vantage point, the novelist herself became a window in the
expanding southern edifice. WORKS CITED Bradford, M. E. "The Passion of Craft." The Historv of Southern Literature. Ed. Louis D. Rubin, Jr. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1985: 375-382. Fraistat, Rose Ann C.
Caroline Gordon as Novelist and Woman of Letters. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1984. Gaines, Francis Pendleton.
The Southern Plantation:
A Studv in the Development and the Accuracv of a Tradition. New York: Columbia, 1924. Gordon, Caroline.
1937. .
Penhally.
None Shall Look Back.
Scribner's, New York, Scribner's, 1931.
, and Allen Tate.
of the Short Story
Scribner's, 1960.
Glasgow, Ellen.
158 (1928):
New York:
The House of Fiction:
An Anthology
with Commentary.
2nd ed.
New York:
"The Novel
93-100.
in the South. "
Harper ' s Magazine
James, Henry.
"Letter to William Howells."
The Letters of Henrv James.
Selected and edited by Percy Lubbock.
New York: Scribner's 1920. 1. 163-166. . Preface. The Portrait of a Ladl.
Boston: Houghton hlifflin, 1956.
Riverside Editions.
THE LIFE-AFFIRMING DOLLMAKER S a n d r a L. B a l l a r d University of Tennessee-Knoxville H a r r i e t t e A r n o w ' s n o v e l s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d by B a r b a r a
Baer,
an
interviewer
for
the
Nation,
as
"chronicles
of
destruction"
(117).
Glenda
Hobbs,
who
produced
a Harvard
d i s s e r t a t i o n i n 1 9 7 5 a b o u t H a r r i e t t e Arnow, h a s c a l l e d t h e m
"pessimistic novels" (159).
I n f a c t , Arnow's n o v e l s d o r e c o r d
"the process of destruction" both i n t h e c u l t u r e and i n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s o f t h e S o u t h e r n A p p a l a c h i a n m o u n t a i n e e r s who
w e r e f o r c e d by t h e w o r l d w a r s t o m i g r a t e o u t s i d e o f t h e i r h i l l
communities.
Arnow h e r s e l f
r e m a r k e d t h a t s h e saw h e r work
A t f i r s t it
" a s record of p e o p l e ' s l i v e s i n t e r m s of roads.
was o n l y a p a t h , t h e n a community a t t h e e n d o f a g r a v e l r o a d
t h a t t o o k men a n d f a m i l i e s a w a y , a n d f i n a l l y , w h e r e g r a v e l
l e d t o a highway, t h e highway d e s t r o y e d t h e h i l l community"
(Baer 117).
She h a s e x p l a i n e d i n i n t e r v i e w s t h a t s h e meant
her f i r s t three novels t o be read a s a trilogy:
f i r s t , Mountain
Bath, t h e n h e r s e c o n d n o v e l w h i c h s h e w a n t e d t o e n t i t l e The
End o f t h e G r a v e l R o a d , b u t w e n t a l o n g w i t h t h e p u b l i s h e r ' s
i d e a t o c a l l it H u n t e r ' s Horn, and f i n a l l y The Dollmaker ,which
s h e t h o u g h t o f naming The Highwav ( K o t l o w i t z 2 9 ) .
In t h e novel
T h e D o l l m a k e r H a r r i e t t e Arnow s u c c e e d s n o t o n l y i n r e c o r d i n g
t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f a community a n d t h e p e r s o n a l s u f f e r i n g o f
its
members,
but
more
importantly
she
also
succeeds
in
a t t r i b u t i n g t o h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n c r e d i b l e s t r e n g t h and t h e w i l l
t o affirm l i f e , not t o destroy it.
Gertie Nevels,
The D o l l m a k e r ' s
main
character,
faces
s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n , b u t t h e power
o f t h e n o v e l c o m e s n o t , a s some c r i t i c s s u g g e s t , f r o m t h e f o r c e s
t h a t oppose h e r , b u t i n s t e a d from G e r t i e ' s w i l l t o f i g h t and
h e r strength t o endure.
Even t h o u g h J o y c e C a r o l O a t e s c o n t e n d s
t h a t G e r t i e ' s "last r e a l success" occurs i n t h e opening scene
o f t h e n o v e l , when G e r t i e s a v e s h e r s o n ' s l i f e ( 6 0 3 ) , H a r r i e t t e
Arnow h e r s e l f h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e p e o p l e i n T h e D o l l m a k e r
" e n d u r e , e v e n a t t h e n o v e l ' s end" (Hobbs 1 6 8 ) .
Some c r i t i c s
c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o Arnow's powerful d e p i c t i o n o f t h e t r a g i c
e v e n t s i n G e r t i e ' s l i f e , b u t i t seems even more i m p o r t a n t t o
examine G e r t i e ' s r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s e e v e n t s .
This essay w i l l
examine t h e l i f e - a f f i r m i n g
responses of G e r t i e Nevels i n t h e
f a c e of s o c i a l , economic, and p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n , and
I w i l l g i v e s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s t o t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y damaging
f o r c e s t h a t G e r t i e must h a n d l e a s a d a u g h t e r , a w i f e , and a
mother.
Arnow's The D o l l m a k e r e m p h a s i z e s t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e
human s p i r i t t o s u r v i v e d e s t r u c t i o n .
From t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
The Dollmaker,
G e r t i e sees t h e
s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of B a l l e w , Kentucky, t h e h i l l community
where s h e h a s a l w a y s l i v e d .
Because of t h e w a r , t h e e n t i r e
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e community h a s c h a n g e d :
most o f t h e
men h a v e h a d t o l e a v e , e i t h e r t o e n l i s t i n m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e
o r t o t a k e j o b s i n t h e c i t y t o h e l p w i t h t h e war e f f o r t .
Gertie
r e s p o n d s b y a s s u m i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r much o f t h e w o r k .
She
t e l l s h e r f a t h e r , " I r e c k e n I ' l l h a v e t o b e t h e man i n t h i s
settlement" (102).
And G e r t i e n o t i c e s o t h e r c h a n g e s a s s h e w a l k s a l o n g o n
t h e g r a v e l e d r o a d t h a t l e a d s t o t h e highway s i x m i l e s away.
The r o a d , o n c e " s o f i n e a n d n e w , " now s e e m e d " o n l y a t h i n g
One o f t h e p e o p l e i t t o o k
t h a t t o o k t h e p e o p l e away." (51)
away i s t h e c o m m u n i t y d o c t o r .
S o when G e r t i e n e e d s m e d i c a l
help f o r h e r three-year-old
s o n Amos, s h e c a r r i e s t h e c h i l d
on a m u l e o u t t o t h e h i g h w a y a n d s t o p s a c a r .
The u n a v a i l a b i l i t y
of a d o c t o r d o e s n o t s t o p h e r from d o i n g what is n e c e s s a r y
t o save her son's l i f e .
When h e i s c h o k i n g , s h e p e r f o r m s a
tracheotomy s o t h a t h e can breathe.
I n one o f t h e most p o w e r f u l
scenes i n t h e n o v e l , s h e u s e s h e r w h i t t l i n g k n i f e t o open h e r
c h i l d ' s windpipe (18).
L e s s c o u r a g e o u s and less d e t e r m i n e d
p e o p l e m i g h t h a v e b e e n p a r a l y z e d by t h e a b s e n c e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l
medical h e l p , b u t G e r t i e r e f u s e s t o c o n s i d e r h e r s e l f h e l p l e s s
and h e r s o n ' s c o n d i t i o n h o p e l e s s s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e war h a s
t a k e n t h e d o c t o r away f r o m t h e i r c o m m u n i t y .
She w h i s p e r s t o
Amos, " I c a i n ' t l e t t h w a r g i t y o u t o o " ( 1 7 - 1 8 ) .
She f o r c e s
an u n w i l l i n g o f f i c e r t o t a k e h e r t o g e t t h e a d d i t i o n a l m e d i c a l
a t t e n t i o n she needs.
She b r a v e l y ,
even f i e r c e l y ,
faces a
t e r r i f y i n g o b s t a c l e brought
a b o u t by s o c i a l c h a n g e s i n t h e
h i l l s e t t l e m e n t where s h e l i v e s , and s h e t r i u m p h s .
The war h a s a l s o b r o u g h t w i t h i t t o u g h economic t i m e s ,
Even b e f o r e t h e
which Gertie f a c e s w i t h amazing s t r e n g t h .
war, G e r t i e ' s husband, C l o v i s , h a s had t r o u b l e f i n d i n g s t e a d y
work.
He s o m e t i m e s t a k e s a j o b " t i n k e r i n g " o n some m e c h a n i c a l
thing o r hauling c o a l , but he r a r e l y g e t s paid.
I t is G e r t i e
who h a s w o r k e d t h e l a n d a n d p u t m o s t o f t h e f o o d o n t h e t a b l e
for her family.
With a n e y e on t h e i r economic f u t u r e , s h e
is d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h w o r k i n g l a n d t h a t b e l o n g s t o s o m e o n e e l s e .
S h e h a s a d r e a m o f o w n i n g a f a r m o f h e r own a n d k e e p i n g t h e
e n t i r e c r o p , i n s t e a d of h a v i n g t o g i v e back h a l f t o t h e l a n d l o r d .
To make h e r d r e a m a r e a l i t y , s h e h a s b e e n s a v i n g money s e c r e t l y
f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s , t h e e n t i r e t i m e she h a s been married.
She
has been d e p o s i t i n g i n t h e l i n i n g o f h e r c o a t t h e p r o c e e d s
from s e l l i n g e g g s , m o l a s s e s , p o u l t r y a n d l i v e s t o c k , u n t i l s h e
h a s a c c u l u l a t e d t h e t i d y sum o f t h r e e h u n d r e d a n d t e n d o l l a r s
(41).
T h a t a m o u n t c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e i n h e r i t a n c e money s h e
r e c e i v e d a f t e r h e r b r o t h e r H e n l e y ' s d e a t h makes h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y
independent f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n h e r l i f e , and s h e s t r i k e s
a d e a l w i t h U n c l e J o h n t o buy t h e T i p t o n f a r m .
B u t G e r t i e ' s h u s b a n d , C l o v i s , n o t i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e army
r i g h t away a n d f a c e d w i t h n o j o b p r o s p e c t s b a c k h o m e , a l s o
a c t s independently:
he goes on t o D e t r o i t , f i n d s a j o b , sells
h i s t r u c k , a n d m a k e s a r r a n g e m e n t s t o move h i s f a m i l y i n t o a
wartime h o u s i n g p r o j e c t .
Gertie n e v e r t e l l s C l o v i s a b o u t h e r
plans for the Tipton place until near the end of the novel,
when they are so deep in debt that neither one of them can
foresee a time when they will ever again have economic
independence.
Though no longer sharecroppers in Kentucky,
they have fallen prey to buying "on time" in Detroit; their
new "landlord" is the "installment plan."
By the end of the
novel, they are on the brink of financial destruction. Gertie, having spent some of Henley's money on children's
clothes for the trip to Detroit, watches her savings dwindle
steadily as she supplements Clovis's income to pay for things
that she either would have raised herself back home or would
have had no need for: the milk man, the produce vendor, the
ice man, the gas bill, the electricity bill, and Clovis's union
dues.
Gertie tells Clovis about Henley's money because she
knows that he would find out eventually from one of the children.
But her other savings remain her secret. As long as she keeps
the money in the lining of her coat, she feels financial
security .
But she loses that security in moments of blind grief
over the death of her youngest daughter, Cassie, who has been killed by a train.
Arnow writes that at the emergency room of the hospital Gertie for the first time had understood that money would
bring Cassie out of this windowless place . . .
she had shoved her hand down into the blood-encrusted
coat, crying, "Money?
Clovis, I 've got money--all
the money--all them years."
And she had laid it
in his startled, trembling hands. (411-412)
But Gertie sadly realizes when all the money is gone that she
has not even held Cassie in her arms (412).
Clovis explains
later how the policemen at the scene of the accident recommended
a funeral director who took advantage of them.
There is not
even enough left for a grave marker for Cassie, though Clovis
promises that they'll soon have enough for a down payment on
one (425). Though
Gertie
grieves for days and drinks "pink water"
gradually realizes that "she couldn't
flop down and cry like some; she had to make money; a cross
waited to be whittled" (445).
So, after one of the most
wrenching experiences of her life, Gertie shows tremendous
will when she pulls herself out of her grief and begins her
carving again to make money to support her family. Furthermore,
she agrees to go along with Clovis's plan for increasing her
production of "hand carved" work with
a jigsaw. Though she
obviously despises the work she is turning out, Gertie tries
not to reveal her repulsion; she works "straight-mouthed,
grimeyed; her hatred for the ugly dolls fading at times as
she enumeratelsl in her head all their needs" (501).
Gertie
also continues to work on her cherry wood figure for a while.
(phenobarbital), she
Arnow w r i t e s t h a t " t h e man i n t h e wood g a v e [ G e r t i e ] r e s t a n d
peace"
from t h e p a s t and t h e u n c e r t a i n f u t u r e (499).
But
f i n a l l y , t h e c h e r r y wood c a r v i n g f a i l s t o c o m f o r t h e r a s s h e
realizes t h a t "the
f a c e l e s s man"
seemed t o b e " w h i s p e r i n g ,
' T h e r e ' s n o money i n me"' ( 4 9 9 ) .
Gertie h a s t o assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
for the family's
economic s u r v i v a l e v e n a f t e r C l o v i s f i n a l l y r e t u r n s t o w o r k ,
b e c a u s e C l o v i s i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h g e t t i n g r e v e n g e o n t h e man
who h a d a t t a c k e d h i m o v e r s o m e u n i o n a c t i v i t i e s .
Arnow w r i t e s
that
the
distracted
Clovis
looks
at
Gertie's
work
"with
absent-minded e y e s .
H i s e y e s were o f t e n l i k e t h a t now, u n w o r r i e d
by t h e p a y m e n t s f a l l i n g d u e " ( 5 4 5 ) .
G e r t i e , on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
l o o k s a t C l o v i s ' s paycheck " f o r o n l y $37.23" and f i g u r e s t h a t
" a f t e r t h e November r e n t w a s p a i d , t h e r e w o u l d b e a l m o s t t h r e e
dollars l e f t " (544).
Even i n t h e f a c e o f t h e s e d i r e economic
s t r a i t s , h o w e v e r , s h e t r i e d " t o s i l e n c e h e r f e a r s by r e m i n d i n g
herself
how l u c k y t h e y were" c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r s s h e k n o w s :
"they had a t o n o f c o a l p a i d f o r ; C l o v i s was g e t t i n g w e l l w i t h o u t
a d o c t o r ; t h e i r c r e d i t was good" ( 5 4 4 ) .
She h a s even amassed
small s a v i n g s o f s l i g h t l y o v e r t h i r t y d o l l a r s from t h e s a l e
of h e r c a r v e d c r u c i f i x e s and d o l l s , a n d s h e h a s b e e n t a k i n g
i n washing and i r o n i n g .
Gertie's
efforts
show
her
determination
t o face the
problems t h a t
t h r e a t e n h e r f a m i l y ' s economic s u r v i v a l .
She
h a s l o s t t h e Kentucky f a r m l a n d s h e l o v e d a n d c o u l d h a v e owned.
She h a s l o s t h e r l i f e ' s s a v i n g s .
But G e r t i e ' s d e t e r m i n a t i o n
to
survive--particularly
her
interest
in
economic
survival--ultimately
enables her t o pull herself together t o
do what i s n e c e s s a r y t o s u s t a i n h e r f a m i l y .
In the face of
d e s t r u c t i o n , Gertie o n c e a g a i n a f f i r m s l i f e .
Not o n l y d o e s Gertie f a c e s o c i a l a n d economic c r i s e s
with
amazing s t r e n g t h and l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g
success, but her
r o l e s a s grown d a u g h t e r , w i f e , a n d m o t h e r e x p o s e h e r t o p o t e n t i a l
e m o t i o n a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n a n d demand t r e m e n d o u s
inner strength.
Arnow's d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e mental c h a l l e n g e s
t h a t Gertie f a c e s o f t e n seem o v e r w h e l m i n g , a n d Gertie d o e s
n o t emerge u n s c a t h e d , b u t s h e d o e s manage t o s u r v i v e .
F i r s t , a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f a h y p o c h o n d r i a c who c o n s t a n t l y
c r i t i c i z e s a n d a c c u s e s h e r , Gertie s t r u g g l e s w i t h h e r m o t h e r ' s
h a t e f u l words.
On t h e s a m e d a y t h a t G e r t i e l e a r n s h e r b r o t h e r
Henley h a s b e e n k i l l e d i n t h e w a r , s h e must f i g h t t o s a v e h e r
son's l i f e .
T h e n s h e m u s t s t a y away f r o m home f o r s e v e r a l
d a y s t o b e w i t h Amos, w h i l e a d o c t o r m o n i t o r s h i s r e c o v e r y .
Nearly t h r e e weeks p a s s a s Gertie c a t c h e s u p on h e r f a r m work
before s h e can v i s i t h e r g r i e v i n g mother.
There she is m e t
with h e r m o t h e r ' s words:
"Oh, G e r t i e , G e r t i e , y o u r own b o r n
b r o t h e r d e a d i n a f o r e i g n l a n d , a n n e v e r o n c e d o y o u come t o
c o m f o r t y o u r p o o r mother a weepen h e r h e a r t away.
. Oh,
G e r t how c o u l d y o u d o m e t h i s a w a y " ( 6 1 ) .
F e e l i n g tremendous
l o s s b e c a u s e o f h e r b r o t h e r ' s d e a t h , Gertie h a s d r e a d e d f a c i n g
. .
her mother, expecting this sort of response:
"I cain't bear
to think of it.
Henley, my onliest son, a flamen there in
How could God do this to me?" ( 6 2 - 6 3 ) .
Gertie
Hell. . . .
just "opened her mouth, but closed it" ( 6 4 ) .
Besides enduring her mother's pious, self-pitying grief,
Gertie also must face her mother's accusations that she is
responsible for her poor mother's suffering as well as for
her brother's eternal damnation.
Her mother declares, "Maybe
if 'n it hadn't a been fer you, IIenley would ha give hisself
to God. You was th oldest; he thought a sight a you, too much,
I've thought many a time.
If you . . . had set Henley a good
Throughout
example, he might ha been singen in heaven nowf' ( 6 3 ) .
her life, Gertie has repeatedly wrestled with her mother's
God of Hellfire and damnation. As a child Gertie had listened
to many sermons of a preacher called Battle John Brand whose
words were designed, Gertie thought, to "stamped[e] the souls
of his flock to Christ with his twin whips of Hell and God"
(68).
As an adult, Gertie listens to her mother remind her,
"You ought to read yer Bible, Gert.
It's all foretold.
'I
come not with peace but a sword,' Christ said" ( 6 4 ) .
But Gertie
still cannot accept her mother's wrathful Christ.
Gertie
replies, "Mebbe they's another side to Christ.
Recollect he
went to th wedden feast, an had time to fool with little
youngens, an speak to a thief and a bad woman. An Henley was
Gertie's
like Christ-he worked an loved his fellowmen" ( 6 4 ) .
Christ is "a laughing Christ . . . a Christ who had loved people,
had liked to mingle with them and laugh and sing the way Henley
had liked people and singing and dancing" ( 6 4 ) .
Even though
Gertie's mother charges her with having ideas that make her
"mighty close to bein' a infidel" ( 6 5 1 , Gertie's mind "made
this Christ alive, the way Cassie made the witch child Callie
Lou alive," or the way Gertie could give "life and heart" to
"a piece of h i c k o ~ y sprout" ( 6 4 ) .
Gertie's creative imagination
offers her emotional health and psychological salvation from
her mother's accusations.
Even more psychologically challenging than the worrisome
nature of her mother's view of her, are the demands made on
Gertie by her husband and children. Gertie struggles to adjust
to the greatest psychological threats that she has ever faced
when she gets to Detroit, where her responsibilities as a wife
and a mother must be redefined. City life does not allow Gertie the independence and
self-sufficiency she is used to. Because she has always defined
herself as a provider for her family, she feels particularly
frustrated in Detroit. She feels "hemmed in, shut down" ( 1 8 9 ) .
Though Clovis repeatedly asks his wife to accept what is good
enough, as he says, for "millions an millions" of others, Gertie
cannot.
At one point, when Gertie angrily tells Clovis, "You
know I'd hunt a factory job in a minute, but you won't hear
to it" ( 2 5 2 1 , Clovis reminds her that she is "too big for the
factory machinery, set for little slim women" ( 2 5 3 ) .
Clovis
wants t o p l a c e
her s i z e , which
He
a handicap.
who i s c o n t e n t t
c h i l d r e n and l e t
l i m i t a t i o n s on G e r t i e .
He w a n t s h e r t o s e e
h a d a l w a y s b e e n a n a d v a n t a g e b a c k home, a s
w a n t s h e r t o conform t o h i s i d e a o f a w i f e
o s t a y a t home, c o o k , c l e a n , and c a r e f o r t h e
him e a r n t h e l i v i n g .
I n t h e s a m e way t h a t G e r t i e ' s c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n a l l o w s
her t o d e a l s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h t h e g u i l t h e r mother wants h e r
t o f e e l , G e r t i e o f t e n c o p e s w i t h C l o v i s and l i f e i n D e t r o i t
by a l l o w i n g h e r i m a g i n a t i o n t o t a k e h e r b a c k t o K e n t u c k y .
When
s h e is " s t o o p i n g o v e r t h e t o o low g a s s t o v e , f r y i n g s t r a n g e
f i s h s h e had bought b e c a u s e it was c h e a p and u n r a t i o n e d . . .
s h e saw h e r s e l f b a c k home.
The r e d b a l l o f t h e w i n t e r ' s s u n
was g o i n g down b e h i n d t h e h i l l s a c r o s s t h e r i v e r " ( 2 6 5 ) .
But
i n t e r r u p t i n g G e r t i e ' s imagined scene, t h e d i s h e a r t e n i n g r e a l i t y
of D e t r o i t c r a s h e s i n :
the blaring radio, the roar of planes
and t r a i n s , t h e s t i f l i n g k i t c h e n , t h e s m e l l y f i s h , h e r c h i l d r e n ' s
i n t r u d e on h e r imagination (266).
And
d i r t y w e t snowsuits--all
G e r t i e f e e l s a l m o s t l i t e r a l l y " t o r n a p a r t " by t h e o p p r e s s i v e
noise and f i l t h of t h i s p l a c e where C l o v i s wants h e r t o l i v e
and b e h a p p y .
Clovis's expectations for Gertie challenge her
independence,
her
self-esteem,
and u l t i m a t e l y h e r
identity.
H e a s k s Gertie f o r c o m p r o m i s e s t h a t s h e c a n n o t make, t h o u g h
she w r e s t l e s with h i s requests t o "adjust" before she reaches
t h e conclusion t h a t she cannot "give i n t o bein l i k e o t h e r
people."
G e r t i e l o v e s h e r husband, b u t s h e cannot g i v e up
herself t o b e t h e w i f e he wants.
Thus, s h e again a f f i r m s her
active participation i n l i f e .
Gertie's r o l e a s a mother a l s o c a u s e s h e r t o s t r u g g l e
with t h e psychological problems of
"adjusting."
Her
first
encounter w i t h t h e p r i n c i p a l of h e r c h i l d r e n ' s school w e l l
illustrates t h i s point, for the principal t r i e s t o reassure
Gertie t h a t her children w i l l "adjust."
Because G e r t i e d o e s
n o t know t h e w o r d " a d j u s t , " t h e man e x p l a i n s , " Y e s , a d j u s t ,
learn t o get along, l i k e it--be
l i k e t h e o t h e r s - - l e a r n t o want
Gertie w a n t s h e r c h i l d r e n t o
t o be l i k e t h e others" (207).
be happy, b u t n o t a t t h e c o s t o f t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y , and h e r
maternal concerns soon prove t o b e well-founded a s she watches
two o f h e r c h i l d r e n - - C l y t i e ,
h e r o l d e s t d a u g h t e r , and Enoch,
her middle son--readily
a d a p t t o s c h o o l and t h e neighborhood.
S h e c o n s t a n t l y w o r r i e s t h a t C l y t i e s p e n d s t o o much t i m e b y
t h e r a d i o a n d t h a t Enoch i s t o o s t r e e t w i s e .
She w o r r i e s a s
w e l l a b o u t t h e two o t h e r s - - R e u b e n ,
h e r o l d e s t son, and C a s s i e ,
t h e y o u n g e s t daughter--who
do not "adjust"
t o Detroit.
Her.
s u l l e n s o n Reuben w i t h d r a w s from e v e r y o n e and e v e n t u a l l y r u n s
away
f r o m home t o l i v e w i t h h i s g r a n d p a r e n t s .
And Arnow
describes Cassie a s "quiet,
forever quiet.
More l o s t a n d
l o n e s o m e t h a n a f r a i d , s h e a l w a y s s e e m e d l i k e a c h i l d away f r o m
time
with
her
home"
(210).
Cassie
spends
most
of
her
make-believe p l a y m a t e C a l l i e Lou.
C l o v i s sees n o h a r m i n t h e r e a d y a s s i m i l a t i o n o f C l y t i e
a n d E n o c h t o new w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r new home; i n f a c t ,
he is proud of them.
But h e blames G e r t i e i n p a r t f o r t h e
p r o b l e m s w i t h Reuben a n d C a s s i e .
He t e l l s G e r t i e " Y o u ' v e g o t
t o make h e r q u i t t h e m f o o l i s h r u n n e n a n t a l k e n - t o - h e r s e l f
fits.
The o t h e r y o u n g e n s ' u l l g i t t o t h i n k e n s h e ' s q u a i r , a n y o u ' l l
h a v e a n o t h e r Reuben.
An t h m o r e y o u p l a y a c t w i t h h e r
.
. . , t h h a r d e r i t ' l l be f e r h e r " (366-367). G e r t i e h a s h e r
own t h o u g h t s a b o u t C a s s i e ' s p l a y m a t e C a l l i e L o u , whom G e r t i e
r e c o g n i z e s a s an i m a g i n a t i v e c r e a t i o n t h a t should be allowed
t o exist.
E v e n t u a l l y , however, G e r t i e a l l o w s h e r s e l f t o a g r e e
w i t h C l o v i s t h a t C a s s i e would b e b e t t e r o f f w i t h o u t C a l l i e
Lou.
On t h e d a y G e r t i e d e m a n d s t h a t C a s s i e s t o p t a l k i n g t o
herself,
Gertie
immediately
finds herself
"fighting
down a
g r e a t hunger t o s e i z e and hug and k i s s t h e c h i l d , and c r y ;
A body's got t o have
'keep her, Cassie.
Keep C a l l i e L o u .
s o m e t h e n a l l t h e i r own"' ( 3 7 9 ) .
.
G e r t i e ' s e m o t i o n a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l p a i n o n l y i n t e n s i f i e s
a s t h e novel progresses, f o r G e r t i e holds herself responsible
f o r C a s s i e ' s d e a t h , which o c c u r r e d i n t h e t r a i n y a r d where
C a s s i e went
to
avoid
being scolded
for playing with her
make-believe f r i e n d .
C a s s i e ' s h o r r i b l e d e a t h from t h e blood
l o s s t h a t o c c u r s when a t r a i n s e v e r s b o t h h e r l e g s i s t h e
psychologically p i v o t a l event i n t h e novel
f o r G e r t i e , who
d e l v e s a s d e e p l y i n t o g r i e f and d e s p a i r a s anyone c o u l d .
Glenda
Hobbs d e s c r i b e s G e r t i e a f t e r C a s s i e ' s d e a t h a s " c o n s u m e d by
g u i l t and d e s p a i r " ;
Hobbs s t a t e s t h a t G e r t i e " h a s l o s t t h e
A t f i r s t , these
s t r e n g t h o r t h e w i l l t o f i g h t back" (138).
w o r d s seem a n a p t d e s c r i p t i o n , f o r G e r t i e w i l l c e r t a i n l y n e v e r
b e t h e s a m e woman s h e w a s b e f o r e t h e d e a t h o f h e r c h i l d .
But
h e r a c t i o n s e v e n t u a l l y d i s p r o v e Hobbs's c o n c l u s i o n and r e v e a l
G e r t i e ' s s t r e n g t h and d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o s u r v i v e .
She w i l l n o t
a l l o w h e r s e l f t o r e m a i n i n t h e f o g o f phenobarbital; s h e f e l t
" s h e c o u l d n ' t f l o p down a n d c r y l i k e s o m e ; s h e h a d t o make
money; a c r o s s w a i t e d t o b e w h i t t l e d " ( 4 4 5 ) .
Her a r t o I f e r s
h e r s o l a c e , a way t o e n d u r e a s w e l l as s u p p o r t h e r f a m i l y .
splitting
G e r t i e ' s a c t i o n a t t h e end o f t h e novel--her
of
t h e c h e r r y wood f i g u r e w i t h a n a x - - h a s
been i n t e r p r e t e d
a s a s i g n of h e r d e f e a t .
But t h i s d r a m a t i c c o n c l u s i o n can
b e s e e n i n s t e a d a s a c l i m a c t i c i n d i c a t i o n of h e r commitment
t o life--a
crescendo of affirmation--an
act that affirms her
A s t h e scene
social,
economic, and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
survival.
begins, G e r t i e eagerly responds t o a n unexpected request t o
make some s m a l l c a r v i n g s f o r a c h u r c h b a z a a r , s o m e " r e a l handmade
t h i n g s o f g o o d wood" ( 5 8 9 ) .
After accepting a f i f t y dollar
advance f o r c a r v i n g s , G e r t i e s e t s t o work, b u t n o t on t h a t
p r o j e c t , o n t h e c h e r r y wood f i g u r e i n s t e a d .
S h e w o r k s , Arnow
s a y s , " a s i f t i m e were r u n n i n g o u t and t h i s were t h e one t h i n g
G e r t i e acts a s t h o u g h s h e
s h e must d o w i t h h e r t i m e " ( 5 9 5 ) .
i s s a y i n g f a r e w e l l t o a f r i e n d as s h e s t a y s u p a l l n i g h t w o r k i n g
o n t h e man i n t h e c h e r r y w o o d .
Then, t h e n e x t morning, G e r t i e
h a u l s t h e b l o c k o f c h e r r y wood t o t h e s c r a p wood l o t , w h e r e
s h e must s p l i t it b e f o r e i t c a n b e sawed i n t o s m a l l b o a r d s .
G e r t i e ' s w i e l d i n g of t h e a x is m e t w i t h " a g r e a t s h o u t " from
t h e c h i l d r e n who h a v e a c c o m p a n i e d h e r t o t h e l u m b e r y a r d ,
t h e i r c r y accompanies an act o f t r i u m p h , n o t o f d e s p a i r .
but
The c l o s i n g d i a l o g u e i n t h e n o v e l b e t w e e n G e r t i e a n d
t h e man a t t h e l u m b e r y a r d r e v e a l s t h a t G e r t i e a f f i r m s l i f e
in t h e face of d e s t r u c t i o n .
When t h e l u m b e r man c o m m e n t s t h a t
Gertie must h a v e meant f o r t h e s c u l p t u r e t o r e p r e s e n t C h r i s t ,
though s h e h a d n ' t found a f a c e f o r him, G e r t i e a n s w e r s a t f i r s t :
"No.
T h e y w a s s o many w o u l d h a d o n e ; t h e y ' s m i l l i o n s a n m i l l i o n s
a fac,es p l e n t y f i n e enough--fer
him" ( 5 9 9 ) .
Hobbs t h i n k s t h a t
" G e r t i e ' s remark is f l i p p a n t " and t h a t " s h e is e c h o i n g C l o v i s ' s
repeated a p p e a l s t o a c c e p t what ' m i l l i o n s a n m i l l i o n s ' of c i t y
people t o l e r a t e "
(148);
H o b b s e x p l a i n s t h a t "when s h e s a y s
that
' m i l l i o n s an m i l l i o n s '
of f a c e s a r e s u i t a b l e ,
[Gertie]
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e man i n t h e wood i s l i k e t h e c o m p r o m i s i n g
c i t y f o l k who b u y s a w e d C h r i s t s " ( 1 4 8 - 1 4 9 ) .
Certainly, Gertie's
w o r d s d o e c h o C l o v i s ' s " m i l l i o n s a n m i l l i o n s , " b u t t h e man
i n t h e wood i s n o t c l e a r l y a n i m a g e o f c o n f o r m i t y . When G e r t i e
"pondered,
t h e n s l o w l y l i f t e d h e r g l a n c e from t h e b l o c k o f
w o o d , " Arnow w r i t e s t h a t " w o n d e r m i x e d i n w i t h t h e p a i n , " a s
G e r t i e s a y s , "Why, some a my n e i g h b o r s down t h e r e i n t h a l l e y - Her realization here, i n the last
they would h a done" ( 5 9 9 ) .
In
s e n t e n c e o f t h e n o v e l , is a t e s t i m o n y t o h e r s e n s i t i v i t y .
s p i t e of a l l t h a t s h e h a s s u f f e r e d , s h e i s still c a p a b l e of
"wonder,"
and t h i s r e v e l a t i o n t h a t t h e f a c e f o r h e r c h e r r y
wood man c o u l d h a v e b e e n a p e r s o n t h a t s h e k n e w , o n e o f h e r
n e i g h b o r s , s e e m s t o a f f i r m t h a t s h e h a s n o t abandoned h e r image
o f t h e common man C h r i s t .
Hobbs a s s e r t s t h a t t h e " ' c r y i n g ,
r e n d i n g s o u n d ' t h e c h e r r y wood f i g u r e m a k e s a s G e r t i e c r a c k s
i t o p e n w i t h t h e a x s i g n i f i e s h e r own m e t a p h o r i c s c r e e c h a t
e x e c u t i n g h e r own d e s t r u c t i o n " ( 1 4 9 ) , b u t t h a t s t a t e m e n t d o e s
She h a s s p l i t t h e
not c o n s i d e r t h e r e a s o n f o r Gertie's ac,t.
u n f i n i s h e d wood f i g u r e s o t h a t s h e c a n u s e t h e c h e r r y wood
f o r c o m m i s s i o n e d w o r k t h a t w i l l b r i n g money t o s u p p o r t h e r
H e r a c t d e s t r o y s o n l y t h e s c u l p t u r e s h e h a s worked
family.
on t h r o u g h o u t h e r s t a y i n D e t r o i t ; h e r a c t i n n o way s i g n a l s
h e r own d e s t r u c t i o n .
\+'hen G e r t i e s p l i t s t h e w o o d , s h e is d o i n g
what s h e f e e l s s h e m u s t t o e n s u r e t h e s u r v i v a l o f h e r f a m i l y .
F i f t y d o l l a r s i n a t i m e o f p o s t - w a r unemployment is a g r e a t
d e a l o f money t h a t w i l l b u y many t h i n g s h e r f a m i l y n e e d s .
Gertie
sees t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o u s e t h e g o o d wood t h a t s h e a l r e a d y
owns a n d k e e p t h e a d v a n c e .
Contrary t o Hobbs's conclusion,
w i t h t h e s p l i t t i n g o f t h e c h e r r y wood s c u l p t u r e , G e r t i e t h u s
a s s e r t s h e r own d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o s u r v i v e b e c a u s e s h e i s now
s t r o n g e n o u g h t o g i v e u p t h e man i n t h e wood who h a s h e l p e d
her through t h e harsh, t r a g i c e v e n t s o f h e r l i f e i n D e t r o i t .
She i s s o s t r o n g t h a t s h e c a n g i v e u p w h a t s a v e d h e r i n o r d e r
t o save others.
destructive
Arnow's Gertie N e v e l s f a c e s e v e r y k i n d of
force--the
s o c i a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e community s h e grew u p
i n , t h e economic d i s a s t e r s t h a t c a u s e h e r t o l o s e a l l hope
o f o w n i n g h e r own
farm, and t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l challenges-i n h e r r o l e s a s a grown d a u g h t e r , a n i f e , a n d a m o t h e r .
In
e a c h c a s e , s h e r e l i e s on h e r c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n t o s c u l p t
a view of r e a l i t y t h a t she can l i v e w i t h .
She t h u s e x e r c i s e s
her will t o survive.
G e r t i e ' s conscious choices t o endure,
r a t h e r t h a n t o g i v e u p , d e m o n s t r a t e h e r commitment t o l i f e ,
a n d t h a t c o m m i t m e n t i s a t r i b u t e t o t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e human
spirit.
T h e p o w e r o f H a r r i e t t e A r n o w ' s The D o l l m a k e r l i e s
i n G e r t i e ' s a f f i r m a t i o n of l i f e .
WORKS CITED
Arnow,
Harriette.
1972.
The
Dollmaker.
Baer, Barbara.
" H a r r i e t t e Arnow's
N a t i o n , 222 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 117-120.
1954.
Chronicles
Hobbs,
Glenda.
"Harriette
Arnow's
Diss.
t h e P a r i s h t o t h e World."
Kotlowitz,
Alex.
4 Dec. 1983:
"At
75,
14+.
Full
New
of
York:
Destruction."
Literary
Journey:
Harvard U . . 1975.
Speed
Ahead."
Avon,
Detroit
From
News,
Oates, Joyce Carol.
"Joyce C a r o l O a t e s on H a r r i e t t e Arnow's
The D o l l m a k e r . "
Rediscoveries.
Ed.
D a v i d Madden.
New
York:
Crown, 1 9 7 1 , 57-67.
R p t . i n O a t e s ' s New H e a v e n .
New E a r t h :
Visionary Experience i n L i t e r a t u r e .
New Y o r k :
Vanguard, 1 9 7 4 , 99-110,
a n d a s A f t e r w o r d t o Avon e d . o f
The D o l l m a k e r , 601-608.
THE BURDENS OF SUCCESS:
HIGHLANDER, 1 9 6 2 - 1 9 8 2 John M. Glen Ball State University F o r most
of
its h i s t o r y
t h e Highlander
Research
and
E d u c a t i o n C e n t e r h a s o p e r a t e d i n t h e shadow o f a p a s t t h a t
was a s much a b u r d e n a s i t w a s a s t a n d a r d o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s
in achieving s o c i a l change i n t h e South.
I t s predecessor,
t h e H i g h l a n d e r F o l k S c h o o l , was founded by Myles Horton and
Don West i n 1 9 3 2 n e a r t h e s m a l l C u m b e r l a n d P l a t e a u t o w n o f
Monteagle, T e n n e s s e e .
Devoted i n its e a r l y y e a r s t o a i d i n g
mine, t e x t i l e , lumber and h o s i e r y w o r k e r s i n T e n n e s s e e , t h e
folk s c h o o l ' s s t a f f a n t i c i p a t e d t h e formation of t h e Congress
of l n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d i t s d r i v e t o e s t a b l i s h new
unions i n t h e r e g i o n .
Through workshops, e x t e n s i o n p r o j e c t s ,
and d i r e c t o r g a n i z i n g e f f o r t s , H i g h l a n d e r b e c a m e t h e S o u t h ' s
m a j o r CIO e d u c a t i o n t r a i n i n g c e n t e r by t h e m i d - 1 9 4 0 s .
The
school t h e n s e r v e d a s a b r i d g e between t h e l a b o r and c i v i l
r i g h t s movements
as the staff
began a n a s s a u l t on r a c i a l
discrimination i n t h e l a t e 1940s and e a r l y 1950s.
Highlander a c h i e v e d even g r e a t e r prominence i n t h e South
between 1 9 5 3 a n d 1 9 6 1 a s t h e e d u c a t i o n c e n t e r o f t h e c i v i l
r i g h t s movement.
I t a t t r a c t e d Rosa P a r k s , Martin L u t h e r King,
J r . , and h u n d r e d s o f b l a c k and w h i t e a c t i v i s t s t o its workshops.
I t s C i t i z e n s h i p School program i n i t i a t e d a massive l i t e r a c y
c a m p a i g n among p o o r s o u t h e r n b l a c k s a n d i n s p i r e d t h e m t o v o t e ,
become p o l i t i c a l c a n d i d a t e s , a n d p a r t i c i p a t e i n c i v i c a f f a i r s .
Highlander a l s o f o r g e d p r o d u c t i v e a l l i a n c e s w i t h t h e Southern
C h r i s t i a n L e a d e r s h i p C o n f e r e n c e (SCLC), t h e S t u d e n t N o n v i o l e n t
C o o r d i n a t i n g C o m m i t t e e (SNCC), a n d o t h e r c i v i l r i g h t s g r o u p s .
But t h e g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s c h o o l i n t h e d r i v e f o r r a c i a l
e q u a l i t y a l s o made i t t h e t a r g e t o f a t t a c k s s p e a r h e a d e d by
southern
segregationists.
After
a
barrage
of
legislative
investigations,
propaganda
campaigns,
and
dramatic
trials,
Tennessee o f f i c i a l s r e p e a l e d H i g h l a n d e r ' s c h a r t e r and c o n f i s c a t e d
the f o l k school property i n 1962.
The H i g h l a n d e r R e s e a r c h a n d E d u c a t i o n C e n t e r c o n t i n u e d
to
serve
the
South's
poor
and
powerless
following
its
incorporation i n 1961.
But t o t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n , s t a f f members
s e n s e d t h a t t h e i r work l a c k e d t h e f o c u s and c l a r i t y o f t h e
f o l k s c h o o l ' s programs.
The c e n t e r r e m a i n e d an i n t e g r a l p a r t
o f t h e c i v i l r i g h t s movement d u r i n g m o s t o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s , w e l l
a f t e r I I i g h l a n d e r ' s l e a d e r s had c o n c l u d e d t h a t i t was n o l o n g e r
e s s e n t i a l t o t h e movement.
I n s p i r e d by t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i n t h e Poor P e o p l e ' s campaign of 1 9 6 8 , H i g h l a n d e r ' s t e a c h e r s
e n c o u r a g e d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a m u l t i r a c i a l c o a l i t i o n t h a t made
l i t t l e p r o g r e s s and broke a p a r t i n t h e e a r l y 1970s.
By t h e n
t h e s t a f f had r e t u r n e d t o H i g h l a n d e r ' s r o o t s and once a g a i n
foc,used on t h e t r o u b l e s f a c i n g t h e p e o p l e of s o u t h e r n A p p a l a c h i a .
There it struggled to help community groups comprehend and
resist what is perceived to be the physical and cultural
destruction of the region.
By 1982, fifty years after its
establishment, Highlander still reflected its original idea
that education should empower people to take control of their
own lives.
Yet the center also was going through a period
of transition, as its staff tried to anticipate the emergence
of a new movement for political and economic justice in the
South. The Highlander Center's programs during its first two
years at its new location in Knoxville were largely a carryover
from the Highlander Folk School.
Workshops, seminars, and
extension classes addressed such concerns as voter education,
the development of black community leadership, and the problems
blacks faced in seeking equal employment opportunities.
The
center was not free of the controversies that had surrounded
the hlonteagle school, but financial support grew rapidly, as
did the number of workshops and student enrollment. Yet by mid-1963, Highlander's leaders had already decided to curtail activities in the Knoxville area and to commit the center's resources to developing voter education and other extension projects in the Deep South.
In part this shift came in response to SNCC's move in 1962 from an emphasis on student protests against segregated public facilities to a broader campaign of black voter registration. At the request of Robert Moses, head of SNCC's Mississippi Voter Education Project, Highlander staff member Bernice Robinson coordinated a series of
voter
education
workshops,
citizenship
classes,
and registration drives in Mississippi during the summer of 1962 and 1963. Participants studied the state's voter registration form, reviewed the parts of the state constitution on which registrars questioned black applicants, and developed plans to promote black voting and political involvement.
Although white
segregationists harassed, intimidated, and assaulted teachers and students, Highlander's 1963 voter education project eventually included over 1,500 participants.
The number of black voters in Mississippi grew, but the overall voter A "freedom vote" registration campaign proceeded slowly.
campaign in the fall of 1963, climaxed by a symbolic election in which over 80,000 blacks chose their own candidates, dramatized the desire of black Mississippians to vote, but it also heightened the frustration of the SNCC staff. The result was the 1964 Mississippi Freedom Summer Project.
Shortly
after
the
"freedom vote"
election, hlyles Horton
supervised a workshop for the Council of Federated Organizations
(COFO), where representatives of SNCC, SCLC, and the Congress
of Racial Equality hammered out plans to bring northern white
student volunteers to Mississippi to strengthen the voter
registration drive and focus national attention on the state.
The project also would help publicize the new Mississippi Freedom
Democratic Party's challenge to the credentials of the all-white
regular state party at the 1964 Democratic National Convention.
Highlander staff members helped COFO organize the Summer Project
and directed COFO's experimental White Community Project, which
sent eighteen southern white students into Biloxi to build
support for COFO among middle-class white moderates.
But the
limited achievements of the program reflected the larger failure
of the Freedom Summer Project to attain any major breakthrough
in civil rights.
Despite the bravery of the project workers
and their success in mobilizing large numbers of blacks, there
was no massive
federal intervention in !rlississippi.
The
Democratic National Convention turned back the Freedom Democratic
Party's attempts to unseat the regular Mississippi delegation.
Although Horton urged SNCC leaders to continue their development
of an education program, SNCC workers rapidly lost faith in
the value of nonviolence and interracial harmony. "Black Power"
would later become one of SNCC's basic responses. Highlander's second major civil rights program during
the 1960s was the Southwide Voter Education Internship Project,
designed to cultivate greater political sophistication among
new black voters in the Deep South.
In the staff's view,
Charleston County, South Carolina, had become a model for other
southern black
communities since the start of the first
Citizenship School on Johns Island in 1957.
An ongoing voter
registration campaign had helped over 10,000 black citizens
gain the franchise by mid-1963; black candidates had run for
city and county offices; and schools and other public facilities
had been desegregated.
In 1963 Highlander staff members and
black activists in the Charleston area launched a program
combining residence workshops and internship training for black
leaders across the South.
Over the next four years the
Internship Project attracted several thousand blacks and whites
Khile
to its Citizenship and Political Education Schools.
the results of the internship program were less clear. the
Highlander facultv could point to such inspiring examples as
Fannie Lou Hamer, a leading figure in the Freedom Democratic
Party, who became a congressional candidate in 1964, and the
Reverend Franklin D. Rowe, who became the first black candidate
for
public
office
in
Georgia's Ben
Hill
County
since
Reconstruction. The growing number of southern blacks registering to
vote and campaigning for public office prompted Highlander
to offer a series of workshops for city, county, and state
candidates between
1966
and
1968.
One-week
sessions
at
Highlander Center and in Mississippi and Georgia covered such
topics as the techniques of political campaigns, the comparative
advantages of working through existing parties and forming
independent black organizations, and the duties of candidates
once they won election.
The Mississippi candidate training
program proved particularly useful in 1967-eighteen of the
twenty-two victorious black candidates in the state's off-year
elections had participated in the workshops. Khen these victors
encountered
white
opposition
folloa~ing the
election, the
workshops f o c u s e d on t h e p r o b l e m s o f a s s u m i n g o f f i c e and on
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l o n g - r a n g e p l a n s t o e n c o u r a g e more b l a c k s
t o run f o r public o f f i c e .
H i g h l a n d e r C e n t e r t h u s a t t a i n e d n e a r l y a s much p r o m i n e n c e
i n t h e c i v i l r i g h t s movement o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s a s t h e f o l k s c h o o l
had g a i n e d d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s decade.
Yet t h e b i l l b o a r d s
b e a r i n g t h e c a p t i o n " M a r t i n L u t h e r King a t Communist T r a i n i n g
School" t h a t appeared a c r o s s t h e South i n 1965 were reminders
t h a t renewed i m p o r t a n c e a l s o meant a r e s u r g e n c e o f a t t a c k s
against
the institution.
The a s s a u l t on H i g h l a n d e r r e a c h e d
i t s c l i m a x between 1965 and 1968.
S t a f f members e n d u r e d a
s t o r m o f a d v e r s e p u b l i c i t y , a Ku K l u x K l a n p a r a d e p a s t t h e
center,
repeated vandalism,
firebombs,
burglaries,
gunshots,
and t h e l o s s of t h e i r f i r e and automobile i n s u r a n c e .
State
representative
Odell
Cas
Lane
of
Knoxville
introduced
a
r e s o l u t i o n i n t o t h e Tennessee l e g i s l a t u r e i n e a r l y 1967 c a l l i n g
f o r a committee t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e supposedly
"subversive"
a c t i v i t i e s a t H i g h l a n d e r a n d f o r c l o s i n g t h e c e n t e r by s t a t e
law enforcement
officials.
In
contrast
to
its a g g r e s s i v e
p r o s e c u t i o n o f H i g h l a n d e r i n 1 9 5 9 , h o w e v e r , t h e G e n e r a l Assembly
o n l y r e l u c t a n t l y a p p r o v e d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a c o m m i t t e e i n hlay
1967.
The i n q u i r y i t s e l f n e v e r m a t e r i a l i z e d .
H i g h l a n d e r and
American C i v i l L i b e r t i e s Union l a w y e r s s e c u r e d a f e d e r a l d i s t r i c t
c o u r t i n j u n c t i o n i n e a r l y 1968 b l o c k i n g t h e l e g i s l a t u r e from
proceeding f u r t h e r u n t i l it had found a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y adequate
d e f i n i t i o n of
"subversion."
S t a t e o f f i c i a l s d i d not appeal
t h e c o u r t ' s r u l i n g , apparently reconciling themselves t o t h e
i d e a t h a t Highlander would remain i n Tennessee.
A s t h e a t t a c k s o n H i g h l a n d e r s u b s i d e d , t h e s t a f f moved
b e y o n d i t s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e c i v i l r i g h t s movement t o t h e more
formidable t a s k of organizing t h e poor i n southern Appalachia
a s p a r t o f a new m u l t i r a c i a l p o o r p e o p l e ' s c o a l i t i o n .
This
t r a n s i t i o n h a d b e e n u n d e r way f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s .
Between 1964
and 1968 Myles Horton and s e v e r a l young w h i t e a c t i v i s t s had
r u n a series o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o j e c t s i n T e n n e s s e e , Kentucky,
and V i r g i n i a , s e e k i n g t o s t i m u l a t e t h e r e g i o n ' s poor w h i t e s
and b l a c k s
i n t o o r g a n i z i n g and r e d r e s s i n g
t h e i r grievances
through
independent
action
or
in
cooperation with
federal
a g e n c i e s c r e a t e d by t h e J o h n s o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s War o n P o v e r t y .
The p r o m i s i n g r e s u l t s o f t h e s e i n i t i a l e f f o r t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t
Highlander's approach could b e applied throughout Appalachia;
w i t h s o m e a d j u s t m e n t s , i t c o u l d b e u s e d by a n y i m p o v e r i s h e d
group i n t h e n a t i o n .
The g r o w i n g p o p u l a r i t y o f " B l a c k Power"
among
black
civil
rights
workers
hastened
the
shift
in
Highlander's
efforts.
Conservative
journalists
inaccurately
r e p o r t e d t h a t H o r t o n h a d t a u g h t SNCC l e a d e r S t o k e l y C a r m i c h a e l
t h e i d e a o f Black Power.
But IIorton and h i s c o l l e a g u e s had
held
for
some
time
that
blacks
should
build
their
own
i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s e r v e t h e i r own n e e d s a n d i n t e r e s t s .
They
agreed with Carmichael t h a t w h i t e sympathizers could b e s t a i d
t h e c i v i l r i g h t s s t r u g g l e by o r g a n i z i n g p o o r w h i t e s , t h e o n l y
group b l a c k Americans c o u l d a c c e p t a s a l l i e s .
The 1 9 6 8 P o o r P e o p l e ' s Campaign t h u s seemed t o p r e s e n t
an u n p a r a l l e l e d o p p o r t u n i t y t o m o b i l i z e a m u l t i r a c i a l c o a l i t i o n
Yet the
demanding an e n d t o economic i n j u s t i c e i n America.
f a i l u r e s of t h e Washington d e m o n s t r a t i o n s t o o d a s a warning
t o t h e H i g h l a n d e r s t a f f t h a t i t would b e v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o
f o r g e t h i s a l l i a n c e , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e r e s p e c t i n g t h e
i n t e g r i t y o f t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s t h a t w e r e p a r t o f i t . Government
o f f i c i a l s w e r e u n m o v e d by t h e s i g h t o f s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d p o o r
people l i v i n g i n R e s u r r e c t i o n C i t y n e a r t h e L i n c o l n Memorial.
Furthermore,
the
campaign
was
plagued
by
poor
planning,
unspecified
goals,
chaotic
administration,
ineffective
demonstrations,
and
conflicts
between
black
leaders
and
Mexican-American
and
Indian
spokesmen.
A
contingent
from
Highlander
stayed i n Resurrection City u n t i l police closed
the shantytown i n June 1968.
Although d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t t h e
campaign d i d n o t l e a d t o a l a r g e - s c a l e ,
r a d i c a l program f o r
s o c i a l c h a n g e , H o r t o n a n d a y o u n g s t a f f member named M i c h a e l
Clark b e l i e v e d t h a t R e s u r r e c t i o n C i t y f u r n i s h e d s e v e r a l v a l u a b l e
lessons f o r Highlander.
The v i r t u a l a b s e n c e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s
representing poor w h i t e s reemphasized t h e need t o s t r e n g t h e n
the weakest l i n k of t h e m u l t i r a c i a l c o a l i t i o n .
The d i s c u s s i o n s
around
the
Highlander
camp
i n Resurrection
C i t y confirmed
Horton's view t h a t poor p e o p l e c o u l d l e a r n from one a n o t h e r ,
and t h a t t h e f i n a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f p o v e r t y l a y w i t h
the poor themselves.
Moreover, t h e r i f t s between b l a c k s and
non-blacks
during
the
campaign
showed
that
a
successful
multiracial
coalition
had
to
be
an
alliance
of
equals,
communicating f r e e l y and a c t i n g i n c o n c e r t t o a c h i e v e t h e i r
respective goals.
The
Highlander
staff's
decision,
following
the
Poor
P e o p l e ' s Campaign, t o f o c u s most of i t s e n e r g i e s on Appalachia
signaled a
return t o the -institution's original objectives
o f e d u c a t i n g l e a d e r s f o r a "new s o c i a l o r d e r " a n d e n r i c h i n g
"the indigneous c u l t u r a l values of t h e mountains."
As the
f o l k s c h o o l f a c u l t y had contended i n t h e e a r l y 1930s, s t a f f
members i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s h e l d t h a t t h e p o o r q u a l i t y
of l i f e f o r most p e o p l e i n t h e mountainous p o r t i o n s o f V i r g i n i a ,
West V i r g i n i a , K e n t u c k y , a n d T e n n e s s e e w a s d u e t o t h e d o m i n a t i o n
of o u t s i d e i n d u s t r i a l i n t e r e s t s .
Coal, lumber, r a i l r o a d , and
f i n a n c i a l c o r p o r a t i o n s had e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e
region
in
the
l a t e nineteenth
century,
exploited i t ,
and
p r e s e r v e d t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s by b l a m i n g a n y o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h e y
caused on t h e i g n o r a n c e o r d e f i c i e n c i e s of t h e Appalachian
people.
Making m a t t e r s w o r s e w e r e t h e s u c c e s s i v e waves o f
m i s s i o n a r i e s who s o u g h t t o " s a v e " A p p a l a c h i a by i m p o s i n g t h e i r
own c u l t u r a l v a l u e s o n i t s i n h a b i t a n t s .
The s t a f f viewed t h e
War o n P o v e r t y a s m e r e l y t h e l a t e s t f u t i l e m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t
that r e i n f o r c e d t h e perception t h a t t h e poor were unable o r
u n w i l l i n g t o d e f i n e t h e i r own p r o b l e m s a n d b e g i n w o r k i n g t o w a r d
t h e i r own s o l u t i o n s .
Highlander's Appalachian Self-Education Program presented
an alternative view.
It aimed to build a movement among the
rural poor of Appalachia who could join the civil rights groups,
labor unions, and community organizations to push for a radical
restructuring of American society.
Beginning in 1969, staff
members conducted residence workshops for potential leaders
and musicians in the region who explored how they could hold
workshops
and
build
community
organizations
themselves.
Highlander teachers also traveled extensively throughout eastern
Kentucky and Tennessee to maintain contact with individual
activists and poor people's groups in the area, such as the
Boone County Association for the Needy, Marrowbone Folk School,
and Pickett United
for Self-Help.
The strength of the
Self-Education Program lay in its flexibility and nondirective
teaching approach, but it also lacked structure and central
direction.
Unlike Highlander's work with labor unions and
civil rights groups, there were few institutions or individuals
through which to channel the program's educational activities.
There was no one primary need in the region hut a number of
localized problems varying considerably from one community
to the next.
The ultimate goals of the program were vague
and distant. Despite readjustments in the early 1970s, progress
came much more slowly than the Highlander staff had anticipated.
No sustained protest movement seemed to emerge among the
Appalachian poor. Meanwhile, Highlander's efforts to promote multiracial
programs similar to the Appal-achian project in the Southwest
and in Chicago produced even more discouraging results.
In
1969, at the urging of New Mexico's fiery Chicano leader Reies
Tijerina, Myles Horton organized Highlander West to help develop
Chicano leadership and to assist Mexican-American and Indian
groups in the Southwest gain greater economic and political
power.
Out of a succession of workshops in 1969 and 1970,
Mexican-American women in Albuquerque spearheaded a drive to
create child-care centers and win a higher wage scale; Chicano
activists launched a leadership training project; and members
of several Native American tribes protested white exploitation
of
Gallup's
annual
Inter-Tribal
Indian
Ceremonial.
Yet
Highlander West's activities were spread too thinly to achieve
more than a set of isolated victories in a complicated and
constantly shifting Mexican-American movement.
The Chicago
project begun in 1969 was equally frustrating. Although Horton
had found considerable potential for using Highlander's services
to support Appalachian and Puerto Rican youth groups in the
city, there was little response to the idea of using education
as the basis of a multicolored poor people's coalition. Indeed, by the early 1970s the possibility of a broad-based
poor people's movement in America was rapidly disappearing.
White and nonwhite activists splintered into rival factions
and were forced to acknowledge that the poor did not constitute
a unified class of racially and economically oppressed people.
The millions of impoverished Americans of all colors represented
only
a
fraction
of
the
nation's
population,
making
it
increasingly
difficult,
especially
in
a
time
of
growing
conservatism, t o achieve r e a l s o c i a l change.
Highlander s t a f f
members u n d e r s t o o d t h e s e h a r d r e a l i t i e s , b u t p e r h a p s n o t t h e
e x t e n t t o which t h e y would a f f e c t t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e of t h e i r
programs.
A d d i n g t o t h e s t r a i n w a s t h e n e e d f o r a new H i g h l a n d e r
C e n t e r , Myles H o r t o n ' s r e t i r e m e n t , a n d b i t t e r w r a n g l i n g o v e r
the school's administration.
Facing t h e prospect of an urban
renewal p r o j e c t t h a t would e i t h e r r a z e t h e K n o x v i l l e h e a d q u a r t e r s
o r l e a v e t h e c e n t e r w i t h n o room f o r e x p a n s i o n , t h e f a c u l t y
moved i n 1 9 7 2 t o a 1 0 4 a c r e f a r m t w e n t y - f i v e m i l e s e a s t o f
K n o x v i l l e n e a r t h e t o w n o f New M a r k e t , T e n n e s s e e .
Although
a
nationwide fundraising
campaign
financed
construction
on
t h e new p r o p e r t y ,
Highlander's
familiar financial
shortages
remained e x c e p t i o n a l l y s e v e r e w e l l i n t o t h e 1970s.
S t a f f members
found it d i f f i c u l t
t o describe c u r r e n t Highlander
projects
t o s u p p o r t e r s who s t i l l t h o u g h t o f t h e s c h o o l i n t e r m s o f i t s
past c i v i l r i g h t s a c t i v i t i e s .
S h a r p d i s p u t e s a r o s e among t h e
s t a f f not only over t h e allocation of funds but a l s o over school
p o l i c y a n d t h e management o f H i g h l a n d e r p r o g r a m s .
Myles H o r t o n ' s
r e t i r e m e n t a s a n a c t i v e s t a f f member i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s w a s
followed
by
such
deep
divisions
among
the
staff
that
a
beleaguered
Conrad
Browne
left
Highlander
in
1971.
His
s u c c e s s o r , s t a f f member F r a n k Adams, f a i l e d t o w i n t h e c o n f i d e n c e
of h i s c o l l e a g u e s .
When Adams t o o k a n i n d e f i n i t e l e a v e o f
absence f o r h e a l t h r e a s o n s ,
the center's executive council
e l e c t e d Mark C l a r k p r e s i d e n t a n d e d u c a t i o n a l d i r e c t o r i n 1 9 7 2 .
The s u b s e q u e n t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
t h e s t a f f reduced but d i d
not end t h e i n t e r n a l d i s s e n s i o n a t Highlander.
What w a s m o s t t r o u b l i n g t o t h e s t a f f i n t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s
was t h e a p p a r e n t l a c k o f o v e r a l l d i r e c t i o n i n H i g h l a n d e r ' s
e d u c a t i o n a l program.
T h e demand f o r w o r k s h o p s w a s d e c r e a s i n g ;
e n r o l l m e n t was d e c l i n i n g ; t h e e n t h u s i a s m o f
those attending
r e s i d e n c e s e s s i o n s was w a n i n g ; a n d f o r a l l t h e t i m e , money,
and efforLL s p e n t i n A p p a l a c h i a , s t a f f members c o u l d .-eport
few s u b s t a n t i a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s .
They h a d n o t y e t f o u n d a
productive
approach
to
Appalachia's
enormous
and
complex
problems.
Clark pointed out t o t h e s t a f f t h a t t h e issues
c o n f r o n t i n g A p p a l a c h i a w e r e s t i l l v e r y much a l i v e a n d b e c o m i n g
p a r t of l a r g e r , i n t e r r e l a t e d developments important n o t only
t o Appalachia b u t t o t h e South and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a s w e l l .
C o n c l u d i n g t h a t what C l a r k c a l l e d " t h e myth o f H i g h l a n d e r "
was n o l o n g e r v a l i d , t h e H i g h l a n d e r s t a f f b e g a n t h e d i f f i c u l t
process of redefining its constituency, t h e geographic scope
of its a c t i v i t i e s , and t h e i s s u e s t h a t could b e e f f e c t i v e l y
While t h e i r e f f o r t s
addressed through i t s e d u c a t i o n program.
remained l a r g e l y c e n t e r e d o n A p p a l a c h i a , s t a f f members s t e a d i l y
broadened t h e i r c u r r i c u l u m t o p l a c e t h e a r e a ' s problems i n
a r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l , and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t .
Between 1972
and 1982 t h e y h e l d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 r e s i d e n c e workshops and
c o n f e r e n c e s on s u b j e c t s s u c h a s s t r i p m i n i n g , a b s e n t e e l a n d
o w n e r s h i p and m i n e r a l l e a s i n g , t a x and p u b l i c s c h o o l r e f o r m ,
t h e Tennessee Valley A u t h o r i t y and t h e Appalachian Regional
Commission, r u r a l economic development, s y n t h e t i c f u e l s , t o x i c
w a s t e management,
and Appalachian
music and c u l t u r e .
They
also
conducted
extensive
field
work
in
rural
Appalachian
c o m m u n i t i e s i n K e n t u c k y , \Vest V i r g i n i a , T e n n e s s e e , V i r g i n i a ,
N o r t h C a r o l i n a , and Ohio.
A f t e r o f f i c i a l s o f t h e U n i t e d Mine
Workers
asked
the
staff
in
1975
to
help
strengthen
community-controlled
rural health c l i n i c s , Highlander's health
program grew t o encompass a w i d e r a n g e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l and
occupational health concerns.
Regarding b o t h Appalachia and
lesser d e v e l o p e d n a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a s t h e v i c t i m s o f
e x p l o i t a t i o n by t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , t h e f a c u l t y b r o u g h t
u n i o n a n d community l e a d e r s from T a n z a n i a , W a l e s , B r a z i l , Mexico,
and
several
other
countries
t o Highlander
t o share their
p e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e e f f e c t s o f o u t s i d e c o r p o r a t e c o n t r o l .
H i g h l a n d e r ' s r e s e a r c h s e r v i c e s a l s o expanded t o p r o v i d e
i n d i v i d u a l s and groups w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a f f e c t i n g t h e i r l i v e s
a s well a s t h e s k i l l s t o investigate the causes of t h e i r
problems.
Union members, f a r m e r s , and l o c a l a c t i v i s t s l e a r n e d
t o b e c o m e t h e i r own r e s e a r c h e r s a n d t o u s e t h e i r f i n d i n g s t o
d e v e l o p c o a l i t i o n s and s t r a t e g i e s t o b a t t l e t h e p o w e r f u l and
counter
the
information
disseminated
by
large corporations
and
government
agencies.
Such
an
approach
produced
well-publicized results.
I n southeast Tennessee a probe i n t o
t h e r e c o r d o f a g i a n t c o a l company h e l p e d s t o p t h e f i r m ' s p l a n s
t o create the largest
s t r i p mine i n A p p a l a c h i a .
I n 1981
H i g h l a n d e r p u b l i s h e d W e ' r e T i r e d o f B e i n g Guinea P i g s , a handbook
r e v i e w i n g some o f
t h e p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h problems a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h m a j o r A p p a l a c h i a n i n d u s t r i e s a n d i l l u s t r a t i n g how c i t i z e n s
could confront l o c a l environmental health hazards.
The c e n t e r ' s
s t a f f was a l s o i n v o l v e d i n a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d s t u d y o f l a n d
ownership i n Appalachia.
Nearly one hundred a c t i v i s t s , s c h o l a r s ,
and i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Appalachian A l l i a n c e pored
o v e r t a x r o l l s and deed books i n e i g h t y s e l e c t e d c o u n t i e s i n
s i x A p p a l a c h i a n s t a t e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r i m a r y owners o f more
than 55,000 parcels of
l a n d a n d m i n e r a l s r e p r e s e n t i n g some
20,000,000 acres.
The seven-volume, 1 , 8 0 0 - p a g e s u r v e y , c o m p l e t e d
i n 1981, f u r n i s h e d s o l i d e v i d e n c e of t h e c o n n e c t i o n between
t h e high concentration of
l a n d a n d m i n e r a l o w n e r s h i p among
a few a b s e n t e e and c o r p o r a t e o w n e r s and s u c h l o n g - s t a n d i n g
r e g i o n a l problems a s inadequate t a x revenues, p u b l i c s e r v i c e s ,
and h o u s i n g ; t h e l o s s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s ; t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n
of
mineral
resources;
and
environmental
damage.
To
the
H i g h l a n d e r s t a f f t h e l a n d s t u d y was a p r i m e example o f t h e
way i n w h i c h r e s e a r c h a n d e d u c a t i o n c o u l d b e u s e d t o b u i l d
t h e power o f o r d i n a r y s o u t h e r n e r s .
I t revived once again t h e
h o p e t h a t r u r a l A p p a l a c h i a n s c o u l d c o a l e s c e a r o u n d a common
i s s u e and a c t t o g a i n more c o n t r o l o v e r and b e n e f i t from t h e
l a n d and i t s r e s o u r c e s .
I f s t a f f m e m b e r s h a d moved b e y o n d t h e "myth" o f H i g h l a n d e r
by t h e t i m e a t h o u s a n d f r i e n d s g a t h e r e d t o c e l e b r a t e t h e s c h o o l ' s
f i f t i e t h a n n i v e r s a r y i n 1982, t h e y n o n e t h e l e s s remained c o n s c i o u s
They
of t h e c o n t i n u i n g i n f l u e n c e o f i t s h i s t o r y on t h e i r work.
had d e p o s i t e d H i g h l a n d e r ' s r e c o r d s i n a r c h i v e s i n W i s c o n s i n
and T e n n e s s e e , o r g a n i z e d a s o c i a l h i s t o r y c o l l e c t i o n a t t h e
c e n t e r , and p a i d added a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n ' s h e r i t a g e
in their publications.
Hubert Sapp, a Harvard-educated b l a c k
A l a b a m i a n who h a d s e r v e d a s M a r t i n L u t h e r K i n g , J r . ' s s p e c i a l
a s s i s t a n t i n S C L C , b e c a m e t h e c e n t e r ' s new d i r e c t o r i n 1 9 8 2 ,
s i g n a l i n g a r e n e w a l o f H i g h l a n d e r ' s e f f o r t s i n t h e Deep S o u t h .
T h e r e s e e m e d t o b e a g e n e r a l s e n s e among b o a r d a n d s t a f f members
that, i n t h e absence of t h e strong unifying elements of t h e
labor organizing and c i v i l r i g h t s campaigns of previous y e a r s ,
t h e r e was a g r e a t e r need t o s e a r c h f o r l e s s o n s i n H i g h l a n d e r ' s
past t h a t would h e l p s h a p e its f u t u r e .
I n d e e d , t h e h i s t o r y o f H i g h l a n d e r i s i n many w a y s t h e
h i s t o r y o f d i s s e n t and reform i n t h e South s i n c e t h e o n s e t
of t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n .
Highlander was o n l y one p a r t o f t h e
struggle t o o r g a n i z e l a b o r unions i n t h e South during t h e 1930s
and 1 9 4 0 s , t o a c h i e v e r a c i a l j u s t i c e d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s ,
and t o r e d i s t r i b u t e w e a l t h a n d p o w e r i n A p p a l a c h i a d u r i n g t h e
1970s.
But b e c a u s e it d i d o n e t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n any o t h e r
it
educated
industrial
institution
in
the
region--because
workers,
farmers, blacks,
a n d t h e p o o r t o f i n d t h e i r own
solutions t o t h e i r grievances--it
played a crucial r o l e i n
c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e g a i n s made by t h e s e g r o u p s s i n c e 1 9 3 2 .
To b e s u r e , i n t h e l o n g r u n t h e o v e r a l l p r o g r e s s made by s o u t h e r n
l a b o r u n i o n s , c i v i l r i g h t s g r o u p s , a n d community o r g a n i z a t i o n s
i n A p p a l a c h i a w a s n o t d e t e r m i n e d by H i g h l a n d e r ' s w o r k .
Southern
i n d u s t r y h a s remained b a s i c a l l y n o n u n i o n i z e d and a n t i - u n i o n ;
the f u l l promise o f t h e c i v i l r i g h t s r e v o l u t i o n h a s n o t been
r e a l i z e d ; and r e f o r m e f f o r t s i n Appalachia have n o t y e t brought
any
fundamental
changes
to
the
region.
Yet
Highlander's
e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s made e a c h movement d i f f e r e n t a n d s t r o n g e r
than i t might h a v e been o t h e r w i s e .
W h i l e e a c h p h a s e o f t h e s c h o o l ' s h i s t o r y h a d i t s own
i s s u e s , programs, and consequent s u c c e s s e s and f a i l u r e s , and
while i t s name, l o c a t i o n , and p e r s o n n e l c h a n g e d o v e r t h e y e a r s ,
Highlander's p r i n c i p l e s and purpose remained constant.
Staff
members d e d i c a t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e i d e a t h a t e d u c a t i o n c o u l d
be used t o push f o r fundamental s o c i a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l
c h a n g e l e a d i n g t o w h a t t h e y saw a s a m o r e d e m o c r a t i c a n d humane
society.
They h e l d f i r m l y t o t h e i d e a t h a t t h e p o o r and
p o w e r l e s s , w h a t e v e r t h e i r r a c i a l o r e t h n i c backgrounds, had
s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s w e l l a s s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s , a n d .by
coming t o g e t h e r
in
informal group d i s c u s s i o n s t h e s e people
c o u l d i d e n t i f y t h e i r common g o a l s a n d f i n d w a y s o f w o r k i n g
c o l l e c t i v e l y toward a t t a i n i n g them.
The s t a f f t h e r e f o r e s o u g h t
t o make H i g h l a n d e r a s c h o o l w h e r e s o u t h e r n e r s c o u l d b u i l d o n
t h e knowledge t h e y had g a i n e d from e x p e r i e n c e s o t h a t t h e y
c o u l d t a k e g r e a t e r c o n t r o l o f t h e i r own l i v e s .
Highlander's history
and
its ongoing programs still
generate both praise and controversy.
In 1983 Representative
Ronald Dellums of California and hlayor Andrew Young of Atlanta
nominated Highlander for the Nobel Peace Prize.
In that same
year North Carolina Senator Jesse Helms objected to the passage
of a bill honoring Martin Luther King, Jr., with a federal
holiday in his name, citing evidence linking the late civil
rights leader to the Highlander Folk School, "a Communist,
or at least a pro-Communist, training school."
Burdened yet
animated by its history, Highlander now faced its greatest
challenge:
to perpetuate Myles Horton's vision of a school
committed to social and economic justice. BIBLIOGRAPHI CAL NOTE This article is largely based on the following primary
sources:
the Highlander Research and Education Center Papers,
State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison; the Highlander,
Myles Horton, and hlike Clark Papers, Highlander Research and
Education Center, New Market, Tennessee; Highlander Reports
(1961-1982); Knoxville Journal (1961-1963, 1966-1968); Knoxville
News-Sentinel
(1961,
1966-1968);
Nashville
Tennessean
(1965-1968); Southern Patriot (1966-1968); and the author's
oral interviews with Horton in 1978, 1980, 1982, and 1983.
For complete documentation, see the author's "On the Cutting
A History of the Highlander Folk School, 1932-1962"
Edge:
(Ph.D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1985). There is a wealth of material concerning Highlander and
the major individuals and organizations associated with it
in archives, libraries, and other institutions throughout the
South and in other parts of the country.
In addition to the
manuscript
collections,
newspapers,
and
oral
interviews
previously cited, a number of secondary sources help place
the school's recent efforts at radical reform in a larger
context. Carl Tjerandsen, Education for Citizenship: A Foundation's Experience (1980) provides an informative summary of Highlander's voter education projects during the 1960s.
The evolution of black radicalism during the decade is ably recounted in Howard Zinn, SNCC:
The New Abolitionists (1964); Allen J. Matusow, "From Civil Rights to Black Power: The Case of SNCC, 1960-1966," in Twentieth-Centurv America:
Recent Interpretations, eds. Barton J. Bernstein and Allen J. Matusow (1969); Clayborne Carson, In S t r u ~ g l e : SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (1981); and Mary Aickin Rothschild, A Case of Black and White: Volunteers and the Southern Freedom Summers, 1964-1965 (1982). the
Several studies elaborate on Highlander's contention that persistent ills besetting southern Appalachia stem from the continued exploitation and domination of outside industrial interests.
See James Branscome, "Annihilating the Hillbilly: The
Appalachians'
Struggle
with
America's
Institutions," Katallagete 3 (Winter 1971); Roger M. Williams, "TVA and the Strippers," World, 19 June 1973; John Egerton, "Appalachia: The View from the Hills," Progressive 39 (Feb. 1975); Helen Matthews
Lewis, Linda Johnson, and Donald Askins, eds., Colonialism in Modern America:
The Appalachian Case (1978); David E. Whisnant, Modernizing the Mountaineer: People, Power and Planning in Appalachia (1980); Lewis and hlyles Horton, "Transnational Corporations and the Migration of Industries in Latin
America
and
Appalachia,"
in Appalachia/America: Proceedings of the 1980 Appalachia Studies Conference, ed. Wilson
Somerville
(1981);
Egerton, "Appalachia's
Absentee Landlords," Progressive 45 (June 1981); Ronald D. Eller, hliners, Millhands.
and
Mountaineers:
Industrialization
of
the Appalachian South, 1880-1930 (1982); Whisnant, All That is Native and Fine: The Politics of Culture in an American Region (1983); and The Appalachian Land Ownership Task Force, Who
Owns A~palachia? Landownership and Its Impact (1983).
I N AIEMOR I ALI
Henry L e e Swint longtime member and friend of t h e Kentucky-Tennessee A.S.A.