FROM:
AFCESA/CES
139 Barnes Drive, Suite 1
Tyndall AFB FL 32403-5319
SUBJECT:
Engineering Technical Letter 97-9: Criteria and Guidance for C-17
Contingency and Training Operations on Semi-Prepared Airfields
1. Purpose. This ETL provides criteria and guidance for design, construction,
maintenance, and evaluation of semi-prepared airfields for contingency and training
operations of C-17 aircraft. It supersedes ETL 97-9 dated 15 October1997. Visual
Flight Rules (VFR) apply for the dimensional criteria in Section 3.
2. Application: All Department of Defense organizations responsible for design,
construction, maintenance, and evaluation of airfields.
2.1 Effective Date: Immediately. Remains in effect until these requirements are incorporated
into FM 5-430-00-01,2/AFJPAM 32-8013, Planning and Design of Airfields in the Theater of
Operations, EI 02C013 (TM 5-803-7), Airfield and Heliport Planning and Design, and/or
AFJMAN 32-1014, Airfield Pavement Design.
2.2. Ultimate Recipients:
• Base Civil Engineers and Red Horse Units responsible for design, construction,
and maintenance of airfields.
• Army Corps of Engineers, Marine, and Navy offices responsible for design,
maintenance, and construction of airfields.
3. Criteria and Guidance. Criteria and guidance attached are based on very limited
data. Structural and flight tests were accomplished at only one AM-2 location, three
mechanically stabilized locations with similar soil types and climatic conditions and one
cement stabilized location. Data on other soil types and climates are needed to assure
world wide capability for contingency situations. Friction data is based on tests at a
variety of locations; however, additional testing is needed to increase confidence.
NOTE
This ETL will be revised as additional data becomes
available. Users should reference all subsequent
changes to this ETL to obtain current guidance.
APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE: DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED
(25 November 1997)
4. Contacts. Mr. Jim Greene, DSN 523-6334, commercial (850)283-6334; or Mr. Dick
Smith, DSN 523-6084, commercial (850)283-6084.
William G. Schauz, Colonel, USAF
Director of Technical Support
2 Atch
1. Criteria for Design, Maintenance, and
Evaluation of Semi-Prepared Airfields
for Contingency Operations of the C-17
Aircraft
2. Distribution List
(25 November 1997)
Criteria
for
Design, Maintenance, and Evaluation
of
Semi-Prepared Airfields
for
Contingency Operations of the C-17 Aircraft
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Contents
Section
1
Introduction
2
Aircraft Characteristics
3
Dimensional Criteria
4
Structural Design Criteria
Appendixes
A
Classification and Field Identification of Soils
B
Condition Survey and Maintenance Procedures
C
Structural Evaluation Procedures for Contingency Operations
D
Friction Test Procedures for Contingency Operations
E
Landing Zone Checklist
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Section 1. Introduction
1.1. References:
• FM 5-430-00-01, 02/ AFJPAM 32-8013, Volumes I and II, Planning and Design
of Roads, Airfields, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations
• EI 02C013 (TM 5-803-7) / AFJMAN 32-1013, Airfield and Heliport Planning and
Design
• Pavement-Transportation Computer Aided Structural Engineering (PCASE)
design and evaluation computer programs:
− Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) program is used to plot DCP data and
establish soil layer thicknesses and strengths.
− Unsurfaced Design (UNSURF) program is used to aid in design of semiprepared airfields.
− Unsurfaced Evaluation (UNSEVA) program is used to determine aircraft
allowable gross weights and/or passes based upon layer structures
established with the DCP.
• Airfield Friction Meter MK2 Operating Instructions, Rev 3.1x, Issue 3, Bowmonk
Ltd., Norwich, England, 1995
PCASE programs are available on the World Wide WEB (WWW) at http://pavement.
wes.army.mil/pcase.html. For access, open a Uniform Resource Listing/Locator
(URL) to the address, which will jump to the PCASE homepage for computer program
access. For File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Anonymous Network Access, FTP to:
pavement.wes.army.mil using 'anonymous' as the log in name, and 'pcase' as the
password. Change directory to 'pub' (cd pub) and look at directory contents (ls).
Change transfer type to binary (binary) and then use the 'get' command to retrieve any
file you wish. For example, if you wish to get the file 'unsurf1_0.exe' then type 'get
unsurf1_0.exe".
Note: All programs on the WWW homepage and FTP site are compressed
executables. Upon first time execution of any program, multiple files will be extracted,
therefore; it is vital that each program is put in its own subdirectory with no other
files when it is first executed.
1.2. Definitions.
1.2.1. Acronyms:
• ACN – Aircraft Classification Number
• CBR – California Bearing Ratio
• DCP – Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
• ETL – Engineering Technical Letter
• FASSI – Frost Area Soil Support Index
• FTP – File Transfer Protocol
• HMMWV – High Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
PCASE – Pavement-Transportation Computer Aided Structural Design and
Evaluation computer Programs
PCN – Pavement Classification Number
RCR –Runway Condition Rating
RRM – Rolling Resistant Material
SPACI – Semi-prepared Airfield Condition Index
SST – Special Tactics Team
UNSEVA – Unsurfaced Evaluation Program
UNSURF – Unsurfaced Design Program
USCS – Unified Soil Classification System
VAMP – Visual Assault Zone Marker Panel
VFR – Visual Flight Rules
1.2.2. Terms:
• Pass – The movement of an aircraft over a specific spot or location on a
pavement feature.
• Base or Subbase Courses – Natural or processed materials placed on the
subgrade.
• Subgrade – Natural in-place soil upon which a pavement, base, or subbase
course is constructed.
• Compacted Subgrade – The upper part of the subgrade.
1.3. Airfield Types. The C-17 can operate on paved or semi-prepared airfields and
matting. Paved airfields consist of conventional rigid and flexible pavements and are
generally used for routine operations. A “semi-prepared” airfield refers to an unpaved
airfield. The amount of engineering effort required to develop a semi-prepared airfield
depends on the planned operation, the service life needed to support these operations,
and the existing soil and weather conditions. Semi-prepared construction/maintenance
preparations may range from those sufficient for limited use to those required for
continuous routine operations. Options for surface preparation may include
stabilization, addition of an aggregate course, compaction of in-place soils, or matting.
1.4. Types of Operations. Three types of operations are anticipated with the C-17
aircraft. Visual flight rules apply for contingency and training operations.
• Routine operations consist of normal day to day operations conducted on paved
surfaces.
• Contingency operations are normally short term operations connected with
conflicts or emergencies. Airfields for contingency operations can be paved or
unpaved. Since operations are limited, structural requirements are not as great.
In addition, higher risk to aircraft and personnel may be justified, so
requirements such as clearances, are not as stringent.
• Training operations involve training for contingency situations. They can be
conducted on paved or unpaved runways (semi-prepared). Since training
airfields are for long-term operations, semi-prepared surface structural and
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dimensional requirements are more stringent than for contingency airfields.
Stabilization may be required.
1.5. Purpose. The purpose of this document is to provide criteria and guidance to
DoD organizations concerned with planning, design, construction, evaluation and
maintenance of semi-prepared airfields for contingency and training operations of the
C-17. This document will remain in effect until the criteria and data are incorporated
into FM 5-430-00-01.02/AFJPAM 32-8013, Volumes I and II, Planning and Design of
Roads, Airfields, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations. Criteria for planning and
design of airfields for C-17 routine and training operations will be contained in EI
02C013 / AFJMAN 32-1013.
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Section 2. Aircraft Characteristics. (See Figures 2.1 and 2.2 for horizontal, vertical,
and landing gear dimensions.)
Horizontal Dimensions
Length—174.0 feet
Height—55 feet, 1 inch
Wing
Span (winglet tips)—169 feet, 9 inches
Location of outboard engine—45 feet, 9 inches
Location of inboard engines—24 feet, 5 inches
Vertical Clearances
Top of fuselage—24 feet, 1 inch
Top of vertical stabilizer—55 feet, 1 inch
Bottom of wing tip—13 feet, 10 inches
Bottom of outboard engine—7 feet, 9 inches
Bottom of inboard engine—8 feet, 11 inches
Lowest point on fuselage (main gear pod)—12 inches
Landing Gear Dimensions
The main landing gear consists of dual struts on each side of the aircraft, with
three wheels on each strut. The nose gear consists of a single strut with two
wheels. Dimensions are shown below and in Figure 2.2.
Distance between nose gear tires—2 feet, 5 inches(center-to-center)
Center of nose gear to center of main gear—62 feet, 2 inches
Tread –33 feet, 8 inches
Distance between main gear tires---varies (see Figure 2.2)
Aircraft Weights
Maximum gross weight on paved surfaces--586,000 pounds
Maximum contingency operating weight on semi-prepared surfaces-447,000 pounds
Maximum operating weight on matting--560,000 pounds
Operating weight--279,000 pounds
Landing Gear Static Loads
Percent load on each main gear strut--23 %
Percent load on nose gear--8%
Main Gear Characteristics
Weight
(Kips)
586
560
447
279
Strut
Load(Kips)
134.8
128.8
102.8
64.2
Contact Area
Wheel
Contact
Tire
Width
Load (Kips) Area (Sq. In.) Pressure (psi)
(In.)
44.9
320
138
15.7
42.9
310
138
15.5
34.3
250
138
13.9
21.4
155
138
9.8
Nose Gear Characteristics
Weight
(Kips)
586
560
447
279
Strut
Load(Kips)
46.9
44.8
35.8
22.3
Contact Area
Wheel
Contact
Tire
Width
Load (Kips) Area (Sq. In.) Pressure (psi)
(In.)
23.4
150
155
10.7
22.4
145
155
10.6
17.9
115
155
9.4
11.2
72
155
7.5
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Figure 2.1. Horizontal and Vertical Aircraft Dimensions
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Figure 2.1. Horizontal and Vertical Aircraft Dimensions (Continued)
Figure 2.2. Landing Gear Dimensions
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Aircraft Classification Numbers. The International Civil Aviation Organization
has developed and adopted a standardized method of reporting pavement
strength for conventional rigid and flexible pavements. This procedure is known
as the Aircraft Classification Number/Pavement Classification Number
(ACN/PCN). The ACN is a number that expresses the effect an aircraft will have
on a pavement. The PCN is a number that expresses the capability of a
pavement to support aircraft operations. ACNs for the C-17 for maximum gross
weight, maximum operating and minimum operating weight for contingency and
training operations on semi-prepared airfields are shown in the following table.
Figure 2.3 shows ACN values for any C-17 weight. A more detailed discussion
of the ACN/PCN procedure and CAN values for the C-27 and C-130 are
contained in Appendix C.
Aircraft Classification Numbers
Subgrade Strength
Aircraft
Wt. (Kips)
586
447
279
High
CBR 13 (A)
68
47
21
Medium
Low
CBR =9-13(B) CBR=4-8(C)
75
85
53
60
28
30
Ultra Low
CBR 4(D)
109
77
37
110
D
Subgrade Strength
100
90
ACN-PCN
80
A High
B Medium
C Low
D Ultra Low
CBR > 13
CBR = 9 -13
CBR = 4 - 8
CBR < 4
C
B
70
A
60
50
40
30
20
C-17
10
250
300
350
400
450
500
Aircraft Gross Weight, (kips)
550
600
Figure 2.3. Aircraft Classification Number for C-17 for Contingency Operations
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Turning Criteria. Experience has shown that tight turns on semi-prepared airfields
damage the surface and produce foreign object damage. Therefore, star turns are not
recommended. The criteria in figure 2.4 are the basis for the hammerhead dimensions
contained in this document.
Type Steering Effective Tire Slippage
Turn
Input Turn Angle
Angle
Optimal 65(max)
52
8
Limit
60
53
12
Minimum Taxiing Radii (Feet)
X
Y
A
R3 R4 R5 R6
62
48 146 81 136 88 129
62
47 143 80 134 87 128
Figure 2.4. Turning Criteria
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Section 3. Dimensional Criteria
3.1. Contents. This section presents design considerations unique for C-17
contingency airfields. This criteria is given as a supplement to the criteria given in
AFJPAM 32-8013/FM 5-430-00-2, Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields and
Heliports. With introduction of the C-17 came the requirement to validate existing
design criteria or develop new criteria as required to accommodate contingency
operations on semi-prepared runway surfaces.
3.2. Runway and Overrun Descriptions. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 provide dimensional
criteria for layout and design of assault landing zones.
3.2.1. Length. For a semi-prepared runway located between sea level and 6,000 feet
pressure altitude, the minimum length requirement for C-17 operations is 3,500 feet
with 300-foot overruns on each end. This length requirement, based upon an RCR of
20, assumes an ambient temperature equal Standard (1962) plus 31 ºF, and a landing
gross weight of 447,000 pounds. Based upon these same temperature and weight
assumptions, the runway length will vary with different RCRs as follows:
RCR
Pressure Altitude
(feet)
Runway Length
(feet)
20
0 -6,000
3,500
16
0 - 2,000
2,001 - 5,000
5,001 - 6,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
12
0 - 2,000
2,001 - 5,000
5,001 - 6,000
4,000
4,500
5,000
8
0 - 3,000
3,001 - 5,000
5,001 - 6,000
0 - 2,000
2,001 - 4,000
4,001 - 6,000
5,000
5,500
6,000
6,000
6,500
7,000
4
Note: The runway lengths do not include under/overruns.
3.2.2. Width. The widths of these landing surfaces must be sufficient to protect the
aircraft landing gear and the engines. Table 3.1 provides the minimum runway width.
3.2.3. Longitudinal Gradients of Operational Surfaces. Gradient constraints are based
upon reverse aircraft operations conducted on hard surfaces. Caution should be used
when backing aircraft on soft soil conditions, at any gradient.
3.2.4. Shoulders. Shoulders are graded and cleared of obstacles and slope downward
away from the runway where practical to facilitate drainage.
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Table 3.1. Runways for C-17 Contingency Airfields
Contingency
Airfield
(Semi-Prepared and AM-2)
Minimum
1,067 m
[3,500 ft]
See Remarks
Item
No.
1.
Item
Description
Length
2.
Width
27.5 m
[90 ft]
3.
Width of
Shoulders
3m
[10 ft]
4.
Longitudinal
Grades of
Runway
and
Shoulders
Longitudinal
Runway
Grade
Change
Transverse
Grade of
SemiPrepared
Runway
Transverse
Grade of
Runway
Shoulder
Lateral
Clear Area
Maximum 3%
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Transverse
Grade of
Lateral
Clear Area
Remarks
Runway length of 3,500 ft required for locations between
sea level and 6,000 ft pressure altitude, based upon an
RCR of 20, an ambient temperature of Standard (1962)
+31 ºF, and landing gross weight of 447,000 lbs. See
paragraph 3.2.1 for runway requirements based upon
different RCRs.
See Note 1.
Remove all tree stumps and loose rocks in shoulder
areas.
Shoulders should be stabilized to prevent erosion by jet
blast. Where adequate sod cover cannot be established,
the shoulders should be chemically stabilized.
Hold to minimum practicable.
Grades may be both positive and negative but must not
exceed the limit specified.
Max 1.5% per 60 m [200 ft]
0.5 -3.0%
Longitudinal grade changes cannot occur within 150 m
[500 feet] of runway ends.
Minimum distance between grade changes is 122 m (400
ft).
Transverse grades should slope down from the runway
centerline. The intent of the transverse grade limit is to
provide adequate cross slope to facilitate drainage
without adversely affecting aircraft operations.
1.5% Minimum
to
5.0% Maximum
10.5 m
[35 ft]
2.0% Minimum
to
5.0% Maximum
Remove or embed rocks larger than 6 inches in
diameter. Cut tree stumps to within 6 inches of the
ground. Remove vegetation (excluding grass) to within 6
inches of ground.
Grades may slope up or down to provide drainage.
Exception: Essential drainage ditches may be sloped up
to 10% in the primary surface area and clear zones. Do
not locate these ditches within 27.5 meters [90 feet] of
the runway centerline. Such ditches should be
essentially parallel with the runway
Note 1. For C-17 airfields without parallel taxiways, provide a method for turning around at both ends of
the usable surface. The turnarounds should be 55 m [180 ft] long and 50 m [165 feet] wide
(including the runway/overrun width), with 45º fillets and be constructed to same structural and
gradient standards as the runway/overrun. The aircraft must be positioned within ten feet of the
runway edge prior to initiating this turn. Provide an expanded hammerhead or taxiways and
aprons if the airfield maximum-on-ground requirement is greater than one.
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Table 3.2. Overruns for C-17 Contingency Airfields
Item
No.
Item
Description
Contingency
Airfield
(Semi-Prepared and AM-2)
1.
Overrun
Length
91.5 m
[300 ft]
2.
Overrun
Width
27.5 m
[90 ft]
3.
Longitudinal
Grade of
Overruns
See Remarks
The grade must be constant and is the same as
the last 150 m [500 ft] of the runway end.
4.
Transverse
Grade of
Overruns
See Remarks
Same as runway end. Grades should slope
downward from overrun centerline.
Remarks
The overruns must be constructed to the same
standards as the runway. Overruns for mat
surfaced runways must also be constructed with
mat.
3.3. Clear Zones, Accident Potential Zones, and Imaginary Surfaces. The
clearance and grade requirements for assault landing zones are established to provide
a reasonable level of safety at forward operating locations during contingencies.
Criteria for clear zones, and imaginary surfaces are in Tables 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5,
respectively. These surfaces are displayed in Figures 3.1 through 3.4.
3.4. Taxiways. The widths and turning radius are similar to that for class A and B
fixed-wing airfields, but the clearances and grades are less stringent. Criteria for
taxiways are in Table 3.6, and illustrated in Figure 3.4.
3.5. Aprons. The clearance, as well as the longitudinal and transverse grades for
aprons are in Table 3.7.
3.6. Airfield Marking. Schemes for night and day marking of airfields are illustrated in
Figures 3.5 and 3.6.
3.6.1. The Visual Assault Zone Marker Panel (VAMP). The VAMP comes in three
different configurations, the low, medium and the high velocity model; the low velocity
version to withstand sustained wind blasts up to 150 miles per hour, the medium
velocity version to withstand wind blasts from 150 to 200 MPH and the high velocity
version to withstand winds of 200 MPH and greater. We have listed the differences
among the three models (by design) below. A drawing of the VAMP is depicted in
Figure 3.7.
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Table 3.3. Runway End Clear Zone for C-17 Contingency Airfields
Contingency
Airfield
(Semi-Prepared and AM-2)
Item
No.
Item
Description
1.
Length
152.5 m
[500 ft]
2.
Width at
Inner Edge
55 m
[180 ft]
3.
Width at
Outer Edge
152.5 m
[500 ft]
4.
Longitudinal
and
Transverse
Grade of
Surface
Maximum 5.0%
Remarks
Measured along the extended runway
centerline. Begins at the runway
threshold.
Grades are exclusive for clear zone and
are not part of the overrun but are
shaped into the overrun grade. See
Table 3.2, Item 3 for additional
information.
Grades may slope up or down to
provide drainage. Exception: Essential
drainage ditches may be sloped up to
10% in the primary surface area and
clear zones. Do not locate these ditches
within 27.5 meters [90 feet] of a runway
centerline. Such ditches should be
essentially parallel with the runway.
Remove or embed rocks larger than 2
inches in diameter. Cut tree stumps,
brush, and other vegetation (excluding
grass) to within 2 inches of the ground.
Table 3.4. Accident Potential Zones (APZ) for C-17 Contingency Airfields
Item
No.
Item
Description
Contingency
Airfield
(Semi-Prepared and AM-2)
1.
APZ 1
Length
762 m
[2,500 ft]
2.
APZ 1 Width
152 m [500 ft]
Remarks
Limit where possible the following within the APZ:
Actions that release any substances into
the air that would impair visibility or otherwise
interfere with operating aircraft, such as
steam, dust, and smoke.
Actions that produce electrical emissions
which would interfere with aircraft and/or
communications or navigational aid systems.
Actions that produce light emissions, direct
or indirect (reflective), that might interfere with
pilot vision.
Items that unnecessarily attract birds or
waterfowl, such as sanitary landfills, feeding
stations, or certain types of crops or
vegetation.
Explosive facilities or activities.
Troop concentrations, such as housing
areas, dining or medical facilities, and
recreational fields that include spectators.
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Table 3.5. Imaginary Surfaces for C-17 Contingency Airfields
Contingency
Airfield
(Semi-Prepared and AM-2)
Item
No.
Item
Description
1.
Primary Surface
Length
Runway length plus 305 m [1,000 ft]
2.
Primary Surface
Width
55 m [180 ft]
3.
Transverse
Grades within
Primary Surface
(in direction of
surface drainage)
Minimum 2.0%
Maximum 5.0%
4.
Lateral Safety
Zone: Inner Edge
27.5 m
[90 ft]
5.
Lateral Safety
Zone: Outer Edge
42.5 [140 ft] from the runway centerline
6.
Lateral Safety
Zone -- Slope
5H:1V
7.
Horizontal
Surface
No Requirement
8.
ApproachDeparture
Clearance
Surface -- Inner
Edge
152.5 m
[500 ft]
9.
Width at Inner
Edge.
152.5 m
[500 ft]
10.
Slope
20H:1V
Remains constant throughout length.
11.
Slope Length
Minimum 3,200 m
[10,500 ft]
The desired slope length is 9,733 m
[32,000 ft]
12.
Width at Outer
Edge
762.00 m [2,500 ft]
at 3200 m [10,500 ft]
from inner edge
Width of approach-departure
clearance surface is constant from
3,200 m [10,500 ft] to 9,753 [32,000
ft] from the inner edge
Remarks
Centered on the runway. (Includes
lengths of clear zones.)
Centered on the runway.
Transverse grades may slope up or
down to provide drainage ditches.
Centerline of drainage ditches must
be established away from runway
shoulders to prevent water from
backing up onto the shoulder area.
Exception: Essential drainage ditches
may be sloped up to 10% in the
primary surface area and clear zones.
Do not locate these ditches within
27.5 meters [90 feet] of an Assault
Landing Zone centerline. Such
ditches should be essentially parallel
with the runway.
Measured from the runway centerline.
Coincident with the lateral edges of
the primary surface.
Connects the primary and the
approach-departure clearance
surfaces.
Measured from runway end.
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Figure 3.1. Primary C-17 Contingency Airfield Surface End Details
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Figure 3.2. C-17 Contingency Airfield Detail
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Figure 3.3. C-17 Contingency Airfield Runway Imaginary Surfaces
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Figure 3.4. C-17 Contingency Airfield Runway, Taxiway, and Apron Section
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Table 3.6. Taxiways for C-17 Contingency Airfields
Contingency Airfield
(Semi-Prepared and AM-2)
Item
No.
Item
Description
1.
Width
18 m
[60 ft]
2.
Turning Radii
27.5 m
[90 ft]
3.
Shoulder Width
3m
[10 ft]
4.
Longitudinal
Grade
Maximum 3.0%
5.
Rate of
Longitudinal
Grade Change
Maximum 2.0% per 30 meters [100 feet]
The minimum distance between two
successive points of intersection (PI) is
60 meters [200 feet]. Changes are to be
accomplished by means of a vertical
curve.
6.
Transverse
Grade of
Taxiway
0.5% to 3.0%
Transverse grades are to slope down
from the taxiway centerline. The intent of
the transverse grade limitation is to
provide adequate cross slope to facilitate
drainage without adversely affecting
aircraft operations. The surfaces should
slope so that the centerline of the taxiway
is crowned.
7.
Transverse
Grade of
Taxiway
Shoulder
1.5% to 5.0%
Aircraft are not permitted to use
shoulders on AM-2 airfields due to
horizontal and vertical load devices
connected to the mat edges.
8.
Runway
Clearance
85.5 m [280 ft]
Measured from the runway centerline to
near edge of the taxiway.
9.
Clearance to
Fixed or Mobile
Obstacles
33.5 m [110 ft]
Measured from the taxiway centerline.
10.
Taxiway Clear
Area -- Width
21.5 m [70 ft]
Remove or embed rocks larger than 6
inches in diameter. Cut tree stumps,
brush, and other vegetation (excluding
grass) to within 6 inches of the ground.
11.
Taxiway Clear
Area -- Grade
Maximum 5.0%
Remarks
Shoulders should be stabilized to prevent
erosion by jet blast. Where adequate sod
cover cannot be established, the
shoulders should be chemically stabilized
for blast protection.
Remove all tree stumps and loose rocks.
Hold to minimum practicable.
Grades may be both positive and
negative.
Transverse grades may slope up or down
to provide drainage ditches. Centerline of
drainage ditches must be established
away from taxiway shoulders to prevent
water from backing up on to the shoulder
area.
Exception: Essential drainage ditches
may be sloped up to 10%.
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Table 3.7. Apron for C-17 Contingency Airfields
Item
No.
Item
Description
1.
Apron size
Contingency
Airfield
(Semi-Prepared and AM-2)
Remarks
Sized to accommodate mission
2.
Apron Grades in
the Direction of
Drainage
1.5 to 3.0%
3.
Width of Apron
Shoulder
3m
[10 ft]
Apron shoulders should be stabilized to
prevent erosion by jet blast. Where
adequate sod cover cannot be established,
the shoulders should be chemically
stabilized for blast protection.
4.
Transverse Grade
of Shoulder away
from the Apron
Edge
1.5 to 5.0%
Apron shoulder should be graded to carry
storm water away from the apron. In
shoulder areas, remove all tree stumps and
loose rocks.
Aircraft are not permitted to use shoulders
on AM-2 airfields due to horizontal and
vertical load devices connected to the mat
edges.
5.
Clearance from
Edge of Apron to
Fixed or Mobile
Obstacles
30 m [100 ft]
300’
ooooo
100’
400’
Lights will be 500’/150M minimum to
1000’/300M maximum distance apart
l
m
m
l
m••• m •
m •
Touchdown
Zone
Overrun
l
l
m••• m •
m
m
m
400’
100’
300’
m
m
Y
m •
m
Y
Direction of Flight è è è
m•
m
l=Green Light, 6’ apart when used in pairs.
m=White Light, 6’ apart when used in pairs
Y=Red Light, 6’ apart when used in pairs
•=Light Reflector Panel (Optional). Place Reflectors at 200’, 300’, and
400’ from approach end, spaced midway between remaining side field
marker lights.
ooooo=Five Optional Strobe Lights. May be placed on centerline 100’
apart, starting at the outer edge of the overrun.
Overrun
m •
m
m
m
Y
Y
Additional Touchdown Zone
Lights. May be installed to
make the LZ usable from both
directions.
Figure 3.5 Airfield Marking Pattern (Night)
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300’
100’
400’
Panels will be 500’/150M minimum to
1000’/300M maximum distance apart
400’
100’
300’
æ
æ
Touchdown
Zone
Overrun
Direction of Flight è è è
Overrun
æ
æ
æ=Orange Panel, 6’ apart when used in pairs.
=Cerise Panel, 6’ apart when used in pairs
Additional Touchdown Zone
Panels may be installed to
make the LZ usable from both
directions.
Figure 3.6 Airfield Marking Pattern (Day)
Figure 3.7. Visual Assault Zone Marker Panel (VAMP)
3.6.1.1. VAMP (C Model) - TACTEC Part Number: AMS-0004-C-00001will be used for
C-17 operations. The ‘C’ Model is the high velocity VAMP designed for use with
aircraft that generate a maximum take-off blast (jet or prop) greater than 200 mph. This
VAMP is constructed of a cerise- and/or orange-colored (420 denier nylon) fabric panel
17 inches high by 72 inches long. This panel is reinforced around its entire outer edge
by a two-inch-wide (1000# test) nylon webbing that is sewn into the colored panel
material. Three 2-inch webbing loops are evenly spaced and sewn to each of the 17inch sides. Additionally, there are two 20-inch webbing stiffeners evenly spaced along
the bottom edge of the fabric panel. There is a 0.3125-inch inside diameter (ID) brasscoated steel grommet pressed into each of the two webbing stiffeners. There are three
vertical slits, evenly spaced, sewn into the panel. This allows for air pressure relief
while under maximum stress loads. There is a 0.3125-inch inside diameter (ID) brasscoated steel grommet pressed into each corner of the panel. The panel is supported
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and suspended by two 19-inch long by 0.500-inch outside diameter (OD) aluminum
poles. The poles are constructed of hollow aluminum tubing, reinforced by a round
head, 0.375 inch by 2-inch carriage bolt inserted into each end of the pole. The poles
are inserted through the 2-inch webbing loops at each end of the panel. The panel is
then attached to the poles by a 0.125-inch machine-crimped steel cable configuration.
Each corner of the 17-inch side(s) is attached to each end of the aluminum support
pole(s) by this method. Attached to the top end of each pole is a bungee system that is
made up of 10-millimeter, double-nylon-coated bungee cord. Each of the two bungee
systems consists of a single 52-inch long (unstretched) piece of bungee cord. This
cord is folded and crimped in the middle forming a loop, and at each of the two ends.
The three loops that are formed by this crimping are fitted with three, 2-inch long,
0.187-inch diameter quick-link connectors. The connector at the middle of the bungee
is attached to the top of the aluminum pole. A 9-inch aluminum tent stake is attached
to each of the four bungee ends, to the bottom of each pole, and to each of the two
stiffeners (at the bottom edge of the panel).
3.6.1.4. Additional Equipment. In addition to the 6 aluminum tent stakes (common to
all VAMP models) there are six 8-inch (eight 8-inch for the VAMP - C Model) steel
spikes attached by stainless steel safety cable. These spikes are much stronger than
the aluminum stakes and they allow for the use of the VAMP on extreme surface
conditions such as asphalt.
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Section 4. Structural Design Criteria
4.1. Introduction. This section presents the procedures for the structural design of
semi-prepared airfields for the C-17 aircraft. This criteria is submitted as a supplement
to that given in AFJPAM 32-8013/FM 5-430-00-2, Planning and Design of Roads,
Airfields, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations. The introduction of the C-17
resulted in the requirement to validate existing design criteria or develop new criteria
for contingency operations on semi-prepared runways. Semi-prepared airfields include
unsurfaced, aggregate-surfaced, and matted airfields. The criteria presented provides
guidance for designing unsurfaced, aggregate-surfaced, and AM-2 mat-surfaced
airfields for the operation of the C-17 aircraft.
4.2. Site Investigation. The site investigation for input to the structural design of a
semi-prepared airfield is required to determine the in-place material properties and the
properties of the materials that are available for use in constructing a contingency
airfield. If an existing airfield is to be used, the evaluation portion of this document
(Appendix C)should be used for investigating the capability of the airfield to support C17 aircraft operations. If an existing airfield is not capable of supporting operations of
the C-17 aircraft, the airfield will need to be upgraded or repairs and maintenance will
be required periodically during the mission. If it is determined that an existing airfield
will be upgraded, the design portion of this document should be used and the material
characteristics of the existing airfield and available materials for upgrading will be
required for input to the design procedure. Knowledge of the current field condition at
a site to be used for a contingency airfield is important (FM 5-430-00-2/AFJPAM 328013, Vol II). A proper description of the field condition at a proposed site includes the
following elements:
• ground cover (vegetation).
• natural slopes.
• soil types (classification).
• soil density.
• moisture content.
• soil consistency (soft or hard).
• existing drainage.
• natural soil strength (in terms of California Bearing Ratio).
The information listed above is needed to determine the construction effort required to
provide an airfield capable of supporting the design number of operations of the C-17
aircraft.
4.3. Base, Subbase, and Subgrade. A semi-prepared pavement structure typically
consists of three layers, the existing subgrade, a subbase, and a base course. A semiprepared airfield may or may not have a subbase or a base. If the existing material (the
subgrade) is determined to be capable of supporting aircraft operations, no subbase or
base will be required. A subbase may consist of subbase material and a select
material if a select material is available and of better quality than the subgrade (see FM
5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1, Chapter 5). The subgrade, potential subbase and
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potential base materials need to be identified according to the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). The evaluation portion of this document details the
USCS and field procedures for identifying soils and categorizing them according to the
USCS.
4.4. Soil Strength. The strength of the existing soil and any layers that will be
constructed above it are important parameters that are input to the design procedure.
For semi-prepared pavements, the parameter used for indicating the strength of the
layers is the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The CBR is a measure of the shearing
resistance or strength of the soil. The evaluation portion of this document discusses
the tools and procedures for quickly obtaining an estimate of the CBR of in-place soils.
For soils or materials that are to be placed (i.e. excavated, hauled, placed and
compacted) it will be necessary to determine the CBR that will be obtainable. A
moisture-density relationship (proctor curve) with accompanying laboratory CBR values
is preferred for determining the CBR obtainable in the field and for specifying moisture
and density requirements during construction. The CBR value of a material to be
placed may be significantly different than the in-place CBR of the material. Some soils
loose strength with remolding (see Chap 8 FM 5-410). Other soils if properly placed
can achieve CBR values greater than existed naturally. This is accomplished by
compacting the soil at or near optimum moisture content with an appropriate
compactive effort to obtain near maximum density. If maximum density is not achieved,
a reduction in available performance results with a reduction in the number of aircraft
operations the airfield can support before failure occurs. Appendix C provides
information on ranges of CBR that can be expected for different soil types. A
conservative estimate of CBR based on the material type may be used for preliminary
design. During construction, the actual CBR can be measured with the dynamic cone
penetrometer (DCP), and the design of the semi-prepared pavement can be adjusted
as necessary. It should be noted that the CBR may change with time as the material
becomes saturated. Saturation of the material usually results in a reduction in the
CBR, this fact should be accounted for in the design of the airfield. Soaked laboratory
CBR values provide a good indication of the reduction in the CBR that may be
expected. Otherwise, conservative values based on the material type and the CBR
determined in the field should be used for design. The gradation portion of this
document also provides an indication of the CBR that may be expected for materials
meeting gradation and compaction requirements.
4.5. Soil Behavior. Soil is compacted to improve its load-carrying capability (5-43000-2/AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol II). The compaction of soil reduces its natural variability
providing a more uniform structure for operating aircraft. Compaction also reduces the
soils permeability and susceptibility to erosion. Stabilization of soils can be used to
improve the strength of the soil or to reduce the effects of plasticity and high liquid
limits. Stabilizing can also provide dustproofing and waterproofing. Stabilization is
addressed in Section 4.8 of this document.
4.6. Gradation Requirements. The recommended gradation requirements and design
CBR values for the subbase and select material (FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol
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1) are shown in Table 4.1. Select material is used when an additional thickness above
the subgrade is required and can be achieved with a more readily available material
than the subbase or base material.
Table 4.1. Recommended Maximum Permissible Value of Gradation and
Atterberg Limit Requirements in Subbases and Select Materials
Maximum Permissible Value
Gradation
Requirements
% passing
Maximum
Design
CBR
50
40
30
20
Size in
Inches
2
2
2
3
Atterberg Limits
No. 10
No.200
LL*
Material
Subbase
50
15
25
Subbase
80
15
25
Subbase
100
15
25
Select
----35
Material
*Determination of these values will be made according to ASTM D4318.
PI*
5
5
5
12
The recommended gradation requirements for base course materials (FM 5-430-001/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol I) are shown in Table 4.2. The base course should also meet
the plastic and liquid limit requirements set for the subbase material as shown in Table
4.1. A material with a liquid limit greater than 25 or a plasticity index greater than 5
should not be used as a base course. The strengths in terms of a design CBR that may
be expected of the base course material (FM 5-430-001/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1), if it
meets the gradation and compaction requirements (Table 4.4), are shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.2. Recommended Gradation for Crushed Rock, Slag, Uncrushed
Sand and Gravel Aggregates for Base Courses
Sieve
Designations
2 inch
1 ½ inch
1 inch
¾ inch
3/8 inch
No. 4
No. 10
No. 40
No. 200
Percent Passing Each Sieve (Square Openings) by Weight
Maximum Aggregate Size
2 inch
1 ½ inch
1 inch
1-inch sand clay
100
------70-100
100
----55-85
75-100
100
100
50-80
60-90
70-100
--30-60
45-75
50-80
--20-50
30-60
35-65
--15-40
20-50
20-50
65-90
5-25
10-30
15-30
33-70
0-10
5-15
5-15
8-25
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Table 4.3. CBR Ratings for Base-Course Materials
Material Type
Graded, crushed aggregate
Water-bound macadam
Dry-bound macadam
Lime rock
Soil cement
Sand shell or shell
Design CBR
100
100
100
80
80
80
4.7. Compaction Requirements. The recommended compaction requirements for the
base, subbase, select material and subgrade are shown in Table 4.4. In general, the
top six inches of the subgrade is compacted to density requirements indicated in Table
4.4.
Table 4.4. Recommended Compaction Requirements for Semi-Prepared Airfields
Material
CBR
Percent Compaction
Required
Cohesive
Cohesionless
NA
100-105
NA
100-105
90 - 95
95-100
Base course
80-100
Subbase
20-50
Select material & Subgrade
<20
Notes:
1. A cohesive soil has a PI > 5; a cohesionless soil is one with a PI ≤ 5.
2. Cohesive soils are Not Applicable (NA) for use as a base or subbase.
3. Percent compaction is a percent of the maximum density at CE 55.
4. The minimum compacted layer thickness is 6 inches for an airfield.
5. Select material will have a CBR<20 and >subgrade CBR.
4.8. Stabilization. There are two major types of stabilizing procedures, mechanical
and chemical. Mechanical stabilization involves any of the following: compaction,
blending of aggregates, or adding a bitumen. Chemical stabilization involves the
addition of material, such as lime, cement, or fly-ash, that chemically reacts with the
soil or itself to improve properties of the soil. (See FM 5-410, Military Soils
Engineering, for further information). As discussed previously, stabilization may be
used to increase the strength, provide dust proofing, reduce the maintenance effort
required for continued operations, and increase performance by improving the shearing
resistance during operations. Stabilization of a contingency airfield is appropriate
when time and logistics allow for it to be accomplished and the mission requirements
are substantial enough to require it. Functions of stabilization for traffic areas and nontraffic areas of the airfield are listed in Table 12-5, pp. 12-19 (see FM 5-430-002/AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol. II). Table 12-6, pp. 12-21 (see FM 5-430-00-2/AFJPAM 328013, Vol. II) provides a table listing dust-control and waterproofing materials that can
be used and their appropriate application.
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4.8.1. Stabilization Recommendations. For training airfields, stabilization of the
surfacing material is desirable. When stabilizing the airfield surface to improve the
strength of the existing material, cement and/or lime generally will be the most
appropriate stabilizing agent to use. Bituminous materials are appropriate for
stabilizing coarse-grained materials. However, to provide a quality layer, the
bituminous stabilized material should be mixed in a plant -- not mixed in-place. It is
very difficult to obtain the mixing, compaction, and grade control required using in-place
mixing of bituminous materials. Army TM 5-822-14/Air Force AFJMAN 32-1019, Soil
Stabilization for Pavements, provides detailed guidance on design and construction of
stabilized layers. The following paragraphs provide general design and construction
guidance.
4.8.2. General Design Guidance. The thickness requirement for the stabilized layer
should be determined from Figure 4.2. No reduction in thickness is allowed due to
stabilizing.
Note: A minimum six inches of stabilized material should be used.
Stabilization results in improved performance and durability. Materials to be stabilized
with cement or lime should attain a minimum unconfined compressive strength of 5,170
kPa (750 psi), using curing periods of 7 days for cement stabilization and 28 days for
lime stabilization.
4.8.3. General Construction Guidance. The following guidance applies to stabilizing
with cement and/or lime. Construction of stabilized layers should only be performed
when temperatures will remain above 40o F throughout construction and curing.
4.8.3.1. Subgrade. The subgrade which will support the stabilized material should be
firm and uniform. Wind-rowing the in-place material to be stabilized, thereby exposing
the subgrade, allows the subgrade to be worked and any problems corrected before
placing the stabilized layer. The subgrade should be rolled with the largest roller
available -- either a rubber-tired or steel-wheeled roller. Any weak areas that yield or
move excessively under the roller should be replaced with a select fill material.
4.8.3.2. Pulverizing. Material to be stabilized should be pulva-mixed before placing the
stabilizing agent. Pulva-mixing should be continued until the material to be stabilized
passes 100 percent of the 1 inch U.S. Standard Sieve, and 50 to 60 percent passes the
No. 4 U.S. Standard Sieve. Pulverizing ensures proper mixing and reaction with all of
the material. If the material is not well-pulverized, clay balls or zones of weak,
unstabilized material may result in subsequent poor performance of the airfield.
4.8.3.3. Mixing. The material to be stabilized should be at optimum moisture content
when the stabilizing agent is added. The stabilizing agent should be uniformly
distributed over the surface of the airfield. Mixing should continue with the pulva-mixer
until the material is uniform in color through the depth of the layer being stabilized.
Streaks or stripes are indications that mixing has not been thorough and weak areas
will result if the mixing is not continued. Add water as needed to maintain optimum
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moisture content. If the weather is dry and windy, moisture will be lost rapidly during
mixing, requiring more frequent additions of water.
4.8.3.4. Grade Control. If the material must be stabilized in-place, it should be brought
to the final grade and the final elevation, plus an additional thickness for the expected
reduction due to compaction, after pulverizing and before the addition of the stabilizing
agent. The addition of the stabilizing agent and subsequent mixing should not
significantly affect the grades and elevations. A reduction of 10 to 30 percent in layer
thickness can be expected due to compaction. A small trial section should be
constructed to determine the loss in thickness that can be expected for the local
conditions. It is important that the materials be placed as close as possible to final
grades prior to compaction. Minor adjustments in the grades following initial
compaction can result in thin layers of material that may delaminate and cause
potential FOD and roughness problems. Once compaction is begun, the grades should
not be adjusted. If the grades have to be adjusted, a minimum depth of six inches of
material should be pulva-mixed, the grade adjusted, and then compaction begun again.
4.8.3.5. Compaction. Compaction should begin as soon as possible after mixing with
cement stabilization. In no case should compaction be finished later than four hours
after the start of mixing of the cement mixture. Roller patterns may be adjusted until the
minimum number of passes results in the density required. The required density
should be at least 95 percent of the mix design density. For lime stabilization,
compaction may be delayed as long as 24 hours. The materials should be kept near
optimum moisture content after mixing and before compaction occurs. The delay in
compaction allows the material to react chemically (a process termed "mellowing" for
lime stabilized materials).
4.8.3.6. Curing. Curing is required to maintain the moisture content and allow the
hydration process to continue uninterrupted, thereby allowing the stabilized material to
achieve maximum strength. Normally, spray-on membranes, such as a bitumen or a
curing compound, may be used for curing. However, since the stabilized layer will be
the airfield surface, membranes are not recommended. Sprinklers, hay, or burlap
blankets can be used for moist curing. Plastic sheeting that can be removed after the
curing period may also be used. The curing period should last at least seven days, but
curing beyond seven days will help the stabilized material develop maximum strength.
If sprinklers or other systems are used for wet curing, the surface should be monitored
to ensure that surface erosion does not occur.
4.9. Design Parameters. The design of contingency airfields requires a knowledge of
the design aircraft, the gross weight of the aircraft, the mission traffic requirements, the
type of traffic area, preliminary soil strength data, and frost conditions. Each of these
parameters is described below.
4.9.1. Design Aircraft. The criteria presented is for the design of contingency airfields
exclusively for the C-17 aircraft. If the C-17 is to be used in conjunction with other
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aircraft (i.e. C-130), the C-17 will be the critical aircraft for the structural design of
contingency airfields.
4.9.2. Aircraft Gross Weight. The gross weight of the aircraft is the combined weight
of the empty aircraft, the cargo, and the fuel. The operating weight of the C-17 aircraft
is 279,000 lbs or 279 kips. The maximum gross weight of the aircraft is 586 kips.
However, the maximum gross weight for operations on contingency airfields for the C17 aircraft is 447 kips which is also typically the design gross weight for contingency
operations.
4.9.3. Mission Traffic Requirements. The mission traffic requirements refer to the
number of aircraft passes that an airfield must sustain in order to fulfill mission
requirements. Contingency airfields typically have a short design life, and a
reasonable estimate of the mission’s requirements in terms of aircraft passes is
required in order to produce an adequate airfield design with the minimum resource
requirements. From the mission statement or an estimate of the situation, determine
the minimum number of design aircraft passes that will accomplish the mission. For
contingency airfields that have a parallel taxiway, one aircraft pass is defined as one
takeoff and one landing. For contingency airfields that do not possess a parallel
taxiway, one aircraft landing and one takeoff each count as an aircraft pass. Thus, if an
airfield is to be designed for 100 aircraft operations (landings and takeoffs), the design
aircraft passes would be 100 if the design includes the construction of a parallel
taxiway. If a parallel taxiway is not in the overall design, then the design aircraft
passes should be 200. Additional design passes should be incorporated if multiple
aircraft movements are expected on the airfield. For each additional movement
expected, one design aircraft pass should be added to the design traffic level.
4.9.4. Traffic Area. Military airfields are typically divided into traffic areas based upon
the frequency and type of aircraft loading. All pavement facilities of contingency
airfields are classified as Type A traffic areas. Type A traffic areas are pavement
facilities that receive channelized traffic and the full design weight of the aircraft.
4.9.5. Soil Strength. The strength of the in-place subgrade will determine the type of
surfacing required (if any) and the allowable number of passes of the design aircraft.
The strength of the subgrade and construction materials can be determined in terms of
the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) by using the laboratory CBR test, airfield cone
penetrometer, trafficability penetrometer, or the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP).
The soil strengths in terms of CBR can be determined based upon procedures outlined
in Chapter 5, FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol. 1. A preliminary site investigation
is essential in order to properly design contingency airfields. The procedure for
conducting site evaluations is provided in Appendix C of this document.
4.9.6. Frost Conditions. Frost action can cause subgrade strengths to be reduced
significantly during thaw periods. Detrimental frost action will occur if the subgrade
contains frost-susceptible materials, the temperature remains below freezing for a
considerable amount of time, and an ample supply of ground water exists. If the
subgrade is frost-susceptible, determine its frost group from Table 4.5 below (FM 5430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol. 1.
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Table 4.5. Frost Group Designations for Frost Design based on Soil Classification
Frost
Group
Type of Soil
NFS (a.) Gravels (e > 0.25)
Crushed Stone
Crushed Rock
(b.) Sands (e < 0.30)
(c.) Sands (e > 0.30)
S1
(a.) Gravels (e < 0.25)
Crushed Stone
Crushed Rock
(b.) Gravelly soils
% by
Weight
< 0.02 mm
0-3
0-3
0-3
0-3
3-10
0-3
0-3
0-3
3-6
S2
Sandy soils (e < 0.30)
3-6
F1
Gravelly soils
6-10
F2
(a.) Gravelly soils
(b.) Sands
10-20
6-15
F3
Typical Soil Types
under the USCS
GW, GP
GW, GP
GW, GP
SW, SP
SP
GW, GP
GW, GP
GW, GP
GW, GP, GW-GM, GP-GM,
GW-GC, and GP-GC
SW, SP, SW-SM, SP-SM, SWSC, and SP-SC
GW-GM, GP-GM, GW-GC, and
GP-GC
GM, GC, GM-GC
SM, SC, SW-SM, SP-SM, SWSC, SP-SC, and SM-SC
GM, GC, GM-GC
SM, SC, SM-SC
(a.) Gravelly soils
>20
(b.) Sands (not very fine silty
>15
sands)
(c.) Clays (PI > 12)
CL, CH, ML-CL
F4
(a.) Silts
ML, MH, ML-CL
(b.) Very fine sands
>15
SM, SC, SM-SC
(c.) Clays (PI < 12)
CL, ML-CL
(d.) Varved clays or fineCL or CH layered with ML,
grained banded
MH, SM, SC, SM-SC, or
sediments
ML-CL
NOTE: e = void ratio. NFS indicates non-frost susceptible material
To design for the effects of frost, Frost Area Soil Support Indexes (FASSIs) are used in
lieu of CBRs. Table 4.6 below lists these indexes for the different frost groups in Table
4.5. The design of contingency airfields for frost conditions is addressed later.
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Table 4.6. Frost Area Soil Support Indexes (FASSIs)
Frost Group of Soils
NFS
F1 and S1
F2 and S2
F3 and F4
Frost Area Soil Support
Index
In-place CBR
9
6.5
3.5
4.10. Surface CBR and Thickness Design. The criteria presented herein describes
the design of unsurfaced, aggregate-surfaced, and AM-2 mat-surfaced contingency
airfields. The first step in all designs is to obtain the site reconnaissance or
investigation data to determine existing site conditions. Divide the subsurface soil
strength data into layers of varying thickness by grouping materials possessing similar
CBR values. The procedure for determining the soil strength for the various layers is
outlined in AFJPAM 32-8013 and Appendix C of this document. The second step in the
design of contingency airfields for the C-17 aircraft is to determine the design aircraft
loading and the number of aircraft passes required to support mission requirements.
4.10.1. Unsurfaced Design. This design criteria consists of the determination of a
minimum surface CBR value and a minimum thickness of material equal to or greater
than the minimum surface CBR over a lower strength material. The existing soil
conditions must meet both the surface CBR requirement and the thickness
requirements. To determine if the surface CBR is sufficient to sustain the design traffic,
enter Figure 4.1 with the required number of aircraft passes. Proceed vertically until
the pass level intersects the appropriate design gross weight of the aircraft. Finally,
trace a horizontal line from this intersection to the required subgrade CBR value. The
CBR obtained is the surface soil strength required to support the design aircraft load at
the required pass level. If the CBR obtained from Figure 4.1 is greater than the inplace subgrade CBR determined from the preliminary site investigation, the airfield will
require structural improvement to support mission requirements. If the CBR obtained
from Figure 4.1 is equal to or less than the in-place subgrade CBR, the surface CBR
requirement is met. If the in-place surface CBR is only slightly less than the minimum
CBR, scarify and compact the in-place material. Then, reevaluate the subgrade soil
strength by one of the methods described above and compare the compacted in-place
CBR to the required CBR from Figure 4.1. Next, determine the minimum thickness of
the required CBR from Figure 4.2. Enter Figure 4.2 at the top with the in-place
subgrade CBR and draw a vertical line down until it intersects the design gross weight
of the aircraft. Then, draw a horizontal line from this point until it intersects the required
design passes. Finally, draw a vertical line down from the required pass level until it
intersects the required thickness. This thickness is the required thickness in inches of
a material of the minimum surface CBR determined from Figure 4.1 necessary to
support mission requirements. If the in-place subgrade CBR is equal to or greater than
the minimum subgrade CBR determined from Figure 4.1 and the preliminary site
investigation revealed that the depth of the in-place subgrade CBR is equal to or
greater than the thickness determined from Figure 4.2, then the airfield is structurally
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adequate to support the design traffic. If a weaker soil layer is encountered at some
depth below the surface soil layer, the thickness of material required to protect the
weaker soil layer should be checked using Figure 4.2. Enter Figure 4.2 with the weak
layer’s CBR rather than the surface layer’s CBR. If the thickness of the surface layer is
not sufficient to protect the underlying weak layer, the airfield requires structural
improvement to withstand the design traffic. Structural improvements for contingency
airfields include the addition of an aggregate or select fill layer(s), stabilization of the
natural subgrade (as discussed previously), or the use of AM-2 matting. The design
criteria for aggregate-surfaced and AM-2 mat-surfaced airfields is presented below.
45
40
35
GROSS WEIGHT, KIPS
580
550
CBR
30
25
500
20
450
400
15
350
10
5
0
10
100
1,000
10,000
AIRCRAFT PASSES
Figure 4.1. Unsurfaced Strength Requirements for the C-17 Aircraft
4.10.2. Aggregate-Surfaced Design. The design of an aggregate-surfaced
contingency airfield for the C-17 aircraft is necessary if the in-place subgrade CBR
cannot support the design mission requirements. The first step was accomplished by
evaluating the proposed site for the unsurfaced criteria. Doing so provides the
designer with the minimum required surface CBR to support C-17 aircraft operations at
the design pass level. The next step is to use Figure 4.2 to determine the minimum
required thickness of the minimum CBR determined from Figure 4.1.
4.10.3. AM-2 Mat-Surfaced Design. Heavy cargo aircraft may not be able to operate
on unsurfaced airfields due to the soil strength requirements. The use of an AM-2 mat
surfacing may be a plausible solution. For satisfactory performance, the landing mat
must be supported by the subgrade and must not be required to bridge over
depressions. To determine if the subgrade is capable of supporting an AM-2 surfaced
airfield, the minimum required subgrade CBR must be determined from Figure 4.3 and
compared to the in-place subgrade CBR. Enter Figure 4.3 at the bottom with the
required number of aircraft passes and draw a vertical line to the intersection of the
appropriate design gross weight curve. Then, draw a horizontal line to the vertical axis to
determine the minimum required subgrade CBR. Now that the required subgrade CBR has
been determined, it is necessary to check the subgrade thickness requirements. Use
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CBR (%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 9 10
20
30
40
50 60 70 80 90
40
50 60 70 80 90
ES
SS
A
P
GR
OS
S
58 WEIG
0
HT
,
KI
40
5
PS
0
0
0
T
AF
0
CR
R
10
AI
2
3
4
0
00
1,
0
00
5,
00
,0
10
30
0
1
0
50
5
6
7 8 9 10
20
30
Thickness (inches)
Figure 4.2. Aggregate or Select Fill Surface Thickness Requirements for the C-17
Aircraft.
Figures 4.4 through 4.8 to find the thickness of the subgrade that is required at the
predetermined soil strength (from Figure 4.3) for different design gross weights of the
aircraft. Use the in-place subgrade CBR when using Figures 4.4 through 4.8 to determine
the minimum thickness requirements. For example, enter Figure 4.6 for a C-17 aircraft with
a design gross weight of 450,000 lbs. at the bottom with the in-place subgrade CBR. Draw
a vertical line from the in-place subgrade CBR to the intersection of the appropriate design
pass level. Then, draw a horizontal line from this intersection to the vertical axis to
determine the thickness of subgrade (at the required strength) that must exist beneath the
AM-2 matting. If the preliminary site investigation indicates that the in-place subgrade CBR
is greater than or equal to the minimum required CBR obtained from Figure 4.3 and that the
in-place soil strength is consistent for a depth equal to or greater than the thickness
required in Figures 4.4 through 4.8, then AM-2 mat surfacing will be adequate to sustain
the mission’s design traffic. Otherwise, AM-2 matting will not provide sufficient structural
improvement to the natural subgrade to support the design C-17 operations. Figures 4.3
through 4.8 should not be used for Navy and Marine airfields since their criteria
require a minimum CBR of 25 under AM-2 surfaced airfields.
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Figure 4.3. Soil Strength Requirements for the C-17 on AM-2 Mat
Minimum Thickness Required Beneath AM-2 Mat
(inches)
0.00
10
10.00
100
1,000
20.00
5,000 Aircraft Passes
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
1.00
CBR (%)
10.00
Figure 4.4. Design Curve for C-17 Operations on AM-2 Mat at 350,000 Pounds
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Minimum Thickness Required Beneath AM-2 Mat
(inches
0.00
10
10.00
100
20.00
1,000
30.00
5,000 Aircraft Passes
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
1.00
CBR (%)
10.00
Figure 4.5. Design Curve for C-17 Operations on AM-2 Mat at 400,000 Pounds
Minimum Thickness Required Beneath AM-2 Mat
(inches
0.00
10.00
10
100
20.00
1,000
30.00
5,000 Aircraft Passes
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
1.00
10.00
CBR (%)
100.00
Figure 4.6. Design Curve for C-17 Operations on AM-2 Mat at 450,000 Pounds
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Minimum Thickness Required Beneath AM-2 Mat
(inches
0.00
10.00
10
100
20.00
1,000
30.00
5,000 Aircraft Passes
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
1.00
10.00
CBR (%)
100.00
Figure 4.7. Design Curve for C-17 Operations on AM-2 Mat at 500,000 Pounds
Minimum Thickness Required Beneath AM-2 Mat
(inches
0.00
10.00
20.00
10
100
1,000
30.00
5,000 Aircraft Passes
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
1.00
10.00
CBR (%)
100.00
Figure 4.8. Design Curve for C-17 Operations on AM-2 Mat at 550,000 Pounds
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4.10.4. Design for Frost Conditions. Typically, contingency airfields are not designed
for protection against frost action due to their short design life. However, in some
contingency situations, designing for frost conditions may be warranted. The design for
frost conditions utilizes the reduced subgrade strength criteria which assigns a material
to a frost group based upon the material’s properties. Table 4.5 shows the frost group
designations for various material types. Each material is then assigned a Frost Area
Soil Support Index (FASSI) number based upon its frost group designation. The FASSI
numbers for each frost group are illustrated in Table 4.6. The material’s FASSI number
is then used in lieu of the in-place subgrade CBR to enter the design curves.
Therefore, to design for frost conditions determine the material’s FASSI number, then
perform a typical contingency design utilizing the FASSI number instead of the in-place
subgrade CBR. However, if the FASSI designation is greater than the in-place soil’s
CBR, the in-place soil’s CBR should be used for the final design. For a more detailed
frost design refer to AFM 88-6, Chapter 4.
4.11. Design Examples. To illustrate usage of the design criteria outlined above,
several examples are provided below for designing contingency airfields for various C17 aircraft missions.
4.11.1. Example 1. Design an airfield in the theater of operations for 200 operations of
a C-17. A special tactics team determined that the soil’s in-place CBR was 16 for a
depth of approximately 24 inches beyond which there is a 12-inch layer of 10 CBR
material. The airfield’s geometric design does not include a parallel taxiway.
Note: The number of required passes should be multiplied by two to account
for the aircraft taxiing down the runway to takeoff or unload cargo.
Step 1. The design aircraft has been designated as the C-17. The design gross
weight of the C-17 is 447 kips which seems reasonable in regard to mission
requirements.
Step 2. The design aircraft passes stated were 200, however, for design
purposes (as noted above) 400 passes will be used to account for taxi
movements.
Step 3. Using Figure 4.1, determine the minimum required subgrade strength to
support 400 passes of a 447 kip C-17 aircraft. Enter Figure 4.1 with 400 passes
and draw a vertical line to just below the 450 kip gross weight curve. From this
point, draw a horizontal line to the vertical axis to determine the required CBR.
The required subgrade CBR for 400 passes of a 447 kip C-17 is approximately
15 CBR.
Step 4. Since the minimum required CBR is less than the in-place CBR (15 <
16), then the in-place subgrade surface strength is sufficient to support mission
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requirements. It must also be determined if adequate thickness of the 16 CBR
material is available. Enter Figure 4.2 at the top with the in-place subgrade CBR
(16) and draw a vertical line down until it intersects the design gross weight of
the C-17 or 447 kips. Next, draw a horizontal line from this intersection until it
intersects the design pass level of 400 passes. Finally, draw a vertical line from
this intersection downward until you intercept the required thickness. Seven
inches of 16 CBR material is required to support 400 passes of a 447 kip C-17
aircraft. Since the in-place soil has 24 inches of 16 CBR material, the
unsurfaced airfield can support the design aircraft for the design passes without
structural improvement.
Step 5. Since there is a 12-inch layer of weaker material underlying the surface
layer, it must be determined if the surface soil layer has adequate thickness to
protect the underlying weaker layer. Enter Figure 4.2 with the weak layer’s CBR
(10) and draw a vertical line down until it intersects the design gross weight of
the aircraft or 447 kips. Next, draw a horizontal line from this intersection until it
intersects the design pass level of 400 passes. Finally, draw a vertical line from
this intersection downward until you intercept the required material thickness.
Nine inches of a 15 CBR material is required to protect the weak subsurface soil
layer. Since the in-place soil has 24 inches of a 16 CBR material, the weak
layer is adequately protected and the design is valid.
4.11.2. Example 2. Developments in the theater of operations require the design of a
second contingency airfield to support 200 passes of a C-17. The special tactics team
determined that the soil’s in-place CBR at the second site is 12 for a depth of
approximately 20 inches beyond which the CBR of the material increased. This airfield
will not possess a parallel taxiway.
Step 1. The design aircraft has been designated as the C-17. The design gross
weight of the C-17 is 447 kips which seems reasonable in regard to mission
requirements.
Step 2. The design aircraft passes stated were 200, however, for design
purposes (as noted in Example 1) 400 passes will be used to account for taxi
movements.
Step 3. Using Figure 4.1, determine the minimum required subgrade strength to
support 400 passes of a 447 kip C-17 aircraft. Enter Figure 4.1 with 400 passes
and draw a vertical line to just below the 450 kip gross weight curve. From this
point, draw a horizontal line to the vertical axis to determine the required CBR.
The required subgrade CBR for 400 passes of a 447 kip C-17 is approximately
15 CBR.
Step 4. Since the required CBR is greater than the in-place CBR (15 > 12), then
the subgrade must be improved structurally to support mission requirements.
First, determine the thickness of 15 CBR material required above the subgrade
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to support mission requirements. Enter Figure 4.2 at the top with the in-place
subgrade CBR (12) and draw a vertical line down until it intersects the design
gross weight of the C-17 or 447 kips. Next, draw a horizontal line from this
intersection until it intersects the design pass level of 400 passes. Finally, draw
a vertical line from this intersection downward until you intercept the required
thickness. The design requires 8 inches of 15 CBR material be placed over the
in-place subgrade in order to support 400 passes of a 447 kip C-17 aircraft.
4.11.3. Example 3. Developments have led to the need for a contingency airfield.
Estimation of the mission suggests that the design pass level should be 1,000 passes
of a 447 kip C-17. The only available site has a CBR of 4 for a depth of 12 inches
where it increases to an 8 CBR for an additional 24 inches.
Note: The mission requirements include plans for a parallel taxiway and a
small apron. Thus, the number of required passes should remain at
1,000 due to the probability that the aircraft will use the taxiway and
apron for all movements other than takeoffs or landings.
Step 1. The design aircraft has been designated as the C-17. The design gross
weight of the C-17 is 447 kips which seems reasonable in regard to mission
requirements.
Step 2. The design aircraft passes stated were 1,000. All pavements are A type
traffic areas and will use the same design.
Step 3. Using Figure 4.1, determine the minimum required subgrade strength to
support 1,000 passes of a 447 kip C-17 aircraft. Enter Figure 4.1 with 1,000
passes and draw a vertical line to just below the 450 kip gross weight curve.
From this point, draw a horizontal line to the vertical axis to determine the
minimum required CBR. The required subgrade CBR for 1,000 passes of a 447
kip C-17 is approximately 18 CBR.
Step 4. Since the required CBR is greater than the in-place CBR (18 > 4), then
the subgrade must be improved structurally to support mission requirements.
First, determine the thickness of 18 CBR material required above the in-place
subgrade to support mission requirements. Enter Figure 4.2 at the top with the
in-place subgrade CBR (4) and draw a vertical line down until it intersects the
design gross weight of the C-17 or 447 kips. Next, draw a horizontal line from
this intersection until it intersects the design pass level of 1,000 passes. Finally,
draw a vertical line from this intersection downward until you intercept the
required thickness. The design requires 21 inches of 18 CBR material be placed
over the in-place subgrade in order to support 1,000 passes of a 447 kip C-17
aircraft.
Step 5. Available aggregate and construction resources are limited, and the
construction of a 21-inch structural layer would be prohibitive. A stockpile of
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AM-2 landing mat is available, and a decision is made to determine the
plausibility of an AM-2 mat-surfaced airfield. First, determine the minimum
subgrade surface CBR requirements beneath the landing mat from Figure 4.3.
Enter the chart at the bottom with the design aircraft passes (1,000) and draw a
vertical line until it intersects the design gross weight of the aircraft. From this
intersection, draw a horizontal line across to the vertical axis to determine the
minimum subgrade CBR that is required beneath the AM-2 mat. The required
subgrade CBR for 1,000 passes of a 447 kip C-17 on AM-2 landing mat is 3.2
CBR or ~ 3.5 CBR.
Step 6. Since the required subgrade CBR beneath the AM-2 matting is less than
the existing in-place subgrade CBR (3.5 < 4), the surface CBR requirements are
met. Next, determine the minimum thickness of the subgrade required to
support the mission’s design traffic. Enter Figure 4.6 for a 450 kip C-17 with the
in-place CBR of 4 and draw a vertical line until it intersects the design pass level
of 1,000. Then, draw a horizontal line until it intersects the vertical axis to
determine the minimum thickness of 4 CBR material required beneath the AM-2
matting. A thickness of 5 inches of 4 CBR material is required beneath the AM-2
mat to support 1,000 passes of a 447 kip C-17. Since the in-place CBR of 4
exists for a depth of 12 inches, the thickness requirements beneath AM-2 mat
are met and AM-2 mat-surfacing is sufficient to support the design mission
traffic.
4.11.4. Example 4. Information provided by headquarters indicates that the airfield in
Example 3 will be required to support 5,000 passes of a C-17 rather than the original
1,000 passes. Redesign the airfield accordingly.
Step 1. The design aircraft and its design gross weight are denoted above as a
447 kip C-17.
Step 2. Due to changes in mission requirements, the design pass level was
increased from 1,000 passes to 5,000 passes.
Step 3. Following the guidance in Step 3 of the example above, the unsurfaced
criteria minimum surface CBR requirement is determined to be a 23 CBR. Since
the in-place subgrade CBR is much less than the required subgrade CBR (4 <
23), the in-place subgrade must be improved structurally to support the mission’s
design traffic.
Step 4. Use the guidance in step 4 of the above example to determine the
minimum required thickness of an aggregate or select fill layer of at least a 23
CBR to be placed above the in-place subgrade material. The criteria in Figure
4.2 indicate that approximately 25 inches of a 23 CBR material is required to
support 5,000 passes of a 447 kip C-17.
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Step 5. Since logistics prohibits the use of a large amount of fill, AM-2 matsurfacing should be considered. As shown in step 5 above, determine the
minimum surface subgrade CBR required to support AM-2 matting for the design
mission traffic. From Figure 4.3, it is determined that a 10 CBR material is
required to support mission requirements. Since the in-place subgrade CBR is
less than the required CBR (4 < 10), the in-place subgrade must be structurally
improved.
Step 6. To determine the thickness required of the 10 CBR material, use the
guidance in step 6 above and Figure 4.6. Entering the figure with the in-place
subgrade CBR (4) indicates that 22 inches of a 10 CBR is required beneath the
AM-2 mat to support design traffic requirements.
Thus, the design of the airfield includes the construction of a 22-inch select fill or
aggregate layer of at least a 10 CBR to be placed on top of the 4 CBR in-place
subgrade. The surfacing will consist of the use of AM-2 matting for all traffic areas.
Alternate designs incorporating various layers of differing soil strengths may be
considered provided that they meet the criteria presented herein.
4.11.5. Example 5. Design an airfield for contingency operations of a C-17 in an area
susceptible to frost action. 50 passes are expected during the spring thaw period.
Preliminary site investigations identified that the subgrade was classified as a lowplasticity clay (CL) with a Plasticity Index (PI) of 15 and an in-place subgrade CBR of
10 for 36 inches. No taxiways will be constructed.
Step 1. The design aircraft is a 447 kip C-17.
Step 2. The expected number of aircraft passes is 50, but the airfield will not
have any taxiways so the design pass level is adjusted to 100 (see Note in
Example 1).
Step 3. The first step in designing for frost is to determine the Frost Group to
which the subgrade belongs. Using the site investigation data and Table 4.1, it
is determined that the subgrade is in the F3 Frost Group. The next step is to
determine the Frost Area Soil Support Index (FASSI) for the subgrade. Using
Table 4.2, the FASSI for an F3 material is 3.5.
Step 4. Since the FASSI is less than the in-place subgrade CBR (3.5 < 10), then
the FASSI must be used in lieu of the in-place CBR for determining soil strength
and thickness requirements. Enter Figure 4.1 with the design passes (100) and
the gross aircraft weight (447 kips) to determine the subgrade surface CBR
required to support the design mission traffic. Following the steps in Example 1,
Step 3, it is determined that a minimum surface CBR of 12 is required to support
100 passes of a 447 kip C-17.
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Step 5. Since the minimum required surface CBR is greater than the in-place
subgrade CBR for frost design (12 > 3.5), the subgrade requires structural
improvement to withstand the design traffic. Using Figure 4.2, enter the chart
with an in-place subgrade CBR of 3.5 to determine the thickness of 12 CBR
material required above the subgrade to support the design traffic. Following
the guidance in Example 1, Step 4, it is determined that 15 inches of 12 CBR
material is required above the 3.5 CBR (frost) subgrade.
At this point, an analysis of available construction materials would determine whether
15 inches of an 12 CBR non frost-susceptible material would be plausible. If not, the
design procedure for the use of AM-2 matting should proceed if sufficient mat is
available. Otherwise, alternate means of strengthening the in-place subgrade should
be explored as discussed earlier.
4.12. Drainage Design. Adequate surface drainage should be provided in order to
minimize moisture damage to the airfield. The rapid removal of surface water reduces
the potential for absorption and helps to ensure more consistent soil strength. The
surface geometry of the airfield should be designed so that drainage is provided at all
points. Depending upon the surrounding terrain, surface drainage may be achieved by
a continual cross slope or by an interconnected series of cross slopes. Except in
special circumstances the two year storm frequency is considered a satisfactory design
frequency for contingency airfields. Design of surface drainage should be in
accordance with TM 5-820-3/AFM 88-5, Chapter 3. Requirements for subsurface
drainage are outlined in TM 5-820-2/AFM 88-5, Chapter 2.
4.13. Dust Control. The primary objective of a dust palliative is to prevent soil
particles from becoming airborne as a result of wind or traffic. Dust palliatives must be
able to withstand the abrasion of wheels and tracks. The abrasive action of aircraft
landing gear may be too serious for the use of some dust palliatives. However, the use
of dust palliatives in non-braking areas should be considered especially in arid and
semi-arid climates. No one product has been identified as universally acceptable for all
problem situations that may be encountered. Several materials have been
recommended for use and are discussed in TM 5-830-3/AFM 88-17, Chapter 3.
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APPENDIX A
Classification and Field Identification of Soils
A.1. Soil Classification. Soils seldom exist separately as sand, gravel, or any other
single component in nature. They are usually mixtures with varying proportions of
different sized particles. Each component contributes to the characteristics of the
mixture. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is based on the characteristics
which indicate how a soil will behave as a construction material. The physical
properties determined by appropriate tests and calculations are used to classify the
soil. The criteria for identifying the different soil types is described in Table A.1 and the
following paragraphs. Table A.2 depicts engineering characteristics of the different soil
types pertinent to roads and airfields.
More than half of coarse
fraction is larger than
No. 4 sieve
More than half of coarse
fraction is smaller than
No. 4 sieve
Gravels
Sands
Coarse-grained Soils
Fine-grained Soils
More than half of material is smaller than
No. 200 sieve
More than half of material is larger than
No. 200 sieve
Major Divisions
Symbol
Field Identification Procedures
(Base fractions on estimated weights)
Gravels
<5%
Fines
GW
Wide range in grain sizes, all intermediate sizes substantially represented
GP
Predominantly one size or some intermediate sizes missing
Gravels
>12%
Fines
GM
Nonplastic fines or fines with little plasticity (see ML below)
GC
Plastic fines (see CL below)
Sands
<5%
Fines
SW
Wide range in grain sizes, all intermediate sizes substantially represented
SP
Predominantly one size or some intermediate sizes missing
Sands
>12%
Fines
SM
Nonplastic fines or fines with little plasticity (see ML below)
SC
Plastic fines (see CL below)
Identification Procedures
on Fractions smaller than No. 40 sieve
Dry Strength
Wet Shake
Thread or
Ribbon
ML
None to slight
Quick to slow
None
CL
Medium to high
None to very slow
Medium
OL
Slight to medium
Slow
Slight
MH
Slight to medium
Slow to none
Slight to medium
CH
High to very high
None
High
OH
Medium to high
None to very slow
Slight to medium
Silts & Clays
LL <50
Silts & Clays
LL >50
Highly Organic Soils
Pt
Readily identified by color, odor, spongy feel,
and frequently by fibrous texture
Table A.1. Unified Soil Classification System
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Soil Types
Symbol
GW
Gravels
and
Gravelly
Sands
GP
Value as
Subbase or
Subgrade
Value as
Base Course
Excellent
Good
Potential
Compressibility
Frost Action
& Expansion
None to
very slight
None to
very slight
Almost none
Almost none
Good to excellent
Poor to fair
d
Good to excellent
Fair to good
u
Good
Poor
Slight to medium
GC
Fair to good
Poor
SW
Good
Fair to good
Poor
Poor to
Not suitable
Slight
Slight to medium
None to
Almost none
very slight
None to
Almost none
very slight
Good
Poor
Fair to good
Not suitable
Slight to high Slight to medium
SC
Fair to good
Not suitable
ML
Fair to poor
Not suitable
Slight to high Slight to medium
Medium to
very high Slight to medium
CL
Fair to poor
Not suitable
Medium to high
OL
Poor
Not suitable
Silts
MH
and
Clays Soils CH
Fine-grained
LL >50
OH
Poor
Not suitable
Medium to high Medium to high
Medium to
High
very high
Poor to very poor
Not suitable
Medium
Poor to very poor
Not suitable
Medium
High
Not suitable
Not suitable
Slight
Very high
GM
Sands
SP
and
Coarse-grained
Soils
d
Sandy
SM
Gravels
u
Silts
and
Clays
LL <50
Highly Organic Soils
Pt
Slight to medium Very slight
Slight to high
Slight
Very slight
Medium
High
GM and SM groups are divided into subdivisions d and u for roads and airfields
Suffix d is used when LL
< 28 and PI< 6
Suffix u is used when LL > 28
Fine-grained Soils
Coarse-grained Soils
Soil Types
Gravels
and
Gravelly
Sands
Sands
and
Sandy
Gravels
Subgrade Modulus
Drainage
Characteristics
Unit Dry Weight
Lb per Cu Ft
Field
CBR
GW
Excellent
125 - 140
60 - 80
300 or more
GP
Excellent
110 - 130
25 - 60
300 or more
Fair to poor
130 - 145
40 - 80
300 or more
120 - 140
20 - 40
200 to 300
Symbol
d
GM
K
Lb per Cu In
GC
Poor to
impervious
Poor to
impervious
120 - 140
20 - 40
200 to 300
SW
Excellent
110 - 130
20 - 40
200 to 300
SP
Excellent
100 - 120
10 - 25
200 to 300
Fair to poor
120 - 135
20 - 40
200 to 300
105 - 130
10 - 20
200 to 300
u
d
SM
SC
Poor to
impervious
Poor to
impervious
105 - 130
10 - 20
200 to 300
Silts
and
Clays
LL <50
ML
Fair to poor
100 - 125
5 - 15
100 to 200
CL
Impervious
100 - 125
5 - 15
100 to 200
OL
Poor
90 - 105
4-8
100 to 200
Silts
and
Clays
LL >50
MH
Fair to poor
80 - 100
4-8
100 to 200
CH
Impervious
90 - 110
3-5
50 to 100
OH
Impervious
80 - 105
3-5
50 to 100
Pt
Fair to poor
-----
-----
Highly Organic Soils
u
-----
GM and SM groups are divided into subdivisions d and u for roads and airfields
Suffix d is used when LL < 28 and PI < 6
Suffix u is used when LL > 28
Table A.2. Characteristics Pertinent to Airfields
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A.1.1. Categories. In the USCS, all soils are divided into three major categories:
coarse grained, fine grained, and peat. The first two are differentiated by grain size,
whereas the third is identified by the presence of large amounts of organic material.
A.1.2. Groups. Each of the major categories is further subdivided into groups and a
letter symbol is assigned to each group.
Soil Groups
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
Symbol
G
S
M
C
Soil Characteristics
Well graded
Poorly graded
High compressibility
Low compressibility
Organic (peat)
Organic (silts and clays)
Liquid limits under 50
Liquid limits over 50
Symbol
W
P
H
L
Pt
O
L
H
A.1.3. Coarse-Grained Soils. Coarse-grained soils are defined as those in which at
least half the material by weight is larger than a No. 200 sieve. They are divided into
two major divisions: gravels and sands. A coarse-grained soil is classified as a gravel
if more than half the coarse fraction by weight is larger than a No. 4 sieve. It is a sand
if more than half the coarse fraction by weight is smaller than a No. 4 sieve.
A.1.3.1. Coarse-Grained Soils with Less Than Five Percent Nonplastic Fines. The first
letter of the symbol indicates a gravel or sand. The second letter is determined by the
grain size distribution curve.
•
•
•
•
GW Well-graded gravels or gravel-sand mixtures.
GP Poorly-graded gravels or gravel-sand mixtures.
SW Well-graded sands or gravelly-sands.
SP Poorly-graded sands or gravelly-sands.
A.1.3.2. Coarse-Grained Soils Containing More Than 12 Percent Fines. The first letter
of the symbol indicates a gravel or sand. The second letter is based upon the plasticity
characteristics of the portion of the material passing the No. 40 sieve. The symbol M
usually designates a fine-grained soil of little or no plasticity. The symbol C is used to
indicate that the binder soil is predominantly clayey in nature.
• GM Silty gravels or gravel-sand-silt mixtures. The Atterberg limits plot below
the A-line on the plasticity chart in Table A.1, or the plastic index is less than
4.
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• GC Clayey gravels or gravel-sand-clay mixtures. The Atterberg limits plot
above the A-line with a plastic index of more than 7.
• SM Silty sands or sand-silt mixtures. The Atterberg limits plot below the Aline, or the plastic index is less than 4.
• SC Clayey sands or sand-clay mixtures. The Atterberg limits plot above the
A-line with a plastic index of more than 7.
A.1.3.3. Borderline Coarse-Grained Soils. Coarse-grained soils which contain
between 5 and 12 percent of material passing the No. 200 sieve are classified as
borderline and are given a dual symbol (for example, GW-GM). Select the two that are
believed to be the most representative of the probable behavior of the soil. In cases of
doubt, the symbol representing the poorer of the possible groupings should be used,
depending upon the judgment of the engineer, from the standpoint of the climatic
region.
A.1.4. Fine-Grained Soils. Fine-grained soils are those in which more than half the
material by weight passes a No. 200 sieve. Fine-grained soils are not classified on the
basis of grain-size distribution, but according to plasticity and compressibility.
A.1.4.1. Silts.
• ML Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands or
clayey silts with slight plasticity. The plastic index plots below the A-line and
the liquid limit is less than 50.
• MH Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soils,
plastic silts. The plastic index plots below the A-line and the liquid limit is
more than 50.
• OL Organic silts and organic silt-clays of low plasticity. The plastic index
plots below the A-line and the liquid limit is less than 50.
A.1.4.2. Clays.
• CL Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays,
and silty clays, lean clays. The plastic index plots above the A-line and the
liquid limit is less than 50.
• CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays. The plastic index plots above
the A-line and the liquid limit is more than 50.
• OH Organic clays of medium to high plasticity. The plastic index plots below
the A-line and the liquid limit is more than 50.
A.1.4.3. Borderline Fine-Grained Soils. Fine-grained soils which plot in the shaded
portion of the plasticity chart are borderline cases and should be given dual symbols
(for example, CL-ML).
A.1.5. Highly Organic Soils. A special classification (Pt) is reserved for the highly
organic soils, such as peat, which have many characteristics undesirable for use as
foundations and construction materials. No laboratory criteria are established for these
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soils, as they can be identified in the field by their distinctive color, odor, spongy feel,
and fibrous textures. Particles of leaves, grass, branches, or other fibrous vegetable
matter are common components of these soils.
A.2. Field Identification of Soil. Lack of time and facilities often make laboratory
testing impossible in contingency evaluations. Even where laboratory tests are to
follow, field identification tests can reduce the number of laboratory test samples
required. In expedient evaluations where the DCP is the primary instrument used to
determine soil strength, proper identification of soil type is required to determine the
correct correlation factor to be used in computing CBRs. The correlations for CL and
CH soils vary significantly from other materials (see Tables C.2 and C.3 and Figure C.6
in Appendix C). Experience is the greatest asset in field identification and this is
gained by getting the feel of soils during laboratory testing. If expedient field tests to
identify clay soils are inconclusive, testing should be conducted using laboratory
Atterberg limits equipment and procedures. Figure A.1 outlines a step-by-step
procedure to field classify soil.
OH
TEST FOR
ORGANIC
MATTER
SELECT REPRESENTATIVE
SAMPLE OF SOIL - 1 PINT
ML MH
CL CH
OL OH
ESTIMATE
% FINES
GRAVEL <50%
OF SAMPLE
SEDIMENTATION
TEST
ESTIMATE %
FINES IN
ENTIRE SAMPLE
GRAVEL >50%
OF SAMPLE
CL
CH
SHINE TEST
RIBBON TEST
THREAD TEST
CAST
TEST
CH
CL
SP SM
SW SC
SEPARATE PARTICLES
1/8” OR LARGER (GRAVEL)
ML MH
CH CL
OL
GM
GC
SHAKING TEST
THREAD TEST
RIBBON TEST
ML
MH
ML
MH
WASH TEST
SMEAR TEST
DUST TEST
SEDIMENTATION
TEST
SP
SW
SM
SP
SW
GW
GP
MH
ML
SM
SW
CHECK
GRADATION
SP
CHECK
GRADATION
SC
GC
GW
GP
GM
Figure A.1. Field Identification Procedures
A.2.1. Equipment Required. Field tests may be performed with little or no equipment
other than a small amount of water. However, accuracy and uniformity of results will be
increased by the proper use of available equipment. The following is a suggested list:
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• Sieves:
− No. 40. All tests used to identify the fine-grained portions of any soil are
performed on the portion of the material which passes the No. 40 sieve. If
this sieve is not available, a rough separation may be made by spreading
the material on a flat surface and removing the gravel and larger sand
particles.
− No. 4. This sieve defines the limit between gravels and sands.
− No. 200. This sieve defines the limit between sands and fines. The
sedimentation test may also be used to separate the sands and fines. This
test requires a transparent cup or jar.
• Pan and oven or other heating device.
• Mixing bowl and pestle.
• Scales or balances.
• Knife or small spatula.
A.2.2. Tests for Field Identification. The USCS considers three soil properties: the
percentage of gravel, sand, or fines; the shape of the grain-size distribution curve; and
the plasticity. The purpose of field tests is to get the best possible identification and
classification in the field. Tests appropriate to a given soil sample should be made.
When a simple visual examination will define the soil type, only the tests needed to
verify this are necessary. When results from a test are inconclusive, some of the
similar tests should be tried to establish the best identification.
A.2.2.1. Visual Examination. This test should establish the color, grain sizes, grain
shapes of the coarse-grained portion, approximate gradation, and some properties of
the undisturbed soil.
A.2.2.1.1. Color. Color helps in distinguishing between soil types and aids in
identifying soil types. It may also indicate the presence of certain chemicals, minerals,
or impurities. Color often varies with moisture content. Thus the moisture content at
the time of identification should be included. Colors generally become darker as the
moisture content increases and lighter as the soil dries. Some fine-grained soil (OH,
OL) with dark, drab shades of brown or gray, including almost black, contain organic
material. In contrast, clean, bright shades of gray, olive green, brown, red, yellow, and
white are associated with inorganic soils. Gray-blue or gray-and-yellow mottled colors
frequently result from poor drainage. Red, yellow, and yellowish-brown result from the
presence of iron oxides. White to pink may indicate considerable silica, calcium
carbonate, or aluminum compounds.
A.2.2.1.2. Grain Size. The maximum particle size of each sample should be
established. This determines the upper limit of the gradation curve. Gravels range
down to the size of peas. Sands start just below this size and decrease until the
individual grains are just distinguishable by the naked eye. Silt and clay particles are
indistinguishable as individual particles.
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A.2.2.1.3. Grain Shape. The shapes of the visible particles should be determined.
They may vary from sharp and angular to smooth and rounded.
A.2.2.1.4. Grain Size Distribution. An approximate identification can be made by
examining a dry sample spread on a flat surface. All lumps should be pulverized until
individual grains are exposed, but not broken. A rubber-faced or wooden pestle and a
mixing bowl are recommended, but mashing the sample underfoot on a smooth surface
will suffice for an approximate identification. Separate the larger grains (gravels and
some sands) by picking them out individually. Examine the remainder of the soil and
estimate the proportions of visible individual particles and the fines. Convert these
estimates into percentages by weight of the total sample. If the fines exceed 50
percent, the soil is considered fine-grained (M, C, or O). If the coarse material exceeds
50 percent, the soil is coarse-grained (G or S). Examine coarse-grained soil for
gradation of the particle sizes from the largest to the smallest. A good distribution of all
sizes means the soil is well graded (W). Overabundance or lack of any size means the
material is poorly graded (P). Estimate the percentage of the fine-grained portion of
the of the coarse-grained soil for further classification. Fine-grained soils and finegrained portions of coarse-grained soils require other tests for identification.
A.2.2.1.5. Undisturbed Soil Properties. Characteristics of the soil in the undisturbed
state may be helpful in identification. The compactness of gravels or sands may be
loose, medium, or dense. Clays may be hard, stiff, or soft. The ease or difficulty of
sample removal should be recorded. The moisture content of the soil influences the inplace characteristics. It is helpful to know the weather just prior to and during the field
evaluation to determine how the soil has or will react to weather changes. The
presence of decayed roots, leaves, grasses, and other vegetable matter in organic soils
produces soil which is usually dark when moist, having a soft spongy feel and a
distinctive odor of rotting organic matter. The odor may be musky and slightly
offensive. The odor is especially apparent in undisturbed conditions or in fresh
samples. It is less pronounced as the sample is exposed to air. The odor can be made
stronger by heating a wet sample.
A.2.2.2. Sedimentation Test. From visual examination it is relatively easy to
approximate the proportions of gravels and sands in a soil sample. Determining the
proportion of fine-grained particles is more difficult but just as important. In the
laboratory and in some field testing situations, the fines may be separated from the
sample using the No. 200 sieve. The sedimentation test provides an alternate field
method to separate fines from the sand particles in a soil sample.
• Smaller particles will settle through water at a slower rate than large particles.
Placing a small amount of the fine fraction of a soil (such as a heaping
teaspoon) in a transparent cup or jar, covering it with about 5 inches of water,
and agitating it by stirring or shaking will completely suspend the soil in water.
With cohesive soils, it will be necessary to break up all lumps of soil before
adding the water. After the soil particles have been dispersed in the water and
then left, they will start to settle to the bottom, beginning with the larger sized
particles, in time periods indicated in Table A.3.
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Table A.3. Sedimentation Test
Approximate Time
of Settlement
in 5 Inches of Water
2 Seconds
30 Seconds
10 Minutes
1 Hour
Grain Diameter
(millimeters)
0.4
0.072 (No. 200 Sieve)
0.03
0.01
Differentiates
Coarse Sand - Fine Sand
Sand - Fines
Coarse Silt - Fine Silt
Silt - Clay
• Since all of the particles of soil larger than the No. 200 sieve will have settled
to the bottom of the cup or jar 30 seconds after the mixture has been agitated,
it follows that the particles still remaining in suspension are fines. The water
containing the suspended fines should be carefully poured into another
container 30 seconds after agitation, more water added to the cup or jar
containing the coarse fraction and the procedure repeated until the water-soil
mixture becomes clear 30 seconds after mixing. The cup or jar will contain the
coarse fraction of the soil and the other container will hold the fines. The
water is then wicked or evaporated off and the relative amounts of fines and
sands determined fairly accurately.
• In clay soils the clay particles will often form small lumps (flocculate) that will
not break up in water. If after several repetitions of the test, substantial
amounts of clay are still present in the coarse material, the sand will feel
slippery. Further mixing and grinding with a stick will be necessary to help
break up these lumps.
A.2.2.3. Plasticity Tests. Fine-grained soil particles (those passing the No. 200 sieve)
are generally not classified using gradation criteria but are identified primarily by
characteristics related to plasticity. In the laboratory Atterberg tests are used to define
the liquid and plastic limits of the soil and classify it. Expedient field tests have been
developed to determine the cohesive and plastic characteristics of soil. These field
tests are performed only on material passing the No. 40 sieve, the same fraction used
in the laboratory tests.
A.2.2.3.1. Breaking or Dry Strength Test
A.2.2.3.1.1. Pat Test.
• Procedure: Prepare a pat of soil about 2 inches in diameter and 1/2 inch thick
by molding it in a wet, plastic state. Allow the pat to dry completely (in the sun,
in an oven, or inside the engine compartment), then grasp the pat between the
thumbs and forefingers of both hands and attempt to break it. If the pat
breaks, try to powder it by rubbing it between the thumb and forefinger of one
hand.
• Results:
− Pat cannot be broken nor powdered by finger pressure - Very highly plastic
soil (CH).
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− Pat can be broken with great effort, but cannot be powdered - Highly plastic
soil (CL).
− Pat can be broken and powdered, but with some effort - Medium plastic soil
(CL).
− Pat breaks easily and powders readily - Slightly plastic soil (ML, MH, or CL).
− Pat has little or no dry strength and crumbles or powders when picked up Nonplastic soil (ML or MH) or (OL or OH).
Note: Dry pats of highly plastic clays often display shrinkage cracks. Breaking the pat
along such a crack may not give a true indication of the strength. It is important to
distinguish between a break along such a crack and a clean, fresh break that indicates
the true dry strength of the soil.
A.2.2.3.1.2. Ball Test (Alternative to Pat Test).
• Procedure: Select enough material to mold into a ball about one inch in
diameter. Mold the material until it has the consistency of putty, adding water
if necessary. From the molded material, make at three test specimens, 1/2
inch diameter balls. Allow the test specimens to dry in the air, sun or by
artificial means, as long as the temperature does not exceed 60 degrees C.
Test the strength of the material by crushing between the fingers.
• Results:
− No strength. The dry specimen crumbles into powder with mere pressure of
handling. (ML).
− Low strength. The dry specimen crumbles into powder with some finger
pressure. (ML or MH).
− Medium strength. The dry specimen breaks into pieces or crumbles with
considerable finger pressure. (MH or CL).
− High strength. The dry specimen cannot be broken with finger pressure, but
will break into pieces between the thumb and a hard surface. (CL or CH).
− Very High strength. The dry specimen cannot be broken between the thumb
and a hard surface. (CH).
Note: Natural dry lumps about 1/2 inch in diameter may be used, but do not use the
results if any of the lumps contain particles of coarse sand. The presence of highly
cementitious materials in the soil such as calcium carbonate may produce exceptionally
high strengths.
A.2.2.3.2. Roll or Thread Test.
• Procedure: A representative portion of the sample is mixed with water until it
can be molded or shaped without sticking to the fingers. This moisture content
is referred to as being just below the sticky limit. Prepare a nonabsorbent
rolling surface by placing a sheet of glass or heavy wax paper on a flat or level
support, then shape the sample into an elongated cylinder and roll the
prepared soil cylinder on the surface rapidly into a thread approximately 1/8
inch in diameter. If the moist soil rolls into a thread, it has some plasticity.
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The number of times it can be rolled into a thread without crumbling is a
measure of the degree of plasticity. Soils that cannot be rolled are nonplastic.
• Results:
− Soil may be molded into a ball or cylinder and deformed under very firm
finger pressure without crumbling or cracking - High plasticity (CH).
− Soil may be molded, but it cracks or crumbles under finger pressure Medium plasticity (CL).
− Soil cannot be lumped into a ball or cylinder without breaking up - Low
plasticity (CL, ML, or MH).
− Soil forms a soft, spongy ball or thread when molded - Organic material (OL
or OH).
− Soil cannot be rolled into a thread at any moisture content - Nonplastic soil
(ML or MH).
− The higher the soil is on the plasticity chart, the stiffer the threads are as
they dry out and the tougher the lumps are if the soil is remolded after
rolling.
Note: Micaceous silts and sands can be rolled due to the flaky nature of the mica. The
wet shaking test is the only way to distinguish this property.
A.2.2.3.3. Ribbon Test.
• Procedure: Prepare a soil sample as in the roll or thread test. Form a roll of
soil about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in diameter and 3 to 5 inches long. Lay the roll
across the palm of one hand (palm up), and starting at one end, squeeze the
roll between the thumb and forefinger over the edge of the hand to form a flat
unbroken ribbon about 1/8 to 1/4 inch thick. Allow the ribbon as formed to
hang free and unsupported. Continue squeezing and handling the roll
carefully to form the maximum length of ribbon that can be supported only by
the cohesive properties of the soil.
• Results:
− Sample holds together for a length of 8 to 10 inches without breaking Highly plastic and highly compressive (CH).
− Soil can be ribboned only with difficulty to 3 to 8 inch lengths - Low plasticity
(CL).
A.2.2.3.4. Wet Shaking Test.
• Procedure:
− Form a ball of soil about 3/4 inch in diameter, moistened with water to just
below the sticky limit. Smooth the soil pat in the palm of the hand with a
knife blade or small spatula, shake it horizontally, and strike the back of the
hand vigorously against the other hand. When shaking, water comes to the
surface of the sample producing a smooth, shiny, or livery appearance.
− Squeeze the sample between the thumb and forefinger of the other hand.
The surface water will disappear. The surface will become dull and the
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sample will become firm, resisting deformation. Cracks will occur as
pressure is continued and the sample will crumble.
− If the water content is still adequate, shaking the broken pieces will cause
them to liquefy again and flow together.
• Results: This process can only occur when the soil grains are bulky and
noncohesive. Very fine sands and silts are readily identified by this test. Even
small amounts of clay will tend to retard the reaction to this test.
− A rapid reaction is typical of nonplastic, fine sands and silts.
− A sluggish reaction indicates slight plasticity indicating the silt has small
amounts of clay or organic silts.
− No reaction at all does not indicate a complete absence of silt or fine sand.
A.2.2.3.5. Bite or Grit Test.
• Procedure: Grind a small pinch of soil lightly between the teeth.
• Results:
− Sandy soils. The sharp hard particles of even fine sands will grate very
harshly between the teeth and will be highly objectionable.
− Silty soils. Silt grains are not particularly gritty, but their presence is still
quite unpleasant and easily detected.
− Clayey soils. Clay grains feel smooth and powdery like flour. Dry lumps will
stick when lightly touched with the tongue.
A.2.2.3.6. Shine Test.
• Procedure: Rub a clay sample with a fingernail or smooth metal surface such
as a knife blade.
• Results:
− Highly plastic clay will produce a definite shine.
− Lean clays will remain dull.
A.2.2.3.7. Feel Test.
• Consistency. Squeeze a piece of undisturbed soil between the thumb and
forefinger. It may be hard, stiff, brittle, friable, sticky, plastic, or soft. Remold
the soil by working it between the hands. This can indicate the natural water
content. Clays which become fluid on remolding are probably near their liquid
limit. If they remain stiff and crumble, they are probably below their liquid limit.
• Texture. Rub a portion of fine-grained soil between the fingers or on a more
sensitive area such as the inside of the wrist. Results are similar to the bite or
grit test.
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APPENDIX B
Condition Survey and Maintenance Procedures
B.1. Condition Survey Procedure
B.1.1. Introduction. During contingency or expedient operations, it is important that
personnel have the ability and tools to quickly and accurately assess a pre-existing or
newly constructed unsurfaced airfield and to monitor it for required maintenance. This
rating system will show you how to divide the airfield into features (runway, taxiway,
apron, hammerhead, and overruns) and sections, identify the distresses (problems)
that exist or develop, rate the severity of each distress, and determine whether the
airfield is operational or should be closed for repairs.
B.1.2. Equipment Required: Measuring wheel or 100-foot steel tape, carpenter’s
6-foot folding rule, straightedge (8-foot 2´4 or other), stringline (if enough personnel are
available), clipboard, inspection sheets, this appendix, and pens or pencils.
B.1.3. How the Method Works. The method for rating the condition of semi-prepared
airfields has four steps:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Divide the airfield into features and sections.
Inspect the airfield and identify the distresses.
Calculate the rating for each section.
Use the ratings to determine if the airfield is
GREEN •
Operational for low-risk operations
AMBER •
Needs monitoring and should be repaired if possible;
medium-risk operations
RED
Dangerous and must be repaired; high-risk operations
•
When the surface condition is rated as amber, maintenance should be performed as
the mission allows. If any single distress is rated as red, the landing zone safety officer
will determine the feasibility of each operation.
Inspections should increase in frequency as the condition of the airfield degrades. If
the condition approaches red, inspection could be as frequent as before each
operation.
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STEP ONE: DIVIDING THE AIRFIELD INTO FEATURES AND SECTIONS
Before you start to inspect the airfield, divide the entire field into features and sections.
This includes the runway, both overruns, any taxiways, the aprons, and the
hammerheads. Each section is 250 feet long and the width of the runway or taxiway.
The hammerheads and overruns should each be a section. The aprons should be
divided into sections of approximately 25,000 square feet.
The starting point 0+00 is at the very end of the overrun. Use a rolling wheel measure
or steel tape to measure distances. Mark every 250-foot point with a nail and plastic
surveyor’s tape with the station marked on it or use some other permanent marker
along the outside edge of the runway (out of the trafficked area).
Before the runway is used for the first time, every section should be inspected to give
baseline information. As a minimum for contingency operations, sections should be
located in the touchdown area, in the primary braking area at approximately 1000 to
1500 feet, at the point of aircraft rotation at approximately 2000 to 2500 feet, and at the
last 500 feet of the runway. (The point of rotation may move due to pressure and
altitude changes.) These sections include the areas most likely to be damaged by
landing, braking, stopping, acceleration, and takeoff for the runway in use. Inspect and
monitor additional areas where degradation develops.
STEP TWO: INSPECTING THE AIRFIELD AND IDENTIFYING DISTRESSES
Conduct as detailed and accurate an inspection as time and conditions permit. By
doing it right the first time, you will be able to identify possible problem areas and
monitor them closely during operations.
There are seven possible problems or distresses. In each 250-foot section you may
have no distresses or you may have as many as seven distresses. If you have trouble
telling which distress you are looking at, make a reasonable guess. The system is
flexible enough to give you an accurate rating. The seven distresses are:
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91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
Potholes
Ruts
Loose aggregate
Dust
Rolling resistant material
Jet blast erosion
Stabilized layer failure
(The numbers 91–97 are associated with the Micro-Paver Pavement Management
System and will be used in the computerized version of this system.)
Fill in the identifying information on the top of the inspection sheet and record the
severity levels on the table. The following pages will give you the definition of each
distress and explain how to determine the severity level for that distress.
Unless otherwise stated, the distress severity measurements for contingency and
training operations are the same.
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91. POTHOLES
DEFINITION: Potholes are bowl-shaped depressions in the airfield surface. Once
potholes have begun to form, the runway will continue to disintegrate because of
loosening surface material or weak spots in the underlying soils.
HOW TO MEASURE: Measure the maximum depth of the biggest potholes and
determine their severity level. In areas of high pothole density, observe aircraft
reaction. The location and number of potholes can be critical to aircraft performance.
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Potholes, Amber Severity
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92. RUTS
DEFINITION: Ruts are surface depressions in the wheel paths that run parallel to the
centerline. They result from repeated aircraft passes and become more severe with
time.
HOW TO MEASURE: Lay a straightedge across the ruts with both ends resting on the
solid runway surface with loose (rolling resistant material) removed. Measure the depth
of the three deepest ruts on each side, from the bottom of the straightedge to the solid
ground in the bottom of the rut. Use the maximum depth of the six measurements for
that location. Rut width does not affect severity.
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Ruts, Green Severity
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93. LOOSE AGGREGATE
DEFINITION: Loose aggregate consists of small stones ¼-inch or larger that have
separated from the soil binder. In large enough quantities and sizes, it becomes
dangerous. Rocks over 4 inches in diameter must be removed from the airfield before
any operations. If material crushes underfoot, it is not considered loose aggregate.
HOW TO MEASURE: Estimate the area of the section that is covered by loose
aggregate and check the appropriate box in the severity table.
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Loose Aggregate, Amber Severity
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94. DUST
DEFINITION: Dust is fine material that becomes airborne when disturbed. The natural
material on unsurfaced airfields and the multiple passes of the aircraft cause these fine
materials to separate from the soil binder and become a significant problem for
personnel, trailing aircraft, and the environment.
HOW TO MEASURE: Have a vehicle drive at 60 miles per hour down the runway.
Watch the dust cloud and check the appropriate box on the table. For example, if you
cannot see the vehicle, check Red.
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Dust, Red Severity
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95. ROLLING RESISTANT MATERIAL
DEFINITION: Rolling resistant material (RRM) is any type of loose or unbound material
that separates from the solid base and lies on top of the surface and in the ruts. In
sufficient quantities, it increases the rolling resistance, and therefore increases the
amount of runway required for C-17 takeoffs. It is more prevalent in dry soils and is a
byproduct of severe rutting.
HOW TO MEASURE: Stick a ruler into the RRM until you hit solid ground and read the
number on the ruler at the top of the RRM to the nearest ¼ inch. Take a minimum of
seven measurements in each gear path and average those measurements. Determine
average RRM depth by averaging the measurements in the touchdown area, in the
primary braking area, at the point of rotation, and the last 500 feet of runway. For a
typical 4000-foot runway, take one set of measurements at approximately 5+00, 10+00,
20+00, and 35+00 and average those four sets of fourteen measurements.
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RRM, Amber Severity
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96. JET BLAST EROSION
DEFINITION: Jet blast erosion occurs when the top layer of soil is blown or stripped
away in the areas that are scoured by the C-17 engines as they fire up to taxi or take
off. Jet blast erosion outside trafficked areas can be ignored. Jet blast erosion in
trafficked areas must be maintained. Jet blast erosion is characterized by no evidence
of loose aggregate.
HOW TO MEASURE: Measure the depth of the erosion and check the appropriate box
on the inspection sheet.
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Jet Blast Erosion, Green Severity
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97. STABILIZED LAYER FAILURE
DEFINITION: If the runway surface material is mixed with a stabilizing agent, such as
Portland cement, the resulting mix is called a stabilized layer. A failure occurs when
areas of that layer begin to crack and delaminate. It is a progressive failure. The
number and size of cracks increase, layers can delaminate, and pieces can be
removed. The cracks get closer together and interconnect until the surface resembles
an alligator skin; this is called alligator cracking and usually indicates weak support
beneath. NOTE: An abrupt vertical change of more than 2 inches may cause nose
gear damage. The runway surface must be repaired before the airfield can be used.
HOW TO MEASURE: Put a straightedge across the failed area and measure the
depth.
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Stabilized Layer Failure, Amber Severity
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STEP THREE: CALCULATING THE RATINGS
The distress measurements are used to calculate the Semi-Prepared Airfield Condition
Index (SPACI), based on deduct values. A deduct value is a number from 0 to 100,
with 0 meaning that the distress has no impact on the airfield condition and 100
meaning that the airfield has completely failed. Deduct values for runways and
taxiways where the aircraft is moving are different than those on aprons and
hammerheads where the C-17 may be offloading equipment. The deduct value table
reflects these differences. We will show how to do this calculation by running through
an example.
1.
Fill in the identifying information at the top of the inspection sheet.
2.
Put a check mark in the severity box corresponding to the distresses you find. If
you don’t find some distresses, leave those boxes blank.
3.
Refer to the “Table of Deduct Values for C-17 Operations ” on page 77. Each
distress has a deduct value for each severity level.
4.
For potholes of Green severity on the runway, the deduct value is 4.
5.
Record that number in the correct box on the bottom left side of the inspection
sheet.
6.
For ruts at Amber severity, the deduct value is 18.
7.
For loose aggregate at Amber severity, the deduct value is 6.
8.
For dust at Amber severity, the deduct value is 4.
9.
Add all the distress values and record the total on the line labeled “Total deduct
value.” In this case, the total deduct value is 32.
10. Count the total number of distresses that have deduct values greater than 5.
That is the q value. Record it on the line labeled q. For this example, q is 2.
11. On the SPACI curve (page 77), locate the “Total Deduct Value.” Go across the
numbers on the bottom of the graph until you reach the total deduct value of 32.
12. Go up the vertical line until it intersects with the curved line that matches your q
number (in this example, 2). From that point, follow the line across to the left to
find the rating (the SPACI). For this example, the SPACI is 77.
13. Go to the SPACI scale (page 77), which shows that 77 is in the Green range.
14. Circle this overall rating on the bottom left of the inspection sheet.
15. This is the rating for this section. The rating for the runway is the average of the
ratings from all the sections. For example, SPACIs of 63, 59 and 67 in different
sections would give an average SPACI of 63 for the whole runway.
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NOTE:
If any distress is Red, the landing zone safety officer will determine the
feasibility of each operation.
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Deduct Values for C-17 Operations
Green
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
Amber
Red
Distress
R/T*
H/A**
R/T
H/A
R/T
H/A
Potholes
Ruts
Loose Aggregate
Dust
Rolling Resistant Material
Jet Blast Erosion
Stabilized Layer Failure
4
14
4
2
18
5
5
2
4
15
15
2
10
15
10
18
6
4
22
10
10
6
6
30
30
4
30
25
20
24
8
6
26
15
15
12
10
45
45
15
40
35
*R/T – runways and taxiways
**H/A – hammerheads and aprons
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B.2. Maintenance Procedures. Maintenance on semi-prepared airfields will be
determined by:
• Equipment available
• Materials available
• Time available.
For all distresses except potholes, the BEST procedure is to rework or reconstruct the
entire distressed area from runway shoulder to runway shoulder. The MINIMUM
requirement is to rework or reconstruct from the outside of the main landing gear path
across the runway centerline to outside the opposite main landing gear path (outside of
distressed area to outside of distressed area, minimum of 30 feet both sides of the
centerline to include all of the distressed area). If this course of action is selected,
scarify diagonally to the direction of travel of the landing gear. This will help to
distribute the load across the repair area. Doing just the minimum can create areas
of different compaction and density, which may adversely affect C-17 landings
and takeoffs.
RECOMMEND MAINTENANCE BE PERFORMED ACROSS THE ENTIRE RUNWAY
IN THE AREA OF DISTRESS.
B.2.1. Soil Compaction. In contingency situations, supplemental materials may not be
available to blend with or replace existing inadequately graded soils, but on-grade
compaction of soil with suitable equipment can sometimes increase the soil stability
and strength. This is especially true for granular soils. Improvement achieved by
compaction depends upon the soil type, moisture content, and degree and method of
compaction. Different soils require different compaction equipment. In general, finegrained soils should be compacted with rubber-tired, sheepsfoot, or segmented pad
rollers, and in some cases, steel wheel rollers. Vibratory rollers are well suited for
coarse-grained soils and for some dry fine-grained soils.
B.2.2. Cohesive Soils. Cohesive soils contain enough soil fines to make the soil
sensitive to changes in moisture content. They include all types of clays, silts, and
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clayey and silty sands and gravels, such as CH, CL, MH, ML, SC, SM, GC, and GM.
For a given compactive effort and method of compaction, there is an optimum moisture
content which results in the maximum dry density of the soil. At any other moisture
content, the resulting soil dry density will be less for the same compactive effort.
Compact cohesive soils at or slightly higher than the optimum moisture content, except
when using a vibratory roller. Rubber-tired and sheepsfoot rollers are most effective for
compacting cohesive soils. A towed sheepsfoot with a contact pressure of 400–600 psi
or a 35- to 50-ton rubber-tired roller with four wheels will usually yield satisfactory
results. Vibratory rollers are effective on some cohesive soils, particularly those
containing granular fractions such as SC, SM, GC, and GM. Use steel wheel rollers to
seal the surface of cohesive soils to decrease rainfall penetration.
B.2.3. Cohesionless Soils. These soils are relatively clean sands and gravels, not
highly moisture sensitive and relatively pervious. They include SW, SP, GW, and GP
soil types. Optimum moisture content and maximum dry density may need to be
considered depending upon the type and quantity of soil fines. If a granular soil
contains essentially no fines, optimum density can be achieved when the soil is almost
saturated. Cohesionless soils often require continuous wetting during compaction to
prevent bulking. These soils can be compacted most effectively by vibratory rollers
with a total drum force of 15–20 tons. Rubber-tired rollers are somewhat less effective.
Steel wheel rollers are normally used to obtain a smooth finish surface.
B.2.4. Compaction Method. The choice of compaction equipment should depend upon
soil type and moisture content. Equipment should be tracked over the material at least
four times, both parallel and perpendicular to the centerline of the runway. Trafficking
should continue until no further densification of the material can be observed. If
additional passes do not increase soil strength, the material is probably too dry or too
wet. Pumping of the material in front of the roller also indicates the material is too wet.
B.2.5. Equipment Sizes. Sizes referenced in paragraphs B.2.2 and B.2.3 should
provide adequate compaction to depths of 6–9 inches. If the available compaction
equipment is smaller, the soil must be compacted in thinner lifts with more passes, until
no further densification of the material can be observed on each lift.
B.2.6. Repairs. Passes should begin on the outside of the repair adjacent to the
existing adequate surface, and should proceed toward the center of the repair. Passes
should overlap, and the equipment should “crawl,” rather than race, across the surface.
B.2.7. Soil Testing. Where time or available equipment precludes moisture/density
tests to confirm compaction, dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) tests should be
performed following compaction to determine if the material is strong enough to support
aircraft operations.
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91. POTHOLES
1. Cut to at least 2 inches below the base of the pothole and at least 2
feet around the hole.
2. Add material identical to the surrounding material. This is especially
important if the soil is stabilized.
3. Wet as required to obtain the optimum water content.
4. Compact to obtain the optimum density.
5. Lift thickness may have to be reduced to 2- to 3-inch lifts to obtain the
optimum density depending on the compaction equipment available.
92. RUTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Wet if dry.
Scarify.
Add material as required.
Rewet if necessary.
Grade to a proper cross-section.
Rewet as required.
Compact to a required optimum density.
Repeat 5, 6, and 7 in 2- to 3-inch lifts if needed to achieve the
optimum density with the compaction equipment available.
93. LOOSE AGGREGATE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wet if dry.
Scarify if conditions are severe.
Rewet as needed.
Add material if necessary.
Rescarify if material is added.
Rewet as needed.
Grade to a proper cross-section.
Compact to the optimum density.
Wet and compact again if necessary to obtain the optimum density
with the compaction equipment available.
94. DUST
1.
2.
3.
4.
Wet as needed.
Use a dust palliative.
Stabilize if time and resources are available.
Install matting if required by the mission.
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95. ROLLING RESISTANT MATERIAL
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Wet.
Scarify.
Rewet as needed.
Grade to a proper cross-section.
Rewet as needed.
Compact to obtain the optimum density.
Repeat 5 and 6 in lifts if necessary to obtain the optimum density with
the compaction equipment available.
96. JET BLAST EROSION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Wet if dry.
Scarify to include the undisturbed area to ensure good adhesion or
bonding of the repair.
Rewet and add material if necessary.
Rescarify if material is added.
Grade to a proper cross-section.
Rewet as needed.
Compact to obtain the optimum density.
Repeat steps 6 and 7 if necessary to obtain the optimum density with
the compaction equipment available.
97. STABILIZED LAYER FAILURE
Procedure One
1. Determine the stabilizing additive and amounts.
2. Pulverize.
3. Add material if necessary.
4. Obtain optimum moisture content.
5. Add the identical stabilizing additive.
6. Mix the materials. Be sure to scarify at least 2 inches into the existing
stabilized material to achieve a proper cold joint both below and
around the repair area.
7. Grade to a proper cross-section.
8. Add additional water if necessary to obtain optimum moisture content.
9. Grade and compact, in lifts, to obtain the optimum density.*
10. Check the cold joints for proper adhesion, with a pneumatic roller if
available.
11. If failure is evident, repeat steps 6–10.
Procedure Two
1. Remove all failed material.
2. Mix up repair stabilized material on site.
3. Follow procedure in TM 5-822-7, Appendix D, page D-11.
*See TM 5-822-7, Appendix D, page D-11 for specific guidance.
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APPENDIX C
Structural Evaluation Procedures for Contingency Operations
C.1. Introduction. This appendix presents the basic criteria and procedures used to
determine the structural suitability or load bearing capability of an airfield to sustain C17 contingency operations. Appropriate evaluation charts are included. This appendix
does not address the geometric characteristics of an airfield such as: runway length
and width, gradient criteria, or airfield and airspace clearances.
C.1.1. The HQ AFCESA Pavement Evaluation Team is tasked to assess the suitability
of airfields for projection of U S forces in support of regional conflicts or stability and
support operations. Other Air Force units such as Red Horse Squadrons and Special
Tactics Teams (STTs) are also tasked to perform contingency evaluations of semiprepared airfields. These taskings have increased substantially in recent years and
have highlighted the need to ensure those tasked are sufficiently trained and to
standardize evaluation procedures.
C.1.2. The procedures presented here (see Figure C.1) are those required to adequately
evaluate an airfield. In cases where in-the-field evaluation time is limited and judgments
must be made on limited available data, the reliability of the evaluation is questionable.
Sound judgment must be used in reporting airfield suitability in such situations. If
evaluation results indicate the airfield will not support the intended pass or load levels, refer
to Section 4, Structural Design Criteria, to determine upgrade requirements.
Obtain
Mission Data
Load Data
Traffic Volume
Ground Operations
Define Airfield
Layout
Define Features
Surface Type
Layer Thickness
Use
Traffic Type
Determine Test Locations
Perform
Field Tests
Compile
PPD
Compute
AGLs / Passes
Classify Soils
Refine Features
Compute Allowable Gross
Layer Thicknesses (DCP) Select Representative Loads and/or Passes
Layer Strengths (DCP)
Profile
Compile Physical
Property Data (PPD)
Assess
SPACI
Visual Inspection of Surface Distresses to
Determine Semi-prepared Airfield
Condition Index (SPACI)
Figure C.1. Evaluation Procedures
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C.1.3. If questions arise in the field, one of the following should be contacted:
• HQ AFCESA/CESC
139 Barnes Drive, Suite 1
Tyndall AFB, FL 32403-5319
Mr James Greene,
DSN 523-6334
USAF Pavements Manager
Mr Richard Smith,
DSN 523-6084
Pavements Laboratory Manager
FAX
DSN 523-6499
Comm (850) 283-6334
Comm (850) 283-6084
Comm (850) 283-6499
• CEWES-GP-N
Airfields and Pavements Division
Geotechnical Laboratory
U S Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
3909 Halls Ferry Road
Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199
Dr Albert Bush
Mr Don Alexander
FAX
Comm (601) 634-3545 or 1-800-522-6937 ext 3545
Comm (601) 634-2731 or 1-800-522-6937 ext 2731
Comm (601) 634-3020
C.2. Define Initial Airfield Layout
C.2.1. Make an initial tour of the airfield.
C.2.1.1. Verify dimensions of the airfield and accuracy of existing drawings if available.
Existing information on the airfield such as: soil boring data; geological, topographical,
and agricultural maps; and aerial photographs would also be helpful if available.
C.2.1.2. Use expedient methods to survey (taping, measuring wheel, or pacing).
C.2.1.3. Update existing plans or make new scaled drawing as required.
C.2.2. Divide the airfield pavement system into features based upon common
characteristics which are: the surface type, thickness, and construction history data;
available subsurface layer data; use; and traffic type.
C.2.2.1.
•
•
•
Surface Types:
AM-2 Mat
Gravel / Unsurfaced
Stabilized Material
Note: A specific feature contains only one surface type.
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C.2.2.2. Surface Layer Thickness and Construction History Data. All surface material
in a specific feature must share a constant nominal thickness within reason and a
common construction history. Construction history is comprised of data regarding the
materials used and year of original construction, as well as all subsequent maintenance
and repair materials and techniques.
C.2.2.3.
•
•
•
Subsurface Layers:
Types
Thicknesses
Strengths
C.2.2.4.
•
•
•
•
Use:
R = Runway
O = Overrun
T = Taxiway
A = Apron
C.2.2.5. Traffic Type:
• A = Channelized traffic, full design weight of aircraft (All areas of contingency
airfields should be evaluated as A traffic.)
C.2.3. Determine Test Locations. The numbers and locations of soil strength tests and
samples will vary with the type of airfield, size of airfield, proposed mission of the
airfield, number of features, and time available for conducting the tests. Test locations
must be chosen wisely and should accurately cover each feature or aspect of the
airfield, yet may need to be minimized due to aircraft operations or time constraints.
Soil conditions are extremely variable; therefore, as many tests as time and
circumstance will permit should be taken. The strength range and uniformity of the
area will control the number of tests required. In all cases it is advisable to test
apparent weak areas first, since the weakest conditions control the pavement
evaluation. In areas of doubtful strength or where evidences of changing layer
structure occur, the tests may be closely spaced. On the other hand, in areas where
the structure appears to be firm and uniform, tests may be few and widely spaced.
After weak areas have been tested, areas of high traffic intensity or loading such as
take-off/touch-down zones, runway/taxiway intersections, and taxi lanes on aprons
should be tested. Figure C.2 shows recommended test locations for semi-prepared
airfields. Conduct as many tests as possible in the time available.
C.3. Collect Field Data to Determine Airfield Structural Properties
C.3.1. Types.
• Identify surface and any underlying base, subbase, and subgrade materials
using field identification methods and classify using the United Soil
Classification System (USCS). See Appendix A.
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500’ on Centerline
500’ on Centerline
Overrun
200’
200’
200’
Note: For unimproved airfield, continue this pattern
throughout the length. For aggregate surfaced
airfields, the pattern may be more widely spaced
on the remaining portion of the airfield.
200’
150’
Typical Semi-prepared Airfield
Priority Testing
Overrun
Apron
Typical Apron or Turnaround
1. Soft spots
2. Offsets, should be in wheel
paths of main gear
3. Centerline
4. Aircraft turnarounds
5. Any area where the aircraft
must stop
6. Overrun,one test in center
7. Along edges, at 500 feet
intervals
Figure C.2. DCP Test Locations for Semi-Prepared Airfields
• If field classification methods do not produce clear results or require validation,
obtain samples for follow-up laboratory testing
• If materials have been altered or have additives as in the case of dense
crushed rock layers or stabilized soil layers, identify them as such
C.3.2. Thicknesses.
• Measure actual layer thicknesses in the wheel paths where possible
• Use Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) data to determine layer thicknesses
• Be aware of other sources of strata information such as ditches or
excavations. This provides useful information on the subbase/subgrade.
C.3.3. Strengths. Shearing resistance is one of the most important properties that a
soil possesses. A soil’s shearing resistance under given conditions is related to its
ability to withstand a load. The shearing resistance is especially important in its
relation to the supporting strength or bearing capacity of a soil used as a base or
subgrade beneath airfield pavements. For military pavement applications, the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value of a soil is used as a measure of soil strength.
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Laboratory methods of determining CBR values are time consuming and thus
impractical for expedient or contingency evaluations. Several methods are available to
determine CBR values in the field.
• Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. The DCP is the preferred method of
obtaining CBR field data. It will penetrate layers having CBR strengths in
excess of 100 and will measure soil strengths less than 1. It is a powerful,
relatively compact, sturdy device that produces consistent results. Its use will
be discussed in detail later in this section.
• Airfield Cone Penetrometer (ACP). The ACP is a probe-type instrument that
when pushed down through the soil gives an airfield index (AI) of soil strength.
This AI can be correlated to CBR values. This instrument is commonly used
by USAF SSTs for expedient evaluations because of its portability and
simplicity to operate. Its range is limited to 0 to 18 CBR and it will not
penetrate many crusts, thin base course, or gravel materials. Consistency of
test results is also difficult due to variability of soil strengths that impact the
rate of penetration. Due to this and depth constraints, it is not recommended
for C-17 evaluations.
• Electronic Cone Penetrometer (ECP). The contingency soils van operated by
HQ AFCESA is equipped with an ECP that is hydraulically pushed through the
soil layers to depths of typically five to seven feet. The cone tip pressure is
measured and recorded by the on-board computer system and is correlated to
CBR values. Soil cohesion measurements are also recorded and used in
conjunction with the tip pressure to assist in soil classification. This one-of-akind item is also equipped with a core drill capable of coring through flexible
and rigid pavement layers as required, is air-transportable by C-130, C-141,
C-5, and C-17 aircraft, and provides accurate, consistent data. This van is not
available nor appropriate for all contingency evaluations, but its use should be
considered when other methods of data collection do not provide clear results.
• Field Small Aperture CBR Test. Standard CBR tests may also be performed
on the surface or through core holes in the pavement surface. This use is
normally limited to tests on the surface of the base course. These tests may
be performed in conjunction with DCP tests to validate the data or as stand
alone tests in cases where use of the DCP is not applicable. These tests are
described in detail in FM 5-530/AFM 89-3.
• USCS Correlation. This is the quickest, yet least accurate method of
determining CBR values. For each soil type, empirical studies have
determined a range of CBR values. These values are shown on the Table
A.2, Soil Characteristics Chart in Appendix A. These CBR ranges are only
estimates and due to the varying soil types and strengths encountered across
an airfield, the lowest CBR values in the range should be used, and then with
judgment and caution.
C.3.3.1. Measure soil layer thickness and strengths using the DCP.
C.3.3.1.1. Description. The DCP consists of a 16-mm-diameter stainless steel rod with
a cone attached to one end which is driven into the soil by means of an 8 kg sliding
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hammer which is dropped from a height of 575 mm. The angle of the cone is 60
degrees and the diameter of the base of the cone is 20 mm. The rod may either be a
scored version or may be smooth requiring the use of an adjacent measuring scale
(see Figure C.3). Units that test both paved and semi-prepared airfields should use 50
inch long rods as shown in Figure C.3, but 36 inch long rods are available and are
adequate for semi-prepared airfield evaluations. Disposable cones which mount on an
adapter may be used in cases where the cone is difficult to remove from the soil. This
disposable cone remains in the soil. Use of disposable cones will increase the number
of tests per day that can be accomplished.
mm
575
1
m
270
m(
5
.)
6 in
.
2
(2
HANDLE
8 Kg (17.6 lb.) HAMMER
.)
0 in
ANVIL
16mm ROD
CONE
Figure C.3. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
C.3.3.1.2. Use. Two people are required to operate the DCP. One person, the
operator, holds the device by its handle in a vertical position and taps the device using
the slide hammer until the base of the cone is flush with the surface of the soil. The
second person, or recorder, then measures the distance between the cone and the
surface to establish a baseline reading. The operator then raises and releases the
hammer. The hammer must be raised to the point of touching the bottom of the handle
but not lifting the rod and cone. The hammer must be allowed to drop freely with its
downward movement, not influenced by any hand movement. The operator must
be careful not to exert any downward force on the handle after dropping the
hammer. The recorder ensures the device remains in a vertical position, measures the
cone penetration, counts the number of hammer drops between measurements, and
records the data. The number of blows or hammer drops between measurements is
based on the rate of penetration. The cone should penetrate at least 25 mm or 1
inch between measurements. Both the operator and recorder should be alert to any
sudden increases in cone penetration rates, which indicate weaker soil layers. A
measurement should be recorded at that point to indicate the beginning of that layer.
After the DCP has been driven to the desired depth, it should be extracted from the soil
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by bumping the drop hammer against the handle. The hammer must be raised in a
vertical direction (rather than in an arching motion) or the rod may be bent or broken
where it connects to the anvil. In some soils with large aggregate the DCP may try to
penetrate the soil at a slant rather than from a true vertical direction. The operator
should not apply force to the handle in an attempt to force vertical penetration. This
will potentially break the rod or connections. Instead, the test should be stopped if
the handle deviates from plumb more than 6 inches and a new test should be
attempted in close proximity of the failed test.
• Maintenance of Equipment. The DCP should be kept clean and all soil should
be removed before each test. Graphite, spray lubricant, or oil should be
applied to the hammer slide before use each day. All joints should be
constantly monitored and kept tight. Loctite may be used. The lower rod
should be kept clean and lubricated when clayey soils are tested.
• Recording Data. A suggested format for DCP data collection is shown in
Figure C.4. The number of blows and penetration depths must be recorded
during the test. Depending on the scale used, the depth of penetration
readings is measured and recorded to the nearest 5 mm or 0.2 inches.
DCP DATA SHEET
BASE:
FEATURE:
TEST#:
TEST LOCATION:
(1) No. of hammer blows
between test readings
DATE:
No of
Accum.
Penetration Penetration Hammer
Blows Penetration p/Blow Set
per Blow
Blow
mm
mm
mm
Factor
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
DCP
Index
CBR
%
Depth
in.
(6)
(7)
(8)
(2) Accumulative cone
penetration after each set of
hammer blows
(3) Difference in accumulative
penetration (2) at start and end
of each hammer blow set
(4) (3) divided by (1)
(5) Enter 1 for 17.6 lb hammer,
2 for 10.1 lb hammer
(6) (4) x (5)
(7) From CBR versus DCP
correlation (table C.2 or C.3)
(8) Previous entry in (2) divided
by 25.4 rounded off to 0.2 in.
Figure C.4. DCP Data Sheet
C.3.3.1.3. Surface Layer Strengths. Lack of confinement at the top of the surface layer
affects the DCP measurements. The penetration depth required to measure the
surface layer strength accurately is related to the gradation and plasticity
characteristics of the materials. The DCP can measure strengths of thin surface layers
of fine-grained plastic materials but requires thicker surface layers for the non-plastic
coarse-grained materials. The penetration depth required for measuring actual
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strength of the surface layer with the DCP is shown in Table C.1 for the various soil
types.
Table C.1. Depth Required to Measure Surface Layer Strength
(No Overburden)
Soil Type
CH
CL
SC
SW-SM
SM
GP
SP
Average
Penetration
Depth
(inches)
1
3
4
4
5
5
11
Note: The shearing action of the C-17 while braking during landing operations
will create loose till on dry unstabilized soil surfaced runways in arid or semi-arid
regions. The number of allowable passes may be significantly lower than those
predicted using standard evaluation procedures. The DCP data collected at the
top of the surface layer in the unconfined material, if treated as a separate layer in
calculating allowable loads or passes, may provide a good indication of the
surface capability to withstand the additional loads and stresses expected during
landing operations.
C.3.3.1.4. Depth of Tests. The C-17 aircraft may affect the soil to depths of 36 inches
or more; therefore, it is recommended that DCP tests be conducted to the full depth of
the rod. If a test must be discontinued short of full rod depth, a new test should
be accomplished nearby.
C.3.3.1.5. Correlation of DCP Readings to CBR.
• If using the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station
developed DCP software program, the CBRs are computed for the user based
upon the number of blows and penetration depths inputted. The DCP program
will also display a graph of the CBR values in relation to the depths measured
and is useful in determining layer thicknesses. See Figure C.5.
• If using manual field plotting methods, the CBRs may be obtained from Tables
C.2 and C.3 or Figure C.6. Table C.2 correlations should be used for all soil
groups other than CH and CL with a CBR below 10. Table C.3 correlations
should be used for all CH soils and for CL soils with a CBR less than 10.
When using these tables, CBRs should be rounded to the nearest whole
number. Figure C.6 shows a plot of all correlations.
• The DCP data may also be easily plotted on graph paper and the resulting soil
layer thicknesses and corresponding CBRs may be determined. Figure C.7 is
an example of this method.
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DCP TEST DATA
File Name: DCP
Example DCP Data Plot
Date:
Soil Type(s): SP, Poorly Graded Sand
4
Hammer
10.1 lbs
17.6 lbs
1
25
1
2
65
1
2
90
1
2
115
1
3
145
1
3
170
1
3
195
1
3
220
1
4
250
1
4
280
1
4
305
1
4
335
1
4
370
1
4
400
1
3
430
1
3
465
1
3
500
1
2
530
1
2
560
1
2
590
1
2
620
1
3
660
1
2
690
1
2
725
1
2
765
1
2
805
1
2
850
1
1
875
1
1
905
1
1
935
1
1
970
1
1
1005
1
1
1035
1
1
1075
1
1
1110
1
1
1150
1
1
1185
1
1
1220
1
1
0
4
100
8
200
12
300
16
400
20
500
24
28
600
32
700
36
800
40
900
44
48
1
1000
100
10
0
ROAD PROFILE
5
0
100
200
10
300
15
20
25
400
500
600
700
30
800
35
900
40
1000
1
1
100
DEPTH, mm
1
10
0
DEPTH, in.
0
All other soils
CBR
1
DEPTH, in.
0
Plot Profile
CL
Delete Data
Both hammers used
No. of Accumulative Type of
Blows Penetration Hammer
(mm)
Soil Type
CH
Save Data
DEPTH, mm
Project:
Location:
1
Figure C.5. Software Plot of DCP Data
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Table C.2. Tabulated Correlation of DCP Index vs CBR
DCP Index
mm/blow
<3
in/Blow
CBR
0.10
0.11
0.12
100
92
84
80
76
70
65
61
60
57
53
50
47
45
43
41
40
39
37
35
34
32
31
30
25
22
20
19
3
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
4
5
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.23
6
7
8
9
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.35
0.40
10-11
0.45
DCP Index
mm/blow
in/Blow
12
0.50
13
14
15
16
17
18-19
20-21
22-23
24-26
27-29
30-34
35-38
39
440
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49-50
51
52
53-54
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.0
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.0
55
CBR
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
DCP Index
mm/blow
56-57
58
59-60
61-62
63-64
65-66
67-68
69-71
72-74
75-77
78-80
81-83
84-87
88-89
92-96
97-101
102-107
108-114
115-121
122-130
131-140
141-152
153-166
166-183
184-205
206-233
234-271
272-324
>324
in/Blow
CBR
2.20
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
<0.5
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.40
3.50
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
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Table C.3. Tabulated Correlation of DCP Index vs CBR - CH and CL Type Soils
CH
DCP
Index
mm/Blow in/Blow
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
CL
DCP
Index
CBR mm/Blow in/Blow
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.1
3.3
3.5
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.3
35
23
17
14
12
10
8.7
7.7
7.0
5.3
5.8
5.4
5.0
4.6
4.3
4.1
3.9
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.2
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
>175
4.5
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.3
5.5
5.7
5.9
6.1
6.3
6.5
6.7
>6.9
DCP
Index
CBR mm/Blow in/Blow
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
<2.0
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
DCP
Index
CBR mm/Blow in/Blow
9.6
8.6
7.8
7.1
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.1
4.7
4.4
4.1
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.7
2.5
2.4
2.3
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
>59
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.3
>2.3
CBR
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.0
<1.0
100
For CH Soil
CBR,%
CBR=
1
CBR=
0.002871 x DCP
292
DCP 1.12
10
For CL Soil
CBR=
1
2
(0.017019 x DCP)
1
1
10
100
DCP, MM/BLOW
Figure C.6. Plotted Correlation of DCP Index vs CBR
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CUMULATIVE BLOWS
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
100
200
DEPTH (MM)
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
Figure C.7. Manual Plot of DCP Data
− Plot. Annotate the total number of blows needed in a particular DCP test
being plotted along one axis of the graph. Annotate the depth of
penetration along the other axis. Then plot the points as recorded on the
DCP Data Sheet.
− Layers. Draw straight lines tangent to or through the points that are
reasonably straight. These lines indicate the soil layers with the
intersecting points indicating the layer breaks. Disregard the top few
measurements of the test in this process. In our example, the first layer
break is located at 420mm or 16” so the thickness of layer 1 is 16”. The
second layer break is at 800mm or 31” so the thickness of layer 2 is 15”.
This is continued throughout the depth of the test.
− DCP Index. The layer DCP index is established by dividing the depth of
penetration by the number of blows. In our example, the first straight line
intersected the depth axis at 70mm and the layer break point at 420mm so
the depth for determination of DCP index is 350mm. It took 46 blows to
reach the first layer break. Dividing 350 by 46 results in a DCP index of 7.6
for this layer. DCP indexes for the remaining layers are determined the
same way, by using the number of blows and depth measurements
between layer breaks. Our DCP index for layer 2 is 14.6 and the DCP
index for layer 3 is 35.
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− CBRs. Tables C.2 and C.3 are then used to determine the CBRs for each
layer. In our example, the soils tested were classified as SP or poorly
graded sand so we used Table C.2. Our depth measurements were in
milimeters so we enter the table in the DCP Index mm/blow columns as
appropriate to find the corresponding CBRs. A CBR of 32 resulted for layer
1, CBR 14 for layer 2, and CBR 5 for layer 3.
C.3.3.1.6. Special Considerations.
• DCP tests in highly plastic clays are generally accurate for depths to
approximately 12 inches. At deeper depths, clay sticking to the lower rod may
indicate higher CBR values than actually exist. Oiling the rod will help, without
significantly impacting the test results. It may be wise to auger out the test
hole after each 12 inch depth encountered to eliminate the clay related friction
problems and allow more accurate measurements.
• Many sands occur in a loose state. Such sands when relatively dry will show
low DCP index values for the top few inches and then may show increasing
strength with depth. The confining action of aircraft tires will increase the
strength of sand. All sands and gravels in a “quick” condition (water
percolating through them) must be avoided. Evaluation of moist sands should
be based upon DCP test data.
• If the cone does not penetrate significantly (approximately one-half inch) after
10 blows, the test should be stopped. If the material encountered is a
stabilized material or high strength aggregate base course which does
not produce accurate results when penetrated with the DCP, it should be
cored or augered through its depth and the DCP operation resumed
beneath it. An appropriate CBR should be assigned to this layer. If large
aggregate is encountered, the test should be stopped and a new test should
be performed within a few feet of the first location. The DCP is generally not
suitable for soils having significant amounts of aggregate larger than 2
inches. CBR values for unpenetrable materials must be carefully selected
based upon their service behavior. Suggested CBR values for such materials
are:
− Graded Crushed Aggregate 100
− Macadam
100
− Bituminous Binder
100
− Limerock
80
− Stabilized Aggregate
80
− Soil Cement
80
− Sand/Shell or Shell
80
− Sand Asphalt
80
C.3.3.2. Other Strength Factors
C.3.3.2.1. Surface and Subsurface Drainage.
• Locate depth of water table
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• Look at contours in area, signs of surface drainage problems, and wet or
swampy areas
• Coarse-grained soils have better internal drainage
• Moisture content plays significant role in bearing capacity
• Note the size and depth of any storm drain culverts under the pavement
C.3.3.2.2. Cut/fill areas indicate possible feature changes based on changing
subsurface layers.
C.3.3.2.3. Frost Areas.
• Subgrade strengths are reduced significantly during thaw periods if the
potential exists for structural failure due to frost. Detrimental frost action will
occur if the subgrade contains frost-susceptible materials, the temperature
remains below freezing for a considerable amount of time, and an ample
supply of ground water is available. If all three conditions exist and frost
damage is apparent, Frost Area Soil Support Indexes (FASSIs) are used in
lieu of CBRs.
− F1 and S1 Soils = 9.0 FASSI
− F2 and S2 Soils = 6.5 FASSI
− F3 and F4 Soils = 3.5 FASSI
• Clays , silts, and some gravelly and sandy soils with high percentages of fines
are frost susceptible. See Table C.4, Frost Design Soil Classifications.
• Areas of frost heave when no longer frozen may have large subsurface voids
and will not support projected loads. These areas must be properly
recompacted.
C.3.3.2.4. Wet Climate.
• Soil layer strengths in areas subject to heavy seasonal rains or flooding may
react similarly to those in frost susceptible areas. This is particularly true in
the case of fine-grained materials containing clays and/or silts where there is
no adequate surface seal, or positive drainage away.
• Moisture conditions at the time of testing should be documented (Is it dry,
damp, or wet?) and anticipated conditions for the projected usage period must
be considered in determining the validity of test data for intended aircraft
operations.
C.4. Obtain Aircraft Operational Requirements
C.4.1. Obtain aircraft operational requirements from the Site Operations Officer, local
Command Section, or the tasking OPR.
C.4.2. Data Required for C-17 Aircraft
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Table C.4. Frost Group Designations for Soil Classification Required for Frost Design
% by
Weight
< 0.02 mm
0-3
0-3
0-3
0-3
3-10
0-3
0-3
0-3
3-6
Frost
Group
Type of Soil
NFS (a.) Gravels (e > 0.25)
Crushed Stone
Crushed Rock
(b.) Sands (e < 0.30)
(c.) Sands (e > 0.30)
S1
(a.) Gravels (e < 0.25)
Crushed Stone
Crushed Rock
(b.) Gravelly soils
S2
Sandy soils (e < 0.30)
3-6
F1
Gravelly soils
6-10
F2
(a.) Gravelly soils
(b.) Sands
10-20
6-15
F3
(a.) Gravelly soils
(b.) Sands (not very fine silty
sands)
(c.) Clays (PI > 12)
(a.) Silts
(b.) Very fine sands
(c.) Clays (PI < 12)
(d.) Varved clays or finegrained
banded sediments
F4
>20
>15
>15
-
Typical Soil Types
under the USCS
GW, GP
GW, GP
GW, GP
SW, SP
SP
GW, GP
GW, GP
GW, GP
GW, GP, GW-GM, GP-GM,
GW-GC, and GP-GC
SW, SP, SW-SM, SP-SM, SWSC,
and SP-SC
GW-GM, GP-GM, GW-GC, and
GP-GC
GM, GC, GM-GC
SM, SC, SW-SM, SP-SM, SWSC,
SP-SC, and SM-SC
GM, GC, GM-GC
SM, SC, SM-SC
CL, CH, ML-CL
ML, MH, ML-CL
SM, SC, SM-SC
CL, ML-CL
CL or CH layered with ML, MH,
SM,
SC, SM-SC, or ML-CL
NOTE: e = void ratio. NFS indicates non frost susceptible material
C.4.2.1. Loads. Gross weights of anticipated mission aircraft, including cargo and fuel.
C.4.2.2. Traffic Volume. The expected number of passes anticipated for each aircraft
type. For a runway, passes are determined by the number of aircraft movements
across an imaginary traverse line placed within 500 feet of the end of the runway.
Simply stated, it is one aircraft movement over a given area. For taxiways and aprons,
passes are determined by the number of aircraft cycles across a line on the primary
taxiway that connects the runway and parking areas. For contingency evaluations, if
the operational data received specifies the number of required missions for a given
aircraft, this number should be doubled to determine the number of passes.
C.4.2.3. Aircraft ground operations such as turn-arounds and taxi routes determine
designations of feature types and resulting gross loads. Additional aircraft movements
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on the runway, i.e. back-taxiing in the case of an airfield with no parallel taxiway and
apron system, will also increase the number of passes per each planned mission.
C.5. Conduct Surface Condition Visual Assessment. Visual surveys of the airfield
surface can provide information on apparent structural integrity, operational condition,
and projected performance. A cursory inspection of the features should be performed
and the distress types, quantities, and severity levels as described in Appendix B
should be identified. The features should then be assigned overall condition ratings.
C.6. Refine Airfield Layout/Compile Summary of Physical Property Data (PPD).
Update the airfield layout based upon aircraft operational requirements, surface
condition assessment, and results of field test data. Each feature should now be
distinguishable by the characteristics of surface type, thickness, and condition;
subsurface layer types, thicknesses, and strengths; construction history; use; and traffic
type. One method to consolidate the cross section or pavement system profile data
obtained from field tests and construction history into specific features is to:
C.6.1. Arrange pavement and soil profile data in relation to the actual test locations on
the airfield. This will show the range of values and relationship of any given test
location data to that at adjacent test locations.
C.6.2. Group those containing common characteristics into features.
C.6.3. Establish the representative profile for each feature. In most cases, the CBR
values selected for a feature should be a low average of those collected from all the
test locations within the feature, but this is not always true. Conditions are seldom
uniform and sound engineering judgment should be used.
C.6.4. Compile the characteristics for each feature into the Summary of PPD. This
information will be used to determine the allowable gross loads and/or allowable
passes for the airfield (see Figure C.8).
C.7. Determine Allowable Gross Loads (AGLs)/ Allowable Passes
C.7.1. Semi-Prepared Airfields. Semi-prepared airfields may be evaluated for various
aircraft using the US Army Waterways Experiment Station developed software program
UNSEVA, Computer Aided Evaluation of Expedient Airfields or manually using Figure
C.9, CBR Nomograph and Semi-Prepared Surface Evaluation Curve, Figure C.10.
C.7.1.1. If using the UNSEVA program:
C.7.1.1.1. Double-click on the icon to bring up the Expedient Airfields screen. Inputs
from this screen are somewhat self-explanatory.
C.7.1.1.2. Choose the aircraft type from the list.
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SUM M ARY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTY DATA: SEMI-PREPARED AIRFIELDS
FEAT
IDENT
FACILITY
LGTH (ft)
WDTH
(ft)
COND
THICK
(in)
SURFACE
DESCRP
CBR
THICK
(in)
SUBBASE
DESCRP
CBR
THICK
(in)
SUBGRADE
DESCRP
CBR
Figure C.8. Summary of Physical Property Data Sheet
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CBR
100
90
80
70
60
50
10,000
40
NT
LE
VA OAD
I
U
L
EQ EL
E
S
WH IP
K
N
I
30
20
60
75
10
9
8
7
6
5
40 0
3
20
35
50
25
5
OR
E
GL GLE
N
SI SIN
COVERAGES
2
1
10
1,000
4
3
2
100
0
0
30
Tire Pressure (psi)
20
60
70
80
9
100
0
50
40
30
20
10
1
10
1
Figure C.9. CBR Required for Operation of Aircraft on Semi-Prepared Airfields
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Thickness (inches)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
CBR
3
AI
RC
RA
F
10 T
4
5
6
7
50
8
9
10
12
0
0
10
PA
0
SS
ES
50
50
15
17
20
25
30
35
,0
00 10
00
00 1
0,
00
10 0
0,
00
0
40
50
60
70
80
100
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Allowable Gross Weight (kips)
Figure C.10. Semi-Prepared Surface Evaluation Curve, C-17
C.7.1.1.3. Choose the type of evaluation, for allowable passes or loads.
• If evaluating for loads, enter the number of design passes.
• If evaluating for passes, the design load is automatically adjusted when the
type aircraft is selected, but this can be altered. For example, if the C-17
aircraft is selected, the design load of 580,000 lbs. is shown. This is the
maximum design load of the aircraft. If you wanted to determine the allowable
passes for a C-17 weighing 447,000 lbs., simply change the design load entry.
C.7.1.1.4. Enter correct base course CBR and thickness.
C.7.1.1.5. Enter correct subgrade CBR and select the appropriate subgrade frost code.
C.7.1.1.6. Under usual circumstances, do not alter the tire pressure data. This is
automatically adjusted when the type aircraft is selected.
C.7.1.1.7. The allowable passes or loads may then be read in the results fields for the
surface and subgrade layers. The lower of the two numbers would establish the
controlling layer for the evaluation.
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Note: This program limits CBR inputs to two layers. Careful analysis of the DCP data
is required to ensure that the layer data entered in the program represents that which
was determined in the field. For semi-prepared surface evaluations, primary concern is
given to the DCP data taken from the top 24 inches of soil.
C.7.1.2. Two steps are required to manually evaluate semi-prepared airfields: first,
evaluate for the strength of the surface layer; and second, evaluate for the thickness of
the surface layer and the strengths and thicknesses of underlying layers.
C.7.1.2.1. Evaluate Surface Layer Strength. A nomograph (Figure C.9) has been
developed to determine the strength of soil required to support a given loading
condition based upon the tire pressure, load, soil strength, and traffic. The tire
pressure is the contact tire pressure, the soil strength is the CBR of the surface layer,
the traffic is measured in coverages, and the load is the single-wheel load or the
equivalent single-wheel load (ESWL). To use this nomograph:
• Enter the chart with the expected contact tire pressure of the aircraft being
evaluated. See Table C.5 for contact tire pressure data for the C-17 at various
mission gross weights.
• Move vertically to the appropriate ESWL curve. See Table C.5 for ESWLs for
various gross weights.
• Move horizontally to the right edge of the chart.
• At that point, project a straight line through the measured CBR value of the
surface layer to read the number of coverages.
• Convert coverages to passes using Table C.5.
Table C.5. ESWLs and Tire Pressures for C-17 Aircraft
Aircraft
C-17
Gross
Weight
(kips)
Surface
ESWL
(kips)
Contact Tire
Pressure
(psi)
Pass/Coverage
Ratio
A Traffic
580
500
450
425
400
350
55.2
47.5
42.9
40.5
38.1
33.3
142
122
110
104
98
84
1.37
Note: A coverage differs from a pass. A pass simply represents an aircraft movement
across a given point on the airfield; whereas, a coverage takes into account the fact
that aircraft wander somewhat and the wheels do not follow the same identical path on
each pass. To determine the number of passes multiply the number of coverages by
the pass/coverage ratio for the aircraft and traffic area being evaluated.
C.7.1.2.2. Evaluate Surface Layer Thickness.
• Select Figure C.10, Semi-Prepared Surface Evaluation Curve, C-17.
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• Using the layer data from the PPD, enter the top of the chart with the thickness
of the aggregate surface layer. Draw a vertical line (Line 1) downward through
the aircraft pass levels. Also enter the bottom of the chart at the desired gross
weight, draw a line vertically to the curve depicting the CBR of the layer
immediately beneath the surface layer, then horizontally to intersect Line 1.
This point of intersection defines the allowable number of passes. If this
number is equal to or exceeds the number of passes computed during the
evaluation of the surface layer strength then the thickness of the surface layer
is adequate.
Note: This step evaluates the layer immediately beneath the surface layer as well as
the thickness of the surface layer.
C.7.1.2.3. Evaluate remaining subsurface layers. Repeat this procedure for each soil
layer. Enter the top of the chart with the thickness above the layer being evaluated and
use the CBR of the layer being evaluated. The layer that produces the lowest
allowable number of passes is the controlling layer for the evaluation.
Example: Determine the allowable number of passes for a 400,000 lb. C-17 aircraft on
the following soil cross section in an A traffic area:
8” Aggregate Surface Course, CBR: 20
8” Subbase Course, CBR: 15
Subgrade, CBR: 5
Solution:
• Step 1, Evaluate Surface Course Strength:
− Enter the nomograph chart at 98 PSI, the expected contact tire pressure for
the C-17.
− Move vertically to the 38.1 ESWL curve and then horizontally to the right
edge of the chart.
− Draw a straight line from this point through the CBR line at 20 and read
4,000 coverages.
− Multiply 4,000 coverages by 1.37 to determine the allowable number of
passes, which is 5,480.
• Step 2, Evaluate Surface Layer Thickness:
− Select the Semi-Prepared Surface Evaluation Curve for the C-17.
− Enter the top of the chart at 8 inches drawing a vertical line (Line 1)
downward through the aircraft pass curves.
− Enter the bottom of the chart at 400,000 lbs and draw a vertical line up to
the 15 CBR curve, then horizontally to intersect with Line 1.
− The point of intersection indicates an allowable pass number of
approximately 2,500.
• Step 3, Evaluate the Subgrade:
− Enter the top of the chart at 16 inches drawing a vertical line (Line 1)
downward through the aircraft passes.
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− Enter the bottom of the chart at 400,000 lbs and draw a vertical line up to
the 5 CBR curve, then horizontally to intersect with Line 1.
− The point of intersection indicate an allowable pass number of
approximately 1,000.
• In this example, the subgrade layer results in the lowest allowable number of
passes. The maximum allowable number of C-17 passes at a gross weight of
400,000 lbs is 1,000.
C.7.1.2.4. A Subgrade Strength Chart, Figure C.11, is also useful in that it provides
subgrade strength requirements for mat-surfaced airfields. Enter the left side of the
chart with the measured CBR. Follow horizontally to the curve indicating the surface
condition (unsurfaced, light-duty mat, or medium-duty mat) and aircraft gross weight.
Then read downward to determine the allowable aircraft cycles. One cycle is equal to
one take-off and one landing. AM-2 is considered medium-duty mat.
C.7.1.2.5. The Subgrade Strength Chart is limited to one CBR input, so care must be
given to ensure that the chosen CBR value is truly representative. This is not difficult
for a soil that exhibits a uniform CBR and soil characteristics to a depth of 24 inches. If
the soil strength varies through this depth, the evaluation must be made using the
critical CBR of the soil.
• Soil Strength Increases with Depth: Use the average CBR for the top 12
inches as the critical CBR.
• Very Soft Layer over Hard Layer:
− If soft layer is 4 inches thick or less, discard the soft layer CBR values. Use
the average CBR for the 12 inch layer under the soft layer as the critical
CBR.
− If the soft layer is more than 4 inches thick, the soft layer should be reduced
by grading to less than 4 inches. If this can not be done use the average
CBR for the top 12 inches as the critical CBR.
• Hard Layer over Soft Layer:
− If the hard layer is less than 12 inches thick, use the average CBR of the 12
inch layer under the hard layer as the critical CBR.
− If the hard layer is more than 12 inches thick, use the average CBR of the
data taken between the 12 and 24 inch depths as the critical CBR.
• Soil Strength Decreases with Depth: Determine the average CBRs for various
12 inch layers such as 6 to 18 inches, 8 to 20 inches, 10 to 22 inches, and 12
to 24 inches. Use the lowest average CBR of these layers as the critical CBR.
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30
TRAFFIC PASSES
20
C-17
10
CBR
8
C-130 C-17
6
4
C-17
2
C-130
1
10
20
40
60
80 100
200
400
600
1000
2000
4000
TRAFFIC PASSES
Semi-prepared with or without membrane
Light-duty Mat
Medium-duty Mat
Figure C.11. Subgrade Strength Requirements for C-17
C.7.2. AM-2 Mat Surfaced Airfields. Refer to the curves and procedures in Chapter 4,
Structural Design Criteria to determine suitability of AM-2 mat surfaced airfields.
C.8. Determine Aircraft Classification Number/Pavement Classification Number
(ACN/PCN). This system is included for mission planning purposes.
C.8.1. In 1983 the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) developed and
adopted a standardized method of reporting pavement strength. This procedure is
known as the Aircraft Classification Number / Pavement Classification Number
(ACN/PCN) method. The ACN is a number that expresses the effect an aircraft will
have on a pavement system. The PCN is a number that expresses the capability of a
pavement to support aircraft. Once AGLs are computed for each feature of a given
airfield, they should be converted to PCNs. PCNs for a given feature will vary
depending on which aircraft and number of passes they are based upon. All reports
generated by HQ AFCESA for surfaced airfields base the PCNs on the AGLs for the
C-141 aircraft at 50,000 passes. This standard will be changed to the C-17 aircraft.
This facilitates pavement strength comparisons of bases throughout the Air Force.
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PCNs for flexible and rigid pavement systems will be based upon 50,000 passes of the
C-17 at a maximum weight of 586,000, and PCNs for semi-prepared airfields will be
based upon 1,000 passes of the C-17 at a maximum weight of 447,000 pounds.
C.8.2. In the ACN/PCN method; the PCN, pavement type, subgrade strength category,
tire pressure category, and evaluation method are reported together in a code system.
This code system is presented in Table C.6. Although ICAO does not currently include
semi-prepared airfields in the ACN/PCN reporting method, the ACN/PCN method may
be a useful tool in mission planning. The symbol "S" should be used to identify the
pavement type in the reported PCN code. The subgrade strength codes should be the
same as those used for flexible pavements based upon CBR values.
Table C.6. ACN/PCN Code
PCN
Subgrade
Strength
Tire
Pressure
Method of PCN
Determination
A=High
B=Medium
F=Flexible
C=Low
S=Semi-Prepared D=Ultralow
W=High
X=Medium
Y=Low
Z=Ultralow
T=Technical
Evaluation
U=Using Aircraft
Pavement Type
Numerical
Value
R=Rigid
Subgrade
Strength
Code
Flexible
Pavement
(CBR)
Rigid
Pavement
(k)
Tire
Pressure
Code
Pressure
(psi)
A
B
C
D
Over 13
8 - 13
4-8
<4
Over 400
201 - 400
100 - 200
< 100
W
X
Y
Z
No Limit
146 - 217
74 - 145
0 - 73
Example: If the reported PCN for a feature is 50/S/A/X/T, “50” indicates the PCN
number, “S” indicates that it is an semi-prepared airfield, “A” indicates a high subgrade
strength, “X” indicates that medium tire pressures are allowed, and “T” indicates that a
technical evaluation was performed to determine the PCN. Each part of the code is
important. The number “50” cannot be used properly without the letters that follow.
C.8.3. Once an AGL has been determined for an airfield feature, this should be
converted to a PCN using the Semi-Prepared ACN/PCN Curves, Figure C.12. For
example, during the evaluation of an semi-prepared airfield with a subgrade strength of
12 CBR, it was determined that in order to complete 1,000 passes of the C-17 on the
airfield its AGL must be limited to 425,000 pounds. To determine the airfield PCN,
enter the bottom of the chart in Figure C.12 at 425 and extend the line vertically until it
intersects the "B" subgrade strength curve. At this point extend the line horizontally to
determine the PCN of "50". This would be reported as "50/S/B/X/T".
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110
D
Subgrade Strength
100
90
ACN-PCN
80
A High
B Medium
C Low
D Ultra Low
CBR > 13
CBR = 9 -13
CBR = 4 - 8
CBR < 4
C
B
70
A
60
50
40
30
20
C-17
10
250
300
350
400
450
500
Aircraft Gross Weight, (kips)
550
600
Figure C.12. Semi-Prepared ACN Curves for C-17
C.8.4. Similar ACN/PCN charts will be developed for other aircraft capable of using
semi-prepared airfields. Figure C.13 depicts ACN/PCN curves for the C-130 aircraft
and Figure C.14 depicts ACN/PCN curves for the C-27 aircraft. When analyzing the
effect of an aircraft on a specific airfield feature, the appropriate ACN must be selected.
For example, if the PCN of a given feature is 50/S/B/X/T, to determine the effect of any
other aircraft on the same feature, the correct ACN for that aircraft must be used (the
one considering similar pavement type and subgrade strength).
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50
Subgrade Strength
A High
B Medium
C Low
D Ultra Low
40
D
CBR > 13
CBR = 9 -13
CBR = 4 - 8
CBR < 4
C
B
A
ACN-PCN
30
20
10
C-130
0
60
70
80
90
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Aircraft Gross Weight, (kips)
Figure C.13. Semi-Prepared ACN Curves for C-130
ACN-PCN
20
15
SUBGRADE STRENGTH
ALL SUBGRADE CATEGORIES
A,B,C, & D
10
5
C-27
A,B,C, & D
0
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Aircraft Gross Weight, (kips)
Figure C.14. Semi-Prepared ACN Curves for C-27
C.8.5. The ACN/PCN system is structured so that a feature with a particular PCN value
can support an aircraft that has an ACN value equal to or less than the PCN. If the
ACN is more than the PCN, the feature will be overloaded and the expected life
reduced. Occasional minor overloading is acceptable and there will be situations when
operators decide to overload the feature. Examples are emergency landings and shortterm contingencies.
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• Overload movements should not be allowed on pavements exhibiting signs of
structural distresses or failure.
• For frost susceptible regions, overloading should be avoided during periods of
thaw or when the subgrade appears weakened.
• For seasonally wet regions, overloading should be avoided if the subgrade
appears saturated or weakened by water.
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APPENDIX D
Friction Test Procedures for Contingency Operations
D.1. Introduction. This appendix presents the basic criteria and procedures used to
determine whether a semi-prepared contingency airfield is suitable for C-17 operations
in terms of surface friction characteristics and usable runway length. Appropriate data,
figures, and evaluation charts are included. This appendix does not address structural
suitability, load bearing capacity, operational geometrics, or airspace clearance issues.
D.1.1. Scope. The procedure described herein is an interim guideline for evaluating
the friction characteristics of a semi-prepared contingency airfield. This appendix is
organized into six sections that explain this friction test procedure:
• Selection of skid test vehicle
• Installation/Operation of Bowmonk
• Layout of field test locations
• Performance of skid tests
• Downloading/Processing of skid data
• Calculation of RCR (Runway Condition Rating) for C-17
These sections are shown graphically in Figure D.1.
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Site Conditions
Mission
Suitability
Select Skid Test Vehicle
(Truck/HMMWV/Quad/Cycle)
Readiness Checks
Equipment
Availability
Operational Checks
Quick Speed
Enter Header Info
Unit Settings
Pre-Deployment
Bowmonk Operations
Detailed Speed
Peak & Mean
Friction
Printer, Paper,
Battery Charger
Skid Distance
Pre-Deployment
In-Field
Layout Field Test Locations
(Skid Locations Required)
Perform Skid Testing
Download/Process Skid Data
Calculate C-17 RCR
(Correlate Ground Vehicle Decel to Aircraft RCR)
Figure D.1. Flowchart of the Recommended Friction Procedure
D.2. Select Skid Test Vehicle. The first step in this friction procedure requires the
collection of deceleration (skid) data with a decelerometer unit mounted in a ground
vehicle. Data was collected using the four vehicles most likely to be used to perform
skid tests for C-17 deployment on contingency airfields: an Air Force six pax truck, a
HMMWV (High Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle) with a communications pallet,
a motorcycle, and a quad . The six pax truck is typically available to RED HORSE units
and airfield pavement evaluation teams (APE), the HMMWV is available to Army
Engineer Battalions, and the AFSOC Special Tactics Teams (STT) have access to the
HMMWV, quad and cycle.
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The ground vehicle selected should be one of these four vehicles since these particular
vehicles were used to establish the initial data correlations to the aircraft. If a vehicle
other than one listed above is used to collect data, the data correlation will not be valid.
The mission commander must make the ground vehicle selection issue based on
several factors, including: mission requirements, equipment availability, operational
considerations, safety, and desired data accuracy. If the commander has the latitude to
use any of these four vehicles, then the vehicle that gave the most accurate
correlations to the aircraft should be used. These were (from best to worst): HMMWV,
truck, quad, and cycle (all gave acceptable correlations, but there were differences in
accuracy). Standard safety equipment should always be used by the test driver when
performing these tests including seat belts and helmets. Since all the testing and the
resulting correlations were done with the tire types shown in Table D.1 it is
recommended that these same tires be used if at all possible. If it is not possible to use
these same tires then at a minimum similar tire types and tread designs should be
used. Detailed descriptions of each vehicle are provided in the following sections.
Table D.1. Nominal Tire Pressures, Tread Depth, and Make
Vehicle Type
Tire
Pressure
Tread
Depth
(new)
HMMWV
20 psi
3/4”
+/- 2 psi
Six Pax Truck
60 psi
+/- 5 psi
15/32”
Quad (rear tires)
7.5 psi
+/- 1 psi
20 psi
+/- 2 psi
18/32”
Motorcycle
(rear tires)
13/32”
Tire Make
Goodyear Wrangler R/T II
36 x 12.50 -16.5 LT
load range C
Goodyear Wrangler AT
235/85R16 m + s
load range E
Dunlop KT645
AT 25 x 10 -12
Dunlop K750A
4.60 - 17 4 P.R.
Note: Tires used should be in good condition with a tread depth at least
half of that when new, with no flat spots or other abnormalities.
D.2.1. AFSOC-STT AN/MRC-144 (HMMWV). The AN/MRC-144 system is the
combination of an M-998 HMMWV and an AN/GRC-206 communications pallet (see
Figure D.2). The AN/MRC-144 HMMWV Package is the standard air traffic control
(ATC) communication vehicle used by combat controllers from the SST. This HMMWV
has a gross weight of approximately 6,600 lbs (5,500 lbs HMMWV and 1,100 lbs
communications pallet). The communications pallet should be located so that it is
directly behind the rear passenger seats (this was the configuration used in testing,
some HMMWVs still have communications pallets located in a forward position where
the rear passenger seats are). If a communications pallet is not located in the vehicle,
then provisions should be made to securely place an equivalent amount of dead weight
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(sandbags, water tanks, etc.) in the same location. The HMMWV should be operated
with the transmission in the high range, unlocked position.
D.2.2. Air Force Standard Six Passenger Pickup Truck (six pax). The six pax is a
standard Air Force, six passenger, two or four wheel drive truck (see Figure D.3). The
research testing was performed with a 4WD model (operated in the 2WD mode).
Subsequent skid tests have been performed using both the 4WD and the 2WD models
with no discernible difference in the test results.
D.2.3. AFSOC-STT Quad. The Quad is a 400cc, 4-wheel, 4WD vehicle used on
assault zones by the STTs (see Figure D.4). The primary use for this vehicle is for
rapid transportation of runway navigational aids and assisting in the establishment of
the assault zone. The quad must be operated in 2WD mode for this friction procedure.
D.2.4. AFSOC-STT Motorcycle. The motorcycle is a national-stock-listed Kawasaki
250cc dirt bike (see Figure D.4). The motorcycle is modified with infra-red headlights,
rifle racks, and equipment racks. Figure D.4 shows the motorcycle and the quad
performing friction tests on a contingency airfield.
Figure D.2. HMMWV with Communications Pallet Performing Skid Test
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Figure D.3. Air Force 6-Pax Truck Performing Skid Test (with C-17 in
Background)
Figure D.4. Motorcycle and Quad Performing Friction Tests Simultaneously
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D.3. Bowmonk Unit. The Bowmonk Airfield Friction Meter Mk II was the device used
for this research testing. The use of any other device is not recommended since the
data correlations were developed with this unit. The Bowmonk is manufactured in
England and was designed to provide airfield managers with a simple, consistent, and
automated method for predicting the available friction between the aircraft tires and
runway surface. The unit was originally designed for use on paved runway surfaces,
such as asphalt or concrete, but has now been evaluated for applicability to skid testing
on semi-prepared contingency airfields. A skid test is performed with the decelerometer
unit installed on a flat and level surface in the ground vehicle and the resulting ground
vehicle deceleration measurement is used to predict aircraft stopping performance. In
this section, the hardware will be discussed, the fundamental measurements will be
described, specific installation recommendations will be provided, and procedures for
testing and operating the Bowmonk will be detailed.
D.3.1. Hardware Description. The Bowmonk unit measures approximately 6 inches by
9 inches by 3 inches, and weighs only 6 pounds. It is relatively simple to operate and
is portable for field use. The unit is battery powered and can operate for up to 16
hours in the field on a single charge. If necessary it may be recharged or operated with
a 12 VDC cigarette lighter plug found in most vehicles. The Bowmonk includes a
connection for exporting data via an RS-232 serial port to a personal computer for
permanent storage and analysis.
The internal memory of the Bowmonk AFM-2 will hold up to 99 tests before it must be
downloaded to a PC. A stripchart printer is provided for real-time hardcopy printouts of
the data in the field. See Figure D.5 for a close up of the instrument panel of the
Bowmonk unit.
D.3.2. Measurement Parameters. The Bowmonk measures the deceleration of the
vehicle during a skid test. The values are reported as a percentage of the acceleration
due to gravity (%g). Both peak and average (mean) calculated decelerations are
provided, as well as calculated stopping distance, time of deceleration, and velocity at
the start of the skid. This ground vehicle deceleration data can then be correlated to
the required aircraft Runway Condition Rating (RCR) for comparing available runway
length to stopping distance required by the aircraft.
D.3.3. Bowmonk Installation. In the HMMWV and six pax the Bowmonk unit is placed
beside the driver and secured in a horizontal configuration. With the motorcycle and
quad, the unit is placed on the equipment racks. The unit should be horizontal to within
15 degrees. The unit does not have to be perfectly level, since it has an internal
software routine that compensates for small deviations from level. It will be necessary
to construct plywood boxes to use the units with the six pax, quad, and cycle. The box
for the six pax should be constructed so that it will hold the Bowmonk unit securely and
allow the unit to be strapped in level on the front seat using the middle seat belt. Boxes
for the quad and cycle should be constructed so that they hold the units firmly (so the
units can be slid in and out of the boxes), and these boxes should be attached to the
equipment racks with plastic wire/zip ties. Bungee cord should be placed across the
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top of the boxes and units to hold them securely in place. In the HMMWV, the unit
should be placed on the level platform (front and center) between the driver and
passenger seat and secured in a forward and down position with bungee cords. The
unit must be placed so that the arrows on its lid are pointing forward in the direction of
travel (to within 10 degrees). The unit does need to be securely fastened so that once
it is installed, it will maintain its original position throughout the field tests, particularly
with no forward or backward movement possible. The recommended mounting
locations for each vehicle are shown in Table D.2. Figure D.6 provides a look at how
the Bowmonk is installed in a HMMWV.
Table D.2. Recommended Mounting Locations for Bowmonk
Vehicle Type
Recommended Mounting Location
Six Pax
HMMWV
Quad
Cycle
On the seat by the driver
Between driver and passenger, secured to platform
On front equipment rack
On rear equipment rack
D.3.3.1. Bowmonk Operational Instructions. The following sections detail the
operation and use of the Bowmonk during skid testing. The emphasis in these sections
is on the procedures required to operate the unit. Detailed instructions on entering
heading information, changing unit settings, and testing the unit for correct operation
are given in the following sections. The manufacturer’s documentation should be
referred to for proper charging procedures, maintenance of the stripchart printer, and
the installation and use of available software. The following steps detail the actions
required to perform a test. Words in all uppercase are what the unit shows on the LCD
display. Words in all uppercase and surrounded by brackets represent control panel
keys.
− Turn unit on by pressing [RESET] , letting unit go through self check. Unit will
display AFM2 READY once self check is complete.
− Press [A] to arm for first friction test. Check to be sure display shows ARM FOR
TEST #1 ? (on first line), or whatever test number is being conducted. ENTER
TO ACCEPT will be displayed on line two.
− Press [ENTER] to ACCEPT.
− The display will now show RUNWAY ID.
− Press and hold [ENTER] until unit beeps at least twice. Release [ENTER] button.
− Display will show PLEASE WAIT for several seconds.
− Then display will show ARMED FOR TEST #1 (first line). Second line will display
SPEED = 0 .
− Accelerate smoothly until reaching desired test velocity.
− As vehicle accelerates, unit will indicate current speed.
− Apply full brakes (quad and cycle - rear brakes only) until vehicle comes to a
complete stop.
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6”
3”
BOWMONK
AFM2
AIRFIELD FRICTION METER MKII
AUTO START-STOP
Stripchart
Printout
of Results
AUTO SWITCH-OFF
99 TEST MEMORY
press RESET to switch on
read OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS before use
9”
Displayed
Results
S
A
RESET
_
+
PRINT
Control
Panel
ENTER
Figure D.5. Instrument Panel of the Bowmonk Unit
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Figure D.6. Two Bowmonk Devices Installed in a HMMWV
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− Unit will display DON’T MOVE - CALCULATING.
− Keep the vehicle stationary to allow unit to complete its internal calculations and
display results.
− Unit will now display measured PERCENT G (first line) and SPEED (second line).
− If the results are acceptable, save the test results by pressing [A] to accept this
test. The unit will now display AFM2 READY.
− If the result is not acceptable, press [RESET], the instrument will discard the
current test and display AFM2 READY. Another test can be performed and saved
with the same test number.
− Ready vehicle for next test and repeat from step 2 to perform subsequent tests.
Continue until desired number of friction tests are completed. The Bowmonk unit will
automatically shut down after 4 minutes of inactivity to save the battery. To turn it back
on, simply press [RESET], testing can then continue . To check the amount of memory
used and the battery condition press and hold [RESET] once unit is on and displaying
AFM2 READY. Release [RESET] to return to normal on state. This is recommended if
large numbers of tests are conducted or battery is suspected to be low. Print out and/or
download data if memory approaches full or battery level becomes low to avoid a loss
of data.
D.3.3.2. Printing Test Results. After completion of the friction tests, the following
steps are required to print out a summary of the test results. A results summary printout
from a series of tests is shown in Figure D.7. Note that the friction values are the peak
friction measurements (not mean). Also note that the overall average is an average of
the peak friction measurements. The overall average peak friction value (63%g in
Figure D.7) can be used in Table D.7 to calculate a C-17 RCR. However, an overall
average mean friction value is highly preferable to a peak value for determining an
RCR. The results are more consistent and the measurement is less likely to be made
incorrectly.
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
After completion/acceptance of last test, display will show AFM2 READY
If unit has shutdown press [RESET] to turn unit back on.
Press [PRINT] . The display will show PRINT TEST FOR RUNWAY ?
(check the instrument and make sure it shows correct RUNWAY ID).
Data may have inadvertently been collected under more than one runway id.
The [UP ARROW] and [DOWN ARROW] can be used to select runway id to print.
Press ENTER once (this will print a results summary stripchart report that shows
the test number, the calculated velocity at braking, and the peak friction results for
all tests performed.
− Remove stripchart printout, label with additional information if necessary (vehicle,
driver, test conditions) and store in an appropriate place.
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Figure D.7. Example Stripchart Print Out
After the results summary is finished printing, it is possible to print out a more detailed
results table. An example of this table is shown in Figure D.8. Note that the results
table will show both the mean and peak friction, time to stop, brake delay time, speed,
and stopping distance for each test.
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RUNWAY FRICTION
Mean Deceleration:
66
%g
MAX over 0.20 sec:
78
%g
AIRFIELD FRICTION
Test
Friction
%g
Time
83
84
78
15:56
15:57
15:58
1 ….
2 ….
3 ….
Speed
mph
TIME TO STOP:
SPEED AT BRAKING:
STOPPING DISTANCES:
Temp
C
1.41 sec
23.5 miles/hour
21.3 feet
Ground Temp:
18.4
20.8
23.5
Runway ID:
Examiner:
Signature
1st 1/3 average
2nd 1/3 average
3rd 1/3 average
83
84
78
%g
%g
%g
Overall Average
82
%g
[ 1 % ]
[ 3 % ]
[ -4 % ]
RUNWAY FRICTION
Ground Temp:
Runway ID:
Mean Deceleration:
71
%g
MAX over 0.20 sec:
83
%g
TIME TO STOP:
SPEED AT BRAKING:
STOPPING DISTANCES:
Examiner:
Signature
1.32 sec
20.8 miles/hour
19.5 feet
Ground Temp:
Test 3 carried out
15:58 on 26-JUN-97
Serial No: 11039
Next Cal: 10-FEB-98
Software Rev W3.12 Turnkey Instruments
Runway ID:
Examiner:
Signature
a. Results Summary.
RUNWAY FRICTION
Mean Deceleration:
68
%g
MAX over 0.20 sec:
83
%g
TIME TO STOP:
SPEED AT BRAKING:
STOPPING DISTANCES:
1.22 sec
18.4 miles/hour
15.8 feet
Ground Temp:
Runway ID:
Examiner:
Signature
Test 1 carried out
15:57 on 26-JUN-97
Serial No: 11039
Next Cal: 10-FEB-98
Software Rev W3.12 Turnkey Instruments
b. Results Table.
Figure D.8 Example Printouts of Friction Results
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To print out a results table, continue with the following steps:
− Press [PRINT] for a second time.
− Use [UP ARROW] or [DOWN ARROW] to select test number to print.
− Press [ENTER] to start printing a results table for that test number.
All the tests stored in the unit can also be printed. The following steps can be used to
print the results tables from the test number indicated on the unit up to the last test
carried out.
− Unit will display PRINT TEST N.
− Press [A] instead of [ENTER] as described in the steps above. This only applies to
a results table printout.
− Unit will print results tables from test N up to the last test carried out.
− Press [RESET] at anytime to terminate printout.
See Figure D.8-b (Results Table) printout for an example. Note that both peak and
mean values are given for each test. If using the mean friction value measurements to
determine a C-17 RCR, then the average for all the means must be calculated. After
performing the skid tests in the number and manner described elsewhere in this
appendix, a results table must be printed out for each test. Total the mean values for
each test then divide that total by the number of tests to determine the overall average
mean friction value for that series of tests. As an example, look at the data shown in
Figure D.8-b (Results Table). The three mean friction values are 66%g, 71%g, and
68%g. The total value is 205%g. Divide 205%g by a total of three tests for an average
mean value of 68.3%g for this series of tests. This overall average mean friction value
is the number that is used in Table D.7 to calculate a C-17 RCR. An overall average
mean friction value is highly preferable to an overall average peak friction value for
determining a C-17 RCR.
D.3.3.3. Download Skid Data. The following procedure is to be used for uploading
data from the Bowmonk Mk II Airfield Friction Meter to a field laptop or portable
computer. This procedure is not critical to contingency airfield operations, but it does
preserve the data collected in more detail and allow for a more in-depth analysis of the
data later if necessary. Field computer must meet these minimum requirements : 386SX
processor, at least 4 MB of RAM, a hard disk with at least 4 MB of free space, one
RS232 serial port, VGA or SVGA screen, a mouse, and Microsoft Windows 3.1 or later.
The manufacturer supplied program (AFM2 for Windows) must also be installed on the
field computer. Note that only the software and Bowmonk units purchased together are
compatible due to the encoding of serial numbers on the units and software. Units and
software purchased separately will not work.
− Attach manufacturer supplied download cable to both Bowmonk and RS232 serial
port of computer.
− Press [RESET] on Bowmonk to turn on if not already on.
− Press and hold [RESET].
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− Unit will display battery voltage and percent memory used. If percent memory used
is greater than 95%, then unit should not be downloaded (doing so will cause
software to crash and will corrupt computer database, resulting in loss of data and
requiring re-installation of software).
− If data in Bowmonk has not been printed, it should be done now (in case of
downloading problems).
− If memory used was > 95%, then unit must be cleared and tests redone.
− Start up “AFM2 for Windows” program in Windows on the laptop computer.
− Note the serial numbers that are displayed when program starts up. Check to see
if the unit you wish to download matches one of these numbers The serial number
of the unit is located on the bottom of the test summary strip chart printout. If not
then data cannot be downloaded.
− Click on OK button on windows program to start it.
− Click on UPLOAD button to begin process of uploading.
− During the upload do not disturb the computer, Bowmonk , or connecting cable.
− Once uploading is complete, access and browse through database to ensure that
the recently collected test data has downloaded.
− Exit database. If another unit is not going to be downloaded immediately, then exit
completely from the AFM2 program. If the AFM2 program remains running and the
computer suffers from a glitch, lockup, or shutdown due to sleep mode or low
battery, the database will be corrupted, resulting in loss of data and requiring reinstallation of software.
− Disconnect cable and shutdown both the Bowmonk and computer to save power if
they are not going to be used immediately.
− Reset unit to prepare for next series of tests.
D.3.3.4. Clearing and Resetting Bowmonk. The following steps are required to ready
the unit for the next series of tests. This procedure will clear out all the test results
collected so far. Unit settings will not be affected by this procedure.
− Press [RESET] to turn unit on if not already on.
− Display will show AFM2 READY.
− Press [ENTER] to enter Editing Mode.
− Use [UP ARROW] and [DOWN ARROW] to move between menus.
− Move to CLEAR MY MEMORY? menu.
− Press [ENTER].
− Unit will display ALL RECORDS LOST?, PRESS [ENTER] TO ACCEPT, [RESET]
TO ESCAPE.
− Press [ENTER] to clear memory.
− Unit will display AFM2 READY.
− Press [S] and [PRINT] at the same time to turn unit off.
D.3.4. Predeployment Operational Checks and Procedures. The following sections
detail procedures that can be performed as predeployment steps to save time in the
field or verify proper functioning of unit before actual deployment.
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D.3.4.1. Entering Header Information. This section details the steps necessary to
enter "Header" information in the Bowmonk unit. This can be done before arriving on
site to save time in the field. The unit will retain this information until it is changed.
Entering this information is useful for data documentation but not necessary for proper
operation of the unit.
− Press [RESET] to turn unit on if not already on. Unit will display AFM2 READY.
− Press [ENTER]. The display will show EDITING MODE.
− Press [UP ARROW] and the display will show EXAMINER ID.
− Press [ENTER] again. You may now enter the Examiner ID.
− Use the [UP ARROW] and [DOWN ARROW] to select a letter.
− Press [ENTER] to accept that letter and move to the next letter.
− Press and hold [ENTER] when Examiner ID is correctly input.
− The display will now show RUNWAY ID.
− Press [ENTER] again to enter the Runway ID.
− Use the [UP ARROW] and [DOWN ARROW] to select a letter.
− Press [ENTER] to accept that letter and move on to the next letter.
− Press and hold [ENTER] when Runway ID is correctly input.
− The display will show NAME OF AIRPORT.
− Press [ENTER] again to enter the Name of Airport
− Use [UP ARROW] and [DOWN ARROW] to select a letter.
− Press [ENTER] to accept that letter and move on to the next letter.
− Press and hold [ENTER] when Name of Airport is correct.
− Press the [RESET] . The display will now read AFM2 READY.
D.3.4.2.1. Bowmonk Configuration Menus. The following sections detail the steps
necessary to access and modify important unit settings. These settings should not be
modified unless they differ from settings recommended in this appendix. It should not
be necessary to perform any of these modifications. This section is included mainly to
document these settings and provide a way for the user to check them should the unit
not appear to be operating correctly. Each Bowmonk unit comes with a manufacturer
supplied password. This is to prevent inadvertent changes to important unit settings
which is possible (without a password) due to the nature of the control panel. It is highly
recommended that the password for the unit be documented and stored in multiple
locations and accessible in the field. Some settings cannot be modified or even
checked without the password. Anyone using the password to check or modify settings
should use caution and document any setting numbers before and after any changes.
The manufacture’s user manual should also be consulted. If the correct password is
given to the Configuration Prompt in the Editing Mode, the following menus appear:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Advanced Setup
Trim Parameters
Trim Zeros
Adjust Clock
Re-Calibrate
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These menus allow the setup of the instrument to be changed. Use [UP ARROW] or
[DOWN ARROW] to move between the menus and press [ENTER] to select. These
settings might have to be re-entered if the unit experiences a power loss. A brief
description of each follows.
D.3.4.2.2. Advanced Setup. This option allows the user to turn various Bowmonk unit
settings ON or OFF. See appendix A in the manufacturer’s manual, Bowmonk Airfield
Friction Meter MK2 Operating Instructions, for details on selecting desired settings.
D.3.4.2.2.1. Trimmable Parameters - Bowmonk Default Settings Required. Probably
the most significant of these menus is the Trim Parameters menu. These are the
configuration settings that were used for the research testing. All the correlations in
this appendix are based upon results obtained using the BOWMONK with these
settings. Therefore, the Bowmonk unit must be set with these defaults. The following
sections describe these settings. See appendix B in manufacturer’s manual for details
on editing or modifying these values.
Table D.3. Required Values for Trimmable Parameters
Setting
Required Value
Tilt:
Brake:
Starting:
Stopping:
PFT Trig:
MAX over:
2.5 degrees/g
10.00%
00.50 secs
00.10 secs
20.00 N
0.20 s
D.3.4.2.2.2. Tilt. This compensates for the forward tilt of the vehicle as it decelerates
(movement of the suspension). Vehicles with softer suspensions require a larger tilt
compensation value and conversely, harder suspensions a lower tilt value. The default
value of 2.5 (which simulates a typical car) was used for all research testing.
D.3.4.2.2.3. Brake. This is the deceleration in %g of the Braking Threshold which
determines the start and end of braking. If the External Trigger is being used, it is also
the threshold for the end of the Brake Delay Time period. It can be adjusted between
00.00% and 99.99% g. The default value is 10.00% g.
D.3.4.2.2.4. Starting. The time window of the deceleration must be sustained at more
than the braking threshold for the braking to be determined to have started (and the
Brake Delay to have ended). The brake start time is then taken as the beginning of this
time window. The time from the External Trigger to the brake start time is the Brake
Delay Time. The Starting Time Window can be adjusted between 00.00 sec and 02.55
sec, the default value is 00.50 secs.
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D.3.4.2.2.5. Stopping. The time window (after a valid start) of the deceleration must be
sustained at less than braking threshold for the braking to be determined to have
ended (and the vehicle to have stopped). The brake end time is then taken as the
beginning of this time window. The time between the brake start and brake end times
is the Braking Time. The average deceleration will be calculated over this interval
unless you have specifically included in the average the deceleration during the Brake
Delay Time as well. The Stopping Time Window can be adjusted between 00.00 sec
and 02.55 sec, the default value is 00.10 secs.
D.3.4.2.2.6. PFT Trig. This is the brake pedal force in Newtons required to trigger the
instrument when using the pedal force transducer. Not applicable to the Bowmonk
AFM2 model unit.
D.3.4.2.2.7. Max Over. The time window interval in seconds over which the developed
or sustained peak friction reading is determined. This setting will cause the friction
value to be the greatest lowest value seen as the window is scanned across the data.
D.3.4.2.3. Trim Parameters. The Bowmonk unit is programmed with some adjustable
parameters whose values can be changed. This editing option allows their value to be
changed.
D.3.4.2.4. Trim Zeros. This menu allows the user to periodically check and trim the
transducer zero levels. Zeroing can be done on any flat surface by following the
prompts on the display. Properly trimmed zeros allow the instrument to be used to
make accurate measurements of ground slope. Note that the zero trimming surface
does not have to be exactly horizontal but it must be flat. Make the first measurement
with the instrument handle nearest to you, then rotate the instrument through 180
degrees and make the second measurement with the handle pointed away from you.
D.3.4.2.5. Adjust Clock. This menu allows the time to be changed to compensate for
daylight savings time. On selection, the minutes value will flash to indicate it can be
adjusted, press [UP ARROW] or [DOWN ARROW] to change, then [ENTER] to save
the new value. The hours value will then flash and can be adjusted likewise. The date
can only be changed at the factory.
D.3.4.2.6. Re-Calibrate. Shows the latest calibration information and allows the
factory/distributor to re-calibrate the instrument. Press [P] to print a calibration report.
Calibration reports are supplied by the manufacturer when a unit is purchased or recalibrated. Copies of this report should be made and stored in appropriate locations for
future reference. Units must be shipped back to manufacturer once a year for yearly
calibration.
D.3.5. Operational Checks. The following sections detail procedures that can be
performed before or after deployment if necessary to verify proper operation of the
Bowmonk unit. These are recommended as predeployment activities due to the length
of time and manpower required to perform these tests. These tests are also useful for
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operators who need to become familiar with the operation and accuracy of these units.
In the process of performing these procedures, all safety considerations and vehicle
skidding procedures described in this appendix should still be followed.
D.3.5.1. Quick Verification of Speed Measurement. For this operational check, a long,
flat, level area is required. The Bowmonk unit is placed in the vehicle of choice as
recommended. The unit is armed and operated as normal. Make sure the unit displays
a speed of 0.0 when starting and that the vehicle is accelerated smoothly and
uniformly. As the vehicle increases in speed towards the target speed, the driver
watches the speed as displayed on the Bowmonk (this is impossible on the cycle, and
in the HMMWV and six pax a passenger to observe the unit is helpful). If when
reaching target speed the difference between the speedometer and the Bowmonk is
less than 5% then the unit is likely working correctly. Multiple units can also be used
simultaneously to make comparisons between Bowmonk units. This test assumes that
the vehicle speedometer is accurate and functioning correctly.
D.3.5.2. Detailed Verification of the "Speed" Measurement. For this operational check,
a long distance must be measured out on flat, level ground (at least 1000') with large
physical markers placed at either end (such as cones, flagging, or airfield distance
markers). The distance should be measured to an accuracy of 1% (1000’ +/- 10’ or
4000’ +/- 40’ for example). The distance between 1000' markers on most airfields is not
always exactly 1000.0', so it is important to verify this accurately. The driver then
accelerates the vehicle to the target speed and maintains the vehicle at this constant
speed for at least 2 seconds to stabilize the vehicle speed. The driver then uses a
stopwatch (accurate to at least 0.1 sec) to time how long it takes to traverse this known
distance. The marker time measurements should be made to within 0.25 seconds and
a passenger to make the timing measurements is helpful. The driver should maintain as
constant a speed as possible over the length of the timing course by watching the
odometer closely. This total distance in feet is divided by the time to cover that
distance in seconds, to obtain a velocity in feet per second. This velocity in feet per
second is then converted to mph by multiplying the speed in feet per second by 0.6818.
After the driver passes the second timing marker, then a skid test is performed. The
skid test must be of high quality, i.e. a smooth, level skid with little vehicle bounce, with
the vehicle ending straight for this operational check to be made (see section on skid
test procedures and requirements). The speed calculated from the time to traverse the
measured distance is the actual velocity. This actual velocity is then compared to the
odometer indicated velocity and the Bowmonk measured velocity. If the percent
difference between these three ways to measure velocity is less than 5%, then the
Bowmonk "speed" measurement is accurate. Multiple tests may be performed and the
average of all the tests for each measurement technique may then be compared. This
test measures the accuracy of the speedometer as well as the Bowmonk.
D.3.5.3. Verification of Peak Friction or Mean Friction Measurement. For this
procedure, simply run two or more Bowmonk units (if available) simultaneously in the
desired vehicle (this will only work on the HMMWV or truck, the cycle and quad do not
have enough room). Perform at least three skid tests at the target speed for that
vehicle and then compare the average results. Either peak or average (mean) friction
measurements may be compared. If the overall average between units differs by less
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than 3%, then the units are most likely reading correctly. If the averages differ by more
than 3% then more tests should be conducted. If a large number of tests are conducted
and the overall average between units still differ by more than 3%, then one or more
units may be malfunctioning. Check to see if the unit settings are the same and that
none of the units is due for its annual calibration.
D.3.5.4. Verification by Direct Measurement Of Skid Distance. This procedure may be
used to directly measure the average braking friction of any vehicle used. Direct
comparison of measured skid distance (or this number converted into an
average(mean) friction) with the values calculated by a Bowmonk unit may be used to
perform an operational check. In addition, this procedure can be used to determine the
contingency airfield friction (and C-17 RCR) if a Bowmonk unit should not be available,
or is functioning improperly. The most to least preferable vehicles for this testing are
still the HMMWV, six pax, quad and cycle. The following steps are required to perform
this operational check.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Perform safety checks.
Review skidding procedure.
Review Bowmonk settings and operational sections if checking
Bowmonk for proper operation.
Install Bowmonk unit in chosen vehicle if checking unit for proper
operation.
Identify a long, smooth, level area to perform skid test. If performing
this procedure in lieu of Bowmonk measurements at a contingency
airfield line up at appropriate location to perform the next skid test .
Place marker at chosen area (orange cone, flag, etc.) and observer if
available.
Observer should be at marker position, the same longitudinal
distance down the runway, but a safe distance laterally displaced (50
feet left or right of skid location).
Select appropriate test speed, considering operational, equipment,
and safety factors. Higher speeds (40 mph or greater) are preferred
as they are more accurate.
Setup Bowmonk unit for normal operation, if applicable.
Begin acceleration as per normal skid procedure.
Driver accelerates down runway towards marker, reaching and
maintaining selected test speed as accurately as possible.
Driver performs standard braking procedure when front tires are even
with marker. Remember that for the quad and the motorcycle that
only the rear brakes are to be used for braking (no front brakes).
Driver remains stopped and operates Bowmonk unit (accepting or
rejecting data) as necessary.
If testing Bowmonk unit, the vehicle must be straight to within
approximately 15 degrees of original direction of travel. If greater than
15 degrees repeat test.
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16. Observer notes where braking actually begins and if braking wheels
locked up resulting in a true skid. If braking wheels did not appear to
lock up, repeat test.
17. Locate point on runway where rear tires actually began skidding.
18. Observer and/or driver measure the point from where braking of the
rear tires began to the point where the rear tires are located when the
vehicle came to a complete stop.
19. Distance is measured in feet. Most preferably with survey wheel or
survey tape.
20. Record vehicle used and skid distance in feet.
21. Locate measured distance in column one of Table D.4. Round up to
next higher distance if measurement falls between two values.
22. Move horizontally along that row until column for speed at which test
was conducted is located.
23. This number is the average(mean) friction (in percent g) that the test
vehicle experienced. Record this number.
24. Repeat test procedure if performing more than one test. Ready
vehicle for next skid test if collecting data in lieu of Bowmonk
measurements.
25. If this was last test, print out Bowmonk data and download data if
necessary.
Once the test or tests are completed, the average(mean) friction as measured by the
Bowmonk can be compared with the average(mean) friction derived from table D-4. If
these values differ by less than approximately 5%, the Bowmonk unit is probably
functioning correctly. If the values differ by more than 5%, check to see if the unit
settings are correct and that the unit is not due for its annual calibration. It may be
desirable to perform multiple tests and compare the average results of the sequence of
tests. If performing these tests as a substitute for actual Bowmonk measurements,
standard skidding procedures, skidding locations, and data analysis must still be
followed.
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Table D.4. Average Friction vs Braking Distance
Stopping
Distance
(feet)
20
mph
30
mph
40
mph
50
mph
60
mph
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
200
90
67
54
45
38
34
30
27
24
22
21
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
13
12
12
11
11
10
10
10
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
NA
NA
NA
101
86
76
67
61
55
50
47
43
40
38
36
34
32
30
29
28
26
25
24
23
22
22
21
20
20
19
18
18
17
17
16
16
15
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
98
90
83
77
72
67
63
60
57
54
51
49
47
45
43
41
40
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
99
93
88
84
80
76
73
70
67
65
62
60
58
56
54
53
51
49
48
47
45
44
42
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
97
93
90
86
83
81
78
76
73
71
69
67
65
64
61
Note: Values in table are in units of percent g.
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Table D.4. Average Friction vs Braking Distance (Continued)
Stopping
Distance
(feet)
210
220
230
240
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
500
550
600
650
700
20
mph
30
mph
40
mph
50
mph
60
mph
6
6
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
14
14
13
13
12
11
10
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
26
24
23
22
22
20
18
17
15
14
13
13
12
11
10
9
8
8
40
38
37
35
34
31
28
26
24
22
21
20
19
17
15
14
13
12
58
55
53
50
48
44
40
37
35
32
30
28
27
24
22
20
19
17
Note: Values in table are in units of percent g.
D.4. Layout Field Test Locations. The goal of the field tests is to accurately
measure the surface friction characteristics of the contingency airfield. In order to meet
this goal, an appropriate number of skid tests must be conducted at multiple locations
on the airfield. When conducted in the correct manner at the appropriate locations on
the airfield these tests will provide an accurate measure of the airfield surface friction.
These measurements can then be converted into a C17 RCR. The following sections
detail skid testing patterns on the runway, number of tests required, and procedures for
performing skid tests.
D.4.1. Skid Test Locations. Mark the beginning of the overruns at each end of the
airfield. Place markers at the midpoint of the airfield and then at the 1/4 points so that
the airfield is divided into 4 test sections (see Figure D.9). As shown in Figure D.9
the skid testing should be conducted just outside the C17 wheelpaths to either
side. The skid vehicles, though much smaller than the aircraft, can prematurely
degrade the runway surface and potentially reduce the available friction. The distance
between the C-17 main tire groups is approximately 25 feet. With the aircraft on the
centerline, the center of the wheelpaths are about +/- 12.5 feet from the centerline.
The width of each main group of 6 tires is 7.5 feet, adding another 4 feet for a total of
+/- 17 feet to the outside edge of either tire group. Allowing another 10' for lateral
wander of the aircraft between landings the inside edge of the skid vehicle should then
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located +/- 27 feet from the centerline. Since the four wheeled skid vehicles have a 6
foot wheel base , the center of the skid vehicle should be located +/- 30 feet from
centerline during a skid. If possible the driver should perform each skid test on a
"virgin" section of runway (one that hasn’t been skidded on yet). This can be done by
skidding a little further up or down the runway or moving the vehicle sideways 2 to 3
feet if two runs have to be made in approximately the same location. The actual skid
locations, patterns, and sequences are not critical to the friction testing procedure.
Much more important is that the areas on which skid tests are performed are
representative of the runway surface that the aircraft itself will use for braking.
D.4.1.1. Runup Lengths and Stopping Distances. There are required runup lengths for
the test vehicles. The evaluator should think through the recommended test sequence
and pattern after arriving on site and carefully plan the skid test locations to achieve
maximum data collection efficiency and avoid aborted test runs due to inadequate
runup distance between skid locations. Assuming test speeds of 40 mph for all
vehicles, Table D.5 is provided.
Table D.5. Required Runup Distances (at 40 mph)
Runup Skid
Vehicle
HMMWV
Truck
Quad
Cycle
Length
Required
1400
1200
1000
700
Maximum Required
Stopping Distance (ft)
300
250
175
125
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LEGEND:
Start 2nd Phase
Overrun
Start 1st Phase
L
5
Test
Number
Direction
(b) Phase 2 - Second Half of Minimum Run.
8
6
(a) Phase 1 - First Half of Minimum Run
C-17 Tire Configuration
and Wheel Path
5
1/4 L
1/4 L
Section 2
1/4 L
Section 1
Section 3
2
1
4
Overrun
Skid
Vehicle
Test Number, Direction
and Skid of Vehicle
7
Section 4
1/4 L
3
Note that if the approach ends of the runway provide extra runup room (in addition to
the 500-foot overruns), they can be used if they allow for smooth, uniform acceleration.
Overruns can be used for vehicle acceleration but should not be used for skid testing.
D.4.2. Number of Tests Required. Preliminary analysis of the research data has
determined the number of tests required for a typical contingency airfield evaluation
(4000'x90' as an example), as shown in Table D.5. Times shown in Table D.6 are only
approximate and can vary highly depending on vehicle type, vehicle condition, length of
runway, driver technique, and data collection efficiency.
Table D.6. Number of Tests Required
Number of Tests
Confidence Level
Time to Complete
8
16
24 or more
Minimum Required
Standard
Desired
20 minutes
35 minutes
50 minutes or more
D.4.2.1. Minimum Number of Tests. The minimum number of tests required is 8. The
airfield evaluator should perform these tests in the approximate locations as shown in
Figure D.9 . To perform this minimum number of tests the driver conducts skid tests 1
through 4 at the locations shown in Figure D.9 (a). The driver then conducts skid tests
5 through 8 at the locations shown in Figure D.9 (b). The skid locations shown within
each section are just guidelines. It is preferable to skid in the center of each section but
if runway length or vehicle performance require skidding elsewhere that is acceptable,
as long as a skid remains in the appropriate section. For extremely short runways the
driver may back the vehicle up after a skid to allow more runup distance for the next
skid.
D.4.1.2. Medium Confidence Level. A more accurate answer will result from the
evaluator performing 16 tests. To perform this larger number of tests, conduct the
procedure described in Section D.4.2.1. twice; reversing direction on the second set.
This insures that an even number of tests are conducted in either direction. This helps
to compensate for the effects of the wind on the friction measurements.
D.4.1.3. High Confidence Level. The most accurate results will be achieved if the
evaluator has the time to perform 24 or more skid tests. The driver repeats the two test
patterns shown in Figure D.9 (reversing direction after each subset of 8 tests) until the
total number of tests reaches the desired number. With the test pattern shown, 24 or
32 tests can easily be performed. It is unnecessary to collect more than 32 tests.
D.5. Perform Skid Testing. The following section lists the general steps required to
perform one friction test at one skid location. Any of the following items in bold are
extremely important and must be followed for the test to be accurate.
Atch 1
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1.
Align test vehicle with runway on one of the two longitudinal test lines
shown in Figure D.9. Both vehicle and tires should be straight.
2. Arm Bowmonk unit for test. Device should be armed just prior to
vehicle acceleration. If unit is armed and a delay of more than 15
seconds occurs, unit should be reset and then rearmed.
3. Begin vehicle acceleration smoothly but quickly. Acceleration should
be uniform without spinning tires or excessive vehicle bounce.
Proceed down runway, accelerating uniformly to target test speed.
4. Once test speed has been reached, maintain uniform speed for 2 sec.
5. Perform skid test. Apply full-braking until coming to a complete
stop. Remember full rear braking only for quad and cycle.
6. Bring vehicle to a complete stop. Vehicle and driver MUST remain
still for several seconds while Bowmonk unit calculates and
records braking information.
7. Check test results in the Bowmonk display.
8. If data appears valid, accept test. If data appears invalid reject and
repeat test.
10. Ready Bowmonk for next skid test.
If data appears invalid, reject test, return to previous starting location and repeat steps
1 through 8. If vehicle is not properly aligned with the runway after skidding to a stop
(wheels pointed straight ahead) then pull forward and align vehicle and wheels for next
skid. Several of the above steps are discussed in greater detail in the following
sections.
D.5.1.1. Target Speed at Braking. The following target speeds are recommended for
operational skid testing: 60 mph for the HMMWV and six pax, 50 mph for the quad
and cycle. Please note that the cycle may not have a speedometer or tachometer, so
the operator must establish speed when using this test vehicle. If the cycle speed is
correct to within +/- 10 mph an adequate deceleration value will be measured. With all
vehicles, the driver should attempt to obtain correct target speed within reason.
However, attempts to maintain proper speed should not override other considerations
described in this appendix which are required to perform testing properly.
D.5.1.2. Braking Procedure. The correct braking procedure is to apply full braking until
completely stopped. For the HMMWV and six pax, this means pushing on the
brake pedal as hard as possible to lock up all four tires and then skidding to a
complete stop. For the cycle and quad, it is unsafe to lock up both the front and
back brakes so the procedure requires locking up the back brakes only. Fullbraking must be used for operational testing. Note: Warm up test skids should be
performed, starting at lower test speeds and using non-skid braking (partial braking) to
confirm proper braking action and determine vehicle braking behavior at the particular
airfield.
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D.5.1.3. Steering During Skids. During the skids, a nominal amount of steering will be
required to maintain as straight a line as possible. This is acceptable and will not
significantly affect the test results. If the vehicle twists more than +/- 15 degrees
from a longitudinal line, then the test must be repeated.
D.6. Calculate C-17 RCR. There are three ways to calculate the Runway Condition
Rating (RCR) value required for C-17 contingency operations:
− Convert Bowmonk “Mean Deceleration” readings into RCR
− Convert Soil Type to RCR
− Convert Ground Vehicle Skid Distance Measurements to RCR
D.6.1. Convert Bowmonk “Mean Deceleration” Readings into Aircraft RCR Values.
This section describes the first method, which is by far the most accurate. Data
collected with the Bowmonk can be used in Table D.7 to convert the friction
measurements into an equivalent C17 RCR. The mean deceleration measurements
are used to calculate an overall average mean value. This average value is compared
to the values in column two (mean) and the appropriate C17 RCR value is determined.
D.6.2. Alternate Friction Prediction Procedures. There are two alternate friction
prediction procedures: correlating the soil type to RCR, and directly measuring the skid
distance with a ground vehicle and correlating to RCR. Of the two alternate
procedures, measuring the skid distance is more accurate, and is preferred over
correlating RCR to soil type only.
Table D.7. Stopping Friction Guidance (Preliminary)
Semi-Prepared
Runway
Surface Condition
Unstabilized
Cement Stabilized
Either
Visibly dry, dry depth 2”
Visibly dry, no puddles
Damp to wet
HUMVEE
Bowmonk
Reading
(at 40 mph)*
RCR
>61
>61
N/A
20
20
4
Note: Average of all eight “mean decel (in %g) readings.
Table D.8. Correlation Between Soil Type and RCR
Soil Type
Well Graded Gravels
Clean Sands (< 5% fines)
Clayey Sands, Silty Sands (>12% fines)
Low Plasticity Clays & Silts
USCS
Classification
GW
SW, SP
SC, SM
CL, ML
Water
Content
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
C-17 RCR
20
22
22
23
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D.6.2.1. Mean Deceleration Measurements from Measured Skid Distance. If a
Bowmonk unit is not available or if the unit should malfunction in the field, this
procedure can be used to obtain an RCR value. The skidding and distance
measurement procedure as described in the operational paragraph D.3.5.6,
"Verification by Direct Measurement of Skid Distance," should be followed. Actual skid
tests should be conducted in the number described in paragraph D.4.2, "Number of
Tests Required," and in the test patterns shown in Figure D.9. Skidding tests should
be conducted as described in paragraph D.5, "Performing Skid Test." Skid speeds of
40 mph should be used. Once testing is complete each skid distance measurement is
converted to a mean deceleration value as described in paragraph D.3.5.6,
"Verification by Direct Measurement of Skid Distance," and shown in Table D.4. The
overall average for these mean deceleration values is then calculated. This average
mean value is compared to column three of Table D.7 to determine the equivalent C-17
RCR value.
D.6.2.2. Correlation with Soil Type/Classification. In lieu of collecting any actual skid
test data on the airfield surface, the characteristic friction parameter (RCR) may be
estimated based on soil type and classification or strength data collected to assess the
structural suitability of the airfield. This method is the least accurate and should only be
used as a last resort. Appendix A provides the soil test methods that should be used to
determine the soil type in the field. Table D.8 provides the correlation used to estimate
RCR.
D.7. Rolling Friction Estimation. The rolling friction factor is important when the
unsurfaced airfield is soft enough to produce appreciable loose till. The aircraft must
“plow” through this loose till and this produces a requirement for slightly longer takeoff
distances. This loose till depth should be measured at five locations on the runway in
accordance with the measuring procedures described in Appendix B. Suggested
measurement locations include; touchdown area, initial braking zone, point of rotation,
departure end of runway, and other areas where the surface may be softened due to
poor drainage, improper construction, aircraft turning, etc. Calculate the average of
these five till depth measurements to establish the overall runway till depth, then refer
to Table D.9 to determine the approximate rolling friction factor for the runway surface
measured.
Table D.9. Rolling Friction Guidance
Semi-prepared
Runway
Unstabilized (dry)
Unstabilized (damp to wet)
Cement stabilized
Dry Till Depth
Rolling Friction Factor
0 to 1.5 inches
1.51 to 3.5 inches
3.51 to 5.75 inches
5.76 to 7.75 inches
>7.75 inches
0 to 1.0 inches
0 to 0.5 inches
Atch 1
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5
10
15
20
Maintenance Required
5
2
(25 November 1997)
Atch 1
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Appendix E
Special Tactics Team Checklist
E.1. Current operator checklists used by AFSOC Special Tactics Teams (STTs) to
verify suitability of semi-prepared airfields for C-17 operations should be updated to
reflect the guidance given in this ETL, which supersedes the criteria contained in
AFJPAM 32-8013, FM 5-430, Volumes 1 and 2 , Planning and Design of Roads,
Airfields, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations, in regards to C-17 airfield criteria.
E.1.1. Chapter 3, page 7B, C-17 Characteristics/ Airfield Data should be updated to
reflect the following:
Runway
Length
Width
Width (180 TURN)
Lateral Safety Zone
Obstruction Slope
3,500*
90
165
35
5:1
Overruns
Length
Width
300
90
Weights
Operating Wt, Empty
279,000
Max Landing Wt (Paved)
586,000
Max Landing Wt (AM-2)
560,000
Max Landing Wt (Semi-prepared) 447,000
Wind Limits
Max Wind
Tailwind
Crosswind
TBD
TBD
30
Single Point Refuel Panel
Nose to Spr
Unk
Side
Right
Turnarounds
Length
Width
180
165
Taxiway
Distance: RWY
centerline to
TXY edge
Width
Turn Radius
Shoulder
Clear Area
280
60
90
10
70
Apron
Distance:
Apron edge to
fixed object
100
*Runway length of 3,500 ft for locations 0 to 6,000 ft Pressure Altitude. This
requirement assumes an RCR of 20, 90oF (Ambient temperature = Standard
(1962) + 31oF), and a Landing gross weight of 447,000 pounds. Using the same
temperature and weight assumptions, the different RCRs will influence the
required runway lengths as follows:
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RCR
20
16
12
8
4
Pressure
Altitude
(ft)
Runway
Length
(ft)
0 - 6,000
3,500
0 - 2,000
2,001 - 5,000
5,001 - 6,000
0 - 2,000
2,001 - 5,000
5,001 - 6,000
0 - 3,000
3,001 - 5,000
5,001 - 6,000
0 - 2,000
2,001 - 4,000
4,001 - 6,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
4,000
4,500
5,000
5,000
5,500
6,000
6,000
6,500
7,000
Note: These runway lengths do not include under/overruns.
E.1.2. Annex A, appendix 2-1, Airfield Survey Data should be updated as follows:
E.1.2.1. RCR Values. The following charts / procedures related to friction
measurement should be included in the checklist:
Atch 1
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Site Conditions
Select Skid Test Vehicle
(Truck/HMMWV/Quad/Cycle)
Mission
Suitability
Readiness Checks
Equipment
Availability
Operational Checks
Quick Speed
Enter Header Info
Pre-Deployment
Bowmonk Operations
Unit Settings
Detailed Speed
Peak & Mean
Friction
Printer, Paper,
Battery Charger
Skid Distance
Pre-Deployment
In-Field
Layout Field Test Locations
(Skid Locations Required)
Perform Skid Testing
Download/Process Skid Data
Calculate C-17 RCR
(Correlate Ground Vehicle Decel to Aircraft RCR)
Flowchart of the Recommended Friction Procedure
Atch 1
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Vehicle
Direction
Skid
Test Number, Direction
and Skid of Vehicle
C-17 Tire Configuration
and Wheel Path
5
Test
Number
(b) Phase 2 - Second Half of Minimum Run.
7
8
6
LEGEND:
5
Start 2nd Phase
L
1/4 L
Section 2
1/4 L
Section 1
Overrun
Start 1st Phase
1
4
(a) Phase 1 - First Half of Minimum Run
1/4 L
1/4 L
Section 3
2
3
Section 4
Overrun
Layout Field Test Locations. The goal of the field tests is to accurately characterize
the on-site friction supply (or skid resistance) of an unpaved airfield. In order to meet
this goal, an adequate number of skid tests should be conducted in several locations
on the airfield that, when averaged, will adequately represent the skid resistance of the
runway surface.
Required Skid Test Locations
Atch 1
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Number of Tests Required. Preliminary analysis of the research data has shown that
the number of tests required for the typical contingency airfield (4000'x90') (as an
example) should be as follows:
Number of Tests
Confidence Level
Time to Complete
8
16
24 or more
Minimum Required
Standard
Desired
20 Minutes
35 Minutes
50 Minutes or more
Target Speed at Braking. The absolute best speed for skid testing would be the
speed of the aircraft when it touches down (approximately 135 mph), but this is not safe
or practical for ground vehicles on a short dirt landing strip. The following target speeds
are recommended for operational skid testing; 40 mph for the HMMWV, 6-Pax, quad,
and cycle. Please note that the cycle does not have a speedometer or tachometer, so
the operator must use their best judgment when using this test vehicle.
Braking Procedure. For the HMMWV and 6-Pax, push on the brake as hard as
possible to lock up all four tires and then skid to a complete stop. For the cycle and
quad, it was unsafe to lock up both the front and back brakes so the procedure to be
used for all tests is locking up the back brakes only.
Runup Lengths and Stopping Distances. Notice also that there is a certain required
runup length for each skid test. The evaluator should think through the test sequence
after arriving on-site and carefully plan the skid test locations to achieve maximum
efficiency and avoid aborted test runs because he/she ran out of room before they
reached desired test speed. For planning purposes, with 40 mph test speeds, the
following table is provided:
Skid Vehicle
HMMWV
6-Pax
Quad
Cycle
Runup Length
Required
1400
1200
1000
700
Maximum Required
Stopping Distance
(ft)
300
250
175
125
Friction Test Procedure/Bowmonk Operation. Any of the following items in bold are
extremely important and must be followed.
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(25 November 1997)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Align test vehicle with runway on one of the two longitudinal test lines
previously identified; (i) 30 feet to the left of centerline or (ii) 30 feet to the
right of centerline. Both vehicle and tires should be straight.
Turn unit on by pressing [RESET], letting unit go through self check. Unit
will display 'AFM2 READY' once self check is complete.jArm Bowmonk
device for test. Device should be armed just prior to vehicle acceleration. If
device is armed and a delay of more than 15 seconds occurs, device
should be reset and then rearmed.
Press button "A" to arm for first friction test. Check to be sure display shows
'SET FOR TEST #1 ?' (on first line), or whatever test number is being
conducted. 'ENTER TO ACCEPT' will be displayed on line two.
Press [ENTER] to accept.
The display will now show 'RUNWAY ID'.
Press and hold [ENTER] until unit beeps at least twice. Release [ENTER]
button.
Display will show 'PLEASE WAIT' for several seconds.
Then display will show 'ARMED FOR TEST #1' (on first line). Second line
will display 'SPEED = 0'.
Begin vehicle acceleration smoothly but quickly. Acceleration should
be uniform without spinning tires or excessive vehicle bounce.
Proceed down runway, accelerating uniformly to target test speed. Unit will
indicate current speed.
Once test speed has been reached, maintain uniform speed for 2 seconds.
Perform skid test. Apply full-braking until coming to a complete stop. Unit
will display 'DON'T MOVE - CALCULATING'. Keep the vehicle stationary
to allow the unit to complete its internal calculations and display
results. This is particularly important with the motorcycle and quad.
Nominal steering will be required. If the vehicle twists more than 15
degrees from the longitudinal line, then the test must be repeated.
Unit will now display measured 'PERCENT G' (on first line) and 'SPEED' (on
second line).
If the results are acceptable, save the test results by pressing [A] to accept
this test. The unit will now display 'ARM2 READY'.
If the result is not acceptable, press the [RESET] button, the instrument will
discard the current test and display 'AFM2 READY'. Another test can be
performed and saved with the same test number.
Ready vehicle for next test and repeat from step 2 to perform subsequent
tests. Continue until desire number of friction tests are completed. The
Bowmonk device will automatically shut down after 4 minutes of
inactivity to save the battery. To turn it back on, simply hit the [RESET]
button.
Print out Bowmonk data and/or download to computer.
Atch 1
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(25 November 1997)
Stopping Friction Guidance (Preliminary)
Semi-prepared
Runway
Surface Condition
Unstabilized
Cement Stabilized
Either
Visibly dry, dry depth 2”
Visibly dry, no puddles
Damp to wet
HUMVEE
Bowmonk
Reading
(at 40 mph)*
RCR
>61
>61
N/A
20
20
4
Note: Average of all eight “mean decel (in %g) readings.
Alternate Friction Prediction Procedures. There are two alternate friction prediction
procedures; correlating the soil type to RCR and directly measuring the skid distance
with a ground vehicle and correlating to RCR. Neither method has as much accuracy
as the Bowmonk Decel method, but can be used to obtain the RCR.
Correlation with Soil Type/Classification. In lieu of collecting any actual skid test
data on the airfield surface, the characteristic friction parameter (RCR) may be
estimated based on soil type and classification or strength data collected to assess the
structural suitability of the airfield. Appendix A provides the soil test methods that
should be used to determine the soil type in the field. Table D-3 provides the data
correlation obtained.
Soil Type
USCS
Classification
Water
Content
C-17 RCR
GW
SW, SP
SC, SM
Dry
Dry
Dry
20
22
22
CL, ML
Dry
23
Well Grade Gravels
Clean Sands (< 5% fines)
Clayey Sands, Silty Sands
(>12% fines)
Low Plasticity Clays & Silts
Correlation Between Soil Type and RCR
Direct Measurement Of Skid Distance. In lieu of collecting skid test data with the
Bowmonk AFM-2, the actual skid distance may be physically measured. The following
procedure can be used to measure the average braking friction of any vehicle used.
This provides the user with a method to determine airfield friction should a Bowmonk
unit not be available or working improperly. Comparison of measured skid distance
(converted into an average friction) with the value calculated by a Bowmonk unit may
also be used in the field as a method of checking the unit for proper operation.
Atch 1
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(25 November 1997)
Stopping
Distance (ft)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
500
550
600
650
700
20 MPH
90
67
54
45
38
34
30
27
24
22
21
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
13
12
12
11
11
10
10
10
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
30 MPH
NA
NA
NA
101
86
76
67
61
55
50
47
43
40
38
36
34
32
30
29
28
26
25
24
23
22
22
21
20
20
19
18
18
17
17
16
16
15
14
14
13
13
12
11
10
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
40 MPH
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
98
90
83
77
72
67
63
60
57
54
51
49
47
45
43
41
40
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
24
23
22
22
20
18
17
15
14
13
13
12
11
10
9
8
8
50 MPH
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
99
93
88
84
80
76
73
70
67
65
62
60
58
56
54
53
51
49
48
47
45
44
42
40
38
37
35
34
31
28
26
24
22
21
20
19
17
15
14
13
12
60 MPH
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
97
93
90
86
83
81
78
76
73
71
69
67
65
64
61
58
55
53
50
48
44
40
37
35
32
30
28
27
24
22
20
19
17
*Values in Table are in units of percent g.
AVERAGE FRICTION VS BRAKING DISTANCE
Atch 1
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(25 November 1997)
OVERRUN
OVERRUN
E.1.2.2. Condition Survey/Maintenance Data. The following charts should be included
in the checklist:
Runway Layout
500’ Sections (Coincide with Markers)
Distress Locations
Distress Types
By Section
91 Potholes
92 Ruts
93 Loose
Aggregate
94 Dust
95 Rolling
Resistant Mat.
96 Jet Blast
Erosion
97 Stabilized
Layer Failure
Distress Locations
Additional Features/Sections: Taxiways, Aprons, Turnarounds, Etc...
Identify Features/Section
Distress Types
91 Potholes
92 Ruts
93 Loose
Aggregate
94 Dust
95 Rolling
Resistant Mat.
96 Jet Blast
Erosion
97 Stabilized
Layer Failure
Atch 1
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(25 November 1997)
Distress Severity Levels
Distress Types
91 Potholes
92 Ruts
93 Loose
Aggregate
94 Dust
95 Rolling
Resistant Mat.
96 Jet Blast
Erosion
97 Stabilized
Layer Failure
GREEN
AMBER
RED
4” Deep and/or
<15” Diameter
4” to 9” Deep and
>15” Diameter
> 9” Deep and
>15” Diameter
Exist but < 4” Deep
4” to 9” Deep
>9” Deep
Covers < 1/10 of section
Covers between 1/10 and 1/2
of section
Covers > 1/2 of section
Does not obstruct visibility
Partially obstructs visibility
Thick, obstructs visibility
Exist but < 3.5” Deep
3.5” to 7.75” Deep
> 7.75” Deep
Exist but < 1” Deep
1” to 3” Deep
> 3” Deep
Exist but < 1” Deep
1” to 2” Deep
> 2” Deep
Note: Potholes, ruts, and rolling reistant material are considered major distresses. Depending
upon actual distress location, any of these distress types categorized as RED may cause overall
airfield condition to be RED.
Rolling Friction Guidance
Semi-prepared
Runway
Unstabilized (dry)
Unstabilized (damp to wet)
Cement stabilized
Dry Till Depth
Rolling Friction Factor
0 to 1.5 inches
1.51 to 3.5 inches
3.51 to 5.75 inches
5.76 to 7.75 inches
>7.75 inches
0 to 1.0 inches
0 to 0.5 inches
5
10
15
20
Maintenance Required
5
2
Deduct Values for C-17 Operations
Distress
91 Potholes
92 Ruts
93 Loose Aggregate
94 Dust
95 Rolling Resistant Material
96 Jet Blast Erosion
97 Stabilized Layer Failure
Green
R/T*
H/A**
4
2
14
4
4
15
2
15
18
2
5
10
5
15
Amber
R/T
H/A
10
6
18
6
6
30
4
30
22
4
10
30
10
25
Red
R/T
H/A
20
12
24
10
8
45
6
45
26
15
15
40
15
35
Atch 1
(147 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
*R/T Runways and taxiways.
**H/A Hammerheads and aprons.
Correction Curves for Total Deduct Values
Enter bottom of chart with the total of all deduct values determined for each distress.
Extend line vertically until it intersects the correct "q" line (number of individual distress
deduct values that are equal to or greater than 5).
At this point, draw line horizontally to determine the Semi-prepared Airfield Condition
Index (SPACI).
100
GREEN
75
A M BER
25
RED
0
SPACI Scale
Atch 1
(148 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
E.1.2.3. Soil Identification. The following charts related to field soil characterization
should be included in the checklist.
Soil Groups
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
Symbol
G
S
M
C
Soil Characteristics
Well graded
Poorly graded
High compressibility
Low compressibility
Organic (peat)
Organic (silts and clays)
Liquid limits under 50
Liquid limits over 50
Symbol
W
P
H
L
Pt
O
L
H
Soil Groups/Symbols
Size Group
Boulders
Cobbles
Gravels
(Coarse)
(Fine)
Sands
(Coarse)
(Medium)
(Fine)
Fines
Passing
No Maximum Size
12 Inch
3 Inch
3 Inch
3/4 Inch
No. 4
No. 4
No. 10
No. 40
No. 200
Retained On
12 Inch
3 Inch
No. 4
3/4 Inch
No. 4
No. 200
No. 10
No. 40
No. 200
No Minimum Size
Example
Lemon to Pea
Lemon to Walnut
Walnut to Pea
Pea to Powdered Sugar
Pea to Rock Salt
Rock Salt to Table Salt
Table Salt to Powdered Sugar
(Not discernible to naked eye)
Grain Size Groups
Steps for Field Identification:
1. Select representative sample of soil (approximately 1 pint).
2. Separate gravel size particles from remainder of soil (approximately 1/8 to 3/16
inch and above).
• Gravel > 50% = GW, GP, GM, GC
• Gravel < 50% = SW, SP, SM, SC or
fine-grained ML, MH, CL, CH, OL, OH
Atch 1
(149 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
3. Estimate % fines (< 200 sieve) in original sample (sedimentation test may be
helpful).
• For gravels
− if < 10% fines = GW or GP
− if > 10% fines = GM or GC
• For Sands
− if < 10% fines = SW or SP
− if > 10% fines = SM or SC
• If > 50% of entire sample < 200 sieve = ML, MH, CL, CH, OL, OH
4. For gravels and sands with < 10% fines (GW, GP, SW, SP) check gradation to
determine if well-graded or poorly-graded.
• Wide range in grain sizes, with all intermediate sizes substantially represented
= GW or SW
• Predominantly one size or some intermediate size missing (uniform or gap
graded) = GP or SP
5. For fine-grained soils (ML, MH, CL, CH, OL, OH) test for organic matter
• If distinctive color, odor, spongy feel, or fibrous texture (particles of vegetation)
= OL or OH
• If not, then = ML, MH, CL, CH
6. For fine-grained soils (ML, MH, CL, CH, OL, OH) and coarse-grained soils with
> 10% fines (GM, GC, SM, SC).
• Remove all material > 40 sieve
• Perform field plasticity tests on portion < 40 sieve to determine cohesive
and plastic characteristics
• Results will be as given for each test
• Perform tests as required, until results are conclusive
Atch 1
(150 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
Test
Dry Strength
Roll/Thread
Ribbon
Wet Shake
Cast
Bite/Feel
Shine
Wash
Dust
Sedimentation
Material
<40 Sieve
Wet
<40 Sieve
Sticky
<40 Sieve
Sticky
<40 Sieve
Sticky
Field Identification of Soils
Soil
Types
ML
MH
CL
CH
no to low low to
med to very high
med
high
low
low to
med
high
med
no
little
3" to 8" 8" to 10"
cohesion cohesion
slow to no to slow no to slow
no
rapid
Damp handle freely
<40 (<200) unpleasant
Sieve
OL/OH
low
spongy
handle roughly
smooth
Dull
discolors quickly, >5% silt
>10% silt
30 Seconds
1 Hour
Shine
Summary of Field Plasticity Tests Results to Determine Soil Types
Atch 1
(151 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
More than half of coarse
fraction is larger than
No. 4 sieve
More than half of coarse
fraction is smaller than
No. 4 sieve
Gravels
Sands
Coarse-grained Soils
Fine-grained Soils
More than half of material is smaller than
No. 200 sieve
More than half of material is larger than
No. 200 sieve
Major Divisions
Symbol
Field Identification Procedures
(Base fractions on estimated weights)
Gravels
<5%
Fines
GW
Wide range in grain sizes, all intermediate sizes substantially represented
GP
Predominantly one size or some intermediate sizes missing
Gravels
>12%
Fines
GM
Nonplastic fines or fines with little plasticity (see ML below)
GC
Plastic fines (see CL below)
Sands
<5%
Fines
SW
Wide range in grain sizes, all intermediate sizes substantially represented
SP
Predominantly one size or some intermediate sizes missing
Sands
>12%
Fines
SM
Nonplastic fines or fines with little plasticity (see ML below)
SC
Plastic fines (see CL below)
Identification Procedures
on Fractions smaller than No. 40 sieve
Dry Strength
Wet Shake
Thread or
Ribbon
ML
None to slight
Quick to slow
None
CL
Medium to high
None to very slow
Medium
OL
Slight to medium
Slow
Slight
MH
Slight to medium
Slow to none
Slight to medium
CH
High to very high
None
High
OH
Medium to high
None to very slow
Slight to medium
Silts & Clays
LL <50
Silts & Clays
LL >50
Highly Organic Soils
Pt
Readily identified by color, odor, spongy feel,
and frequently by fibrous texture
Unified Soil Classification System
Atch 1
(152 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
Soil Types
Value as
Subbase or
Subgrade
Value as
Base Course
Excellent
Good
Good to excellent
Poor to fair
d
Good to excellent
Fair to good
u
Good
Poor
Slight to medium
GC
Fair to good
Poor
SW
Good
Fair to good
Poor
Poor to
Not suitable
Slight
Slight to medium
None to
Almost
none
very slight
None to
Almost none
very slight
Good
Poor
Symbol
GW
Gravels
and
Gravelly
Sands
GP
GM
Sands
SP
and
Coarse-grained
Soils
d
Sandy
SM
Gravels
u
Silts
and
Clays
LL <50
None to
very slight
None to
very slight
Almost none
Almost none
Slight to medium Very slight
Slight to high
Slight
Very slight
Fair to good
Not suitable
Slight to high Slight to medium
SC
Fair to good
Not suitable
ML
Fair to poor
Not suitable
Slight to high Slight to medium
Medium to
very high Slight to medium
CL
Fair to poor
Not suitable
Medium to high
OL
Poor
Not suitable
Medium to high Medium to high
Medium to
High
very high
Silts
MH
and
Clays Soils CH
Fine-grained
LL >50
OH
Highly Organic Soils
Potential
Compressibility
Frost Action
& Expansion
Pt
Medium
Poor
Not suitable
Poor to very poor
Not suitable
Medium
High
Poor to very poor
Not suitable
Medium
High
Not suitable
Not suitable
Slight
Very high
GM and SM groups are divided into subdivisions d and u for roads and airfields
Suffix d is used when LL
< 28 and PI< 6
Suffix u is used when LL > 28
Fine-grained Soils
Coarse-grained Soils
Soil Types
Gravels
and
Gravelly
Sands
Sands
and
Sandy
Gravels
Subgrade Modulus
Drainage
Characteristics
Unit Dry Weight
Lb per Cu Ft
Field
CBR
GW
Excellent
125 - 140
60 - 80
300 or more
GP
Excellent
110 - 130
25 - 60
300 or more
Fair to poor
130 - 145
40 - 80
300 or more
120 - 140
20 - 40
200 to 300
120 - 140
20 - 40
200 to 300
Symbol
d
GM
K
Lb per Cu In
GC
Poor to
impervious
Poor to
impervious
SW
Excellent
110 - 130
20 - 40
200 to 300
Excellent
100 - 120
10 - 25
200 to 300
Fair to poor
120 - 135
20 - 40
200 to 300
105 - 130
10 - 20
200 to 300
105 - 130
10 - 20
200 to 300
u
SP
d
SM
SC
Poor to
impervious
Poor to
impervious
Silts
and
Clays
LL <50
ML
Fair to poor
100 - 125
5 - 15
100 to 200
CL
Impervious
100 - 125
5 - 15
100 to 200
OL
Poor
90 - 105
4-8
100 to 200
Silts
and
Clays
LL >50
MH
Fair to poor
80 - 100
4-8
100 to 200
CH
Impervious
90 - 110
3-5
50 to 100
OH
Impervious
80 - 105
3-5
50 to 100
Pt
Fair to poor
-----
-----
Highly Organic Soils
u
-----
GM and SM groups are divided into subdivisions d and u for roads and airfields
Suffix d is used when LL < 28 and PI < 6
Suffix u is used when LL > 28
Soil Characteristics Pertinent to Roads and Airfields
Atch 1
(153 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
E.1.2.4. Structural Evaluation. The following charts and procedures related to
structural evaluation of the airfield should be included in the checklist.
Obtain
Mission Data
Load Data
Traffic Volume
Ground Operations
Define Airfield
Layout
Perform
Field Tests
Define Features
Surface Type
Layer Thickness
Use
Traffic Type
Determine Test Locations
Compile
PPD
Compute
AGLs / Passes
Classify Soils
Refine Features
Compute Allowable Gross
Layer Thicknesses (DCP) Select Representative Loads and/or Passes
Layer Strengths (DCP)
Profile
Compile Physical
Property Data (PPD)
Assess
SPACI
Visual Inspection of Surface Distresses to
Determine Semi-prepared Airfield
Condition Index (SPACI)
Evaluation Process
500’ on Centerline
500’ on Centerline
Overrun
200’
200’
200’
200’
Note: For unimproved airfield, continue this pattern
throughout the length. For aggregate surfaced
airfields, the pattern may be more widely spaced
on the remaining portion of the airfield.
150’
Typical Semi-prepared Airfield
Priority Testing
Overrun
Apron
Typical Apron or Turnaround
1. Soft spots
2. Offsets, should be in wheel
paths of main gear
3. Centerline
4. Aircraft turnarounds
5. Any area where the aircraft
must stop
6. Overrun,one test in center
7. Along edges, at 500 feet
intervals
DCP Test Locations for Semi-prepared Airfields
Atch 1
(154 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
Surface Layer Strengths. Lack of confinement at the top of the surface layer affects
the DCP measurements. The penetration depth required to measure the surface layer
strength accurately is related to the gradation and plasticity characteristics of the
materials. The DCP can measure strengths of thin surface layers of fine-grained
plastic materials but requires thicker surface layers for the non-plastic coarse-grained
materials. The penetration depth required for measuring actual strength of the surface
layer with the DCP varies with soil types as follows:
Soil Type
CH
CL
SC
SW-SM
SM
GP
SP
Average
Penetration
Depth
(inches)
1
3
4
4
5
5
11
Note: The shearing action of the C-17 while braking during landing operations will
create loose till on dry unstabilized soil surfaced runways in arid or semi-arid regions.
The number of allowable passes may be significantly lower than those predicted using
standard evaluation procedures. The DCP data collected at the top of the surface layer
in the unconfined material, if treated as a separate layer in calculating allowable loads
or passes, may provide a good indication of the surface capability to withstand the
additional loads and stresses expected during landing operations.
Special Considerations:
1. DCP tests in highly plastic clays are generally accurate for depths to approximately
12 inches. At deeper depths, clay sticking to the lower rod may indicate higher CBR
values than actually exist. Oiling the rod will help, without significantly impacting the
test results. It may be wise to auger out the test hole after each 12 inch depth
encountered to eliminate the clay related friction problems and allow more accurate
measurements.
2. Many sands occur in a loose state. Such sands when relatively dry will show low
DCP index values for the top few inches and then may show increasing strength with
depth. The confining action of aircraft tires will increase the strength of sand. All
sands and gravels in a “quick” condition (water percolating through them) must be
avoided. Evaluation of moist sands should be based upon DCP test data.
3. If the cone does not penetrate significantly (approximately one-half inch) after 10
blows, the test should be stopped. If the material encountered is a stabilized
material or high strength aggregate base course which does not produce
Atch 1
(155 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
accurate results when penetrated with the DCP, it should be cored or augered
through its depth and the DCP operation resumed beneath it. An appropriate CBR
should be assigned to this layer. If large aggregate is encountered, the test should be
stopped and a new test should be performed within a few feet of the first location. The
DCP is generally not suitable for soils having significant amounts of aggregate
larger than 2 inches. CBR values for unpenetrable materials must be carefully
selected based upon their service behavior. Suggested CBR values for such materials
are:
− Graded Crushed Aggregate 100
− Macadam
100
− Bituminous Binder
100
− Limerock
80
− Stabilized Aggregate
80
− Soil Cement
80
− Sand/Shell or Shell
80
− Sand Asphalt
80
DCP DATA SHEET
BASE:
FEATURE:
TEST#:
TEST LOCATION:
(1) No. of hammer blows
between test readings
DATE:
No of
Accum.
Penetration Penetration Hammer
Blows Penetration p/Blow Set
per Blow
Blow
mm
mm
mm
Factor
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
DCP
Index
CBR
%
Depth
in.
(6)
(7)
(8)
(2) Accumulative cone
penetration after each set of
hammer blows
(3) Difference in accumulative
penetration (2) at start and end
of each hammer blow set
(4) (3) divided by (1)
(5) Enter 1 for 17.6 lb hammer,
2 for 10.1 lb hammer
(6) (4) x (5)
(7) From CBR versus DCP
correlation (table C.2 or C.3)
(8) Previous entry in (2) divided
by 25.4 rounded off to 0.2 in.
Suggested DCP Data Sheet
Atch 1
(156 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
DCP
Index
mm/blow
<3
in/Blow
CBR
0.10
0.11
0.12
100
92
84
80
76
70
65
61
60
57
53
50
47
45
43
41
40
39
37
35
34
32
31
30
25
22
20
19
3
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
4
5
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.23
6
7
8
9
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.35
0.40
10-11
0.45
DCP
Index
mm/blow
in/Blow
12
0.50
13
14
15
16
17
18-19
20-21
22-23
24-26
27-29
30-34
35-38
39
440
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49-50
51
52
53-54
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.0
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.0
55
CBR
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
DCP
Index
mm/blow
56-57
58
59-60
61-62
63-64
65-66
67-68
69-71
72-74
75-77
78-80
81-83
84-87
88-89
92-96
97-101
102-107
108-114
115-121
122-130
131-140
141-152
153-166
166-183
184-205
206-233
234-271
272-324
>324
in/Blow
CBR
2.20
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
<0.5
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.40
3.50
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
Tabulated Correlation of DCP Index vs CBR
Atch 1
(157 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
CH
DCP
Index
CL
DCP
Index
DCP
Index
DCP
Index
mm/Blow in/Blow CBR mm/Blow in/Blow CBR mm/Blow in/Blow CBR mm/Blow in/Blow CBR
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.1
3.3
3.5
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.3
35
23
17
14
12
10
8.7
7.7
7.0
5.3
5.8
5.4
5.0
4.6
4.3
4.1
3.9
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.2
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
>175
4.5
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.3
5.5
5.7
5.9
6.1
6.3
6.5
6.7
>6.9
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
<2.0
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
9.6
8.6
7.8
7.1
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.1
4.7
4.4
4.1
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.7
2.5
2.4
2.3
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
>59
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.3
>2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.0
<1.0
Tabulated Correlation of DCP Index vs CBR - CH and CL Type Soils
Atch 1
(158 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
SUMMARY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTY DATA: SEMI-PREPARED AIRFIELDS
FACILITY
FEAT
IDENT
SURFACE
SUBBASE
SUBGRADE
LGTH WDTH COND THC DESCRP CBR THC DESCRP CBR THC DESCRP CBR
(ft)
(ft)
K (in)
K (in)
K (in)
Atch 1
(159 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
CBR
100
90
80
70
60
50
30
20
10
9
8
7
6
5
20
40
30
25
5
35
10,000
40
NT
LE
VA OAD
I
U
L
EQ EL
OR WHE PS
I
E
K
L
E
NG GL IN
SI SIN
60
75
50
COVERAGES
2
1
10
1,000
4
3
100
2
Tire Pressure (psi)
30
0
20
0
70
80
9
10 0
0
50
60
40
30
20
10
1
10
1
Surface CBR Required for Aircraft Operations on Semi-prepared Airfields
Thickness (inches)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
CBR
3
AI
RC
4
5
RA
10
6
7
50
8
9
10
12
50
50
15
17
20
25
,0
0
FT
PA
0
SS
ES
00 100
0
00 1
0
,0
0
10 0
0,
00
0
30
35
10
0
40
50
60
70
80
100
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Allowable Gross Weight (kips)
Semi-prepared Surface Evaluation Curve, C-17
Atch 1
(160 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
Aircraft
C-17
Gross Weight
(kips)
Surface ESWL
(kips)
Contact
Tire Pressure
(psi)
Pass/Coverage
Ratio
A Traffic
580
500
450
425
400
350
55.2
47.5
42.9
40.5
38.1
33.3
142
122
110
104
98
84
1.37
ESWLs and Tire Pressures for C-17 Aircraft
Note: A coverage differs from a pass. A pass simply represents an aircraft movement
across a given point on the airfield; whereas, a coverage takes into account the fact
that aircraft wander somewhat and the wheels do not follow the same identical path on
each pass. To determine the number of passes multiply the number of coverages by
the pass/coverage ratio for the aircraft and traffic area being evaluated.
Example: Determine the allowable number of passes for a 400,000 lb. C-17 aircraft on
the following soil cross section:
8” Aggregate Surface Course, CBR: 20
Subgrade, CBR: 10
Solution:
• Step 1, Evaluate Surface Course Strength:
− Enter the Surface CBR nomograph chart at 98 PSI, the expected contact tire
pressure for the C-17.
− Move vertically to the 38.1 ESWL curve and then horizontally to the right
edge of the chart.
− Draw a straight line from this point through the CBR line at 20 and read
4,000 coverages.
− Multiply 4,000 coverages by 1.37 to determine the allowable number of
passes, which is 5,480.
• Step 2, Evaluate Surface Layer Thickness/Subgrade CBR:
− Select the Semi-prepared Surface Evaluation Curve for the C-17.
− Enter the top of the chart at 8 inches drawing a vertical line (Line 1)
downward through the aircraft pass curves.
− Enter the bottom of the chart at 400,000 lbs and draw a vertical line up to
the 10 CBR curve, then horizontally to intersect with Line 1.
− The point of intersection indicates an allowable pass number of
approximately 450.
− In this example, the subgrade layer results in the lowest allowable number of
passes. The maximum allowable number of C-17 passes at a gross weight of
400,000 lbs is 450.
Atch 1
(161 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
E.1.3. Annex A, appendix 2-2, Airfield Criteria should be updated to include C-17
specific criteria.
Runway
Length
Width
Longitudinal Gradient (%)
Transverse Gradient (%)
Max Grade Change (%) per 200'
Shoulder, Width
Shoulder, Transverse Gradient (%)
Lateral Clear Area, Width
Lateral Clear Area, Gradient(%)
Lateral Safety Zone, Width
Lateral Safety Zone, Slope
Overrun, Length
Overrun, Width
Aircraft Turnaround, Length
Aircraft Turnaround, Width
End Clear Zone, Length
End Clear Zone, Inner Width
End Clear Zone, Outer Width
End Clear Zone, Max Gradient (%)
Approach Zone, Length
Approach Zone, Inner Width
Approach Zone, Outer Width
Approach Zone, Glide Ratio
APZ 1, Length
APZ 1, Width
3,500*
90
Max 3.0
0.5-3.0
Max 1.5
10
1.5-5.0
35
2.0-5.0
50
5:1
300
90
180
165, includes width of runway/overrun
500
180
500
Max 5.0
Min 10,500 / Desired 32,000
500
2,500 at 10,500 length, is constant from
10,500 to 32,000
20:1
2,500
500
Taxiway
Width
Longitudinal Gradient (%)
Transverse Gradient (%)
Shoulder, Width
Shoulder, Transverse Gradient (%)
Clear Area, Width
Clear Area, Gradient (%)
Turn Radii
Distance, RWY centerline to edge of TXY
60
Max 3.0
0.5-3.0
10
1.5-5.0
110 (from TXY centerline to obstacle)
Max 5.0
90
280
Apron
Gradient
Shoulder, Width
Shoulder, Transverse Gradient (%)
Distance, Apron Edge to Obstacle
1.5-3.0
10
1.5-5.0
100
Atch 1
(162 of 162)
(25 November 1997)
E.1.4. Annex A, appendix 2-3, Airfield Layout should be updated to reflect a more
detailed airfield drawing.
Atch 1
(163 of 162)
(25 November 1997)