Illicit Financial Flows from
Developing Countries: 2003-2012
Dev Kar and Joseph Spanjers
December 2014
Illicit Financial Flows from
Developing Countries: 2003-2012
Dev Kar and Joseph Spanjers
December 2014
We are pleased to present our report, Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 20032012. This is the sixth in our annual series, and it reaffirms the $1 trillion estimate of unrecorded
money shifting yearly out of emerging market and developing countries. Perhaps this is a good
point to take stock of where we have come from and where we are going.
When Global Financial Integrity (GFI) was formed in 2006, we decided to analyze unrecorded money
disappearing out of developing countries in a way that did not repeat the same methodology I had
employed in my book, Capitalism’s Achilles Heel.† I had conducted a series of surveys around the
world to come up with an estimate of $500 billion annually moving out of developing countries. This
was a very expensive process, involving a total of 885 interviews in some 25 countries, and was not
something we could repeat with limited funds. Besides, we wanted a more sophisticated, robust
economic analysis.
After careful consideration, we chose to use the World Bank Residual Method and International
Monetary Fund Direction of Trade Statistics. Both are dependent on data filed by governments
with these institutions. GFI did not invent the methodology nor create the statistics. Both had been
around for decades. What GFI did do was apply these existing analytical methodologies to data
from the whole of developing countries. In the intervening years we have made two adjustments to
our methodology, both tending to produce more conservative estimates.
Today our data are drawn entirely from IMF balance of payments and IMF international trade
statistics. These statistics and their derivatives are used every day by international institutions,
governments, corporations, banks, and individuals making millions of decisions on investments,
loans, interest rates, exchange rates, and more. They are, in short, the statistics on which the
economic and financial worlds work, influencing as well political and security concerns for all
nations.
We choose to use published statistics, knowing that—while these provide an estimate of
massive illicit flows—they still fall short of measuring all unrecorded financial flows. Several
major components of such flows are not included in our estimates. For example, IMF trade
statistics are based entirely on merchandise trade. Services and intangibles, a favorite area for
trade misinvoicing, are not included, although they comprise about 20 percent of world trade.
Furthermore, our data do not include what we call “same invoice faking.” IMF data reveals only
transactions that have been re-invoiced; where the misinvoicing occurs within the same invoice
†
Raymond Baker, Capitalism’s Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free Market System. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
2005).
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
iii
as agreed between exporters and importers, this does not show up. And, our data do not reveal
cash movements primarily from criminal activities, such as drug trading, human trafficking, much of
counterfeiting, etc. So, we know that our estimates are very conservative.
We recognize too that there can be errors in balance of payments and trade statistics. The
possibility of data errors exists, as far as we know, in every economic study that has ever been
written. While such errors at the level of individual countries could either increase or decrease the
aggregate trillion dollar estimate, they cannot alter the basic finding that unrecorded capital outflows
from the developing world are immense, generating severe consequences for poverty alleviation
and economic growth.
What we do believe, and do incorporate into our advocacy work, is that the order of magnitude of
what we are dealing with swamps the argument that there can be errors in the data sufficient to
change perceptions of the problem. We urge governments and international institutions to improve
the data and, at the same time, work to curtail this most debilitating reality impacting poorer
countries around the globe. Greater transparency in financial systems—in both national and crossborder dealings—is one of our major recommendations.
GFI’s findings are now widely referenced by international institutions and governments as
compelling reasons for addressing the illicit flows issue. In the future, we expect to relate the
estimates we produce more closely to the harms they cause. The goal is to help developing
countries retain resources—contributing to prosperity, justice, and peace for billions of people.
We welcome contributions toward strengthening the analysis and curtailment of global illicit
financial flows.
Raymond W. Baker
President
Global Financial Integrity
December 15, 2014
iv
Global Financial Integrity
Table of Contents
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
I.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II.Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
III.
Results: Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
IV. Regulatory, Fiscal, and Governance Drivers of Trade Misinvoicing: Some Areas for Future
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
V. Policy Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
VI.Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Charts and Tables in the Report
Table X1.Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, by Region, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Table X2.Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, by Component, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . viii
Chart 1. Total Illicit Financial Flows (HMN+GER), 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Table A. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: Current (2014)
and Previous (2013) Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table B. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, by Region, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table C. Real Illicit Financial Flows, Growth Rate, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table D. Real Illicit Financial Flows by Region, Growth Rate, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chart 2. Cumulative Illicit Financial Flows by Region, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chart 3. Real Illicit Financial Flows & Illicit Financial Flows to GDP by Region, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . 10
Table E. Illicit Financial Flows to GDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chart 4. Heat Map, Average Trade Misinvoicing Outflows to GDP, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chart 5. Real Illicit Financial Flows, Official Development Assistance,
& Foreign Direct Investment 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table F. Illicit Financial Outflows from the Top 10 Developing Economies, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chart 6. Illicit Financial Flows: Top 10 Countries of 2003-2012
as Share of Developing World Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Chart 7. Heat Map, Cumulative Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, 2003-2012 . . . . 15
Chart 8. Share of HMN in Total Illicit Financial Outflows, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Chart 9. Regional Illicit Flows; Shares Related to HMN & GER Components, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . 16
Table G. Twenty Largest Export Under-Invoicers with respective
Export Proceeds Requirements, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
v
Tables in the Appendix
Table 1. Geographical Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 2. Country Rankings by Largest Average Illicit Financial Flows, 2003-2012 (HMN+GER) . . 28
Table 3. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries (HMN+GER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 4. Trade Misinvoicing Outflows (GER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Table 5. Illicit Hot Money Outflows (HMN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 6. The Components of Trade Misinvoicing, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 7A. Illicit Financial Flows to GDP/Trade/ODA/FDI/FDI+ODA, 2003-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 7B. Illicit Financial Flows to GDP/Trade/ODA/FDI/FDI+ODA, 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
vi
Global Financial Integrity
Executive Summary
This report, the latest in a series of annual reports by Global Financial Integrity (GFI), provides
estimates of the illicit flow of money out of the developing world–as a whole, by region, and by
individual country–from 2003-2012, the most recent ten years of data availability.
The study finds that between 2003 and 2012, the developing world lost US$6.6 trillion in illicit
outflows [See See Table X1; or Appendix Table 3]. In real terms, these flows increased at 9.4
percent per annum [Table C]. After a brief slowdown during the financial crisis, illicit outflows are once
again on the rise, hitting a new peak of US$991.2 billion in 2012 [See Table X1; or Appendix Table 3].
Table X1: Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, by Region, 2003-2012
(in billions of nominal U.S. dollars)
Region
Sub-Saharan Africa
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Cumulative
12.1
20.3
38.2
51.1
67.0
73.4
75.0
58.0
65.2
68.6
528.9
131.2
167.1
184.7
201.3
227.3
263.4
267.3
368.1
371.4
473.9
2,655.6
68.1
73.9
85.9
95.9
131.7
168.1
175.1
170.3
250.9
166.5
1,386.4
6.0
22.7
57.8
51.1
42.6
131.8
118.6
74.2
109.2
113.4
727.4
Western Hemisphere
80.0
96.9
122.3
103.3
124.9
156.7
112.3
151.4
172.0
168.8
1,288.8
All Developing Countries
297.4
380.8
489.0
502.8
593.5
793.4
748.3
821.9
968.7
991.2
6,587.1
Asia
Developing Europe
MENA
To put this in perspective, the cumulative total of official development assistance (ODA) to the
developing countries in this report from 2003 to 2012 was just US$809 billion [See Appendix Table
7A]. In 2012, the last year in this study, ODA to these countries stood at US$89.7 billion, according
to OECD data sourced from the World Bank [See Appendix Table 7B]. That means that for every
single one of those US$89.7 billion in development aid that entered these developing countries in
2012, over US$10 in illicit financial flows (IFFs) came out. If the problem of illicit financial flows is
allowed to grow unchecked, development aid will continue to fight an uphill battle.
This report also compares illicit outflows to foreign direct investment (FDI) in the developing
countries that are found in this report from 2003 to 2012 [See Chart 5]. Though FDI was significantly
larger than ODA at US$5.7 trillion over the 10-year period, it was still less than illicit outflows. Even
FDI and ODA combined come in at slightly less than illicit outflows, at US$6.5 trillion. [See
Appendix Table 7A]
GFI measures illicit financial outflows using two sources: 1) outflows due to deliberate trade
misinvoicing (GER) and 2) outflows due to leakages in the balance of payments, also known as illicit
hot money narrow outflows (HMN). The vast majority of illicit financial flows – 77.8 percent in the
10-year period covered in this report – are due to trade misinvoicing [See Chart 9].
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
vii
Table X2: Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, by Component, 2003-2012
(in billions of nominal U.S. dollars)
All Developing Countries
Trade Misinvoicing Outflows (GER)
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
257.5
347.1 369.2
412.4
495.5 594.1
Illicit Hot Money Outflows (HMN)
39.9
33.8 119.8
90.4
98.0 199.3
Total
297.4
380.8
502.8
593.5
489.0
793.4
2009
2010
2011
2012
Cumulative
514.5 594.3 786.7 729.9
5,101.1
233.8
1,486.0
748.3
227.6 182.0 261.4
821.9
968.7
991.2
6,587.1
Asia continues to be the region of the developing world with the greatest volume of illicit financial
flows, comprising 40.3 percent of the world total over the ten years of this study. It is followed by
Developing Europe at 21.0 percent, the Western Hemisphere at 19.9 percent, MENA (the Middle
East and North Africa) at 10.8 percent, and Sub-Saharan Africa at 8.0 percent [See Table D].
MENA saw the largest percent increase in illicit outflows from 2003 to 2012, at 24.2 percent per
annum. Sub-Saharan Africa followed at 13.2 percent with Developing Europe at 9.8 percent, Asia at
9.5 percent, and the Western Hemisphere at 3.5 percent [See Table D].
Asia’s regional total is driven by the People’s Republic of China, the leading source of illicit financial
flows from developing countries for nine of the ten years of this study. Similarly, Developing Europe’s
large share of global IFFs is primarily due to the Russian Federation, the number two country for
nine of the ten years of the study, which briefly surpassed China in 2011 to become the world’s top
exporter of illicit capital before ceding this place back to China in 2012 [See Section III, ¶8].
The top five exporters of illicit capital over the past ten years on average are: China, Russia,
Mexico, India, and Malaysia [See Appendix Table 2]. Compared to GFI’s estimates in Illicit
Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2002-2011, hereafter referred to as the 2013 IFF Update,
these rankings have changed only slightly—India and Malaysia switched ranks in this report, with
India moving up to the number four slot.1 This is due to a continuation of India’s upward trend, which
began in 2009, and Malaysia’s downward trend that began in 2010 [See Appendix Table 3]. China
registered a particularly large increase from 2011 (US$162.8 billion) to 2012 (US$249.6 billion) [See
Appendix Table 3]. This is due primarily to its return to a trend of large and increasing HMN outflows
that began in 2009 but dropped off precipitously in 2011 [See Appendix Table 5].
This report also contains a special section on areas for future research on potential regulatory,
fiscal, and governance drivers of trade misinvoicing. Restrictive export proceeds requirements,
such as surrender and repatriation requirements, may drive export under-invoicing. Similarly, import
over-invoicing may be incentivized by foreign exchange regulations. There also appear to be links
between governance, the size of the underground economy, and the volume of illicit flows.
1
viii
Dev Kar and Brian LeBlanc, Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2002-2011 (Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity,
2013).
Global Financial Integrity
This study’s rigorous methodology does not contain any methodological changes from the 2013 IFF
Update, though we no longer report our GER Normalized figure–an overly conservative estimate–for
reasons described in the methodology section [See Section II, ¶3]. The results of this report are
consistent with the 2013 IFF Update. Changes in our estimates are due to revisions in the statistics
by the country of interest’s statistical agency [See Section II, ¶8; and Table A].
GFI recommends that world leaders focus on curbing the opacity in the global financial system—
comprising, among other things, tax haven secrecy, anonymous companies, and money laundering
techniques—which facilitates these outflows. Specifically, GFI maintains that [See Section V]:
• Governments should establish public registries of meaningful beneficial ownership
information on all legal entities;
• Financial regulators should require that all banks in their country know the true beneficial
owner(s) of any account opened in their financial institution;
• Government authorities should adopt and fully implement all of the Financial Action Task
Force’s (FATF) anti-money laundering recommendations;
• Regulators and law enforcement authorities should ensure that all of the anti-money
laundering regulations, which are already on the books, are strongly enforced;
• Policymakers should require multinational companies to publicly disclose their revenues,
profits, losses, sales, taxes paid, subsidiaries, and staff levels on a country-by-country
basis;
• All countries should actively participate in the worldwide movement towards the automatic
exchange of tax information as endorsed by the OECD and the G20;
• Trade transactions involving tax haven jurisdictions should be treated with the highest level
of scrutiny by customs, tax, and law enforcement officials;
• Governments should significantly boost their customs enforcement by equipping and
training officers to better detect intentional misinvoicing of trade transactions; and
• The United Nations should adopt a clear and concise Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
to halve trade-related illicit financial flows by 2030 and similar language should be included
in the outcome document of the Financing for Development Conference in July 2015.
As individual States and the international community make progress implementing these
recommendations and generating greater financial transparency, future IFF updates will reflect this
progress, hopefully, with decreasing rates of illicit outflows. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
ix
x
Global Financial Integrity
I. Introduction
1. Illicit financial flows (IFFs) have continued to gain momentum and interest in the international
policy arena since the publication of Global Financial Integrity’s (GFI’s) 2013 annual illicit
financial flows report, Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2002-2011, hereafter
referred to as the 2013 IFF Update. For example, just one week after the publication of the
2013 IFF Update, Angel Gurría, the Secretary-General of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), stated: “[t]he issue of illicit financial flows is at the
forefront of the international agenda. Governments worldwide are joining forces to combat
money laundering, tax evasion, and international bribery, which make up the bulk of IFFs.
. . IFFs have devastating effects on developing countries. . .[N]ow is the time to determine
where public funds should best be targeted to make the most impact.”2 At a panel alongside
the 2014 Annual Meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund in October,
Leonard McCarthy, the Integrity Vice President of the World Bank, stated, “when we talk
about the top 10 global priorities facing this world, corruption and illicit financial flows could
also be right up there amongst the top 10.”3 At the conclusion of the U.S.-Africa Summit in
August, U.S. President Barack Obama recognized “the losses to the [African] continent and
its people from illicit financial flows and corruption,” and announced that the U.S. and African
“[l]eaders decided to establish a joint high-level working group to develop a plan of action
for further work in this area.”4 Similar momentum has been observed at the United Nations,
whose Open Working Group on Sustainable Development Goals recommended inclusion of a
goal to “significantly reduce” illicit financial flows by 2030.5
2. Illicit financial flows are different from capital flight, a term that includes both licit and illicit
capital. Licit capital flight is recorded and tracked, significantly lowering the probability that
it has a corrupt or criminal source. In contrast, IFFs are by nature unrecorded, and cannot be
used as public funds or private investment capital in their country of origin.
3. One of the reasons that illicit financial flows have garnered so much attention is due to the
fact that they are a large and growing problem. Chart 1 illustrates the rise in illicit financial
outflows in the ten-year period of this study.
2 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: Measuring OECD
Responses (Paris: OECD, 2014), 1. http://www.oecd.org/corruption/Illicit_Financial_Flows_from_Developing_Countries.pdf.
3 World Bank, “Illicit Financial Flows and the Post-2015 Development Agenda,” transcript of panel discussion, 2014 International
Monetary Fund/World Bank Group Annual Meetings, Washington, DC, October 11, 2014. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDOII/
Resources/588920-1413828312460/101114_WB_ILLICIT.pdf.
4 The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Statement by the Chair of the U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit [Press Release], August 6,
2014. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/08/06/statement-chair-us-africa-leaders-summit.
5 United Nations, Open Working Group of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals, “Goal 16.4,” in Open Working Group
Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals, A/68/970 (New York: United Nations, 2014), 22. http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
content/documents/1579SDGs%20Proposal.pdf.content/documents/1579SDGs%20Proposal.pdf.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
1
Chart 1: Total Illicit Financial Flows (HMN+GER), 2003-2012
(in billions of nominal U.S. dollars)
$1,000 $900 $800 $700 $600 $500 $400 $300 $200 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 4. The vast majority of illicit financial outflows is due to trade misinvoicing, which this report
estimates using the GER method. Valuation fraud, the means by which trade misinvoicing
takes place, is an acute problem for administrations in developing countries.6
5. As they are typically intended to be hidden, some forms of illicit financial flows are difficult
to estimate with precision. Many illicit transactions are carried out in cash, in order to avoid
a paper (or data) trail, and are consequently not captured in government statistics. Thus,
economic methods tend to understate the volume of illicit financial flows.
6. Trade misinvoicing is possible due to the fact that trading partners write their own trade
documents. Usually, through export under-invoicing and import over-invoicing, corrupt
government officials, criminals, and commercial tax evaders are able to easily move assets
out of countries and into tax havens, anonymous companies, and secret bank accounts.
6
2
James T. Walsh, “Customs Valuation,” in Changing Customs: Challenges and Strategies for the Reform of Customs Authorities, ed.
Michael Keen (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2003).
Global Financial Integrity
II. Methodology
1. There are two primary, detectable routes that illicit capital takes as it moves out of a country:
a) the deliberate misinvoicing of external trade transactions and b) leakages from the balance
of payments.
2. GFI measures trade misinvoicing using the Gross Excluding Reversals (GER) methodology.
This methodology, which draws upon the International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) Direction of
Trade Statistics (DOTS) database in conjunction with its International Financial Statistics (IFS)
database, estimates trade misinvoicing by looking for imbalances in reported export and
import values between a country of interest and the world.7
3. In this report, GFI no longer includes the “normalized” GER figure, which was meant to
provide a lower bound for trade misinvoicing. Previously, GFI calculated it by setting to 0
gross trade misinvoicing whenever it fell below ten percent of exports in a given country
in a given year. However, this normalization filter was unnecessarily conservative, for four
reasons. The first is that there is no statistical method to calculate illicit financial transactions
that are carried out in cash, so those flows are already not included in our GER figure.
Second, there is not yet any consistent, comparable, global data on the trade in services and
intangibles—which accounts for roughly 20 percent of global trade in goods and services8
—so the misinvoicing in services and intangibles does not appear in our estimates. Third,
GFI’s methodology only detects when there is a discrepancy between the invoice filed with
Customs in the exporting country and the invoice filed with Customs in the importing country.
This means that GFI cannot detect same-invoice faking: when the importer colludes with the
exporter to list the same (mis)value on the original invoice. Fourth, the IMF Committee on
Balance of Payments Statistics 2013 Annual Report found that the global goods balance–
world exports minus world imports–averages around 1.1 percent of world exports from
2006-2012.9 Since the world is a closed system, this balance would be zero in a perfect
statistical world. However, it is not, and as such we can extrapolate that errors in IMF trade
data are unlikely to be greater than 1.1 percent of exports, on average. Given that these four
points are already likely to significantly understate the actual volume of illicit outflows due
to trade misinvoicing, we have arrived at the conclusion that a ten percent limit to create a
lower bound was overly conservative, and have removed the “normalized” GER figure from
this report. What was previously referred to as the “non-normalized” GER figure is now
simply referred to as the GER figure, which estimates illicit financial outflows due to trade
misinvoicing.10
7
International Monetary Fund, “Direction of Trade Statistics (DOTS)” [Online Database], http://elibrary-data.imf.org/FindDataReports.
aspx?d=33061&e=170921; International Monetary Fund, “International Financial Statistics (IFS)” [Online Database], http://elibrary-data.imf.
org/FindDataReports.aspx?d=33061&e=169393.
8 International Monetary Fund, Revision of the Balance of Payments Manual, 5th ed. (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2007);
International Monetary Fund, Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual, 6th ed. (Washington, DC: International
Monetary Fund, 2013).
9 International Monetary Fund, “Table 1. Global Balances on Current Account, 2006-2012 (concluded),” in IMF Committee on Balance of
Payments Statistics 2013 Annual Report (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2014), 21.
10See Kar and LeBlanc, IFFs 2002-2011.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
3
4. Though some of the discrepancies in trade misinvoicing figures do come from statistical
errors, those errors are likely decreasing, due to increasing capacity, experience, and training
among developing world customs agencies.11
5. We do not “net out” illicit inflows from illicit outflows; we focus in these reports only on gross
illicit outflows. Some academic literature subtracts illicit inflows from illicit outflows (it “nets
out”), under the assumption that these inflows are good for a country, regardless of their
illicit nature. Our focus on outflows is based on the premise that illicit inflows do not make
up for the loss of capital through illicit outflows, as they generally cannot be taxed or used
to boost capacity in the formal sector. Rather, these illicit inflows tend to drive illicit outflows,
contributing to a vicious cycle that only exacerbates the problem. Further, these illicit inflows
often deprive developing countries of significant customs duties, they facilitate crime, and
they flow into the underground economy. GFI views net illicit financial flows as analogous to
the concept of net crime, which is illogical and unrealistic.
6. Leakages from the balance of payments are captured using the Hot Money Narrow (HMN)
method, which is based on the Net Errors and Omissions (NEO) term in the IMF’s Balance of
Payments Statistics database. From 2003-2005, we use data from the Revision of the Balance
of Payments Manual, 5th Edition (BPM5); from 2006-2012, the updated Balance of Payments
Manual, 6th Edition (BPM6) is used.12
7. By definition, the NEO term includes statistical errors, which are impossible to disaggregate
from deliberate diversions of money. That said, economists have used the HMN figure as
its results have been consistently negative (implying outflows) and increasing for many
developing countries. We should expect to see fewer and fewer errors in the NEO term, as the
statistical capacities of developing countries have increased over time. Thus, the increasing
illicit outflows we see in the NEO figure over the years is likely driven by an increase in
diversions of capital that is larger than the decrease in errors.
8. There are no methodological changes between this report and the 2013 IFF Update. Thus, there
is relatively little variance in the data found in the 2013 IFF Update and this report [See Table A].
Any changes in the estimates are due to revisions in the statistics by the country of interest’s
statistical agency.
11Zake,
12IMF,
4
Customs Administration Reform.
Revision of BPM5; IMF, BPM6.
Global Financial Integrity
Table A: Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries:
Current (2014) and Previous (2013) Estimates
(in billions of nominal U.S. dollars or in percent)
Year
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
991.2
2014 HMN+GER
297.4
380.8
489.0
502.8
593.5
793.4
748.3
821.9
968.7
2013 HMN+GER
301.5
384.5
498.9
511.4
594.0
789.5
770.3
832.4
946.7
Nominal Difference
Percent Difference
-4.1
-3.7
-9.9
-8.5
-0.6
3.9
-22.0
-10.5
22.0
-1.4%
-1.0%
-2.0%
-1.7%
-0.1%
0.5%
-2.9%
-1.3%
2.3%
9.The 2013 IFF Update was the first to incorporate two important adjustments to our estimates:
a) the use of bilateral trade data when it is available and b) the accounting for re-exports
through Hong Kong.13 These two adjustments were essential and are continued in this year’s
report.14
10. Detractors of the illicit financial flows agenda have implied that more accurate data and better
reporting will lower IFF estimates. The case of Aruba shows just the opposite. GER estimates
for Aruba have increased significantly since the 2013 IFF Update, as it is now calculated
using bilateral trade data with advanced countries [See Appendix Table 1].15 We saw similar
increases in GER estimates (before the Hong Kong re-exports adjustment) in the 2013 IFF
Update for the 18 countries that were calculated using bilateral data in that report.
11. GFI’s estimates are in line with estimates for total capital flight (licit and illicit flows combined).
Using data from Boyce and Ndikumana, it can be extrapolated that the net sum of capital
flight from 2000-2010 from 33 Sub-Saharan African countries is 34.2 percent of their
combined 2010 GDP.16 To contrast, this report estimates the gross sum of illicit financial flows
from 2003-2012 from 48 Sub-Saharan African countries to be 35.7 percent of their combined
2012 GDP. There are three key differences between how GFI and Boyce and Ndikumana
calculate their figures: First, GFI’s figures for trade misinvoicing using the GER method are
larger, due to the fact that we always use gross figures (Boyce and Ndikumana “net out” illicit
inflows), for reasons described above. Second, Boyce and Ndikumana’s figures are larger due
to their use of the World Bank Residual (WBR) method to calculate leakages in the balance
of payments, compared to GFI’s more conservative HMN method. The WBR method has the
ability to capture licit in addition to illicit financial flows. GFI, which previously used the WBR
method, introduced the HMN method in 2012, which was 32.5 percent lower than the WBR
method in 2010.17 Given that WBR makes up 62.1 percent of Boyce and Ndikumana’s figures
13Hong
Kong Customs and Excise Department, “Re-Export Trade Data, 2003-2012” (Customs and Excise Department, The Government of
the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 2014).
14For a detailed commentary on these methodological changes, refer to Section II of the 2013 IFF Update (paragraphs 12-14 on bilateral
data, paragraphs 15-17 on Hong Kong re-exports)
15For more information on why using bilateral data tends to increase IFF estimates, refer to Section II of the 2013 IFF Update.
16James K. Boyce and Léonce Ndikumana, “Capital Flight from Sub-Saharan African Countries: Updated Estimates, 1970-2010,” PERI
Research Report (Amherst, MA: Political Economy Research Institute, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, 2012).
17Dev Kar and Sarah Freitas, Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2001-2010 (Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity, 2012).
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
5
for 1970-2010, GFI’s use of the HMN figure is significant. Third, Boyce and Ndikumana also
include unrecorded remittances (GFI does not), which comprise 12.8 percent of their capital
flight figure. Thus, despite the fact that GFI does not consider inflows in its trade misinvoicing
figures, it achieves a result where illicit financial flows are approximately equal to estimates of
total capital flight where inflows are considered in other literature.
12. GFI’s estimates for illicit financial flows can also be compared with estimates of capital
flight presented by Claessens and Naudé in “Recent Estimates of Capital Flight.”18 For the
basket of 84 countries considered in their study, they estimate capital flight using a variety
of methodologies. Perhaps the two most prominent are the World Bank Residual (WBR) and
the Dooley methods, which provided estimates that respectively averaged three percent and
two percent of those countries’ combined GDP from 1982-1991, the final ten years of their
study. Though these estimates include illicit leakages from the balance of payments, they
also include licit leakages, and they do not include any trade misinvoicing – a major source
of illicit financial flows (77.8 percent of IFFs from 2003-2012, according to this report). Thus,
GFI’s estimate of IFFs as 3.9 percent of the developing world’s GDP from 2003-2012 is not
unreasonable and is consistent with the work of Claessens and Naudé.
18 Stijn
Claessens and David Naudé, “Recent Estimates of Capital Flight,” Policy Research Working Paper Series No. 1186 (Washington, DC:
Debt and International Finance Division, International Economics Department, World Bank, 1993).
6
Global Financial Integrity
III. Results: Illicit Financial Flows
from Developing Countries
1. In this section, we discuss the figures for illicit outflows from developing countries. We
examine trends and patterns globally and by region, present a ranking of the top 10 countries,
and put illicit financial flows in contrast with official development aid (ODA) and foreign direct
investment (FDI) to the developing world.
2. Estimates of illicit outflows are likely underestimated, as our methodology cannot detect
same-invoice faking, the misinvoicing of trade in services and intangibles, and hawala
transactions. Likewise, many illicit transactions occur in cash to prevent an incriminating
paper trail. For these many reasons our estimates are likely very conservative.
3. Yearly estimates are always reported in nominal terms (not adjusted for inflation), while
estimates for trends are reported using real figures, adjusted for inflation to constant 2010
dollars.
A.Overview
4. Save for a brief slowdown during the financial crisis, illicit financial flows have been allowed to
grow unchecked over the past decade. In 2012, illicit outflows reached a staggering new peak
of US$991 billion [See Table B].
Table B: Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, by Region, 2003-2012
(in billions of U.S. dollars, nominal)
Region
Sub-Saharan Africa
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Cumulative
12.1
20.3
38.2
51.1
67.0
73.4
75.0
58.0
65.2
68.6
528.9
131.2
167.1
184.7
201.3
227.3
263.4
267.3
368.1
371.4
473.9
2,655.6
68.1
73.9
85.9
95.9
131.7
168.1
175.1
170.3
250.9
166.5
1,386.4
6.0
22.7
57.8
51.1
42.6
131.8
118.6
74.2
109.2
113.4
727.4
Western Hemisphere
80.0
96.9
122.3
103.3
124.9
156.7
112.3
151.4
172.0
168.8
1,288.8
All Developing Countries
297.4
380.8
489.0
502.8
593.5
793.4
748.3
821.9
968.7
991.2
6,587.1
Asia
Developing Europe
MENA
5. Controlled for inflation, illicit outflows from developing countries increased 9.4 percent per
annum between 2003 and 2012, and 1.8 percent from 2011 to 2012. The slower growth in 2012
resembles growth rates seen in 2009 and 2010, following the financial crisis. Though illicit
outflows increased significantly in 2011, it appears that they returned to a somewhat slower
growth path in 2012 [See Table C]. We are not certain as to why growth in illicit outflows
appears to have slowed down. However, we have seen in this and previous GFI reports that
the IFF figure for the most recent year of the report tends to be understated due to incomplete
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
7
or inaccurate data reporting. For example, the 2011 figure was revised upwards 2.3% in this
report from the 2013 IFF Update [See Table A]. As such, it is possible that the 2012 figure will
also be revised upwards in GFI’s next annual report.
Table C: Real Illicit Financial Flows, Growth Rate, 2003-2012
(in billions of constant U.S. dollars, base year 2010)
Year
HMN + GER, Real
2003
2004
2005
2012
Cumulative
Average
Trend Rate
of Growth
397.8
479.7
573.9 563.8 635.0 773.1 799.5 821.9 890.1 905.8
6,840.5
684.1
9.4%
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
6. In 2005, illicit outflows reached 4.5 percent of the developing world’s combined GDP. Since
then, the ratio has been on a downward trend, falling to 3.6 percent in 2012 [See Table E]. This
implies that since 2005, the developing world’s combined GDP has been growing at a faster
rate than illicit financial outflows.
B.Regional Analysis
7. The MENA region registered the highest growth rate by far in illicit outflows from 2003 to
2012, coming in at 24.2 percent per annum. It was followed by Sub-Saharan Africa at 13.2
percent, Developing Europe at 9.8 percent, Asia at 9.5 percent, and the Western Hemisphere
at 3.5 percent [See Table D]. The high growth rate for MENA is likely related to the rise in oil
prices that occurred over this time period.19
Table D: Real Illicit Financial Flows by Region, Growth Rate, 2003-2012
(in billions of constant U.S. dollars, base year 2010, or in percent)
Average
Trend Rate
of Growth
547.8
54.8
13.2%
8.0%
2,756.2
275.6
9.5%
40.3%
1,437.3
143.7
9.8%
21.0%
74.2 100.4 103.6
740.6
74.1
24.2%
10.8%
115.9 133.6 152.7 120.0 151.4 158.0 154.3
1,358.6
135.9
3.5%
19.9%
All Developing
397.8 479.7 573.9 563.8 635.0 773.1 799.5 821.9 890.1 905.8
Countries
6,840.5
684.1
9.4%
100.0%
Region
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Asia
Developing
Europe
MENA
2003
2004
16.2
25.6
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
71.7
71.5
80.1
58.0
59.9
62.7
175.5 210.4 216.8 225.7 243.2 256.6 285.6 368.1 341.3 433.0
91.1
8.0
Western
Hemisphere
2005
44.9
93.0 100.8
28.6
67.8
107.0 122.1 143.6
2006
57.3
107.6 140.9 163.8 187.1 170.3 230.5 152.2
57.3
45.6 128.5 126.7
Cumulative
8.
Asia remains the largest contributor to gross illicit outflows, comprising 40.3 percent of the
developing world total from 2003 to 2012. It is followed by Developing Europe at 21.0 percent,
the Western Hemisphere at 19.9 percent, MENA at 10.8 percent, and Sub-Saharan Africa
19See
8
Kar and LeBlanc, 2013 IFF Update Section IV for a discussion of the rise of oil prices.
Global Financial Integrity
Percent
of Total
at 8.0 percent [See Table D]. Though Asia’s large portion of the global total is driven by illicit
outflows from China—the leading source of illicit financial flows from developing countries for
nine of the ten years of this study—it is also helped along by India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and
Thailand, all of which are in the global top ten. Developing Europe’s total is primarily due to
Russia, the number two country for nine of the ten years of the study, which briefly surpassed
China in 2011 to become the world’s top exporter of illicit capital before ceding this place back
to China in 2012. The Western Hemisphere’s high total is primarily due to Mexico and Brazil,
respectively numbers three and six globally [See Appendix Table 2 for complete rankings].
9. Sub-Saharan Africa’s share of illicit outflows from the developing world peaked at 11.3
percent in 2007, and has been on a generally downward trend since, coming to 6.9 percent
in 2012. MENA has grown strongly: comprising just 2.0 percent of the total in 2003, it rose to
11.4 percent in 2012, peaking in 2008 at 16.6 percent of the total. The Western Hemisphere’s
role has generally declined: its high point of 26.9 percent in 2003 has been primarily trending
downwards ever since, arriving at 17.0 percent in 2012.
Chart 2: Cumulative Illicit Financial Flows by Region, 2003-2012
(as percent of total real illicit outflows)
8.0% 19.9% 10.8% 40.3% 21.0% Sub-­‐Saharan Africa Asia Developing Europe MENA Western Hemisphere Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
9
Sub-­‐Saharan Africa Asia Chart 3: Real Illicit Financial Flows & Illicit
Financial
Flows to GDP by Region, 2003-2012
9% $500 $450 8% (in billions of constant U.S. dollars,
base
year 2010, or in percent)
$90 $80 $70 7% $60 6% $50 5% $40 $20 $10 $0 2004 8% $100 $450 7% 0% 6% $40 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 5% 4% $30 3% $20 2% Developing Europe $0 $250 $150 $500 1% 2007 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2009 2010 2011 6% 2012 0% Developing Europe 4% $250 $150 $100 $50 5% $150 2% 4% $100 1% $50 2003 2004 2005 2006 $0 2003 2007 2004 2008 2005 2009 2006 2007 2010 2008 2011 2009 2012 2010 2011 0% 2012 $400 1% 4% $350 $0 $300 2003 $250 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 3% 2011 $200 2012 3% 2% 1% 0% 2% $100 $140 $0 1% MENA $50 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 0% 2012 7% 6% MENA 5% $140 7% $120 6% $60 $100 5% 3% $40 $80 4% 2% $60 3% $40 2% $80 $20 $0 $20 2003 $0 2003 2004 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 2009 2009 2010 2010 2011 1% 2011 2012 4% 1% 2012 0% Western Hemisphere Western Hemisphere $180 $160 $160 $140 $140 $120 $120 4% $100 $100 3% $80 $80 $60 $60 $40 $0 $20 2003 2004 2005 5% 4% 3% 2% 2% $20 $40 $0 5% $180 1% 2003 2006 2004 2007 2005 2006 2008 2007 2009 2008 2010 2009 2011 2010 2011 2012 2012 Illicit Financial Flows, Real (Left Axis)
Illicit Financial Flows, Real (Left Axis)
Illicit Financial Flows to GDP (Right Axis)
Illicit Financial Flows to GDP (Right Axis)
1% 0% 0% Sources: GFI (IFFs), World Bank (GDP)
C.Illicit Outflows & Gross Domestic Product
10. In addition to the gross volume of illicit outflows from the developing world, another useful
metric is the ratio of illicit outflows to gross domestic product (GDP). This ratio provides
a much different picture than the one based on volume alone. For example, Sub-Saharan
Africa comes lowest in terms of the gross volume of capital it is losing due to illicit outflows,
but it has the highest illicit outflow to GDP ratio of any region from 2003 to 2012. During this
time period, illicit outflows were 5.5 percent of the region’s GDP. Developing Europe’s illicit
outflows came in at 4.4 percent of GDP, followed by Asia and MENA at 3.7 percent, and
the Western Hemisphere at 3.3 percent. These figures represent significant lost capital and
investment resources for these economies, which will have negative ripple effects far into the
future.
10
Global Financial Integrity
0% $150 $100 6% 3% $200 2% 5% $120 5% $200 $50 1% 2008 Asia $200 9% 2% $50 2006 2005 3% $250 $70 $60 2003 $300 $80 $10 $0 3% $90 4% $350 4% Sub-­‐Saharan Africa $30 $400 5% 0% Table E: Illicit Financial Flows to GDP
(in percent)
Region
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Average
Sub-Saharan
Africa
2.7
3.6
5.8
6.7
7.6
7.3
7.8
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.5
Asia
4.3
4.7
4.5
4.1
3.7
3.6
3.3
3.8
3.2
3.8
3.7
Developing Europe
5.0
4.2
4.0
3.7
4.0
4.1
5.4
4.5
5.7
3.7
4.4
MENA
0.7
2.1
4.3
3.2
2.3
5.7
5.8
3.1
3.8
3.6
3.7
4.1
4.3
4.5
3.2
3.3
3.6
2.7
3.0
3.0
2.9
3.3
3.9
4.1
4.5
3.9
3.7
4.1
4.1
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.9
Western
Hemisphere
All Developing
Countries
11. As trade misinvoicing is by far the largest component of illicit financial outflows, it is helpful
to consider it on its own. In the heat map below, we see that putting GER outflows in
comparison with GDP can further enhance our global picture. For example, though China
is the largest exporter of illicit capital through trade misinvoicing in terms of gross volume,
these outflows are actually more significant in relation to economy size in the rest of the top 5
countries: Russia, Mexico, India, and Malaysia [See Chart 4].
Chart 4: Heat Map, Average Trade Misinvoicing Outflows to GDP, 2003-2012
(in percent)
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
11
D.Illicit Outflows, Development Aid, and Foreign Direct Investment
12. During the time period of this study, in which illicit financial outflows from the developing
world grew by 9.4 percent, ODA 20 to these countries grew by just 0.3 percent and net FDI into
them grew by 12.1 percent per annum.21 The disparity in volume between illicit outflows and
ODA is particularly vast. While the volume of FDI surpassed the volume of illicit outflows from
2006 to 2008, it has since fallen below it [See Chart 5].
Chart 5: Real Illicit Financial Flows, Official Development Assistance,
& Foreign Direct Investment 2003-2012
(in billions of constant U.S. dollars, base year 2010)
$1,000 $900 $800 $700 $600 $500 $400 $300 $200 $100 $0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Illicit Financial Flows (HMN + GER) 2008 FDI 2009 ODA 2010 2011 2012 FDI+ODA Sources: GFI (IFFs), World Bank (FDI), OECD/World Bank (ODA) [See Footnote 20]
13. A comparison of ODA and illicit outflows is striking. The developing world’s cumulative illicit
outflows came in at 808 percent of ODA during the time period of this study. In Sub-Saharan
Africa, it was 152 percent, followed by MENA at 607 percent, Asia at 1,376 percent, Developing
Europe at 1,764 percent, and the Western Hemisphere at 1,788 percent [See Appendix Table 7].
14. In 2012, ODA (for the developing countries included in this report) was measured at US$89.6
billion, according to the World Bank. As this report has found, illicit outflows from the
developing world amounted to US$991.2 billion in that same year. That means that for every
development dollar coming into the developing world in 2012, over US$10 flowed out illicitly.
15. Illicit outflows can also be compared to FDI. The developing world’s cumulative illicit outflows
were 115 percent of FDI during the time period of this study. Developing Europe saw a ratio
of 106 percent, the Western Hemisphere came in at 109 percent, Asia at 111 percent, MENA
at 126 percent, and Sub-Saharan Africa at 186 percent [See Appendix Table 7]. Though FDI
actually surpassed illicit outflows by volume from 2006 – 2008, it has since fallen, widening
the gap even further in 2012 [See Chart 5].
20ODA
figures were compiled using OECD data, reported by the World Bank and augmented by World Bank data for certain European
countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, and Russia). The figures for the individual developing
countries in this report were summed to create world and regional aggregates. No OECD or World Bank aggregates were used.
21 World Bank, “World DataBank” [Online Database]. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/home.aspx.
12
Global Financial Integrity
16. Combining FDI with ODA, we reach figures similar to illicit outflows, but typically slightly
smaller. The developing world’s cumulative illicit outflows were 100 percent of ODA+FDI
during the time period of this study. Illicit outflows from Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for
84 percent of ODA+FDI entering that region, while Developing Europe’s ratio came in at 100
percent, Asia’s at 102 percent, the Western Hemisphere at 103 percent, and MENA at 105
percent [See Appendix Table 7]. Although the gross value of illicit outflows and ODA+FDI were
approximately equal, the licit inflows that ODA and FDI together represent do not replace the
capital lost due to illicit financial outflows. E.Top Countries
17. In this report, as with the 2013 IFF Update, we rank the countries with the top average illicit
financial outflows during the 10-year period of the study. Compared to the 2013 IFF Update, there
was very little fluctuation in the top ten exporters of illicit capital in this report, with nine countries
remaining in the top ten and the other—Iraq, ninth in the 2013 IFF Update—dropping to 11th this
year. South Africa moved into the top ten, jumping from 13th to tenth. India and Malaysia swapped
places, with India now fourth and Malaysia now fifth in the developing world. Thailand and Nigeria
did the same, with Thailand moving into the eighth place spot and Nigeria to the ninth.
Table F: Illicit Financial Outflows from the Top 10 Developing Economies, 2003-2012
(in millions of nominal U.S. dollars or in percent)
Rank
1
2
Country
China,
Mainland
Russian
Federation
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
64,405
80,370
82,313
87,520 107,075 104,854 139,911 173,626 162,779 249,567
41,304
47,136
57,502
66,825
Cumulative
Average
1,252,419
125,242
82,069 103,972 129,459 135,033 187,695 122,864
973,858
97,386
3
Mexico
38,084
40,740
47,747
48,086
58,618
65,489
37,192
65,570
53,078
59,656
514,259
51,426
4
India
10,177
19,414
20,190
28,028
34,601
47,179
29,002
70,236
86,002
94,757
439,587
43,959
5
Malaysia
20,744
26,703
35,264
36,666
36,642
40,935
34,486
62,450
52,047
48,931
394,869
39,487
6
Brazil
12,069
15,897
16,782
10,681
17,264
21,765
22,324
32,289
34,105
33,928
217,103
21,710
7
Indonesia
16,549
18,436
13,259
16,036
18,432
27,319
20,550
16,836
19,604
20,823
187,844
18,784
8
Thailand
6,080
7,240
11,987
11,513
10,427
20,550
14,755
24,243
29,322
35,561
171,679
17,168
9
Nigeria
0
1,680
17,867
19,159
19,335
24,192
26,377
20,780
20,144
7,922
157,455
15,746
10
South
Africa
0
2,538
3,388
9,833
18,600
19,655
19,621
4,080
15,297
29,134
122,145
12,214
209,412 260,153 306,299 334,346 403,061 475,909 473,677 605,142 660,074 703,145
4,431,217
443,122
71%
67%
.
297,411 380,835 488,997 502,809 593,472 793,435 748,307 821,939 968,684 991,245
6,587,133
658,713
Total of Top 10
Top 10 as
Percent of Total
Developing
World Total
70%
68%
63%
66%
68%
60%
63%
74%
68%
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
13
18. Consistent with our previous research, we have omitted Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab
Emirates from our top countries list. Saudi Arabia would have been sixth in the world and the
United Arab Emirates 11th. GFI’s Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2001-2010,
hereafter referred to as the 2012 IFF Update, showed that the net errors and omissions as a
percentage of the financial account balance for Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates
(among other countries with large sovereign wealth funds) were unusually high, possibly due
to incomplete or incorrect recording in the balance of payments of transactions related to their
sovereign wealth funds.22 Thus, we do not include Saudi Arabia or the United Arab Emirates in
the succeeding ranking table, though their values can be found in the Appendix [See Appendix
Table 2].
19.
Regionally, Asia dominates the top countries, with five of the top ten and spots. The Western
Hemisphere and Sub-Saharan Africa each contribute two countries to the top ten, and Russia
alone represents Developing Europe.
20. The top ten countries account for a huge portion of the global total of illicit outflows. On
average, they accounted for a staggering 67 percent of the global total by volume. The
stacked bar chart below illustrates the percent of total global illicit outflows each of the top
ten countries on average held each year of this study. Additionally, the heat map following it
allows us to look at the top countries on a global scale.
Chart 6: Illicit Financial Flows: Top 10 Countries of 2003-2012 as Share of Developing World Total
(in percent)
2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 0% 22Dev
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% China, Mainland Russian Federa<on Mexico India Malaysia Brazil Indonesia Nigeria South Africa Thailand 80% Kar and Sarah Freitas, “Table 15. Net Errors and Omissions in Relation to Financial Account for 10 Countries with the Largest Sovereign
Wealth Funds,” Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2001-2010 (Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity, 2012), 77.
14
Global Financial Integrity
Chart 7: Heat Map, Cumulative Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries, 2003-2012
(in billions of nominal U.S. dollars)
F.
Share of HMN & GER in Total IFFs
21. Though the HMN component (leakages from the balance of payments, or illicit hot money outflows)
averaged 22.2 percent of the overall illicit outflow figure from 2003-2012, it has been trending
upwards as a share of the total, from 13.4 percent of illicit outflows in 2003 to 26.4 percent of illicit
outflows in 2012. Over the time period studied, HMN had a trend rate of growth of 19.1 percent
in real terms, while the GER component (gross outflows due to trade misinvoicing) grew at an
annualized rate of 7.3 percent, thus arriving at the overall IFF growth rate of 9.4 percent.
22. Trade misinvoicing remains by far the most popular way to illicitly move money out of
developing countries, comprising 77.8 percent of the global ten-year IFF total in real terms.
Chart 8: Share of HMN in Total Illicit Financial Outflows, 2003-2012
(in billions of constant U.S. dollars, base year 2010, or in percent)
$1,000 35% 30% $800 25% $600 20% 15% $400 10% $200 $0 5% 2003 2004 2005 HMN (LeJ Axis) 2006 2007 GER (LeJ Axis) 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 0% Share of HMN in Total IFFs (Right Axis) Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
15
23. The MENA region is by far the region with the largest HMN component – 75.3 percent of illicit
outflows from MENA occur through leakages in the balance of payments. Sub-Saharan Africa
is also high, at 31.8 percent, with the other three regions in the 12.3 percent-15.0 percent
range. This could mean that the figures for the MENA region and Sub-Saharan Africa are
slightly overstated. The MENA region’s high HMN to GER ratio could be due to incomplete or
incorrect recording of balance of payments information related to sovereign wealth funds.
Chart 9: Regional Illicit Flows; Shares Related to HMN & GER Components, 2003-2012
(in average percent shares over decade, billions of constant U.S. dollars,
base year 2010)
31.8% Sub-­‐Saharan Africa 68.2% Asia 14.7% 85.3% Developing Europe 15.0% 85.0% 75.3% MENA Western Hemisphere 12.3% 87.7% 22.2% All Developing Countries 0% 77.8% 20% HMN Share of Total IFFs 16
Global Financial Integrity
24.7% 40% 60% GER Share of Total IFFs 80% 100% IV. Regulatory, Fiscal, and Governance Drivers of Trade
Misinvoicing: Some Areas for Future Research
1. In this section, we examine potential drivers of trade misinvoicing, which can be related to regulatory, fiscal,
and governance issues although their relative importance can vary from one country to another. Bhagwati
noted that the ramifications of illegal trade are varied as well as significant and are of “vital concern” for
academics and policymakers alike.23
A. Regulatory Drivers
2. According to the IMF’s 2014 Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions
(AREAER), the overall number of exchange restriction measures and multiple currency practices (MCPs)
continued to increase among Article VIII members (mostly developing countries).24 In 2013, there were
113 countries that maintained exchange restrictions and MCPs. Such practices give rise to differences in
exchange rates between different exchange markets or among approved official transactions. Under an
MCP regime, there is a tendency for black markets in foreign exchange to develop as private economic
agents seek to profit from the differences in exchange rates. Using partner country data, Bhagwati found that
import duties, which were higher than the black market premium on foreign exchange, provided a systematic
incentive to under-invoice Turkish imports.25
3. Other regulatory measures can also drive illicit flows to and from developing countries. The IMF’s AREAER
noted that exchange restrictive measures related to exports and export proceeds increased in 33 countries
among the 55 countries that reported changes; only 15 reported some relaxation of regulations governing
export proceeds. The two main regulatory measures governing export proceeds listed in the AREAER are
export proceeds surrender requirements and export proceeds repatriation requirements. Typically, such
surrender and repatriation requirements tend to be tightened in countries facing the prospect of declining
foreign exchange reserves.
4. Under the surrender requirement, exporters are required to surrender a significant portion (say, 50 percent)
of their export proceeds to either the central bank or to authorized dealers within a specified time period (say,
within one month of receipt of those proceeds). Typically, the government also specifies the exchange rate
used to convert the foreign currency proceeds to local currency. Under the repatriation requirement, it would
be illegal for exporters to hold export proceeds in an external account beyond the time permitted under the
regulation. Both regulations can be in force simultaneously. In addition, some countries also impose a tax
on the foreign currency proceeds earned by exporters. According to the 2014 AREAER, 86 countries in the
world have a repatriation requirement (including China and India), while 60 countries maintain a surrender
requirement. It is likely that repatriation and surrender requirements would provide a strong incentive to
exporters to under-invoice exports as a way to circumvent these requirements.
23Jagdish
N. Bhagwati, “Introduction,” in Illegal Transactions in International Trade, ed. Jagdish N. Bhagwati (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing
Company, 1974), 1.
24International Monetary Fund, Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions 2014 (Washington, DC: Monetary and Capital
Markets Department, International Monetary Fund, 2014).
25 Jagdish N. Bhagwati, “On the Underinvoicing of Imports,” in Illegal Transactions in International Trade, ed. Jagdish N. Bhagwati (Oxford Bulletin of
Economics and Statistics 27, 1964; repr., Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1974), 139.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
17
Table G: Twenty Largest Export Under-Invoicers with Respective
Export Proceeds Requirements, 2003-2012
(in billions of U.S. dollars, or in cumulative years in force)
Rank*
Countries
Export Underinvoicing, 2003-2012,
(billions of U.S. dollars)
Surrender Requirement
(years in force)**
Repatriation Requirement
(years in force)**
1
China, P.R.: Mainland
828.4
4
10
2
Russian Federation
824.9
3
10
3
Brazil
145.7
10
5
4
Indonesia
129.9
0
2
5
India
125.0
10
10
10
6
South Africa
95.0
10
7
Philippines
72.2
0
0
8
Thailand
65.0
6
10
9
Honduras
31.5
10
10
10
Chile
27.0
0
0
11
Belarus
26.9
10
10
12
Egypt
25.2
0
1
13
Trinidad and Tobago
24.4
0
0
14
Syrian Arab Republic
20.0
7
4
15
Latvia
19.7
0
0
16
Paraguay
18.2
0
0
17
Togo
18.0
10
10
18
Azerbaijan, Republic of
16.7
0
10
19
Congo, Republic of
13.2
10
10
20
Nicaragua
12.7
0
0
*Does not include Liberia or Offshore Financial Centers as defined by the IMF
**Surrender and repatriation requirements refer to proceeds of exports of goods only
Sources: GFI (Export Under-Invoicing), IMF (Surrender Requirement), IMF (Repatriation Requirement)
5. Table G lists 20 countries with the largest outflows due to under-invoicing of exports. The
list excludes export under-invoicing by tax havens and offshore financial centers. They
are excluded from the list due to the lack of reliable data on re-exports and re-imports
that potentially could adversely impact the reliability of estimates of illicit outflows (export
under-invoicing and import over-invoicing). We observe that ten countries had a repatriation
requirement in effect in all ten years, and seven had a surrender requirement in effect
throughout, six of which had both. While restrictive export proceeds requirements are not the
only drivers of export under-invoicing, the table indicates that they may provide an incentive
to deliberately under-invoice exports, as many of the top countries for export under-invoicing
also have surrender and/or repatriation requirements.
B. Fiscal Drivers
6. Fiscal issues can also drive trade misinvoicing. Let us consider the case of illicit outflows due
to import over-invoicing. While importers may initially pay more by over-invoicing imports,
they will continue to do so as long as the reduction of corporate profits (due to larger import
costs) outweighs the increased import duties payable. Of course, not all of the higher import
costs are translated into lower profit margins. However, the profit margin is reduced without
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Global Financial Integrity
question, which allows the company to pay a lower corporate profits tax. Import overinvoicing can also be driven by foreign exchange regulations that allow the importer to receive
foreign exchange from the government at a favorable rate (for certain “essential” imports),
which enables the importer to then turn around and sell the excess currency in the black
market for a profit. Similarly, there is an incentive to over-invoice exports of goods that receive
government subsidies. If certain imports enter the production process as intermediate inputs
to other goods, which are then subsequently exported, this may drive the producer to overinvoice the exports of the final good in order to claim a refund on the VAT paid on the original
imports. Thus, the over-invoicing of imported intermediate goods may subsequently lead to
the over-invoicing of exports after production. In short, fiscal issues and tax rates can also
drive illicit flows through export and import under- and over-invoicing.
7. One of the difficulties of carrying out research into the links between tax rates and
misinvoicing is related to data issues. For instance, in order to estimate the actual differential
between corporate tax rates and the rates paid on imported goods, one would have to
estimate the effective tax on corporate profits (the statutory rate minus corporate tax
deductions) as well as the effective duty rate paid on specific imported goods.
C. Governance Drivers
8. Finally, governance issues and corruption in particular tend to be a major driver of illicit flows. Le
and Rishi find that there is a significant link between corruption and capital flight, based on the
World Bank Residual method adjusted for trade misinvoicing.26 They find this link even though,
as GFI points out, the WBR measure includes flows of both licit and illicit capital. In case studies
on Brazil, the Philippines, and Russia, GFI found that the link between purely illicit flows and
governance tends to be even stronger than the link between capital flight and governance.27
9. However, as Le and Rishi and several other authors have noted, capturing the overall state
of governance through various indicators, which can be used in empirical studies, poses a
substantial challenge.28 Le and Rishi use the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), developed
by Transparency International, in order to study the link between capital flight and corruption.
They also used the International Country Risk Guide (ICRG), which captures the assessment
of country experts on governance-related risks in a country as an alternative indicator of
corruption. As both the CPI and the ICRG are based on surveys of various economic agents,
these indicators could suffer from biases in judgment. For instance, firms that have benefited
from a particular governance regime (e.g., profits are much larger than bribes paid) can be
expected to have a lower perception of corruption as an issue compared to firms for which
red tape and bribery impose a much more onerous cost of doing business.
26Quan
V. Le and Meenakshi Rishi, “Corruption and Capital Flight: An Empirical Assessment,” International Economic Journal 20(4), 2006.
Kar, Brazil: Capital Flight, Illicit Flows, and Macroeconomic Crises, 1960-2012 (Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity, 2014); Dev
Kar and Brian LeBlanc, Illicit Financial Flows to and from the Philippines: A Study in Dynamic Simulation, 1960-2011 (Washington, DC:
Global Financial Integrity, 2014); Dev Kar and Sarah Freitas, Russia: Illicit Financial Flows and the Underground Economy (Washington, DC:
Global Financial Integrity, 2013).
28Le and Rishi, “Corruption and Capital Flight.”
27Dev
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
19
10. As a proxy for the state of overall governance, GFI prefers to use estimates of a country’s
underground economy as a percent of official GDP, which GFI measures using the monetary
approach, rather than relying on survey-based indicators. In doing so, GFI makes use of the
fact that the underground economy tends to be large in poorly governed countries, while the
underground economy is relatively much smaller as a share of official GDP in strongly governed
ones. The authors of the previously mentioned GFI country reports found significant evidence in
their case studies that illicit financial flows both drive and are driven by the underground economy.
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V. Policy Recommendations
1. Illicit financial flows from developing countries are facilitated and perpetuated primarily by
opacity in the global financial system. This endemic issue is reflected in many well-known
ways, such as the existence of tax havens and secrecy jurisdictions, anonymous companies
and other legal entities, and innumerable techniques available to launder dirty money—for
instance, through misinvoicing trade transactions (often called trade-based money laundering
when used to move the proceeds of criminal activity).
2. While policy environments vary from country to country, there are certain best practices that
all countries should adopt and promote at international forums and institutions such as the
G20, the G8, the United Nations, the World Bank, the IMF, and the OECD.
A. Anti-Money Laundering
3. All countries should, at a minimum, take whatever steps are needed to comply with all of
the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) Recommendations to combat money laundering and
terrorist financing.29
4. Regulators and law enforcement officials should strongly enforce all of the anti-money
laundering laws and regulations that are already on the books, including through criminal
charges and penalties for individuals employed by financial institutions who are culpable for
allowing money laundering to occur.
B. Beneficial Ownership of Legal Entities
5. All countries and international institutions should address the problems posed by anonymous
companies and other legal entities by requiring or supporting meaningful confirmation of
beneficial ownership in all banking and securities accounts.
6. Additionally, information on the true, human owner of all corporations and other legal entities
should be disclosed upon formation, updated on a regular basis, and made freely available
to the public in central registries. The United Kingdom30 and Denmark31 have made progress
on this front recently, with both countries announcing that they would create such public
registries of beneficial ownership information–at least for corporations. Other countries should
follow their lead. In March, the European Parliament voted overwhelmingly in favor of directing
European Union member states to create public registries of beneficial ownership as part
29Financial
Action Task Force, The FATF Recommendations: International Standards on Combating Money Laundering and the Financing of
Terrorism & Proliferation (Paris: FATF, 2012). http://www.fatf-gafi.org/topics/fatfrecommendations/documents/fatf-recommendations.html.
30Government of the United Kingdom, Department for Business, Innovation & Skills/The Rt. Hon. Dr. Vince Cable MP/Companies House,
Tough Action Promised on Hidden Company Owners [Press Release], April 21, 2014. https://www.gov.uk/ government/news/tough-actionpromised-on-hidden-company-owners.
31 Johan Christensen and Anne Skjerning, “Regeringen vil åbne det nye ejerregister for alle.”, Dagbladet Børsen (Copenhagen, Denmark),
November 7, 2014. http://borsen.dk/nyheder/avisen/artikel/11/97562/artikel.html.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
21
of revisions to the European Union’s Anti-Money Laundering Directive (AMLD),32 but final
adoption of the AMLD is still subject to negotiation and approval by the European Council
and Commission, which have both been reticent to approve the transparency measure.33
GFI urges the EU Council and the EU Commission to quickly approve the public registry
requirement as part of the AMLD.
C. Automatic Exchange of Financial Information
7. All countries should actively participate in the global movement toward the automatic
exchange of financial information as endorsed by the G20 and the OECD. 89 countries have
committed to implementing the OECD/G20 standard on automatic information exchange by
the end of 2018, significant progress since the publication of the 2013 IFF Update. Still, the
G20 and the OECD need to do a better job at ensuring that developing countries—especially
least developed countries—are able to participate in the process and are provided the
necessary technical assistance to benefit from it.
D. Country-by-Country Reporting
8. All countries should require multinational corporations to publicly disclose their revenues,
profits, losses, sales, taxes paid, subsidiaries, and staff levels on a country-by-country basis,
as a means of detecting and deterring abusive tax avoidance practices.
E. Curtailing Trade Misinvoicing
9. Trade misinvoicing accounts for a substantial majority—77.8 percent—of illicit financial flows
over the period of this study, meaning that curbing trade misinvoicing must be a major focus
for policymakers around the world.
10. Governments should significantly boost customs enforcement by equipping and training
officers to better detect the intentional misinvoicing of trade transactions.
11. Trade transactions involving tax haven jurisdictions should be treated with the highest level of
scrutiny by customs, tax, and law enforcement officials, given the greater potential for abuse.
F.
UN Sustainable Development Goals / Financing for Development Conference
12. The coming year presents a spectacular opportunity to tackle the scourge of illicit financial
flows. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are set to expire in 2015, and, in
September, the United Nations will formally transition to its post-2015 development agenda,
known as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),34 which will set the global development
32European
Parliament, Parliament Toughens Up Anti-Money Laundering Rules [Press Release], March 11, 2014. http://www.europarl.
europa.eu/news/en/news-room/content/20140307ipr38110/html/Parliament-toughens-up-anti-money-laundering-rules.
33Global Financial Integrity, GFI Praises Denmark Commitment to Crack Down on Anonymous Companies with Public Registry [Press
Release], November 7, 2014. http://www.gfintegrity.org/press-release/gfi-praises-denmark-commitment-crack-anonymous-companiespublic-registry/.
34United Nations, Open Working Group of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals, “Goal 16.4,” in Open Working Group
Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals, A/68/970 (New York: United Nations, 2014), 22. http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
content/documents/1579SDGs%20Proposal.pdfhttp://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1579SDGs%20Proposal.pdf.
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Global Financial Integrity
agenda for the next 15 years. With developing and emerging economies hemorrhaging
roughly US$1 trillion in illicit financial flows per year—as this report demonstrates—there
may be no better area on which to focus the global development agenda in order to achieve
sustainable results. This is why GFI is calling on the United Nations to adopt a clear and
concise target stating:
“By 2030, reduce illicit financial flows related to trade misinvoicing by 50 percent.”
Such a narrowly defined goal—focused on trade misinvoicing, the most common method for
moving money illicitly, as this report shows—will target more than three quarters of global
illicit financial outflows from developing economies. Similar language should be included in
the outcome document of the Financing for Development Conference in July 2015.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
23
24
Global Financial Integrity
VI. Conclusions
1. Our estimates show that the developing world lost US$991.2 billion in illicit financial flows in
2012, over ten times the amount of official development aid received by these countries in that
year, and greater than the amount of net foreign direct investment received. From 2003 - 2012,
US$6.6 trillion left developing country economies illicitly.
2. Illicit outflows from developing countries increased at a trend rate of 9.4 percent per annum in
real terms over the time period from 2003 to 2012. Though growth rates of IFFs tended to be
higher before the financial crisis, their volume continues to climb. Over this time period, illicit
financial flows were equivalent to 3.9 percent of developing world GDP on average.
3. This report also studied illicit financial flows from developing countries on a regional basis.
Doing so, we found that:
• Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 8.0 percent of cumulative illicit financial flows from the
developing world during 2003-2012. There are two Sub-Saharan African countries in the top
ten globally: Nigeria and South Africa. IFFs averaged 5.5 percent of the region’s GDP over
this ten-year period. A significant majority of IFFs from Sub-Saharan Africa–68.2 percent–
were due to trade misinvoicing.
• Asia accounted for 40.3 percent of cumulative illicit financial flows from the developing
world during 2003-2012. There are five Asian countries in the top ten globally: China, India,
Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand. IFFs averaged 3.7 percent of the region’s GDP over
this ten-year period. The vast majority of IFFs from Asia–85.3 percent–were due to trade
misinvoicing.
• Developing Europe accounted for 21.0 percent of cumulative illicit financial flows from the
developing world during 2003-2012. There is one European country in the top ten globally:
Russia. IFFs averaged 4.4 percent of the region’s GDP over this ten-year period. The trade
misinvoicing component of IFFs from Developing Europe was 85.0 percent, nearly identical
to Asia.
• MENA accounted for 10.8 percent of cumulative illicit financial flows from the developing
world during 2003-2012. There are no MENA countries in the global top ten–omitting Saudi
Arabia. IFFs averaged 3.7 percent of the region’s GDP over this ten year period. A much
smaller amount of IFFs from MENA–24.7 percent–were due to trade misinvoicing.
• The Western Hemisphere accounted for 19.9 percent of cumulative illicit financial flows from
the developing world during 2003-2012. There are two Western Hemisphere countries in
the top ten globally: Mexico and Brazil. IFFs averaged 3.3 percent of the region’s GDP over
this ten-year period. Similar to Asia and Developing Europe, 87.7 percent of IFFs from the
Western Hemisphere were due to trade misinvoicing.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
25
4. The top ten exporters of illicit capital (excluding Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates)
accounted for US$4.4 trillion in illicit financial outflows over the ten year time period of this
study, 67 percent of the developing world total.
5. We argue that illicit financial flows have regulatory, fiscal, and governance drivers. Restrictive
export proceeds requirements may drive export under-invoicing. Import over-invoicing may
be incentivized by foreign exchange regulations. There are also links between governance, the
size of the underground economy, and the volume of illicit financial flows.
6. To curtail illicit financial flows, GFI recommends that world leaders focus on curbing the
opacity in the global financial system—comprising, among other things, tax haven secrecy;
anonymous companies, and money laundering techniques—which facilitates these outflows.
Specifically, GFI’s major recommendations include:
• Governments should establishment public registries of meaningful beneficial ownership
information on all legal entities;
• Financial regulators should require that all banks in their country know the true beneficial
owners of any accounts opened in their financial institutions;
• Government authorities should adopt and fully implement all of the Financial Action Task
Force’s anti-money laundering recommendations;
• Regulators and law enforcement should ensure that all of the anti-money laundering
regulations, which are already on the books, are strongly enforced;
• Policymakers should require multinational companies to publicly disclose their revenues,
profits, losses, sales, taxes paid, subsidiaries, and staff levels on a country-by-country
basis;
• All countries should actively participate in the worldwide movement towards the automatic
exchange of tax information as endorsed by the OECD and the G20;
• Trade transactions involving tax haven jurisdictions should be treated with the highest level
of scrutiny by customs, tax, and law enforcement officials;
• Governments should significantly boost their customs enforcement, by equipping and
training officers to better detect intentional misinvoicing of trade transactions;
• The United Nations should adopt a clear and concise Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
to halve trade-related illicit financial flows by 2030 and similar language should be included
in the outcome document of the Financing for Development Conference in July 2015.
26
Global Financial Integrity
Appendix
Table 1. Geographical Regions
Sub-Saharan Africa (48)
Benin
Botswana
Asia (27)
Afghanistan, Islamic
Republic of
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Burkina Faso
Brunei Darussalam
Belarus*
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Cambodia
China, P.R.: Mainland*
Fiji
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria*
Croatia
Bahrain, Kingdom of
Egypt^
Iran, Islamic Republic
of
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Central African Republic
India*
Georgia
Lebanon
Brazil*
Finland
Chad
Comoros
Congo, Democratic
Republic of
Congo, Republic of
Cote d'Ivoire*
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia, The
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Indonesia*
Kiribati
Lao People's Democratic
Republic
Malaysia*
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Philippines*
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Sri Lanka
Thailand*
Hungary
Kazakhstan
Libya^
Morocco^
Chile*
Colombia
France
Germany
Kosovo, Republic of
Oman
Costa Rica
Greece
Kyrgyz Republic
Latvia*
Lithuania*
Macedonia, FYR
Moldova
Montenegro
Poland
Romania
Russian Federation
Serbia, Republic of
Tajikistan
Turkey
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Syrian Arab Republic
Tunisia^
United Arab Emirates
Yemen, Republic of
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Hong Kong
Iceland
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Korea, Republic of
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Lesotho
Timor-Leste, Dem. Rep. of
Turkmenistan
Panama
Portugal
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Tonga
Vanuatu
Vietnam
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Paraguay*
Peru
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the
Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Uruguay
Venezuela, Republica
Bolivariana de
Singapore
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Angola
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Developing Europe (26)
MENA (17)
Western Hemisphere (33)
Advanced Economies (33)
Albania
Algeria^
Antigua and Barbuda
Australia
Armenia, Republic of*
Azerbaijan, Republic of
Argentina
Aruba*
Austria
Belgium
Bahamas, The
Canada
Barbados
Belize
Bolivia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan, Province of China
United Kingdom
United States
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo*
Uganda
Zambia*
Zimbabwe
* Denotes developing countries who report bilaterally to all advanced countries (19 total)
^ denotes North African countries, which, when combined with Sub-Saharan Africa, can generate estimates for the African Continent as a whole.
Note: Advanced economies only used for conducting trade misinvoicing estimates
Source: IMF Direction of Trade Statistics
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
27
Table 2. Country Rankings by Largest Average Illicit Financial Flows, 2003-2012 (HMN + GER)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal)
Rank
28
Country
Average IFF
(where data
is available)
Rank
Country
Average IFF
(where data
is available)
38
Azerbaijan, Republic of
2,285
1
China, P.R.: Mainland
2
Russian Federation
97,386
39
Ethiopia
2,206
3
Mexico
51,426
40
Lithuania
2,162
4
India
43,959
41
Togo
1,824
5
Malaysia
39,487
42
Ecuador
1,645
6
Saudi Arabia
30,862
43
Bahamas, The
1,634
7
Brazil
21,710
44
Equatorial Guinea
1,607
8
Indonesia
18,784
45
Hungary
1,576
17,168
46
Algeria
1,575
125,242
9
Thailand
10
Nigeria
15,746
47
Congo, Republic of
1,535
11
United Arab Emirates
13,530
48
Nicaragua
1,509
1,499
12
South Africa
12,214
49
Croatia
13
Iraq
11,137
50
Argentina
1,411
14
Costa Rica
9,403
51
Bangladesh
1,316
15
Philippines
9,349
52
Sudan
1,290
16
Belarus
8,453
53
Colombia
1,212
54
Dominican Republic
1,205
17
Poland
5,312
18
Panama
4,848
55
Guatemala
1,176
19
Serbia, Republic of
4,566
56
Qatar
1,152
20
Chile
4,564
57
Libya
1,078
21
Brunei Darussalam
4,299
58
Romania
1,034
22
Syrian Arab Republic
3,768
59
Morocco
998
23
Egypt
3,768
60
Liberia
982
24
Paraguay
3,697
61
Bahrain, Kingdom of
971
62
Chad
930
25
Venezuela, Republica Bolivariana de
3,677
26
Turkey
3,560
63
Peru
903
27
Honduras
3,294
64
Botswana
856
28
Trinidad and Tobago
3,210
65
Uruguay
846
29
Vietnam
2,805
66
El Salvador
788
30
Aruba
2,654
67
Cameroon
783
31
Zambia
2,597
68
Nepal
754
32
Kazakhstan
2,538
69
Armenia, Republic of
750
70
Uganda
713
33
Bulgaria
2,535
34
Latvia
2,490
71
Oman
699
35
Lebanon
2,462
72
Myanmar
682
36
Kuwait
2,460
73
Angola
631
37
Cote d'Ivoire
2,406
Global Financial Integrity
Rank
Country
Average IFF
(where data
is available)
Rank
Country
Average IFF
(where data
is available)
110
Mauritius
153
603
111
Pakistan
143
602
112
Samoa
140
Malawi
585
113
Niger
137
78
Ukraine
542
114
Mongolia
135
79
Macedonia, FYR
521
115
Albania
128
116
Solomon Islands
126
74
Suriname
616
75
Namibia
76
Turkmenistan
77
80
Lao People's Democratic Republic
498
81
Tanzania
462
117
Belize
126
82
Papua New Guinea
433
118
Mozambique
115
83
Madagascar
426
119
Dominica
97
84
Georgia
420
120
Haiti
89
85
Mali
411
121
Kenya
86
86
Bolivia
403
122
Burundi
75
87
Swaziland
371
123
Maldives
75
365
124
Sierra Leone
71
88
Jamaica
89
Gabon
358
125
Gambia, The
61
90
Djibouti
354
126
Kyrgyz Republic
60
91
Burkina Faso
341
127
Guinea-Bissau
58
92
Guinea
317
128
Grenada
55
93
Ghana
316
129
St. Lucia
47
94
Congo, Democratic Republic of
301
130
St. Kitts and Nevis
46
95
Montenegro
294
131
Bhutan
45
132
Comoros
44
96
Guyana
281
97
Fiji
273
133
Benin
41
98
Yemen, Republic of
271
134
Cambodia
40
40
99
Zimbabwe
267
135
Cabo Verde
100
Rwanda
260
136
Seychelles
32
101
Tajikistan
252
137
Tonga
28
102
Lesotho
249
138
Tunisia
28
103
Moldova
232
139
Bosnia and Herzegovina
19
222
140
Sao Tome and Principe
18
17
104
Afghanistan, Islamic Republic of
105
Sri Lanka
221
141
Central African Republic
106
Vanuatu
208
142
Timor-Leste, Dem. Rep. of
8
107
Jordan
205
143
Antigua and Barbuda
8
108
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
179
144
Kiribati
2
109
Barbados
169
145
Senegal
1
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
29
Table 3. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries (HMN + GER)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal)*
Country
Afghanistan, Islamic
Republic of
Albania
2004
892
2005
667
2006
505
2007
159
2008
0
2009
0
2010
0
2011
2012
0
0
0
Cumulative
Average
2,223
222
16
13
92
107
220
305
0
195
265
63
1,276
128
Algeria
490
751
189
2,259
1,301
3,378
3,172
1,406
187
2,620
15,753
1,575
Angola
822
0
574
0
1,641
1,236
0
1,695
17
326
6,312
631
5
19
11
11
8
0
5
0
17
0
75
8
1,428
753
283
0
607
3,283
0
608
4,194
2,955
14,110
1,411
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia, Republic of
Aruba
Azerbaijan, Republic of
217
219
352
404
804
1,124
840
1,144
1,167
1,230
7,499
750
2,179
4,617
6,546
6,876
13,509
16,212
8,044
320
18,798
5,293
82,393
8,239
112
50
126
2,462
8,541
845
3,854
990
2,556
3,317
22,853
2,285
Bahamas, The
1,001
1,098
1,843
1,330
1,622
2,123
1,585
2,197
1,775
1,763
16,337
1,634
Bahrain, Kingdom of
1,326
1,504
2,227
2,281
1,677
30
66
0
0
598
9,708
971
Bangladesh
830
840
1,054
2,667
2,436
1,229
1,063
672
593
1,780
13,161
1,316
Barbados
329
574
534
69
66
7
0
97
17
0
1,694
169
3,148
3,859
4,131
5,606
9,040
14,939
7,569
8,313
14,022
13,903
84,531
8,453
126
Belarus
Belize
119
90
98
92
186
173
142
90
123
144
1,255
Benin
61
117
34
0
0
0
6
195
0
0
413
41
Bhutan
.
.
.
0
101
0
0
0
44
168
312
45
Bolivia
174
625
374
105
112
0
454
802
0
1,379
4,025
403
0
0
0
0
67
118
0
0
0
0
185
19
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
161
464
228
550
1,303
1,072
1,723
210
923
1,926
8,560
856
12,069
15,897
16,782
10,681
17,264
21,765
22,324
32,289
34,105
33,928
217,103
21,710
Brunei Darussalam
1,838
1,190
4,006
5,786
5,860
8,232
5,420
.
.
2,063
34,396
4,299
Bulgaria
2,521
2,302
3,016
2,366
4,615
5,365
886
730
1,792
1,762
25,354
2,535
4
52
59
172
247
395
409
380
537
1,153
3,408
341
Burundi
16
19
112
134
52
0
122
12
146
137
750
75
Cabo Verde
34
5
8
28
11
119
38
87
30
34
395
40
Cambodia
40
46
12
72
45
45
23
27
47
43
400
40
Cameroon
258
852
487
959
1,315
1,626
309
411
679
930
7,825
783
13
6
12
0
1
0
34
34
33
43
175
17
401
506
430
738
989
860
1,136
1,179
1,589
1,470
9,297
930
4,125
7,594
3,303
5,411
6,110
5,082
45,639
4,564
107,075 104,854 139,911 173,626 162,779 249,567
1,252,419
125,242
12,124
1,212
Brazil
Burkina Faso
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile
China, P.R.: Mainland
Colombia
Comoros
Congo, Democratic Republic of
2,534
2,614
4,318
4,548
64,405
80,370
82,313
87,520
1,254
1,749
1,372
582
608
2,671
1,226
0
1,239
1,424
6
15
16
24
20
21
30
33
110
165
440
44
503
539
539
458
170
0
312
344
0
148
3,012
301
Congo, Republic of
1,039
3,054
668
2,155
1,723
2,635
614
1,757
824
876
15,346
1,535
Costa Rica
3,440
4,640
5,274
5,378
5,539
6,821
8,734
14,828
17,829
21,553
94,034
9,403
Cote d'Ivoire
3,030
2,578
3,819
2,645
3,309
2,423
1,214
1,807
1,046
2,190
24,061
2,406
Croatia
1,948
1,608
1,412
1,545
1,684
2,182
1,548
882
1,507
677
14,992
1,499
Djibouti
201
229
277
356
385
366
337
486
478
424
3,540
354
18
25
41
47
76
151
132
125
186
171
973
97
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
30
2003
Global Financial Integrity
1,886
981
456
888
348
1,099
1,431
2,187
1,040
1,733
12,050
1,205
20
862
1,972
1,235
1,236
6,097
1,159
376
1,562
1,929
16,448
1,645
Country
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
2003
2004
2005
2006
1,248
3,155
5,098
642
657
0
320
2007
2008
2009
6,112
2010
0
2011
2,299
2012
5,316
5,093
Cumulative
Average
37,680
3,768
4,541
4,817
1,064
930
1,022
878
908
932
664
177
7,875
788
172
355
918
1,968
2,869
2,907
3,222
3,334
16,065
1,607
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Ethiopia
495
406
785
1,152
1,491
1,823
2,999
5,650
4,149
3,117
22,065
2,206
Fiji
254
236
159
418
239
391
342
273
202
210
2,726
273
Gabon
497
615
415
0
0
0
137
292
85
1,542
3,584
358
10
30
54
30
72
64
40
134
134
38
606
61
382
444
403
704
377
834
459
323
253
23
4,203
420
Gambia, The
Georgia
Ghana
0
0
0
0
37
374
1,342
721
691
0
3,164
316
54
27
63
28
68
59
52
59
68
75
553
55
1,377
1,400
1,623
911
1,020
920
822
1,485
618
1,588
11,764
1,176
316
422
255
423
633
251
0
375
435
59
3,169
317
6
37
23
13
193
7
42
74
119
70
583
58
Guyana
84
139
192
173
226
304
359
575
316
440
2,807
281
Haiti
31
40
41
120
95
137
201
61
120
45
890
89
2,722
2,920
3,175
3,355
3,388
3,294
2,981
3,530
3,701
3,872
32,939
3,294
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Honduras
0
2,100
2,580
2,744
349
3,373
771
1,019
2,823
0
15,758
1,576
India
Hungary
10,177
19,414
20,190
28,028
34,601
47,179
29,002
70,236
86,002
94,757
439,587
43,959
Indonesia
18,784
16,549
18,436
13,259
16,036
18,432
27,319
20,550
16,836
19,604
20,823
187,844
Iran, Islamic Republic of
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Iraq
.
.
0
0
3,660
19,316
16,321
20,998
14,154
14,649
89,098
11,137
430
435
686
322
28
894
470
185
203
0
3,654
365
0
128
0
206
0
96
129
0
622
867
2,048
205
1,647
1,016
1,800
3,134
2,938
5,713
750
0
3,909
4,469
25,376
2,538
277
80
245
0
258
0
0
0
0
0
860
86
.
.
.
3
3
0
0
5
0
0
11
2
Jamaica
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Kosovo, Republic of
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
574
46
782
938
5,116
10,049
752
0
4,840
1,499
24,596
2,460
0
19
0
0
356
0
0
31
194
0
601
60
82
6
0
516
930
595
702
478
792
878
4,978
498
1,210
1,943
2,263
2,473
3,160
3,286
2,093
1,614
4,063
2,796
24,900
2,490
Lebanon
0
1,233
1,486
2,960
6,605
2,475
3,690
34
2,038
4,097
24,618
2,462
Lesotho
71
55
61
158
295
432
584
61
264
506
2,487
249
Liberia
814
898
981
1,576
1,905
678
1,328
807
414
418
9,817
982
Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic
Lao People's
Democratic Republic
Latvia
Libya
0
0
1,497
0
0
1,753
0
2,137
0
5,397
10,783
1,078
1,850
1,056
1,350
1,142
1,094
1,935
981
1,501
4,259
6,448
21,615
2,162
281
381
494
305
597
928
497
457
852
421
5,212
521
59
755
412
1,598
73
637
166
108
270
178
4,257
426
211
160
493
405
442
1,022
851
666
1,046
552
5,847
585
Malaysia
20,744
26,703
35,264
36,666
36,642
40,935
34,486
62,450
52,047
48,931
394,869
39,487
Maldives
111
68
35
72
49
55
38
62
69
185
746
75
Lithuania
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
Malawi
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
31
Table 3. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries (HMN + GER) (cont)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal)*
Country
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
2004
275
2005
128
2006
173
2007
227
2008
187
2009
969
2010
327
2011
906
2012
587
328
Cumulative
Average
4,106
411
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
107
32
0
7
0
192
319
472
0
402
1,532
153
38,084
40,740
47,747
48,086
58,618
65,489
37,192
65,570
53,078
59,656
514,259
51,426
232
Moldova
228
344
246
191
445
510
240
0
119
0
2,323
Mongolia
6
0
75
14
212
775
0
0
76
195
1,354
135
Montenegro
.
980
928
238
380
0
44
0
15
62
2,647
294
554
905
3,486
681
612
412
1,801
518
243
763
9,977
998
83
0
0
362
103
0
23
563
20
0
1,155
115
Myanmar
114
633
604
626
336
1,362
1,010
2,132
0
0
6,817
682
Namibia
89
107
138
399
756
787
1,010
509
754
1,483
6,032
603
Nepal
364
414
503
678
544
854
1,551
1,883
645
106
7,542
754
Nicaragua
625
1,055
1,019
1,384
1,302
1,264
1,198
1,730
2,666
2,851
15,094
1,509
15
86
122
0
102
99
0
530
174
237
1,365
137
0
1,680
17,867
19,159
19,335
24,192
26,377
20,780
20,144
7,922
157,455
15,746
Morocco
Mozambique
Niger
Nigeria
Oman
929
506
851
2,273
0
0
1,141
0
555
733
6,990
699
Pakistan
44
0
200
0
0
51
0
729
0
405
1,430
143
Panama
2,414
2,716
3,950
4,649
5,565
5,838
5,351
5,712
6,946
5,341
48,481
4,848
119
93
0
15
34
184
479
474
1,841
1,087
4,326
433
3,007
3,588
4,166
4,523
2,457
4,513
2,882
2,807
4,214
4,811
36,967
3,697
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
748
660
930
869
514
1,361
2,926
0
1,020
0
9,028
903
Philippines
8,255
9,214
13,499
10,001
7,982
6,899
8,650
8,871
10,965
9,157
93,494
9,349
Poland
1,961
421
787
0
3,302
12,161
10,045
10,462
9,918
4,067
53,124
5,312
Qatar
Romania
Russian Federation
0
0
0
206
263
0
998
2,451
5,087
2,519
11,524
1,152
289
0
0
0
4,209
3,973
1,729
145
0
0
10,344
1,034
82,069 103,972 129,459 135,033 187,695 122,864
41,304
47,136
57,502
66,825
973,858
97,386
Rwanda
29
216
36
136
177
145
285
442
525
611
2,603
260
Samoa
84
82
331
116
144
156
103
129
143
109
1,397
140
Sao Tome and Principe
5
4
11
6
12
37
15
17
30
42
180
18
Saudi Arabia
0
0
36,341
21,473
16,661
33,373
64,558
37,409
52,277
46,528
308,620
30,862
Senegal
0
0
11
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
15
1
7,409
9,776
6,433
3,861
3,156
2,933
2,990
3,132
3,377
2,590
45,659
4,566
154
82
75
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
315
32
Sierra Leone
95
94
90
28
62
49
7
2
243
43
713
71
Solomon Islands
34
75
88
93
136
171
90
171
187
210
1,256
126
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Serbia, Republic of
Seychelles
Somalia
32
2003
Global Financial Integrity
Country
South Africa
Sri Lanka
2003
2007
2008
2009
2011
2012
Cumulative
Average
0
2004
2,538
2005
3,388
2006
9,833
18,600
19,655
19,621
2010
4,080
15,297
29,134
122,145
12,214
114
189
73
106
165
0
0
881
337
349
2,214
221
St. Kitts and Nevis
15
34
41
39
54
30
65
94
45
46
462
46
St. Lucia
59
62
90
193
28
10
25
0
0
0
468
47
153
298
374
195
140
234
185
117
53
42
1,790
179
14
0
96
56
2,023
395
1,713
1,656
4,347
2,605
12,904
1,290
Suriname
368
543
557
734
764
940
727
943
168
413
6,157
616
Swaziland
92
99
150
508
1,139
400
430
66
270
556
3,710
371
0
13,336
297
1,488
1,373
1,226
2,448
2,006
6,866
8,641
37,681
3,768
Tajikistan
148
186
127
265
337
18
1,439
0
0
0
2,520
252
Tanzania
340
96
704
36
58
390
308
1,356
613
717
4,618
462
Thailand
6,080
7,240
11,987
11,513
10,427
20,550
14,755
24,243
29,322
35,561
171,679
17,168
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Sudan
Syrian Arab Republic
.
.
.
3
9
7
0
0
37
0
56
8
Togo
Timor-Leste, Dem. Rep. of
214
251
952
1,692
2,884
4,471
4,250
2,385
1,144
0
18,243
1,824
Tonga
27
51
21
12
9
22
6
48
43
46
285
28
1,567
2,102
2,291
2,473
2,728
1,189
2,772
3,282
6,279
7,414
32,096
3,210
Tunisia
Trinidad and Tobago
47
128
28
37
37
0
0
0
0
0
277
28
Turkey
1,998
0
1,865
1,577
3,498
3,256
8,059
3,432
10,071
1,846
35,601
3,560
Turkmenistan
602
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
602
602
Uganda
323
525
823
466
701
1,012
1,446
1,167
28
633
7,125
713
Ukraine
834
0
0
0
480
365
833
866
2,039
0
5,417
542
United Arab Emirates
800
1,000
5,500
11,800
0
51,700
23,500
4,900
16,700
19,400
135,300
13,530
Uruguay
337
466
670
281
768
448
734
2,073
1,165
1,518
8,461
846
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela, Republica
Bolivariana de
Vietnam
Yemen, Republic of
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Sub-Saharan Africa
Asia
Developing Europe
MENA
Western Hemisphere
All Developing Countries
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
66
178
168
170
286
442
131
169
172
297
2,080
208
795
4,521
13,760
2,211
809
932
3,956
2,955
3,644
3,183
36,766
3,677
0
915
397
0
578
1,045
9,022
3,690
5,477
6,925
28,048
2,805
0
0
0
0
458
1,910
0
0
344
0
2,712
271
1,004
1,825
2,071
2,469
3,283
2,589
2,085
2,619
3,754
4,272
25,969
2,597
0
306
354
1,792
97
0
111
14
0
0
2,673
267
12,141
20,286
38,219
51,110
67,001
73,390
74,966
57,991
65,170
68,624
528,898
52,890
131,230 167,059 184,743 201,288 227,275 263,351 267,337 368,086 371,426 473,854
2,655,648
265,565
1,386,449
138,645
68,104
73,852
85,906
95,948
5,969
22,691
57,783
51,144
131,719 168,134 175,086 170,267 250,896 166,538
74,158 109,229 113,404
727,365
72,736
96,947 122,346 103,319 124,898 156,729 112,343 151,437 171,963 168,825
1,288,773
128,877
297,411 380,835 488,997 502,809 593,472 793,435 748,307 821,939 968,684 991,245
6,587,133
658,713
79,967
42,579 131,831 118,575
* (.) indicates no available data, whereas (0) indicates a value of 0.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
33
Table 4. Trade Misinvoicing Outflows (GER)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal)*
Country
Afghanistan, Islamic
Republic of
2004
892
2005
2006
667
505
2007
2008
2009
159
0
0
2010
2011
2012
0
0
0
0
Cumulative
Average
2,223
222
Albania
16
13
92
107
220
272
0
195
265
63
1,242
124
Algeria
490
751
0
297
0
0
1,040
0
0
0
2,579
258
Angola
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,695
0
0
1,695
169
Antigua and Barbuda
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Argentina
0
753
283
0
607
3,283
0
0
0
190
5,115
512
215
213
352
370
804
1,124
832
1,044
1,167
1,230
7,351
735
2,179
4,617
6,546
6,876
13,509
16,204
8,034
320
18,794
5,287
82,368
8,237
0
0
0
2,206
8,180
0
2,393
0
2,556
1,378
16,714
1,671
1,585
Armenia, Republic of
Aruba
Azerbaijan, Republic of
Bahamas, The
1,001
1,098
1,694
1,330
1,622
2,123
1,533
1,914
1,775
1,763
15,853
Bahrain, Kingdom of
626
1,504
2,227
2,281
1,677
0
0
0
0
0
8,314
831
Bangladesh
830
814
410
2,023
1,679
911
366
270
0
755
8,058
806
Barbados
329
574
534
69
66
0
0
32
17
0
1,622
162
3,135
3,859
4,131
5,320
9,040
14,744
7,569
8,313
14,022
13,903
84,037
8,404
Belize
84
86
90
84
147
161
137
90
116
140
1,134
113
Benin
Belarus
61
107
34
0
0
0
0
195
0
0
397
40
Bhutan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Bolivia
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
418
418
42
Bosnia and Herzegovina
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Botswana
0
171
228
550
1,085
1,072
990
210
923
1,926
7,155
715
11,136
13,752
16,558
10,681
14,111
21,765
21,977
28,750
32,833
33,928
205,492
20,549
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
0
1,632
2,302
1,797
1,380
1,562
1,137
886
730
1,792
1,762
14,979
1,498
Burkina Faso
0
52
53
163
247
395
409
380
537
1,153
3,389
339
Burundi
2
0
28
134
15
0
14
12
146
137
487
49
11
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Cabo Verde
21
5
8
19
11
12
2
2
0
25
105
Cambodia
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cameroon
258
852
458
959
1,315
1,626
309
411
582
770
7,539
754
Central African Republic
13
6
12
0
1
0
34
34
33
43
175
17
Chad
401
506
430
738
989
860
1,136
1,179
1,589
1,470
9,297
930
Chile
1,810
2,343
2,989
3,022
3,675
7,594
3,303
4,555
5,530
4,746
39,569
3,957
64,405
80,370
82,313
87,520
98,528 120,690 149,013 162,492
1,057,260
105,726
1,254
1,749
1,372
582
608
2,666
11,981
1,198
China, P.R.: Mainland
Colombia
Comoros
107,075 104,854
1,226
0
1,239
1,285
6
15
16
24
20
21
30
33
110
165
440
44
Congo, Democratic Republic of
503
539
539
441
0
0
312
344
0
0
2,676
268
Congo, Republic of
923
2,962
668
2,155
1,524
2,635
614
1,757
824
876
14,939
1,494
Costa Rica
3,440
4,640
5,274
5,378
5,539
6,773
8,734
14,685
17,613
21,553
93,628
9,363
Cote d'Ivoire
2,142
2,578
3,761
2,607
3,309
2,379
1,177
1,783
1,046
2,190
22,973
2,297
Croatia
592
303
124
0
0
0
0
0
0
235
1,254
125
Djibouti
201
213
232
302
303
366
302
363
439
424
3,145
315
18
25
41
47
76
151
132
117
170
171
949
95
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
34
2003
Global Financial Integrity
318
0
0
724
348
1,067
1,215
1,079
1,040
1,626
7,419
742
20
862
1,972
1,235
1,236
6,096
1,029
376
1,562
1,780
16,168
1,617
Country
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Cumulative
Average
2,515
1,248
3,110
2,671
4,541
4,817
3,216
0
154
2,459
2,934
25,150
499
657
615
446
1,022
878
908
932
319
0
6,276
628
0
320
172
355
918
1,968
2,869
2,907
3,222
3,334
16,065
1,607
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Ethiopia
104
52
785
1,152
1,333
1,823
2,498
2,574
2,346
3,117
15,783
1,578
Fiji
207
236
159
254
239
391
204
259
100
87
2,136
214
Gabon
238
258
0
0
0
0
137
292
85
1,542
2,552
255
10
27
20
23
30
33
40
47
36
27
293
29
376
444
403
645
341
775
459
290
253
0
3,986
399
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
44
26
38
28
54
58
48
59
68
75
499
50
1,316
1,400
1,623
911
1,020
920
545
1,139
394
1,134
10,402
1,040
159
422
255
422
633
251
0
375
407
59
2,983
298
6
33
18
12
193
2
32
69
119
70
555
55
Guyana
64
96
124
89
189
209
191
223
272
297
1,753
175
Haiti
31
40
41
120
95
124
33
61
47
45
636
64
2,722
2,920
2,985
3,031
3,041
3,294
2,870
3,355
3,701
3,623
31,543
3,154
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
India
10,177
19,414
19,744
28,028
34,601
47,179
28,723
68,266
84,061
94,757
434,950
43,495
Indonesia
16,897
Gambia, The
Georgia
Ghana
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Honduras
Hungary
13,039
15,342
13,123
16,036
17,063
27,080
17,576
13,335
16,209
20,169
168,972
Iran, Islamic Republic of
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Iraq
.
.
.
.
.
10,071
10,205
13,048
10,885
10,533
54,742
10,948
430
413
686
322
28
544
470
185
203
0
3,282
328
0
128
0
0
0
96
129
0
297
376
1,026
103
Jamaica
Jordan
715
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
715
72
Kenya
Kazakhstan
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
1
Kiribati
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Kosovo, Republic of
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Kuwait
0
46
782
938
385
0
752
0
220
1,499
4,621
462
Kyrgyz Republic
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Lao People's Democratic
Republic
0
6
0
113
195
186
179
75
471
470
1,695
169
1,197
1,943
1,968
2,473
2,948
2,709
2,093
1,614
3,960
2,796
23,700
2,370
0
499
878
143
608
729
648
34
0
89
3,628
363
204
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Lithuania
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
0
55
61
158
295
309
328
61
264
506
2,036
814
851
946
1,478
1,829
635
1,040
701
387
418
9,098
910
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2,862
2,862
286
1,850
1,056
1,301
853
1,040
1,935
981
1,501
4,259
6,072
20,847
2,085
248
381
488
305
545
897
497
457
852
421
5,090
509
422
59
720
412
1,598
73
637
166
108
270
178
4,222
183
160
470
405
442
828
685
666
878
552
5,268
527
Malaysia
20,740
26,703
28,710
29,205
31,441
32,343
29,245
41,105
42,082
38,994
320,568
32,057
Maldives
111
68
35
72
49
55
38
62
69
185
746
75
Malawi
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
35
Table 4. Trade Misinvoicing Outflows (GER) (cont)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal)*
Country
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
2004
275
2005
102
2006
144
2007
189
2008
187
2009
969
2010
253
2011
906
2012
533
328
Cumulative
Average
3,886
389
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
107
32
0
7
0
192
319
472
0
40
1,170
117
33,673
35,923
43,669
47,683
58,618
60,067
33,733
45,790
43,120
40,997
443,274
44,327
232
Moldova
228
344
246
191
445
510
240
0
119
0
2,323
Mongolia
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Montenegro
.
980
928
238
163
0
44
0
15
62
2,430
270
Morocco
256
623
3,079
160
612
0
1,280
359
0
534
6,905
690
Mozambique
83
0
0
362
103
0
0
563
0
0
1,112
111
Myanmar
36
492
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
528
53
Namibia
0
107
138
399
756
787
1,010
191
754
1,483
5,626
563
Nepal
364
414
503
678
544
747
1,551
1,702
645
106
7,254
725
Nicaragua
1,268
525
649
957
1,120
1,174
1,264
1,198
1,730
2,008
2,059
12,683
Niger
0
86
122
0
84
41
0
530
174
237
1,275
127
Nigeria
0
1,680
522
2,008
4,936
3,410
0
4,280
12,994
0
29,829
2,983
Oman
364
110
0
2,265
0
0
0
0
0
0
2,739
274
Pakistan
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Panama
2,414
2,716
3,592
4,649
5,091
5,838
5,351
5,712
6,946
5,341
47,649
4,765
119
93
0
0
34
111
479
383
916
1,087
3,222
322
2,966
3,588
3,955
4,523
1,952
4,473
2,882
2,807
4,214
4,500
35,859
3,586
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
748
660
930
461
376
1,238
2,329
0
0
0
6,744
674
7,357
8,940
11,701
8,388
7,982
6,899
5,637
5,356
10,965
4,601
77,825
7,783
Poland
0
421
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
421
42
Qatar
0
0
0
206
263
0
998
2,451
1,350
966
6,233
623
Romania
0
0
0
0
2,889
1,908
0
0
0
0
4,796
480
72,337 100,921 123,065 125,897 179,039 112,493
Philippines
Russian Federation
32,125
41,266
49,606
66,825
903,573
90,357
Rwanda
29
208
36
136
176
126
285
429
525
611
2,561
256
Samoa
84
79
324
116
142
137
103
115
116
109
1,324
132
Sao Tome and Principe
5
4
11
1
2
5
9
7
23
36
103
10
Saudi Arabia
0
0
1,882
913
1,032
3,347
3,803
3,029
4,100
4,193
22,299
2,230
Senegal
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
1
7,409
9,776
6,433
3,861
3,156
2,722
2,914
3,132
3,377
2,590
45,371
4,537
149
82
75
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
310
31
Sierra Leone
45
40
32
0
47
17
0
0
242
42
466
47
Solomon Islands
34
69
88
93
136
169
90
152
153
165
1,148
115
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Serbia, Republic of
Seychelles
Somalia
36
2003
Global Financial Integrity
Country
South Africa
Sri Lanka
2003
2004
0
2005
2,538
2006
3,388
9,833
2007
2008
2009
18,600
19,655
16,572
2010
3,563
2011
2012
15,297
28,930
Cumulative
Average
118,376
11,838
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
St. Kitts and Nevis
15
26
41
39
43
27
46
63
45
46
390
39
St. Lucia
59
62
75
193
27
0
9
0
0
0
426
43
153
281
351
179
140
234
185
116
53
35
1,727
173
0
0
96
56
1,030
395
1,493
475
4,078
2,605
10,228
1,023
Suriname
368
543
557
734
764
840
708
775
91
0
5,380
538
Swaziland
0
99
109
270
438
364
375
66
270
526
2,517
252
Syrian Arab Republic
0
13,080
160
0
627
0
1,701
2,006
6,866
8,641
33,081
3,308
Tajikistan
118
154
51
0
0
0
1,439
0
0
0
1,761
176
Tanzania
0
0
0
36
58
0
60
60
296
227
738
74
Thailand
6,080
6,530
11,987
11,513
10,427
20,550
14,755
20,406
29,114
28,296
159,658
15,966
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Sudan
Timor-Leste, Dem. Rep. of
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Togo
204
251
952
1,692
2,884
4,471
4,250
2,385
1,144
0
18,233
1,823
Tonga
13
12
9
12
9
22
6
5
3
0
93
9
1,567
1,834
1,738
2,129
2,382
1,189
2,772
3,282
5,209
7,414
29,516
2,952
Tunisia
Trinidad and Tobago
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Turkey
1,998
0
1,865
1,349
3,498
3,256
8,059
3,432
10,071
1,846
35,373
3,537
Turkmenistan
602
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
602
602
Uganda
159
255
374
455
679
1,012
1,159
1,167
28
633
5,921
592
410
Ukraine
0
0
0
0
0
365
833
866
2,039
0
4,103
United Arab Emirates
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
337
466
497
129
489
448
734
1,380
913
971
6,364
636
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
45
153
152
166
281
442
93
162
158
297
1,949
195
Venezuela, Republica
Bolivariana de
0
2,017
172
0
0
0
733
0
0
0
2,923
292
Vietnam
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,455
1,455
145
Yemen, Republic of
0
0
0
0
458
1,910
0
0
0
0
2,369
237
834
1,825
1,996
2,430
3,225
2,589
1,977
2,572
3,754
4,272
25,473
2,547
0
306
354
1,792
97
0
111
14
0
0
2,673
267
7,994
18,533
17,961
33,365
47,867
49,883
40,995
33,879
54,354
58,953
363,783
36,378
197,574 272,344 334,074 354,025
2,251,065
225,106
1,180,671
118,067
32,626
176,547
17,655
96,816 118,047 149,528 103,067 119,528 148,293 139,424
1,129,041
112,904
257,488 347,058 369,186 412,422 495,459 594,130 514,496 594,302 786,685 729,881
5,101,107
510,111
Vanuatu
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Sub-Saharan Africa
Asia
Developing Europe
MENA
Western Hemisphere
All Developing Countries
124,533 160,403 169,762 184,376 211,897 242,076
52,456
63,455
69,784
86,121
2,985
19,850
11,679
11,744
69,520
84,817 100,000
107,169 133,272 152,303
10,478
19,370
20,557
147,471 223,787 144,852
21,080
26,177
* (.) indicates no available data, whereas (0) indicates a value of 0.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
37
Table 5. Illicit Hot Money Outflows (HMN) (Also Referred to as “Leakages in the Balance of Payments”)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal)*
Country
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Cumulative
Average
0
0
.
.
0
0
0
0
0
33
0
0
0
0
33
3
Algeria
.
.
189
1,962
1,301
3,378
2,131
1,406
187
2,620
13,174
1,647
Angola
822
0
574
0
1,641
1,236
0
0
17
326
4,617
462
5
19
11
11
8
0
5
0
17
0
75
8
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
.
.
.
0
0
0
0
0
1,428
0
0
0
0
0
0
608
4,194
2,765
8,995
899
Armenia, Republic of
2
6
0
34
0
0
8
99
0
0
148
15
Aruba
0
0
0
0
0
7
9
0
3
5
26
3
112
50
126
256
361
845
1,461
990
0
1,939
6,139
614
0
0
149
0
0
0
53
283
0
0
485
48
700
0
0
0
0
30
66
0
0
598
1,394
139
Bangladesh
0
25
644
643
756
317
697
402
593
1,026
5,103
510
Barbados
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
65
.
.
71
9
Azerbaijan, Republic of
Bahamas, The
Bahrain, Kingdom of
Belarus
13
0
0
286
0
194
0
0
0
0
494
49
Belize
35
4
8
8
39
12
5
0
7
4
121
12
Benin
0
10
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
.
16
2
Bhutan
.
.
.
0
101
0
0
0
44
168
312
45
Bolivia
174
625
374
105
112
0
454
802
0
961
3,607
361
0
0
0
0
67
118
0
0
0
0
185
19
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
161
293
0
0
218
0
734
0
0
0
1,405
141
Brazil
933
2,145
225
0
3,152
0
347
3,538
1,272
0
11,611
1,161
1,838
1,190
4,006
5,786
5,860
8,232
5,420
.
.
2,063
34,396
4,299
889
0
1,219
986
3,052
4,229
0
0
0
0
10,375
1,038
4
0
5
9
0
0
0
0
.
.
18
2
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
14
19
84
0
37
0
109
0
0
0
264
26
Cabo Verde
12
0
0
9
0
108
36
85
30
9
290
29
Cambodia
40
46
12
72
45
45
23
27
47
43
400
40
Cameroon
0
0
29
0
0
0
0
0
97
160
286
29
Central African Republic
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Chad
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Chile
724
270
1,329
1,526
450
0
0
855
580
336
6,070
607
China, P.R.: Mainland
0
0
0
0
0
0
41,383
52,936
13,766
87,074
195,159
19,516
Colombia
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
139
143
14
Comoros
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
.
Congo, Democratic Republic of
0
0
0
17
170
0
0
0
0
148
335
34
116
93
0
0
199
.
.
.
.
.
408
82
0
0
0
0
0
48
0
143
216
0
407
41
Congo, Republic of
Costa Rica
Cote d'Ivoire
38
2003
Afghanistan, Islamic
Republic of
Albania
888
0
57
38
0
44
37
25
.
.
1,089
136
Croatia
1,355
1,305
1,288
1,545
1,684
2,182
1,548
882
1,507
442
13,737
1,374
Djibouti
0
16
45
54
82
0
35
123
39
0
394
39
Dominica
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
16
0
24
2
Global Financial Integrity
Country
Dominican Republic
2003
2004
1,568
2005
981
2006
2007
2008
456
164
0
2009
2010
32
216
2011
1,107
2012
0
106
Cumulative
Average
4,632
463
Ecuador
0
0
0
0
0
1
131
0
0
149
280
28
Egypt
0
45
2,427
0
0
2,896
0
2,145
2,857
2,160
12,530
1,253
143
0
449
485
0
0
0
0
345
177
1,599
160
Equatorial Guinea
El Salvador
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Eritrea
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
390
354
0
0
158
0
501
3,075
1,803
0
6,282
628
47
0
0
164
0
0
138
15
102
123
589
59
260
357
415
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1,032
344
Gambia, The
0
3
34
7
42
31
0
87
98
11
313
31
Georgia
6
0
0
59
36
60
0
33
0
23
217
22
316
Ethiopia
Fiji
Gabon
0
0
0
0
37
374
1,342
721
691
0
3,164
Grenada
Ghana
10
1
25
0
13
1
3
0
0
0
54
5
Guatemala
61
0
0
0
0
0
277
346
224
454
1,362
136
157
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
28
0
187
19
0
4
5
1
0
5
9
4
.
.
28
4
20
43
68
84
37
95
168
352
43
143
1,054
105
Haiti
0
0
0
0
0
13
168
0
73
0
254
25
Honduras
0
0
190
324
347
0
111
175
0
249
1,397
140
Hungary
0
2,100
2,580
2,744
349
3,373
771
1,019
2,823
0
15,758
1,576
India
0
0
446
0
0
0
279
1,970
1,941
0
4,636
464
3,510
3,094
136
0
1,368
238
2,975
3,501
3,395
654
18,872
1,887
Iran, Islamic Republic of
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
.
Iraq
.
.
0
0
3,660
9,245
6,116
7,951
3,269
4,116
34,356
4,295
Jamaica
0
22
0
0
0
350
0
0
0
0
372
37
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Indonesia
0
0
0
206
0
0
0
0
325
491
1,022
102
Kazakhstan
Jordan
932
1,016
1,800
3,134
2,938
5,713
750
0
3,909
4,469
24,660
2,466
Kenya
85
277
67
245
0
258
0
0
0
0
0
847
Kiribati
.
.
.
3
3
0
0
5
0
0
11
2
Kosovo, Republic of
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
574
0
0
0
4,732
10,049
0
0
4,619
0
19,975
1,997
0
19
0
0
356
0
0
31
194
0
601
60
Lao People's Democratic
Republic
82
0
0
403
735
409
523
402
322
408
3,283
328
Latvia
Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic
13
0
296
0
212
577
0
0
103
0
1,200
120
Lebanon
0
734
608
2,818
5,997
1,746
3,042
0
2,038
4,008
20,990
2,099
Lesotho
71
0
0
0
0
123
256
0
0
0
450
45
Liberia
.
47
35
98
76
43
288
106
27
.
720
90
Libya
0
0
1,497
0
0
1,753
0
2,137
0
2,535
7,922
792
77
Lithuania
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
Malawi
0
0
49
289
54
0
0
0
0
376
768
33
0
6
0
52
31
0
0
0
0
122
12
0
35
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
35
12
27
0
23
0
0
194
165
0
169
0
579
58
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
39
Table 5. Illicit Hot Money Outflows (HMN) Also Referred to as “Leakages in the Balance of Payments” (cont)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal)*
Country
2004
2005
0
2006
4
Maldives
0
0
Mali
0
26
Mauritania
.
.
.
Mauritius
6,555
2007
2008
2009
2010
5,242
2011
7,460
5,201
8,592
21,345
0
0
0
0
0
29
37
0
0
74
.
.
.
.
.
2012
Cumulative
Average
74,301
7,430
9,965
9,937
0
0
0
0
0
0
53
.
220
24
.
.
.
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
362
362
36
4,411
4,816
4,077
403
0
5,422
3,458
19,780
9,959
18,660
70,985
7,099
Moldova
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mongolia
6
0
75
14
212
775
0
0
76
195
1,354
135
Montenegro
.
.
.
.
217
0
0
0
0
0
217
36
297
282
407
521
0
412
521
160
243
229
3,072
307
0
0
0
0
0
0
23
0
20
0
43
4
Myanmar
78
141
604
626
336
1,362
1,010
2,132
0
.
6,289
699
Namibia
89
0
0
0
0
0
0
317
0
.
406
45
0
0
0
0
0
107
0
181
0
0
288
29
100
405
63
264
128
0
0
0
658
792
2,410
241
15
0
0
0
18
57
0
0
.
.
90
11
0
0
17,344
17,151
14,399
20,783
26,377
16,500
7,150
7,922
127,626
12,763
Mexico
Morocco
Mozambique
Nepal
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Oman
565
396
851
9
0
0
1,141
0
555
733
4,251
425
Pakistan
44
0
200
0
0
51
0
729
0
405
1,430
143
Panama
0
0
358
0
474
0
0
0
0
0
832
83
110
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Qatar
0
0
0
15
0
73
0
91
925
0
1,104
41
0
211
0
505
40
0
0
0
311
1,108
111
0
0
0
407
138
123
596
0
1,020
0
2,284
228
898
274
1,798
1,613
0
0
3,013
3,515
0
4,556
15,668
1,567
1,961
0
787
0
3,302
12,161
10,045
10,462
9,918
4,067
52,703
5,270
2,645
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3,738
1,553
5,291
289
0
0
0
1,320
2,065
1,729
145
0
0
5,548
555
9,179
5,870
7,895
0
9,733
3,051
6,394
9,136
8,655
10,371
70,284
7,028
Rwanda
0
9
0
0
1
20
0
14
0
0
42
4
Samoa
.
3
7
0
2
19
0
15
27
0
73
8
Sao Tome and Principe
0
0
0
6
10
32
6
10
7
7
77
8
Romania
Russian Federation
Saudi Arabia
0
0
34,459
20,560
15,629
30,026
60,754
34,380
48,178
42,335
286,321
28,632
Senegal
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
4
0
.
7
1
48
Serbia, Republic of
.
.
.
.
0
212
76
0
0
0
288
Seychelles
5
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
1
50
54
58
28
15
32
7
2
1
1
248
25
Solomon Islands
0
6
0
0
0
2
0
19
35
45
108
11
Somalia
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Sierra Leone
40
2003
Malaysia
Global Financial Integrity
Country
South Africa
Sri Lanka
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
0
0
0
0
0
2009
0
Cumulative
Average
3,049
2010
516
2011
0
2012
204
3,769
377
114
189
73
106
165
0
0
881
337
349
2,214
221
St. Kitts and Nevis
0
8
0
1
10
3
19
30
0
0
72
7
St. Lucia
0
0
15
0
1
10
15
0
0
0
42
4
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
0
17
23
16
0
0
0
1
0
7
64
6
14
0
0
0
992
0
220
1,181
268
0
2,676
268
Suriname
0
0
0
0
0
100
19
168
77
413
777
78
Swaziland
92
0
41
238
701
36
55
0
0
30
1,193
119
0
256
137
1,488
746
1,226
747
0
.
.
4,600
575
Sudan
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
30
32
76
265
337
18
0
0
0
0
759
76
Tanzania
340
96
704
0
0
390
248
1,296
317
490
3,880
388
Thailand
0
710
0
0
0
0
0
3,837
208
7,265
12,021
1,202
8
.
.
.
3
9
7
0
0
37
0
56
Togo
Timor-Leste, Dem. Rep. of
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
.
10
1
Tonga
14
38
11
0
0
0
0
43
40
46
192
19
Trinidad and Tobago
0
269
553
344
345
0
0
0
1,069
.
2,580
287
Tunisia
47
128
28
37
37
0
0
0
0
0
277
28
Turkey
0
0
0
228
0
0
0
0
0
0
228
23
Turkmenistan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Uganda
164
270
450
11
22
0
287
0
0
0
1,204
120
Ukraine
834
0
0
0
480
0
0
0
0
0
1,314
131
United Arab Emirates
800
1,000
5,500
11,800
0
51,700
23,500
4,900
16,700
19,400
135,300
13,530
0
0
173
152
279
0
0
693
252
547
2,097
210
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
22
25
17
4
5
0
37
7
14
0
131
13
795
2,503
13,588
2,211
809
932
3,223
2,955
3,644
3,183
33,843
3,384
Vietnam
0
915
397
0
578
1,045
9,022
3,690
5,477
5,470
26,593
2,659
Yemen, Republic of
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
344
0
344
34
169
0
75
40
58
0
108
46
0
0
496
50
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Vanuatu
Venezuela, Republica
Bolivariana de
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Sub-Saharan Africa
4,147
1,753
20,259
17,745
19,134
23,507
33,971
24,112
10,816
9,671
165,115
16,512
Asia
6,696
6,656
14,981
16,911
15,377
21,276
69,763
95,741
37,351 119,829
404,583
40,458
15,648
10,397
16,122
9,827
24,550
34,861
22,782
22,796
27,109
21,686
205,779
20,578
32,101 112,461
98,018
53,078
83,052
80,778
550,818
55,082
9,276
31,909
23,670
29,401
159,732
15,973
227,637 181,999 261,364
1,486,027
148,603
Developing Europe
MENA
2,984
2,841
46,104
39,400
Western Hemisphere
10,448
12,129
22,345
6,503
All Developing Countries
39,923
33,777
119,811
90,388
6,850
7,200
98,013 199,305 233,811
* (.) indicates no available data, whereas (0) indicates a value of 0.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
41
Table 6. The Components of Trade Misinvoicing, 2003-2012
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal, or in percent)*
Import Misinvoicing
Country
Export Misinvoicing
UnderInvoicing
(b)
OverInvoicing
(c)
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Inflows
(b+c)
UnderInvoicing
(d)
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Outflows
(a+d)
Gross Trade
Misinvoicing
(a+b+c+d)
Afghanistan, Islamic Republic of
2,187
7,357
1,158
36
8,514
2,223
10,737
Albania
1,242
6
673
0
679
1,242
1,921
Algeria
1,040
21,034
44,640
1,539
65,674
2,579
68,253
Angola
.
.
38,885
1,695
38,885
1,695
40,579
Antigua and Barbuda
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
22,344
Argentina
1,861
6,463
10,766
3,254
17,229
5,115
Armenia, Republic of
7,023
2,606
2,652
328
5,259
7,351
12,610
948
1,681
47
81,420
1,728
82,368
84,096
Aruba
Azerbaijan, Republic of
0
23,657
27,206
16,714
50,863
16,714
67,576
Bahamas, The
0
73,909
0
15,853
73,909
15,853
89,762
Bahrain, Kingdom of
8,314
10,138
66,616
0
76,755
8,314
85,069
Bangladesh
1,214
5,774
1,462
6,844
7,236
8,058
15,294
781
1,490
223
841
1,712
1,622
3,335
281,097
Barbados
Belarus
57,096
24,151
172,910
26,940
197,060
84,037
Belize
0
1,788
0
1,134
1,788
1,134
2,922
Benin
0
32,946
2,806
397
35,752
397
36,148
Bhutan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Bolivia
418
3,241
13,650
0
16,891
418
17,309
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1,387
428
177
5,768
605
7,155
7,759
59,742
184,742
92,645
145,750
277,387
205,492
482,879
0
458
455
0
913
0
913
Bulgaria
8,284
18,929
24,507
6,695
43,436
14,979
58,415
Burkina Faso
3,379
35
4,523
10
4,558
3,389
7,947
462
36
156
24
192
487
678
5
494
1
101
495
105
600
Cambodia
0
26,261
2,835
0
29,096
0
29,096
Cameroon
899
796
0
6,640
796
7,539
8,335
40
855
125
135
980
175
1,155
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
9,297
0
9,160
0
9,160
9,297
18,457
Chile
12,522
45,705
37,083
27,047
82,788
39,569
122,357
228,908
3,141,045
832,126
828,352
3,973,171
1,057,260
5,030,432
Colombia
6,214
1,746
12,470
5,767
14,216
11,981
26,197
Comoros
212
116
0
228
116
440
556
10,543
China, P.R.: Mainland
Congo, Democratic Republic of
2,676
469
7,398
0
7,867
2,676
Congo, Republic of
1,770
3,154
882
13,169
4,036
14,939
18,974
Costa Rica
6,298
0
0
87,330
0
93,628
93,628
Cote d'Ivoire
42
OverInvoicing
(a)
12,624
8,037
16,270
10,349
24,307
22,973
47,280
Croatia
1,254
4,068
14,904
0
18,971
1,254
20,226
Djibouti
0
14,998
0
3,145
14,998
3,145
18,144
Dominica
0
2,052
0
949
2,052
949
3,001
Global Financial Integrity
Import Misinvoicing
Country
OverInvoicing
(a)
Export Misinvoicing
UnderInvoicing
(b)
OverInvoicing
(c)
Ecuador
7,922
428
388
8,247
816
16,168
16,984
0
109,451
944
25,150
110,395
25,150
135,545
6,276
225
1,990
0
2,214
6,276
8,491
16,065
283
11,415
0
11,698
16,065
27,763
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
15,695
0
3,742
88
3,742
15,783
19,525
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Fiji
0
5,395
Gross Trade
Misinvoicing
(a+b+c+d)
7,419
El Salvador
4,784
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Outflows
(a+d)
Dominican Republic
Egypt
611
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Inflows
(b+c)
UnderInvoicing
(d)
7,419
12,814
1,881
0
469
255
469
2,136
2,605
514
1,356
9,950
2,038
11,306
2,552
13,858
Gambia, The
0
4,449
0
293
4,449
293
4,742
Georgia
0
7,673
132
3,986
7,805
3,986
11,791
Ghana
0
11,667
22,509
0
34,175
0
34,175
Gabon
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
53
413
0
446
413
499
912
8,799
0
1,411
1,604
1,411
10,402
11,813
74
6,234
50
2,909
6,284
2,983
9,267
0
569
0
555
569
555
1,124
289
368
0
1,464
368
1,753
2,121
Haiti
0
7,819
0
636
7,819
636
8,455
Honduras
0
19,715
0
31,543
19,715
31,543
51,258
Hungary
0
35,726
115,127
0
150,853
0
150,853
309,938
348,797
142,185
125,012
490,982
434,950
925,932
39,052
380,454
25,059
129,920
405,513
168,972
574,486
0
137,883
127,684
0
265,566
0
265,566
54,742
0
39,688
0
39,688
54,742
94,430
1,837
241
1,180
1,445
1,420
3,282
4,702
0
22,946
1,652
1,026
24,598
1,026
25,624
Kazakhstan
0
59,905
123,193
715
183,099
715
183,814
Kenya
0
11,334
2,254
13
13,589
13
13,602
India
Indonesia
Iran, Islamic Republic of
Iraq
Jamaica
Jordan
Kiribati
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Kosovo, Republic of
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4,621
590
83,627
0
84,217
4,621
88,838
Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic
0
33,116
4,392
0
37,508
0
37,508
Lao People's Democratic Republic
0
11,476
38
1,695
11,514
1,695
13,209
47,086
Latvia
4,015
17,472
5,914
19,685
23,386
23,700
Lebanon
3,067
210
3,747
561
3,958
3,628
7,585
Lesotho
399
118
52
1,638
170
2,036
2,206
102,622
Liberia
Libya
Lithuania
0
93,524
0
9,098
93,524
9,098
2,862
46,154
24,058
0
70,212
2,862
73,074
10,305
23,612
25,320
10,542
48,932
20,847
69,779
Macedonia, FYR
4,785
39
4,022
305
4,061
5,090
9,152
Madagascar
3,228
799
374
993
1,173
4,222
5,394
Malawi
5,145
0
1,098
123
1,098
5,268
6,366
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
43
Table 6. The Components of Trade Misinvoicing, 2003-2012 (cont)
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal, or in percent)*
Import Misinvoicing
Country
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Moldova
Mongolia
UnderInvoicing
(b)
OverInvoicing
(c)
104,835
359,058
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Inflows
(b+c)
UnderInvoicing
(d)
35,027
215,733
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Outflows
(a+d)
394,085
Gross Trade
Misinvoicing
(a+b+c+d)
320,568
714,653
220
201
0
526
201
746
947
3,886
0
13,824
0
13,824
3,886
17,710
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1,062
668
1,264
107
1,932
1,170
3,102
443,274
0
154,226
0
154,226
443,274
597,500
119
7,324
156
2,205
7,481
2,323
9,804
0
3,132
3,159
0
6,290
0
6,290
Montenegro
2,324
568
1,254
106
1,822
2,430
4,253
Morocco
1,639
8,358
2,543
5,266
10,901
6,905
17,805
446
4,263
2,094
666
6,356
1,112
7,468
0
28,010
10,257
528
38,267
528
38,795
Namibia
1,069
336
150
4,557
486
5,626
6,112
Nepal
7,254
0
1,451
0
1,451
7,254
8,705
5
3,855
0
12,678
3,855
12,683
16,539
Mozambique
Myanmar
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Oman
1,189
242
3,186
86
3,429
1,275
4,704
24,023
18,209
46,625
5,806
64,835
29,829
94,664
33,848
474
7,635
23,475
2,265
31,110
2,739
Pakistan
0
41,257
21,104
0
62,361
0
62,361
Panama
0
336,130
0
47,649
336,130
47,649
383,779
Papua New Guinea
272
6,790
371
2,950
7,162
3,222
10,384
17,648
58,792
9,770
18,212
68,562
35,859
104,421
Peru
6,744
3,139
34,134
0
37,273
6,744
44,016
Philippines
5,652
153,536
33,861
72,173
187,397
77,825
265,223
421
181,970
200,635
0
382,605
421
383,026
427,705
Paraguay
Poland
Qatar
6,233
3,922
417,549
0
421,471
6,233
Romania
4,796
20,276
45,942
0
66,218
4,796
71,015
78,635
558,130
798,941
824,938
1,357,071
903,573
2,260,645
2,324
62
724
237
786
2,561
3,346
324
1,151
109
1,001
1,259
1,324
2,584
61
77
4
42
80
103
183
22,299
8,339
250,958
0
259,296
22,299
281,595
0
11,484
2,691
8
14,175
8
14,183
45,371
0
28,679
0
28,679
45,371
74,050
9
953
490
301
1,443
310
1,753
256
1,423
287
209
1,711
466
2,176
37
160
0
1,111
160
1,148
1,308
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Samoa
Sao Tome and Principe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia, Republic of
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Solomon Islands
Somalia
44
OverInvoicing
(a)
Export Misinvoicing
Global Financial Integrity
Import Misinvoicing
Country
South Africa
Sri Lanka
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
OverInvoicing
(a)
Export Misinvoicing
UnderInvoicing
(b)
OverInvoicing
(c)
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Inflows
(b+c)
UnderInvoicing
(d)
Total Trade
Misinvoicing
Outflows
(a+d)
Gross Trade
Misinvoicing
(a+b+c+d)
23,335
6,744
2,908
95,041
9,652
118,376
128,028
0
6,761
9,947
0
16,708
0
16,708
0
1,442
0
390
1,442
390
1,833
122
15,711
374
305
16,085
426
16,512
0
3,057
0
1,727
3,057
1,727
4,784
3,440
9,750
3,461
6,788
13,211
10,228
23,439
91
4,614
2,342
5,289
6,956
5,380
12,335
558
128
66
1,959
194
2,517
2,711
13,080
61,245
16,646
20,001
77,891
33,081
110,972
323
4,673
3,133
1,439
7,806
1,761
9,568
Tanzania
738
628
8,213
0
8,840
738
9,578
Thailand
94,705
168,331
128,128
64,953
296,459
159,658
456,117
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
251
10,005
723
17,982
10,728
18,233
28,961
8
128
0
85
128
93
220
29,635
Timor-Leste, Dem. Rep. of
Togo
Tonga
5,157
119
0
24,359
119
29,516
Tunisia
Trinidad and Tobago
0
6,404
8,243
0
14,647
0
14,647
Turkey
35,373
149
72,398
0
72,546
35,373
107,919
Turkmenistan
602
0
838
0
838
602
1,440
Uganda
5,921
0
6,675
0
6,675
5,921
12,597
Ukraine
2,905
69,367
11,785
1,198
81,152
4,103
85,255
United Arab Emirates
0
124,338
581,249
0
705,587
0
705,587
Uruguay
0
16,848
0
6,364
16,848
6,364
23,212
Uzbekistan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Vanuatu
0
1,889
0
1,949
1,889
1,949
3,838
733
49,016
38,524
2,190
87,539
2,923
90,462
Vietnam
0
77,047
24,630
1,455
101,677
1,455
103,132
Yemen, Republic of
0
8,507
3,240
2,369
11,747
2,369
14,116
14,361
2,466
42,940
11,112
45,406
25,473
70,879
Venezuela, Republica Bolivariana de
Zambia
1,210
1,534
7,493
1,463
9,027
2,673
11,700
Sub-Saharan Africa
Zimbabwe
156,800
260,138
268,150
204,310
528,287
361,110
889,397
Asia
796,488
4,769,073
1,273,830
1,454,577
6,042,902
2,251,065
8,293,967
Developing Europe
264,875
1,093,418
1,684,715
915,796
2,778,133
1,180,671
3,958,803
MENA
118,371
577,153
1,696,558
58,176
2,273,712
176,547
2,450,258
Western Hemisphere
All Developing Countries
595,151
845,359
416,006
533,890
1,261,365
1,129,041
2,390,407
1,932,894
7,546,675
5,346,751
3,168,212
12,893,427
5,101,107
17,994,533
* (.) indicates no available data, whereas (0) indicates a value of 0.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
45
Table 7A. Illicit Financial Flows to GDP/Trade/ODA/FDI/FDI+ODA, 2003-2012
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal, or in percent)
Country
Illicit
Financial
Flows
(HMN + GER)
Sub-Saharan Africa
GDP
528,898
9,565,445
Asia
2,655,648
70,880,703
Developing Europe
1,386,449
727,365
Western Hemisphere
1,288,773
All Developing Countries
6,587,133
MENA
IFFs to
GDP
5.5%
Total Trade
IFFs to
Total
Trade
5,164,404
10.2%
3.7% 39,286,054
6.8%
31,159,128
4.4% 18,518,415
19,505,793
3.7% 14,351,922
39,042,122
170,153,190
Official
Development
Assistance
(ODA)
348,171
IFFs to
ODA
151.9%
Foreign
Direct
Investment
(FDI)
IFFs to
FDI
284,088 186.2%
IFFs to
(FDI +
ODA)
83.7%
193,063 1375.5%
2,399,405 110.7% 102.4%
7.5%
78,606 1763.8%
1,308,029 106.0% 100.0%
5.1%
119,774
607.3%
575,274 126.4% 104.6%
3.3% 14,598,982
8.8%
68,942 1869.3%
1,127,006 114.4% 107.8%
3.9% 91,919,777
7.2%
808,557
814.7%
5,693,801 115.7% 101.3%
Sources: GFI (IFFs), World Bank (GDP, FDI), OECD/World Bank (ODA), IMF (Trade)
Table 7B. Illicit Financial Flows to GDP/Trade/ODA/FDI/FDI+ODA, 2012
(in millions of U.S. dollars, nominal, or in percent)
Country
Illicit
Financial
Flows
(HMN + GER)
Sub-Saharan Africa
GDP
IFFs to
GDP
Total Trade
IFFs to
Total
Trade
IFFs to
ODA
68,624
1,533,677
4.5%
796,521
8.6%
39,892
Asia
473,854
12,560,829
3.8%
6,546,016
7.2%
21,810 2172.7%
Developing Europe
166,538
4,502,238
3.7%
2,719,210
6.1%
9,763 1705.7%
172.0%
MENA
113,404
3,114,608
3.6%
2,277,044
5.0%
10,493 1080.7%
Western Hemisphere
168,825
5,753,424
2.9%
2,161,951
7.8%
7,696 2193.8%
All Developing Countries
991,245
27,464,775
3.6% 14,500,742
6.8%
89,655 1105.6%
Sources: GFI (IFFs), World Bank (GDP, FDI), OECD/World Bank (ODA), IMF (Trade)
46
Official
Development
Assistance
(ODA)
Global Financial Integrity
Foreign
Direct
Investment
(FDI)
IFFs to
FDI
39,903 172.0%
IFFs to
(FDI +
ODA)
86.0%
384,668 123.2% 116.6%
124,466 133.8%
124.1%
50,257 225.6% 186.7%
190,061
88.8%
85.4%
789,355 125.6% 112.8%
Glossary
2012 IFF Update:
GFI’s 2012 annual report on illicit financial flows from the developing world,
titled Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2001-2010.
2013 IFF Update:
GFI’s 2013 annual report on illicit financial flows from the developing world,
titled Illicit Financial Flows from the Developing World: 2002-2011.
AMLD:
Anti-Money Laundering Directive of the European Union.
AREAER:
Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions by
the IMF.
BOPS:
Balance of Payment Statistics, an IMF database that measures the balance
of payments between countries. The Net Errors and Omissions line is used
to adjust for when the other components of the balance of payments to not
sum to zero.
CPI:
Corruption Perceptions Index published by Transparency International.
DOTS:
Direction of Trade Statistics, an IMF database with that measures annual
bilateral trade in goods between any two reporting IMF-member countries.
EU:
European Union.
FATF:
Financial Action Task Force.
FDI:
Foreign Direct Investment.
G8:
Forum for the governments of eight leading advanced economies.
G20:
Group of 20 largest economies in the world.
GDP:
Gross Domestic Product.
GER:
Gross Excluding Reversals, a methodology used to measure IFFs enabled
by trade misinvoicing, measured the IMF’s Direction of Trade Statistics
(DOTS) database in conjunction with the Fund’s International Financial
Statistics (IFS) database.
GER Normalized:
A methodology used in previous GFI reports, but retired in this one. The
GER figures were run through a filter which set equal to zero any final GER
figure that was less than 10 percent of that country’s exports in a given
year.
GER Non-Normalized:The GER figures with no such filter. Referred to simply as GER in this
report.
GFI:
Global Financial Integrity.
HMN:
Hot Money Narrow, a methodology used to measure illicit financial flows
recorded in the balance of payments. This is a “narrow” (i.e. conservative)
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
47
measure, which is derived from the Net Errors and Omissions (NEOs) line in
the International Monetary Fund’s Balance of Payments Statistics (BOPS)
database.
ICRG:
International Country Risk Guide.
IFFs:
Illicit Financial Flows, illegal movements of money or capital from one
country to another.
Net IFFs:
Illicit outflows less illicit inflows. GFI differs from academic literature, as this
measure is not used in our analysis. GFI focuses solely on illicit outflows,
and does not “net out” illicit inflows, as they tend to drive illicit outflows and
the underground economy and do not contribute to tax revenue or formal
production capacity.
IFS:
International Financial Statistics, an IMF database with a variety of financial
statistics, including reporting IMF-member countries exports to and
imports from the world as a whole.
Illicit Inflow:
The gross amount of money or capital entering a country illicitly.
Illicit Outflow:
The gross amount of money or capital exiting a country illicitly.
IMF:
International Monetary Fund.
MCP:
Multiple Currency Practices.
MDGs:
Millennium Development Goals.
MENA:
Middle East and North Africa.
NEO:
Net Errors and Omissions.
Nominal:
U.S. dollars not adjusted for inflation.
ODA:
Official Development Assistance. Often referred to as “foreign aid,” this is
development aid that flows into developing countries.
OECD:
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Real/Constant:
U.S. dollars adjusted for inflation, using 2010 as a base year.
Re-Exports:
Goods imported by, say, a trade entrepôt, and then quickly exported to
their final destination.
48
SDGs:
Sustainable Development Goals.
Trade Entrepôt:
A major trading zone and intermediary (e.g. Hong Kong, Singapore, Dubai).
UN:
United Nations.
WBR:
World Bank Residual.
Global Financial Integrity
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52
Global Financial Integrity
About
Global Financial Integrity
Founded in 2006, Global Financial Integrity (GFI) is a non-profit, Washington, DC-based research
and advisory organization, which produces high-caliber analyses of illicit financial flows,
advises developing country governments on effective policy solutions, and promotes pragmatic
transparency measures in the international financial system as a means to global development and
security.
Authors
Dev Kar is the Chief Economist at Global Financial Integrity. Prior to joining GFI, Dr. Kar was a
Senior Economist at the International Monetary Fund (IMF). During a career spanning nearly 32
years at the IMF, he worked on a wide variety of macroeconomic and statistical issues, both at
IMF headquarters in Washington and on different types of IMF missions to member countries
(technical assistance, Article IV Consultations with member countries, and Use of IMF Resources).
He has published a number of articles on macroeconomic and statistical issues both inside and
outside the IMF. Dr. Kar has a Ph.D. in Economics (Major: Monetary Economics) and an M. Phil
(Economics) (Major: International Economics) from the George Washington University as well as
an M.S. (Computer Science) from Howard University (Major: Database Management Systems). His
undergraduate degree in Physics is from St. Xavier’s College, University of Calcutta, India.
Joseph Spanjers is a Junior Economist at Global Financial Integrity. Prior to joining GFI, Joseph
conducted international trade research in Minneapolis and supervised a State Department
scholarship program in Morocco. Joseph received a BS in Economics and a BA in Global Studies
from the University of Minnesota.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank and acknowledge Michiel Bogaert (Intern), Shunquin Chen (Intern),
Christine Clough (Program Manager), Clark Gascoigne (Communications Director), Maximilian
Kremer (Intern), Channing May (Policy Research Assistant), and Joshua Simmons (Policy Counsel)
for their contributions to the production of this report.
GFI and the authors would also like to acknowledge Gil Leigh of Modern Media for his contributions
to the layout and design of the publication.
Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2003-2012
53
1100 17th Street, NW, Suite 505 | Washington, DC | 20036 | USA
Tel. +1 (202) 293-0740 | Fax. +1 (202) 293-1720 | www.gfintegrity.org
President: Raymond Baker Managing Director: Tom Cardamone
Board: Lord Daniel Brennan (Chair), Dr. Rafael Espada (Vice Chair),
Dr. Lester A. Myers (Secretary-Treasurer), Dr. Thomas Pogge, Raymond Baker