Wilderness and
Backcountry
Acknowledgments
Site Restoration
Guide
Cover—This highly visible site at Snow Lake in the
popular Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA, is recovering
remarkably well just 5 years after treatment. Site
preparation consisted of scarifying the soil and adding
locally collected topsoil and organic material. Wilderness Manager Bill Sobieralski directed a crew that
planted the site with seedlings grown in the greenhouse
and seeded it with fresh local seed. An erosion control
blanket made from aspen shavings helped retain soil
moisture and signaled to hikers that something was
going on here. Hikers still can enjoy lakeshore views
when they rest on the rocky slab by the site.
The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), has developed this
information for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal and
State agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by anyone
except its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this document is for
the information and convenience of the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by the
Department of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and
activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex,
marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information,
political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public
assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print,
audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400
Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or
(202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Lisa Therrell
USDA Forest Service Okanagan-Wenatchee
National Forest
David Cole
Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute
Victor Claassen
University of California, Davis
Chris Ryan
USDA Forest Service, Northern Region
Mary Ann Davies
USDA Forest Service
Missoula Technology and Development Center
USDA Forest Service
Technology and Development Program
Missoula, MT
September 2006
0623–2815–MTDC
i
Ackno w l e d g m e n t s
Acknowledgments
ii
Acknowledgments
P
lanning a well-crafted restoration project in wilderFor allowing the use of text or illustrations from their
ness is like putting together a complicated jigsaw
own publications or writings:
Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National
puzzle—after all the pieces from several puzzles have
Forest
been jumbled together and several of the pieces have been
Jill S. Cremer, formerly USDA Forest Service, Angeles
lost in the couch or sucked up in the vacuum cleaner. Writing
National Forest
this guide has been an exercise in furnishing all the puzzle
Ellen Eubanks and Dexter Meadows, USDA Forest Service,
pieces for a successful restoration project—or at least enough
San Dimas Technology and Development Center
of them that any holes left in the puzzle won’t create a big
Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and
problem.
Wenatchee National Forests
With a deep sense of gratitude, the authors wish to thank
Marin County Resource Conservation District
others who assisted in the preparation or review of this guide.
Laura Potash, USDA Forest Service, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie
For answering questions and providing invaluable
National Forest
support and encouragement:
University of Washington Press
Matthew Albright, U.S. Department of the Interior National
Park Service, Olympic National Park
Tom Carlson, Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training
Center
Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and
Wenatchee National Forests
Joyce Lapp, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park
Service, Glacier National Park
Liza Prunuske, Prunuske Chatham, Inc.
Regina Rochefort, Ph.D., U.S. Department of the Interior
National Park Service, North Cascades National Park
Ruth Scott, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park
Service, Olympic National Park
Brian Vachowski, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center
Victor Vankus, USDA Forest Service, National Tree Seed
Laboratory
Sarah Walker, USDA Forest Service, Clearwater National
Forest (retired)
Technical support staff from the various USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Materials Centers
For help with the project and review of the draft
publication:
Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National
Forest
Jayne Belnap, Ph.D., U.S. Geological Survey
Terry Carlson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Bitterroot
National Forest
Efrén Cázares, Ph.D., Oregon State University
Joy Juelson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and
Wenatchee National Forests
Lisa Lewis, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest
Karl Lillquist, Ph.D., Central Washington University
Robin Shoal, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest
For compiling much of appendix B:
Amy Carlson, Bear Run Antics, Leavenworth, WA
For contributing case studies:
Fredric Ybright, USDA Forest Service, Dixie National Forest
Jennifer Ebert, USDA Forest Service, Eldorado National Forest
Liese Dean, USDA Forest Service, Sawtooth National Forest
Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and
Wenatchee National Forests
A special thanks to the many researchers and restoration practitioners who have
taken the time to share what they have learned so that we all might benefit.
iii
Content s
Acknowledgments
iv
Contents
Acknowledgments_______________________________________________________ii
Contents______________________________________________________________ iv
Introduction__________________________________________________________ xii
Purpose of This Guide_ ___________________________________________________________1
Special Wilderness Considerations__________________________________________________2
Goals of This Guide_ _____________________________________________________________3
Target Audiences_________________________________________________________________3
Nomenclature____________________________________________________________________3
Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration___________________________4
1.1 Wilderness Restoration in the Past, Present, and Future_____________________________5
1.1.1 The Past________________________________________________________________________________ 6
1.1.2 The Present_ ____________________________________________________________________________ 7
1.1.2a Practical Methods of Restoration_ ________________________________________________________________ 7
1.1.2b How Restoration Fits With Wilderness Management__________________________________________________ 8
1.1.3 The Future______________________________________________________________________________ 9
1.1.3a Skills Development_ ___________________________________________________________________________ 9
1.1.3b Holistic Planning_____________________________________________________________________________ 10
1.2 Impacts of Recreation and Similar Small-Scale Disturbances________________________10
1.2.1 What Are the Impacts of Recreational Use?___________________________________________________ 11
1.2.1a Trampling___________________________________________________________________________________ 11
1.2.1b Trampling Damage to Ecosystem Components_ ____________________________________________________ 12
1.2.1c Campfire-Related Impacts______________________________________________________________________ 13
1.2.1d Damage to Standing Trees______________________________________________________________________ 13
1.2.1e Trail Impacts_ _______________________________________________________________________________ 13
1.2.2 Which Impacts Should Be Considered Problems?______________________________________________ 14
1.2.3 Alternative Management Techniques________________________________________________________ 16
1.2.4 Incorporating Restoration Into Management__________________________________________________ 17
1.3 Overview of Plant and Soil Ecology_ ____________________________________________18
1.3.1 Environmental Components_ ______________________________________________________________ 19
1.3.1a Soil________________________________________________________________________________________ 19
1.3.1b Plants_ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 22
1.3.1c The Life Stages of a Plant_ _____________________________________________________________________ 22
1.3.1d Plant Characteristics That Influence Restoration____________________________________________________ 23
1.3.1e Genetic Considerations_ _______________________________________________________________________ 24
1.3.1f Microclimate_________________________________________________________________________________ 25
Contents
1.3.1g Animals_ ___________________________________________________________________________________ 26
1.3.2 Ecosystem Processes_____________________________________________________________________ 26
1.3.2a Hydrologic Processes__________________________________________________________________________ 26
1.3.2b Succession__________________________________________________________________________________ 27
1.3.2c Biotic Interactions____________________________________________________________________________ 28
1.3.2d Plant-Plant Interactions________________________________________________________________________ 28
1.3.2e Plant-Soil Interactions_________________________________________________________________________ 28
1.4 Concluding Thoughts_________________________________________________________29
Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness_ _____________30
2.1 Gathering the Information To Formulate a Plan___________________________________34
2.1.1 Using Your Land Management Plan and NEPA________________________________________________ 35
2.1.2 Using the Minimum Requirements Decision Process_ __________________________________________ 35
2.1.3 Planning Scale and Priorities_ _____________________________________________________________ 36
2.1.4 Forming an Interdisciplinary Team__________________________________________________________ 37
2.1.5 Developing a Site Assessment______________________________________________________________ 37
2.1.6 Assessing Historical Human Influences______________________________________________________ 37
2.1.7 Assessing Current Human Influences________________________________________________________ 38
2.1.8 Problem Statements______________________________________________________________________ 41
2.1.9 Scoping the Proposed Action_ _____________________________________________________________ 41
2.1.10 Selecting Management Actions To Meet Standards____________________________________________ 42
2.1.11 The Minimum Tool _____________________________________________________________________ 42
2.1.12 Types of Management Actions_ ___________________________________________________________ 43
2.1.12a Reducing Recreational Use____________________________________________________________________ 44
2.1.12b Changing Visitor Behavior With Information and Education_ ________________________________________ 44
2.1.12c Intensive Site Management_ ___________________________________________________________________ 45
2.1.12d Regulations and Enforcement__________________________________________________________________ 45
2.1.12e Regulations To Reduce Use Directly_____________________________________________________________ 46
2.1.12f Regulations To Reduce High-Impact Behaviors____________________________________________________ 47
2.1.13 Passive Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation___________________________________________ 49
2.1.14 Active Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation_ __________________________________________ 51
2.1.15 Adjusting Management Actions: A Tale of Two Lake Basins_ ___________________________________ 51
2.2 Putting It All Together—Developing a Restoration Plan____________________________54
2.2.1 Considering the Time Required for Plant Propagation___________________________________________ 57
2.2.2 Research Opportunities_ _________________________________________________________________ 58
2.2.3 Identifying Research Needs_______________________________________________________________ 60
2.3 Concluding Thoughts_________________________________________________________61
vi
Contents
Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration______________________________62
3.1 Developing Site Prescriptions Based on a Reference Site____________________________63
3.1.1 Determining Reference Sites_______________________________________________________________ 64
3.1.1a Choosing a Reference Site______________________________________________________________________ 65
3.1.1b Identifying Undisturbed Reference Sites_ _________________________________________________________ 65
3.1.1c Identifying Disturbed-But-Revegetated Reference Sites_ _____________________________________________ 67
3.1.2 Comparing the Reference Site and the Restoration Site__________________________________________ 69 3.1.3 Evaluating the Surface Condition of Impacted Sites_ ___________________________________________ 78
3.1.3a Visual Clues for Evaluating Erosion______________________________________________________________ 79
3.1.3b Evaluating Physical Soil Crusts _________________________________________________________________ 83
3.1.3c Evaluating Biological Soil Crusts________________________________________________________________ 84
3.1.4 Soil-Water Relations_ ____________________________________________________________________ 85
3.1.4a Soil Texture and Pore Size _ ____________________________________________________________________ 85
3.1.4b Available Water-Holding Capacity_______________________________________________________________ 86
3.1.4c Determining Water-Holding Capacity_ ___________________________________________________________ 87
3.1.5 Determining Soil Texture _________________________________________________________________ 87
3.1.6 Evaluating Soil Compaction_ ______________________________________________________________ 88
3.1.6a Measuring Bulk Density_______________________________________________________________________ 89
3.1.6b Interpreting Bulk Density______________________________________________________________________ 90
3.1.6c Evaluating Water Infiltration____________________________________________________________________ 90
3.2 Making Site Amendments Based on Site Evaluations_______________________________92
3.2.1 Soil Organic Matter and Mulch_____________________________________________________________ 92
3.2.2 Soil Nutrients, pH, and Salts_______________________________________________________________ 92
3.2.3 Rebuilding Damaged Soils________________________________________________________________ 94
3.2.3a Scarification_________________________________________________________________________________ 94
3.2.3b Rebuilding Missing Layers of Soil_______________________________________________________________ 95
3.2.3c Amending Altered or Depleted Soils_ ____________________________________________________________ 97
3.2.3d Evaluating Soil Nutrients and Chemical Conditions_________________________________________________ 99
3.2.4 Application of Fertilizers or Soil Amendments_______________________________________________ 107
3.2.5 Restoring Soil Biota_ ___________________________________________________________________ 109
3.2.5a Types of Mycorrhizal Fungi_ __________________________________________________________________ 110
3.2.5b Inoculating Plants With Mycorrhizal Fungi_______________________________________________________ 113
3.2.5c Soil Bacteria_______________________________________________________________________________ 114
3.2.5d Restoring Soil Crusts_ _______________________________________________________________________ 115
3.2.6 Solarization of Weedy Soils_ _____________________________________________________________ 116
3.3 Concluding Thoughts on Soil__________________________________________________ 117
3.4 Site Stabilization, Preparation, and Delineation__________________________________ 117
3.4.1 Reestablishing Site Contours_____________________________________________________________ 119
vii
Contents
3.4.2 Stabilizing Gullies______________________________________________________________________ 120
3.4.3 Stabilizing Headcuts____________________________________________________________________ 121
3.4.4 Stabilizing Downcutting_________________________________________________________________ 121
3.4.5 Stabilizing Lateral Erosion Into Gully Banks________________________________________________ 122
3.4.6 Surface Erosion Control_ ________________________________________________________________ 122
3.4.7 Subsurface Erosion Control_______________________________________________________________ 124
3.4.8 Nonliving Siltbars and Checkdams_________________________________________________________ 125
3.4.8a Materials Used To Construct Siltbars and Checkdams_ _____________________________________________ 125
3.4.8b Installation of Checkdams_____________________________________________________________________ 125
3.4.8c Crimping_ _________________________________________________________________________________ 131
3.4.9 Bioengineering Applications______________________________________________________________ 131
3.4.9a Selecting and Installing Bioengineered Structures_ ________________________________________________ 133
3.5 Using Soil Binders___________________________________________________________148
3.6 Using Icebergs______________________________________________________________149
3.7 Site Delineation_____________________________________________________________151
3.7.1 Barriers_______________________________________________________________________________ 151
3.7.2 String Fences__________________________________________________________________________ 152
3.8 Blending Restoration Projects Into Wilderness___________________________________153
3.9 Common Wilderness Campsite and Trail Problems_______________________________154
3.10 Plant Selection, Collection, and Propagation Techniques__________________________156
3.10.1 Genetic Considerations for Restoration Projects______________________________________________ 157
3.10.1a Determining a Local Collection Area___________________________________________________________ 158
3.10.1b Preventing Unintentional Selection_____________________________________________________________ 159
3.10.1c Additional Information on Genetic Considerations_ _______________________________________________ 161
3.10.1d Nonnative Plants, Agronomic Varieties, or Native Cultivars_________________________________________ 161
3.10.2 Plant Selection for Restoration Projects_ ___________________________________________________ 163
3.10.2a Using the Reference Sites To Develop Plant Prescriptions___________________________________________ 165
3.10.2b Additional Limiting Factors and Design Considerations____________________________________________ 167
3.10.3 Determining Propagation Methods for Your Site and Species___________________________________ 169
3.10.3a Seed-Increase Programs_ ____________________________________________________________________ 170
3.10.3b Propagation Methods and Stock Types__________________________________________________________ 171
3.10.3c Noxious Weeds and Other Nonnative Invaders_ __________________________________________________ 173
3.10.4 Concluding Thoughts on Plant Selection_ __________________________________________________ 174
3.10.5 Comparison of Propagation Methods______________________________________________________ 174
3.10.6 Plant Collection Principles_ _____________________________________________________________ 178
3.10.7 Preventing Further Damage to the Project Area______________________________________________ 178
3.10.8 Working With Seed____________________________________________________________________ 179
3.10.8a Seed Collection_ ___________________________________________________________________________ 179
viii
Contents
3.10.8b Initial Processing of Seed_ ___________________________________________________________________ 180
3.10.8c Hand-Processing Seed_______________________________________________________________________ 181
3.10.8d Seed Storage_______________________________________________________________________________ 182
3.10.8e Seed Testing_______________________________________________________________________________ 182
3.10.8f Breaking Dormancy_________________________________________________________________________ 183
3.10.8g Onsite Seeding Techniques___________________________________________________________________ 184
3.10.8h Seeding Rates______________________________________________________________________________ 187
3.10.9 Working With Cuttings_________________________________________________________________ 187
3.10.9a Collecting and Handling Cuttings______________________________________________________________ 188
3.10.9b Semihardwood Stem Cuttings_________________________________________________________________ 188
3.10.9c Hardwood Cuttings_ ________________________________________________________________________ 188
3.10.9d Softwood and Herbaceous Cuttings_ ___________________________________________________________ 189
3.10.9e Root Cuttings______________________________________________________________________________ 189
3.10.9f Leaf Cuttings_ _____________________________________________________________________________ 190
3.10.9g Leaf-Bud Cuttings__________________________________________________________________________ 190
3.10.10 Divisions____________________________________________________________________________ 190
3.10.11 Layering____________________________________________________________________________ 190
3.10.11a Simple Layering___________________________________________________________________________ 191
3.10.11b Mound Layering___________________________________________________________________________ 191
3.10.11c Tip Layering______________________________________________________________________________ 192
3.10.12 Transplanting Wildlings________________________________________________________________ 192
3.11 Transplanting, Protecting, and Establishing Native Plantings______________________194
3.11.1 Timing of Transplanting_ _______________________________________________________________ 194
3.11.2 Transporting Nursery-Grown Plants to the Project Location____________________________________ 195
3.11.2a Jelly Rolls for Protecting Bareroot Stock_ _______________________________________________________ 195
3.11.2b Moving Plants in Containers__________________________________________________________________ 196
3.11.2c Moving Container-Grown Plants Without the Container____________________________________________ 196
3.11.2d Protecting Fragile Foliage____________________________________________________________________ 197
3.11.2e Moving Plants With Helicopters or Other Vehicles_ _______________________________________________ 197
3.11.2f Handling Plants After They Arrive at the Project Location__________________________________________ 197
3.11.3 Transplanting Techniques_ ______________________________________________________________ 197
3.11.4 Salvaged Materials_____________________________________________________________________ 200
3.12 Plant Protection and Establishment_ __________________________________________201
3.12.1 Mulching_ ___________________________________________________________________________ 201
3.12.1a Advantages and Disadvantages of Mulching_ ____________________________________________________ 201
3.12.1b Selecting a Mulch___________________________________________________________________________ 202
3.12.1c Comparison of Different Types of Mulch________________________________________________________ 203
3.12.2 Irrigation_ ___________________________________________________________________________ 207
3.12.2a Water Delivery Systems_ ____________________________________________________________________ 208
ix
Contents
3.12.2b Obtaining Water____________________________________________________________________________ 209
3.12.2c Superabsorbent Polymers_ ___________________________________________________________________ 209
3.12.3 Preventing Animals From Damaging Plants_________________________________________________ 210
3.12.3a Protective Coverings________________________________________________________________________ 210
3.12.3b Reduced Fertilization and Irrigation____________________________________________________________ 210
3.12.3c Animal Repellants__________________________________________________________________________ 210
3.12.4 Signs________________________________________________________________________________ 210
3.12.5 Regulations_ _________________________________________________________________________ 212
3.13 Documentation, Monitoring, and Adaptive Management__________________________212
3.13.1 Adaptive Management__________________________________________________________________ 212
3.13.2 Determining Levels of Monitoring________________________________________________________ 213
3.13.3 Establishing Monitoring Procedures for a Project_ ___________________________________________ 215
3.13.4 Incorporating Monitoring Into a Project____________________________________________________ 216
3.14 Project Maintenance________________________________________________________220
3.14.1 Site Management______________________________________________________________________ 220
3.14.1a Irrigation__________________________________________________________________________________ 220
3.14.1b Mulching__________________________________________________________________________________ 220
3.14.1c Soil Amendments___________________________________________________________________________ 220
3.14.1d Stabilizing Erosion__________________________________________________________________________ 221
3.14.1e Wildlife Damage____________________________________________________________________________ 221
3.14.1f Frost Heave________________________________________________________________________________ 221
3.14.1g Interplanting or Replanting___________________________________________________________________ 221
3.14.1h Exotic Species_ ____________________________________________________________________________ 221
3.14.2 People Management____________________________________________________________________ 222
3.14.2a Signs_____________________________________________________________________________________ 222
3.14.2b Barriers___________________________________________________________________________________ 222
3.14.2c Replacing Structures That Fail_ _______________________________________________________________ 222
3.14.2d Maintaining Social Trails_ ___________________________________________________________________ 222
3.14.2e New Impacts Caused by Displaced Use_ ________________________________________________________ 222
3.14.3 Scheduling Maintenance________________________________________________________________ 223
3.14.4 Concluding Thoughts on Maintenance_____________________________________________________ 223
Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support__________________224
4.1 Funding, Workforce, and Partnerships_ ________________________________________225
4.1.1 Funding_ _____________________________________________________________________________ 225
4.1.1a Forest Service Sources of Funding_ _____________________________________________________________ 225
4.1.1b Other Funding Sources_ ______________________________________________________________________ 226
4.1.2 Budgeting_____________________________________________________________________________ 226
4.1.3 Workforce_ ___________________________________________________________________________ 228
Contents
4.1.4 Partnerships___________________________________________________________________________ 229
4.1.5 National Sources for Recruiting Wilderness Volunteers_ _______________________________________ 230
4.1.6 Using Professional Services_ _____________________________________________________________ 232
4.1.7 Learning From Others___________________________________________________________________ 232
4.2 Options for Growing Plants___________________________________________________332
4.2.1 Forest Service Nurseries_________________________________________________________________ 232
4.2.2 Plant Material Centers___________________________________________________________________ 233
4.2.3 Other Agency Nurseries_________________________________________________________________ 233
4.2.4 Contract Growers_ _____________________________________________________________________ 233
4.2.5 School Horticulture Programs_ ___________________________________________________________ 233
4.2.6 Working With Contractors_______________________________________________________________ 234
4.2.7 General Principles for Successful Contracting________________________________________________ 234
Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources_________________________236
5.1 Software___________________________________________________________________237
5.2 Government Web Sites_______________________________________________________237
5.3 Organizational Web Sites_____________________________________________________238
5.4 Restoration Tools and Products________________________________________________239
5.4.1 Pick Hoes or Miniature Plowshares_ _______________________________________________________ 239
5.4.2 U-Bar Diggers_________________________________________________________________________ 239
5.4.3 Balanced Watering Cans_________________________________________________________________ 240
5.4.4 Systemic Repellants_ ___________________________________________________________________ 240
5.4.5 Restoration Signs_______________________________________________________________________ 240
5.4.6 Erosion-Control Blankets_ _______________________________________________________________ 240
References_ __________________________________________________________246
Appendixes___________________________________________________________256
Appendix A–Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration_ ____________________257
Appendix B–Propagation and Establishment Requirements for Selected Plant Species_____263
Appendix C–Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and
Partridgefoot__________________________________________________________________327
Appendix D–Case Studies_______________________________________________________337
Appendix E–Forms_____________________________________________________________359
xi
Intro d u c t i o n
Contents
xii
F
Introduction
or the past two decades, resource managers have
attempted to address the impacts caused by human
actions in backcountry and wilderness areas. In some
wildernesses, wilderness study areas, and national parks,
these impacts are quite extensive: large areas denuded of
vegetation, compacted soils, braided trails, and tree roots exposed after horses have been tied to trees. For many reasons,
including water quality, soil stability, and esthetics, managers
would like to prevent further impacts and help the existing
impacts heal.
Wilderness management plans have addressed impacts
by establishing desired conditions, indicators, and standards.
Indicators such as vegetation loss, tree roots exposed, and
the number of social trails are monitored to keep track of
changes to the resource. Standards set limits on the amount
of change that will be accepted before management action. In
some wilderness areas, standards were not being met when
the management plan was signed. In such situations, actions
must be taken to prevent further resource degradation and
to bring the resource back into compliance with standards.
A number of actions are possible, one of which is physical
restoration of the site. Although restoration is not necessarily
the best choice in many situations, restoration can be very
effective if it is done properly.
Managers across the Nation have had varying degrees
of success with restoration. Some areas, such as the North
Cascades National Park in Washington, have had successful
restoration programs for years. The North Cascades program
includes a greenhouse operation where plants are grown from
seed or from cuttings that are collected on the site, carried
into the backcountry, and planted. Other areas with fewer
resources and less precipitation have not been as successful.
There is no textbook answer that guarantees success in
backcountry site restoration. Much restoration knowledge is
learned by trial and error. Many, many different techniques
have been tried in one area or another, although information
about these techniques may not have been passed along. This
guide has been developed to facilitate information exchange.
It is a compilation of the best information available from
researchers and practitioners.
Purpose of This Guide
This guide was developed to provide managers with
information that could help them decide whether to attempt
restoration and, if so, how to go about it appropriately in
wilderness. This guide will help managers share information
and exchange ideas.
This guide is:
• Focused exclusively on restoration of smallscale impacts caused by human actions, such as
recreation use or removal of administrative or
special provisional structures (structures
exempted under “Special Provisions” in section
4(d) of the Wilderness Act). Use of the word
“site” in this publication refers to any number of
small-scale disturbances—not necessarily a
campsite.
• Based on the assumption that projects are in
wilderness or backcountry settings (figure 1).
Figure 1—Dinosaur National Monument, UT.
1
Introduction
• Based primarily on examples from the Western
United States—from the Rocky Mountains
westward (figure 2). Many of the techniques
and procedures apply to any environment.
regarded as a form of manipulation or “trammeling.” Many large-scale applications need to
be designed to meet regulations and engineering specifications that this guide does not
address.
• A guide on fire suppression rehabilitation or
burned area emergency rehabilitation (BAER).
• A guide to motorized tools or mechanized
transportation, although these methods may be
mentioned.
Special Wilderness
Considerations
Figure 2—Henry M. Jackson Wilderness, WA.
This guide is not:
• A guide to large-scale ecological restoration.
Human-caused disturbances, such as mining
and grazing, have occurred in wilderness at a
landscape scale. Large-scale ecosystem
restoration is a complex topic. Philosophical
questions could be raised about such large-scale
restoration in wilderness, where it might be
2
The Wilderness Act of 1964 set aside lands in the United
States “to secure for the American people of present and
future generations the benefits of an enduring resource of
wilderness” to be “administered for the use and enjoyment of
the American people in such a manner as will leave them [the
lands] unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness….”
Congress further defined wilderness “as an area where
the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man,
where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” Wilderness “is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural
conditions and which (1) generally appears to have affected
primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s
work substantially unnoticeable….”
The Wilderness Act also includes special provisions
allowing certain uses primarily because they existed before
lands were designated as wilderness. These uses include
grazing and mining.
The Wilderness Act’s mandate can pose interesting
challenges for a wilderness manager who needs to manage
for recreation, mining, grazing, and other activities, while
keeping “man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” In some
cases, impacts that occurred before lands became wilderness
Introduction
threaten the integrity of the wilderness. Impacts may include
vegetation and soil loss, unnecessary structures, and invasive
plant populations. Where these impacts exist, managers feel
an obligation to do something. Frequently, restoration is the
solution that comes to mind.
Agency policies require that wilderness be managed to
allow natural ecological processes to operate freely. Management actions should be the minimum necessary to preserve
and protect wilderness. The Wilderness Act specifies that
wilderness be untrammeled by man. It’s appropriate to ask
questions such as:
• Is active revegetation of a disturbed site too
manipulative?
• Is this action the minimum necessary?
• Do our actions interrupt the natural ecological
processes?
Before a wilderness manager begins planning for a restoration project in wilderness, it is critical for the manager to
think about the answers to these questions. Restoration does
not consist simply of scarifying a site, sticking plants in the
ground, and going away for the summer.
Restoration is a manipulative action that deserves a great
deal of thought and planning, both to minimize the impacts
to wilderness and to increase the likelihood of success. In
many situations, the solution is simply to eliminate use at the
site and allow the natural process of healing to occur. It is
important to question your actions continually to be confident
that they are the minimum necessary.
Goals of This Guide
• To provide guidance on developing a plan that
thoroughly addresses the question of whether
site restoration is the best management action
and, if so, how to develop a site-specific
restoration plan.
• To provide the latest information on sitespecific restoration techniques, including site
preparation, soil amendments, planting,
mulching, and so forth.
• To explore the various methods of plant
propagation both on and off the site.
• To inform managers of the documentation and
monitoring required before undertaking a
project and for ongoing progress reports.
Target Audiences
The target audiences for this guide include anyone who
plans or implements site restoration in backcountry or wilderness areas or who would like to do so, including wilderness
rangers, wilderness managers, resource specialists, recreation planners, or trail crew members. Anyone who reviews
restoration plans or advises anyone who implements the plans
would benefit from reading this guide.
Nomenclature
Not only common names, but also the scientific names
of many plant species have been changing in recent years.
An attempt has been made to determine current usage, to
determine which of the species discussed in this book has
a new name, and to determine whether any name used is
authoritative.
One of the easiest sources for help in sorting out common and scientific names is the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) PLANTS database on the Internet at http://
plants.usda.gov, although this database may not be up to date
for all species.
3
Cha p te r 1
Introduction
4