Planning and Management of the Umfolozi
Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South
Africa: A Model for Managing African
Wilderness Areas
W. D. Densham
A. J. Conway
Abstract—The Umfolozi Wilderness Area, one of the first wilderness areas in South Africa, was administratively set aside within
the southern half of the Umfolozi Game Reserve in 1958, by
resolution of the Natal Parks Board. Originally, it was 12,500 ha (48
miles2) in extent, and its management was not consistent with internationally accepted principles. Today, the wilderness area is 32,000 ha
2
(124 miles ) in extent, and management is aimed at preserving the
wilderness resource by employing wilderness-sensitive programs
detailed in a specific wilderness area management plan. The successes achieved in the wilderness planning and management approach used for the Umfolozi Wilderness Area over the last 6 years
is presented as a model that can be used to manage existing and
candidate wilderness areas in other parts of Africa. This model is
being used to draw up wilderness management plans for wilderness
areas in three formally protected areas in Southern Africa and a
private game reserve in the Eastern Cape.
Introduction ____________________
Wilderness conservation in Africa began with the Umfolozi
and St. Lucia Wilderness Areas being administratively
zoned within the Umfolozi and St. Lucia Game Reserves in
the mid-1950s by the Natal Parks Board, which legally
mandated for the conservation of wildlife (nature conservation) in the Province of Natal.
The Umfolozi Wilderness Area was originally 12,000 ha
2
(48 miles ) in extent and located in the southern half of the
Umfolozi Game Reserve. The wilderness did not receive any
special management, which resulted in management practices that were inconsistent with accepted wilderness concepts and management philosophy. Today, the Umfolozi
2
Wilderness Area is 32,000 ha (124 miles ) in extent, and
management is specifically directed at preserving the wilderness resource.
W. D. Densham, Wilderness Action Group of Southern Africa, 5 Davidson
Street, Howick, 3290, Republic of South Africa, E-mail: densham@sai.co.za.
A. J. Conway, Conservation Manager, Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Nature
Conservation Service, P.O. Box 201, Mtubatuba, KwaZulu-Natal, 3935,
South Africa, E-mail: tonyc@kznwildlife.com
In: Watson, Alan; Sproull, Janet, comps. 2003. Science and stewardship
to protect and sustain wilderness values: Seventh World Wilderness Congress symposium; 2001 November 2–8; Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Proc.
RMRS-P-27. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station.
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003
The Umfolozi Wilderness Area has never enjoyed legal
protection and as such has been at the mercy of the reserve
administrators and managers of the day. The first reserve
management plan produced in the mid-1970s had no special
management prescriptions for the wilderness area. It was
not until the mid-1980s, when a combined management plan
for the Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves was developed, that some reference to the wilderness was made. The
section dealing with the wilderness zone was inadequate
and sketchy, with little concern for preservation of the
wilderness resource.
The Natal Parks Board adopted the first dedicated wilderness plan for the Umfolozi Wilderness Area on September
29, 1995. The plan outlined the management of the area
using internationally accepted management principles that
were adapted to suit the Umfolozi Wilderness Area conditions. This paper discusses the approach taken in the planning and management of the wilderness and proposes that
it is an excellent model to be followed for existing and
candidate wilderness areas in Africa.
Location and Historical
Perspectives ___________________
The Umfolozi Wilderness Area is situated in HluhluweUmfolozi Park in KwaZulu-Natal of the Republic of South
2
Africa (fig. 1). The park is 96,453 ha (372 miles ) in extent,
of which the wilderness area is 32,000 ha (124 miles2) and
located in the south part of the protected area (fig. 2)
The Umfolozi Wilderness Area was administratively zoned
in 1958, and the Eleventh Annual Report of the Natal Parks
Board for the year April 1958 to March 1959 records the
following:
Some 12,150 ha were set aside by the Board as a wilderness
area, in which all forms of motor traffic are prohibited, and
only rangers, or visitors on foot accompanied by a ranger, are
permitted to enter.
However, the rhino capture team was allowed to continue its
operations using vehicles in the wilderness area.
Although several unsuccessful attempts were made, the
Umfolozi Wilderness Area was never officially proclaimed
wilderness, despite the fact that the Natal Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 11 of 1974 was amended in the 1980s to
allow for the designation of wilderness areas.
Compilation of management plans for the Reserves in
Natal began in the 1970s. The Umfolozi Wilderness Area
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Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa:…
Figure 1—the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park shown in relation to
South Africa.
received no special attention, and the management action
developed for the rest of the Reserve was also applied to the
wilderness area.
As a result of a general revision of management plans in
the 1980s, a Combined Management Plan for the Hluhluwe
and Umfolozi Game Reserves was prepared and approved by
the Natal Parks Board on May 24, 1985. The wilderness area
continued to be managed along with the rest of the Reserves
with very little reference to the special management actions
and uses to conserve the wilderness quality and resources of
solitude and naturalness. Management action was confined
to the following statements.
In Chapter 9, Zonation, the Wilderness zone was described as:
Area characterized by lack of access roads open to the
public. There are two sub zones recognized:
Class I: Pristine area
Area characterized by essentially unmodified natural environment. No facilities for comfort or convenience of their user
are provided. Spacing of groups informal and dispersed, no
marked paths permitted. Motorized use within the area not
permitted.
Class II: Wild area
Area characterized by a predominantly unmodified natural environment. Rustic facilities are provided but kept to a
minimum, such as, bush camp, toilet, and campsite. Spacing
of groups formalized by use of paths and designated overnight
sites. Motorized transport limited to service tracks, but may
be excluded in some areas.
4
Under the heading, “Implications of this visitor use
zonation for management and research,” the following was
recorded:
Wilderness Zone
There are no areas that could be classed as Pristine Areas,
and the category of Wilderness Class II: Wild Area applies…
...In this area, visitors will be able to enjoy a ‘wilderness type’
experience, and due to low visitor density that is essential for
this wilderness experience the ecosystem within this area
will receive minimum human disturbance.
These statements, by implication, allowed access to the
wilderness area by vehicles for management purposes. This
was a grave threat to the wilderness resource at the time.
The rhino and game capture teams were allowed to continue to use vehicles to remove surplus wildlife species from
the wilderness area. In the below-average rainfall years of
the late 1970s and early 1980s, the management team
graded roads into the wilderness area to facilitate easier
game capture and culling operations. It also allowed for
fairly sophisticated overnight trail camps in the wilderness
area to be developed, which remain to this day.
It wasn’t until September 1995 that a dedicated and
comprehensive wilderness management plan was approved
by the Natal Parks Board. The plan forms part of the overall
management and concept development plans for the
Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park. The plan sets out the permissible
management action of the biophysical components and visitor uses, with set limits of acceptable change in the different
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003
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Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa:…
Figure 2—The Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park showing the Umfolozi
Wilderness Area.
wilderness zones. It is interesting to note that during this
exercise pristine areas were found to exist.
The Umfolozi Wilderness Area still does not have legal
protection. However, the new KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Management Act (No. 9 of 1997) does provide for
the proclamation of wilderness areas within protected areas. It is hoped that as soon as the regulations have been
promulgated, all administratively zoned wilderness areas
will be proclaimed (Densham 1999).
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003
General Approach to Wilderness
Area Management _______________
The tension between the wilderness concept (an absence
or minimum of human intervention) and the need for management (the control of nature) has been researched by a
number of authors (for example, Bainbridge 1984; Hendee
and others 1990). It is generally agreed that once wilderness
areas have been proclaimed or administratively designated,
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Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa:…
they need “formal professional management for their long
term conservation.” This will eliminate uncoordinated and
haphazard management action and will lead to long-term
direction, continuity, stability, and an adaptive management style. Protected area management plans reflect the
legal aspects (where this is applicable), the management
authority’s policies and procedures, and the specific protected area objectives and management actions in a systematic framework (Hendee and others 1990, Chapter 8). In
respect to wilderness area management plans, the same
approach is required, but the focus is on the minimal human
intervention to achieve the desired outcomes of management action and uses.
Generally, wilderness plans in developed countries focus
on recreational use, with little specific reference to the
biophysical components. In South Africa, wilderness areas
2
are often relatively small (less than 30,000 ha [116 miles ])
and are usually part of a larger protected area. Generally,
they do not contain whole ecosystems and are biodiversity
islands in a landscape heavily impacted by monoculture
agriculture, peri-urban and rural community development,
and other forms of land uses. It is vitally important to
develop plans that address all biodiversity components (which
is the protected area’s primary objective) and recreational
uses if the wilderness resource is to be conserved.
In drawing up management plans, a multidisciplinary
team approach should be adopted involving planners, protected area management and community conservation staff,
and ecologists. The involvement of the public at an early
stage is an essential part of the development of the management plan in order to identify all the issues and concerns.
Management plans must have clear objectives and achievable goals that are measurable to evaluate the success or
failure of management actions. They ought to provide a
record of past and present management actions and results.
Wilderness management plans should provide the following
guiding principles:
and use (Conway and others 2000) to protect the wilderness
resource. Management needs of the wilderness area are
served well by this model. It is also being used as a reference
document by planning and management teams in the drawing up of wilderness plans for the Greater St. Lucia Wetland
Park and the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Mountain Park
World Heritage Sites Wilderness Areas, the Waterberg
Plateau Park Wilderness Area in Namibia, and a wilderness
area in the Shamwari Private Game Reserve in the Eastern
Cape.
The location of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in the
southern third of the park presents management challenges. The wilderness area boundary follows the park
boundary on the west, south, and east sides, with a narrow
buffer zone (Wilderness Support Zone) (fig. 3). External
influences are extremely difficult to control or mitigate
against, which impacts on the solitude. These influences are
the Vryheid-Richards Bay coal railway line, Eskom’s rural
electrification, and the rapid growth of rural homesteads.
More recently in South Africa, the volume of air traffic over
protected areas has become a major disturbance factor.
Management Plan Format
The format developed for the plan addresses management
needs for recreational use and biodiversity preservation of
the Umfolozi Wilderness Area (table 1).
• Ensure that human intervention is kept to the absolute
minimum.
• Allow natural processes to operate freely.
• Manage wilderness as a whole entity together with the
rest of the protected area.
• Only implement imperative management action while
preserving the wilderness experience of solitude, surprise, discovery, and spirituality.
• Ensure that the “minimum test” and minimum regulation are employed rather than the least expensive or
easiest actions.
• Ensure that where exceptions have to be catered for that
these do not reduce the wilderness experience significantly (Krumpe and others 1986).
In addition, the “minimum tool” and “leave-no-trace”
principles must also be applied to all intended programs.
Umfolozi Wilderness Area
Management Plan Model _________
The Umfolozi Wilderness Area Management Plan is a
separate document, which guides the area’s management
6
Figure 3—The Umfolozi Game Reserve and Wilderness Area Zoning.
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Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa:…
Table 1—Wilderness management plan format.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
DEFINITIONS
VALUES
AIMS OF THE WILDERNESS MANAGEMENT PLAN
OBJECTIVES OF WILDERNESS MANAGEMENT
CLASS OF WILDERNESS
BOUNDARY DESCRIPTION
RESERVE AND WILDERNESS ZONATION
INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (IEM)
PROCEDURES
LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE (LAC)
RESTRICTIONS ON DEVELOPMENT OF ADJACENT AREAS
LIMITS OF SOPHISTICATION (LOS) FOR HIKING AND
CAMPING
VISITOR CARRYING CAPACITY
VISITOR UTILIZATION OF THE AREA
LITTER DISPOSAL
STRUCTURES WITHIN THE WILDERNESS AREA
ACCESS
INVENTORY OF ROADS
CASEVAC PROCEDURES
MANAGEMENT OF FAUNA AND FLORA
FAUNA
WILDLIFE POPULATION CONTROL
SUPPLY OF WILDLIFE WATER SUPPLIES
FLORA
CONSUMPTIVE UTILIZATION
EROSION RECLAMATION
LAW ENFORCEMENT
RESEARCH AND MONITORING
SEARCH AND RESCUE
AWARENESS PROGRAM
INFORMATION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
APPENDICES
Map of Umfolozi wilderness area zonation
IEM policy
CASEVAC procedure
Lion call-up program
Air-lifting immobilized black rhino
IUCN categorization of threatened species
Inventory of roads in the wilderness area
IUCN classification of wilderness
Darting and marking black rhino on foot
KZN Wildlife - internal scoping report format
Memorandum of Understanding - Wilderness Leadership School
and KZN Wildlife Service
Wilderness law in South Africa
Umfolozi wilderness trails - questionnaire format.
Aims of the Wilderness Management Plan
Following are the aims of the management plan:
•
To provide a comprehensive management plan for the
effective management and sustainable utilization of the
Umfolozi Wilderness Area.
• To refine a management philosophy that can be tested
and evaluated through dialogue with wilderness managers and other interested parties.
• To gain understanding, acceptance, and support of a
management philosophy by wilderness managers, users,
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003
•
•
•
and outdoor organizations that, hopefully, will extend
beyond Umfolozi to other organizations that administer
wilderness areas.
To direct pioneering into the development of alternative management methods for essential wilderness
operations.
To secure, for all the people of South Africa, of the
present and future generations, the benefits of an enduring resource of wilderness.
To maintain the pristine character of the landscape and
the opportunities for solitude it provides.
Objectives of Wilderness Management
The management plan uses the 16 management principles developed by the United States Forest Service
(Krumpe and others 1986) as guidelines for the management of recreational uses.
Reserve and Wilderness Zonation
Zonation of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area and adjacent
areas of the park follows the U.S. Forest Service Recreational Opportunity Spectrum and Wilderness Opportunity
Spectrum approaches. It is in keeping with the Parks Concept Development Plan zonation of the whole protected area.
The Umfolozi Wilderness Area is zoned into three opportunity classes—semiprimitive, primitive, and pristine—with
a Wilderness Support Zone (fig. 3). It is recognized that
although external (and to a lesser extent internal) influences
impact on the wilderness resources of solitude and naturalness, the area does offer a valuable wilderness experience for
visitors. The pristine areas are confined to those portions of
the wilderness where the sounds and sights of man are
rarely noticed (for example, in valleys). There is a “Wilderness Support Zone” that buffers the Umfolozi Wilderness
Area and its resources from outside influences. It also allows
for the provision of basic management infrastructures such
as Ranger outposts and the park boundary fence line and
maintenance roads.
Definitions of these zones are reflected in table 2. The
descriptions give managers a clear statement of the intended characteristics for each zone so that management
actions and uses can be determined. All sensitive sites or
areas of biodiversity or cultural importance are taken into
consideration when delineating the zones to prevent possible
conflicts with proposed recreational activities. These zoned
areas are mapped so that they are protected.
In the planning process, the following aspects were taken
into consideration for each zone and the appropriate standards set for monitoring purposes. The intention was to
reduce the evidence of human intervention and control
visitor use impacts on each zone.
Scenery Setting
This determines the intended ambiance visitors can expect to experience in the area (table 3). It also places
constraints on management actions in each zone to ensure
that the wilderness experience is not impaired.
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Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa:…
Table 2—Wilderness zone definitions (abbreviated).
Zone definitions
1
Pristine
The purest form of wilderness possible is characterized by having absolutely no sight, as far as the eye can see, or
sound of man (except for passing aircraft and trains in the distance), or visual evidence of man having manipulated
the ecosystem and landscape in any way and at any time past or present.
2
Primitive
Characterized by having no evidence of past or present human manipulation of the immediate ecosystem and
landscape although views of human habitation, etc., are visible in the distance (that is, more than 10 km [6.2 mi]
away).
3
Semiprimitive
nonwilderness
Intervention by man in terms of past
manipulation is present in forms such as old tracks and settlements. Present
evidence of wilderness recreation facilities and users that are nonpermanent and wilderness compatible.
4a
Wilderness
support zone
nonwilderness
This, and the following zone, forms a
transitional buffer between Semiprimitive
(nonmotorized) and Roaded Natural.
The influence of man’s activities is becoming evident. This is limited to the minimum requirements to effectively
administer and provide law enforcement to the wilderness area. Only such structures, infrastructure, and ecological
management activities as deemed essential are permitted.
Table 3—Wilderness scenery settings (abbreviated).
Pristine
Primitive
Semiprimitive
nonmotorized
Wilderness
support zone
nonwilderness
Unmodified natural environment.
Area is characterized by
essentially unmodified natural
environment of fairly large size.
Area is characterized by a
predominantly natural or naturalappearing environment.
Area is characterized by a
predominantly natural or naturalappearing environment.
Interaction among users
nonexistent.
Interaction between users is
very low, and evidence of other
users is minimal.
Interaction between users is low,
but there is often evidence of
other users.
Concentration of users is low to
moderate, and there is often
evidence of other users.
Managed to be free of evidence
of human control.
The area is managed to be
essentially free from evidence of
human-induced restrictions and
controls.
The area is managed in such a
way that minimum onsite controls
and restrictions may be present,
but are subtle.
The area is managed in such a
way that minimum onsite controls
and restrictions may be present,
but are subtle.
Motorized use not permitted.
Motorized use is not permitted.
Motorized use is not permitted.
Motorized use is permitted on
existing roads and tracks. In
addition, Game Capture is
allowed 500 m (547 yd) off any
roads or tracks but may not
damage any trees, plants, and so
forth.
Views of this area only of a
wilderness nature.
View of outside influence is
allowed.
The zone includes all the area
500 m (547 yd) from both banks
of the White Umfolozi River and
the southern bank of the Black
Umfolozi River. Evidence of
pollution from inhabitants
upstream is low to moderate.
Impact of adjacent land use is
moderate.
Evidence of other users is
minimal.
No view of outside development
within 10 km (6.2 miles).
8
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Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa:…
Permitted Activities
The limits on management and visitor-use activities are
set and described (table 4) for each of the wilderness opportunity zones to ensure that the quality of the wilderness
experience is maintained.
Wilderness Experience
Wilderness experiences are described and appropriate
management actions and visitor-use levels set for each zone.
This takes into consideration all wilderness-related activities and determines the zones into which each will be
allowed to occur (table 5). All management and visitor use
programs are subject to the following Ezemvelo KwaZuluNatal Wildlife’s integrated environmental management procedure and regular environmental audits:
• All proposed developments and any additions to infrastructure in and outside the park.
• All conservation management programs, such as game
capture and culling operations, alien plant eradication
programs, fire management, and resource harvesting.
• Improvements to existing flycamps in the wilderness
area or movement of these to new areas.
• New wilderness trail operations.
These programs are assessed as to their impact on the
wilderness resource and visitor experience. The Limits of
Acceptable Change process is used to set measurable standards for monitoring purposes.
Limits of Sophistication
Limits of sophistication on the type of facilities and equipment allowed in each of the wilderness zones are set so that
Table 4—Permitted activities (abbreviated).
Pristine
Primitive
Semiprimitive
nonmotorized
Wilderness
support zone
nonwilderness
Land based
Viewing scenery.
Viewing scenery.
Viewing scenery.
Hiking and walking on
undemarcated routs is permitted.
Hiking and walking on
undemarcated routes is
permitted.
Hiking and walking.
Nature study.
No impact camping only
Camping.
Tent camping is permitted at
nonpermanent sites and tents
must be backpacked in and out
Guided day walks from Rest
Camps and Bush Camps are
permitted.
Base camps for wildernessdependent recreation facilities
are permitted.
Camping at permanent and
regular tented camps is
permitted.
Water based
Canoeing is not permitted.
Canoeing is not permitted.
Canoeing is permitted.
Canoeing is permitted.
Swimming is permitted.
Swimming is permitted.
Swimming is permitted.
Swimming is permitted.
Culling on foot (for ecological
reasons only). No live removal of
any indigenous fauna and flora
(except black rhino).
Aircraft—as for Pristine zone.
Lion call-ups for research
purposes are permitted from any
of the four prescribed sites
(appendix 4).
Administration
Horse patrols permitted but no
donkeys allowed.
Aircraft may only land in the
event of saving human life, or
due to black and white rhino
capture (for ecological reasons
only).
Aircraft (including helicopters)
are restricted to a minimum
altitude of 91 m (300 ft) for the
purpose of game census.
No chemical control of alien
plants.
Nonmanipulative research or
monitoring is permitted.
No impact monitoring. Horse
patrols are permitted.
Aircraft—as for Pristine zone.
No chemical control of alien
plants.
Nonmanipulative research or
monitoring is permitted.
Controlled burning of vegetation
for ecological reasons is
permitted.
Controlled burning of vegetation
for ecological reasons is
permitted.
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Horse patrols are permitted.
Culling on foot (for ecological
reasons only). Law enforcement
must be affected on foot or
horseback.
No chemical control of alien
plants.
Vehicle-based game capture and
culling only on existing roads and
tracks is permitted.
Nonmanipulative research or
monitoring is permitted.
Law enforcement may be
affected on foot or horse back
with the use of vehicles on any
existing roads and tracks.
Controlled burning of vegetation
for ecological reasons is
permitted.
Chemical control of alien plants
allowed for specific species (see
Section 23.2)
Nonmanipulative research or
monitoring is permitted.
Controlled burning of vegetation
for ecological reasons is
permitted.
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Table 5—Wilderness experience (abbreviated).
Pristine
Total isolation from the sights
and sounds of humans,
independence, closeness to
nature, tranquillity, and selfreliance through the application of woodsman and outdoor
skills in an environment that
offers a high degree of
challenge and risk.
Primitive
Extremely high probability of
experiencing isolation from the
sights and sounds of humans,
independence, closeness to
nature, tranquillity and selfreliance through the application of woodsman and outdoor
skills in an environment that
offers a high degree of challenge and risk.
the quality of the wilderness experience is kept within
accepted norms. To preserve the qualities of the pristine zone,
no facilities are provided. In the semiprimitive zone, the type
of experience offered allows for some comfort (table 6).
Visitor Carrying Capacity
Visitor carrying capacity of the wilderness area is determined for each wilderness zone and trail operation sector.
This is to ensure that separate trail parties do not encounter
each other while in the wilderness, thus experiencing the
highest level of solitude possible.
Semiprimitive
nonmotorized
High, but not extremely high,
probability of experiencing
isolation from the sights and
sounds of humans, independence, closeness to nature,
tranquillity, and self-reliance
through the application of
woodsman and outdoor skills
in an environment that offers
challenge and risk.
Wilderness
support zone
nonwilderness
Low probability of
experiencing isolation from the
sights and sounds of humans,
independence, closeness to
nature, tranquillity, and selfreliance through the application of woodsman and outdoor
skills in an environment that
offers challenge and risk.
Opportunity to have a high
degree of interaction with the
natural environment.
Access Limitations
Points of entry into the wilderness area are determined by
management and are normally from the Ranger outposts,
the trails base camp, and the main camp at Mpila. However,
when the need arises, normally for law enforcement purposes, entry into the wilderness will be closest to the problem
area.
The flight paths for the KwaZulu-Wildlife’s fixed-wing
aircraft and the Game Capture team’s helicopter are set to
ensure that no unnecessary flights occur over the wilderness.
Table 6—Limits of sophistication (abbreviated).
Pristine
No sophisticated improvement
for the convenience of users
or managers that has short- or
long-term residual effect.
Fires are permitted.
No impact camping. Leave No
Trace ethics.
No pack animals are permitted
thoroughfare to semiprimitive
zone.
Accommodation—portable
tent.
Sleep—“bed roll.”
Toilet—trowel.
Primitive
Semiprimitive
nonmotorized
A self “pack it in—pack it out”
policy for all management and
recreational activities.
Semipermanent movable
camps allowed (for example,
trail fly-camp).
“No-trace” camping ethic will
be implemented to ensure that
every trace of human
presence is eliminated.
Essential supplies and
equipment may be carried in
on pack animals.
Accommodation—portable
tent.
Facilities provided for the
convenience and comfort of
users is restricted to the
minimum limit of
sophistication.
Sleeping—“bed roll.”
Accommodation—tent.
Toilet—trowel.
Sleeping—foam mattress.
Users are to be self-reliant
and self-sufficient.
Toilet—spade.
Wilderness
support zone
nonwilderness
Permanent rustic camps, such
as trails base camps are
permissible, but must be
located within 1 km of the
boundary.
All visible building material
must be natural, for example,
reeds, thatch, timber, canvas.
Unnatural building materials,
for example, cement, must be
invisible.
Accommodation—portable
tents.
Sleeping—beds with
mattresses.
Toilet—water-borne sewerage
via conventional plumbing into
septic tank.
10
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No motorized vehicles are permitted to enter into the
wilderness except for emergency “casevac” operations, when
it is necessary to remove black or white rhino (fig. 4).
Helicopters are used to immobilize and airlift the animals
out of the wilderness area (fig. 5). This is considered to be the
“minimum tool” for this program, as the use of vehicles on
the ground can leave visible tracks for several years thus
detracting from the wilderness resource. While the capture
operations are being conducted, the trail operations are conducted in sectors well away from the capture areas (table 7).
Management of Fauna and Flora
Management of the park’s fauna and flora is naturalprocess based. These processes are allowed to operate with
minimum intervention. The impaired or absent processes
are simulated by appropriate management action and by
using the “minimum tool” principle.
The plan sets out how management of the important fauna
and flora components will be implemented. To illustrate
this, the methods of game censuring and removals, alien
plant eradication, fire management, and other conservation
related programs are described in detail. The results of all
these programs are evaluated at biannual wilderness management steering committee meetings. Should changes to
any of the programs be necessary, these are made to the
appropriate section soon after the meetings. In this way, the
plan is kept alive and relevant.
It is accepted that these actions will take longer to complete and be more expensive, and results from the monitoring programs will not have the desired confidence limits.
Since the inception of the wilderness management plan
these aspects have not resulted in any serious concerns.
Public Involvement
Figure 4—Preparing an immobilized white rhino for
airlift out of the Wilderness Area.
At the time when the plan was initially drawn up, it was
required to involve the public in the process. However, the
plan is now steered by a Wilderness Management Steering
Committee that meets biannually. The committee membership is comprised of the relevant regional and park management staff, as well as members from the public. With the
recent formation of a Local Board for the Park, a member of
this Board will also sit on the Committee.
The task of this committee is to ensure that management
and visitor use of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area is in accordance with the plan and that the wilderness experience for
the visitor is maintained.
Conclusions ____________________
The Umfolozi Wilderness Management Plan is the first
dedicated document that clearly sets out management philosophy and procedures. Since its inception in September
1995, it has been successfully used to conserve the wilderness resource in the Umfolozi Wilderness Area. This model
is being used as a reference document in the drawing up of
wilderness management plans for the wilderness areas in
the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park and the UkhahlambaDrakensberg Mountain Park World Heritage Sites, the
Namibian Waterberg Plateau Park, and the proposed wilderness area in the Shamwari Private Game Reserve. It will
also serve as a useful model for the preparation of similar
plans for other existing and candidate wilderness areas in
South Africa and other African States.
Figure 5—Airlifting rhino out of the Wilderness
Area.
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003
11
Densham and Conway
Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa:…
Table 7—Access limits (abbreviated).
Type
Motorized
Pristine
No
Semiprimitive
nonmotorized
Primitive
No
No
Wilderness
support zone
nonwilderness
Casevac
Access to base camp
and administrative
structures, including
fence line for
management purposes
(except trig. beacons).
Helicopter and fixedwing (flights)
Helicopter landing
If for administrative
reasons involving game
population monitoring,
must be above 91 m
(300 ft).
If for administrative
reasons involving game
population monitoring,
must be above 91 m
(300 ft).
If for administrative
reasons involving game
population monitoring,
must be above 91 m
(300 ft).
If for administrative
reasons involving game
population monitoring,
must be above 91 m
(300 ft).
If in transit, must be
above 610 m (2,000 ft).
If in transit, must be
above 610 m (2,000 ft)
including the Game
Capture helicopter.
If in transit, must be
above 610 m (2,000 ft)
including the Game
Capture helicopter.
If in transit, must be
above 610 m (2,000 ft)
including the Game
Capture helicopter.
For capture of game
only, no limit for
helicopter.
For capture of game
only, no limit for
helicopter.
For capture of game
only, no limit for
helicopter.
For administrative
reasons involving the
capture of black and
white rhino.
For administrative
reasons involving the
capture of black and
white rhino.
For administrative
reasons involving the
capture of black and
white rhino.
For administrative
reasons involving the
capture of black and
white rhino.
For casevacs.
For casevacs.
For casevacs.
For casevacs.
References _____________________
Bainbridge, W. R. 1984. Management objectives and goals for wilderness areas: wilderness area as a conservation category. In: Martin,
Vance; Inglis, Mary, eds. Wilderness: the way ahead. Middleton,
WI: Lorian Press: 114–124.
Conway, A. J.; Anderson, A. G.; Maddock, A. H. 2000. HluhluweUmfolozi Park: the management plan for the Umfolozi Wilderness.
Unpublished Report of the KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife Service,
KwaZulu-Natal, Republic of South Africa. 75 p.
Densham, W. D. 1999. Wilderness management in KwaZulu-Natal.
In: Cooper, T. G., ed. Proceedings of the wilderness management
12
symposium; 1996 June; Waterberg Plateau Park, Namibia:
100–105.
Hendee, J. C.; Stankey, G. H.; Lucas, R. C. 1990. Wilderness management. International Wilderness Leadership Foundation. Golden,
CO: North American Press/Fulcrum Publishing. 546 p.
Krumpe, E.; Bloedel, Edmund, Jr.; Briggle, William J.; LaMoure,
Buster; Menning, Edgar P.; O’Donnell, James E.; Porter, David E.;
Stark, Nellie; Tuchmann, E. Thomas. 1986. Wilderness management. Report of the Society of American Foresters’ Wilderness
Management Task Force. Society of American Foresters Resource Policy Series: 89-07 & 018-117.
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003