United States
Department
of Agriculture
Forest Service
Rocky Mountain
Research Station
Proceedings
RMRS-P-27
August 2003
Science and Stewardship
to Protect and Sustain
Wilderness Values:
Seventh World Wilderness
Congress Symposium
2001 November 2–8
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Abstract
Watson, Alan; Sproull, Janet, comps. 2003. Science and stewardship to protect and sustain
wilderness values: Seventh World Wilderness Congress symposium; 2001 November 2–8;
Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Proc. RMRS-P-27. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 272 p.
The Seventh World Wilderness Congress met in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, in 2001. The symposium
on science and stewardship to protect and sustain wilderness values was one of several symposia held
in conjunction with the Congress. The papers contained in this proceedings were presented at this
symposium and cover seven topics: state-of-knowledge on protected areas issues in South Africa;
traditional and ecological values of nature; wilderness systems and approaches to protection; protection
of coastal/marine and river/lake wilderness; spiritual benefits, religious beliefs, and new stories; personal
and societal values of wilderness; and the role of science, education, and collaborative planning in
wilderness protection and restoration.
Keywords: biodiversity, protected areas, tourism, economics, recreation, wildlife, alien species, spiritual
values
Compilers
Alan E. Watson is the Research Social Scientist with the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute and
Executive Editor for science for the International Journal of Wilderness. The Aldo Leopold Wilderness
Research Institute is an interagency (Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, National Park
Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey) unit administered by the USDA Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. The Leopold Institute is located on the campus of the
University of Montana, Missoula. Dr. Watson’s research interests are primarily in understanding the
values humans associate with wilderness, experience quality, and conflicts arising from divergent
orientations toward wilderness resources. Besides national U.S. leadership in wilderness social science
issues, as a Fulbright Scholar and a Senior Fulbright Protected Area Specialist, Dr. Watson has been most
active in research in other Circumpolar North countries and in South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.
Janet Sproull is a Project Coordinator at the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute. Ms. Sproull
co-coordinated technical symposia for the 6th and 7th World Wilderness Congresses (India and South
Africa) and assisted with compilation of Congress proceedings. More recently, she helped with
compilation of the Wilderness in the Circumpolar North proceedings. As a dedicated conservationist,
Ms. Sproull donates her time and expertise to several community organizations, including local land
trust, Save Open Space (SOS); the Missoula Parks, Recreation and Urban Forestry Board; and the
Mount Jumbo Advisory Committee. Grant writing efforts by Ms. Sproull have provided funding for
improvements at City Wetlands Parks and for activation of an Integrated Pest Management Plan for two
SOS conservation easements. She is currently developing a series of interpretive signs featuring
Watchable Wildflowers of Waterworks Hill.
Science and Stewardship to Protect
and Sustain Wilderness Values:
Seventh World Wilderness
Congress Symposium
2001 November 2–8
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Compilers:
Alan Watson
Janet Sproull
Concerning the front cover background photo of the BAOBAB tree:
“It is said, briefly, that the Great Spirit had created the Universe for reasons that nobody must endeavour to fathom. The Great Spirit used a being called the First Goddess, who worked as a tool under His
directions. In answer to a request she was granted as a companion…The Tree of Life, the most
revered deity throughout Bantu Africa, even today.”
And from the First Goddess…
“A countless number of human beings was born.”
And the Tree of Life…
“Bore living, snarling, howling animal fruit.”
And
“Birds of all kinds came flying and waddling forth.”
“The earth which had hitherto been lifeless and dead,
Began to live, and sounds of all kinds
Resounded from the forests and the valleys.”
“Birds sang their happiness loudly
Towards the smiling sun.
The Song of Life had begun on earth.”
“The most sacred tree is the baobab
With which are associated the souls of
Future witchdoctors, wise women, midwives and those people
Who will care for and control the lives of others.”
“It is believed that the baobab is a direct descendant of the Tree of Life.
It is noted with great concern that the baobab is fast disappearing over great areas
And this is the basis of a belief that good people will become fewer.”
Credo Mutwa, Indaba, My Children
iii
Preface
The World Wilderness Congress returned to South Africa in
2001, under the banner “Wilderness & Human Communities—
The Spirit of the 21st Century.” The Congress first met in South
Africa in 1977, followed by meetings in Australia (1980), Scotland (1983), the United States of America (1987), Norway
(1993), and India (1998). While the wilderness movement in
South Africa is heavily connected to the KwaZulu-Natal Province, in the true spirit of the 21st century, the Mayor and
residents of Port Elizabeth, in the Nelson Mandella Municipality, welcomed this world event, associated symposia, and
Wilderness Summit on behalf of the South African people.
The papers included in this proceedings represent the knowledge brought together and shared at the symposium entitled
“Science and Stewardship to Protect and Sustain Wilderness
Values: Seventh World Wilderness Congress Symposium on
Research, Management, and Allocation.” Every paper in this
proceedings received peer edit by at least one of the compilers
and one other reviewer. All copyrights are released by contributing authors except as noted on the articles.
The Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute and the
USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station are
proud to cooperate in compiling and distributing this publication. We thank the International Programs Office of the Forest
Service for strong support of this symposium and this proceedings through contributions toward travel for U.S. managers and
for publication expenses. The Wild Foundation of South Africa
exhibited patience and leadership in coordinating facilities and
schedules. And we thank the Rocky Mountain Research Station Publishing Services Staff for an outstanding job, once
again, of editing and publishing these proceedings.
We hope that the knowledge compiled here will contribute to
understanding the links between wilderness places and human
communities around the world. Congress delegates from over
40 countries will be forever changed by the presentations,
heightened cultural awareness, and the friendship shared in
South Africa at this World Wilderness Congress. Sustainability
of wilderness and human communities into the next century will
depend upon the spirit created here.
The Compilers, August 2003
v
Contents
Page
1. State-of-Knowledge on Protected Areas Issues in South Africa ...................................................................... 1
W. D. Densham
A. J. Conway
Planning and Management of the Umfolozi Wilderness Area in
Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa: A Model for Managing African
Wilderness Areas ................................................................................................................ 3
N. Guy Palmer
Maretha E. Shroyer
Nigel Wessels
Wilderness Conservation in the Western Cape Province, South
Africa: Where We Are Going ............................................................................................. 13
William R. Bainbridge
Establishment of Buffer Zone in the Peripheries of Wilderness Areas
in the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site,
KwaZulu-Natal Province, Republic of South Africa ........................................................... 20
M. E. Shroyer
P. Blignaut
Mountain Conservation in South Africa ............................................................................. 26
W. D. Densham
R. J. Fincham
WAG-CEAD Alliance: Commitment to Wilderness Training and
Protection in South Africa .................................................................................................. 34
Stefanie Freitag-Ronaldson
Ralf H. Kalwa
Jaco C. Badenhorst
Jan P. Erasmus
Freek J. Venter
Flip J. Nel
Wilderness, Wilderness Quality Management, and Recreational
Opportunities Zoning Within Kruger National Park, South Africa ...................................... 39
Ralf H. Kalwa
Cross-Boundary Impacts in the Crocodile River Valley:
A National Parks Perspective ............................................................................................ 50
2. Traditional and Ecological Values of Nature .............................................................................................. 55
Malcolm Draper
In Quest of African Wilderness .......................................................................................... 57
Linda Moon Stumpff
Protecting Restorative Relationships and Traditional Values:
American Indian Tribes, Wildlife, and Wild Lands ............................................................. 63
T. Damu
Own Welfare
Helping “Ecosystem People” Protect Wilderness and Their .................................................
72
Sandra Hinchman
Endangered Species, Endangered Culture: Native Resistance to
Industrializing the Arctic .................................................................................................... 77
Kelly Luck
Zweliyanyikima Vena
Contested Rights: Impacts of Game Farming on Farm Workers
in the Bushmans River Area ............................................................................................. 85
Chad E. Dear
Understanding Wilderness and Subsistence in Gates of the Arctic
National Park and Preserve, Alaska .................................................................................. 90
Robert L. Arnberger
Living Cultures—Living Parks in Alaska: Considering the
Reconnection of Native Peoples to Their Cultural Landscapes in
Parks and Protected Areas ............................................................................................... 94
3. Wilderness: Systems and Approaches to Protection ........................................................................................ 97
A. Schoon
M. Shroyer
F. Hunziker
An NGO’s Contribution to Mountain Conservation in South Africa ................................... 99
vii
Paul J. Mitchell-Banks
Protecting and Sustaining Wilderness Values in the
Muskwa-Kechika Management Area ............................................................................... 104
Jeff Jarvis
National Landscape Conservation System:
A New Approach to Conservation ................................................................................... 110
David M. Johns
The Wildlands Project Outside North America ................................................................ 114
Perry Brown
Personal and Societal Values, and Wilderness Stewardship .......................................... 121
4. Protection of Coastal/Marine and River/Lake Wilderness .............................................................................. 125
William R. Bainbridge
Rationalization of the Commercial Afforestation Program on the
Western Shores of Lake St. Lucia for Nature and Wilderness
Conservation, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa ..................................................... 127
John J. Daigle
Jamie Hannon
Cynthia Stacey
Factors Influencing Experience Quality: Comparing User Groups
and Place Attachment at the St. Croix International Waterway ...................................... 133
Laani Uunila
Community Involvement in New Zealand Marine Reserve
Management: Examining Practice ................................................................................... 142
Penny S. Bernard
Ecological Implications of Water Spirit Beliefs in Southern Africa:
The Need to Protect Knowledge, Nature, and Resource Rights ..................................... 148
Sally Wynn
Zambezi River: Wilderness and Tourism Research Into Visitor
Perceptions About Wilderness and Its Value .................................................................. 155
5. Spiritual Benefits, Religious Beliefs, and New Stories ............................................................................ 163
Hafiz Nazeem Goolam
Preserving Paradise Through Religious Values of Nature:
The Islamic Approach ..................................................................................................... 165
Baylor Johnson
Sources of Spiritual Benefits of Wilderness:
A Philosopher’s Reflections ............................................................................................ 167
David M. Johns
Our Real Challenge: Managing Ourselves Instead of Nature ......................................... 172
6. Personal and Societal Values of Wilderness ............................................................................................ 177
Lisi Krall
John Organ
Florence R. Shepard
Value of Wilderness Revisited ........................................................................................ 179
Peter B. Myles
Contribution of Wilderness to Survival of the Adventure
Travel and Ecotourism Markets ....................................................................................... 185
Laura M. Fredrickson
Wilderness Ecotourism and Education as a Means of Promoting
an International Environmental Ethic .............................................................................. 188
Sophie Jakowska
Dyrce Lacombe
Wildlife in Growing Cities: Eco-Socio-Cultural Considerations ....................................... 194
Les Wadzinski
Management Actions to Protect Wilderness Experiences
and the Resource ............................................................................................................ 199
Patrick T. Maher
Gary Steel
Alison McIntosh
Antarctica: Tourism, Wilderness, and “Ambassadorship” ............................................... 204
viii
7. The Role of Science, Education, and Collaborative Planning in Wilderness Protection
and Restoration .......................................................................................................................................................... 211
David N. Cole
Ecological Research and Educational Programs to Support
Protected Area Management: Lessons From the
United States Experience ................................................................................. 213
Stephen F. McCool
From Scholarship to Stewardship: Opportunities and Challenges
in Wilderness Research, Education, and Management .................................... 218
Jan W. van Wagtendonk
Role of Science in Sustainable Management of Yosemite
Wilderness ........................................................................................................ 225
Crewenna Dymond
Steve Carver
Oliver Phillips
Investigating the Environmental Cause of Global Wilderness
and Species Richness Distributions .................................................................. 231
Till M. Meyer
The Shack Revisited: Aldo Leopold’s Perceptions of Wilderness
From a Historic, Legal, and International Perspective ..................................... 238
Børge Dahle
Norwegian “Friluftsliv”—“Environmental Education” as a Lifelong
Communal Process .......................................................................................... 247
Nicholas King
Overcoming the Taxonomic Impediment to Sustainable
Development: BioNET-INTERNATIONAL, the Global Network
for Taxonomy—A Successful Networking Model for Capacity
Building in Developing Countries ...................................................................... 253
Teresa C. Magro
Closure of Trails: A Restoration Strategy or Lack of Management? ................. 257
Teresa Cristina Magro
José Leonardo de Moraes Gonçalves
Seedbank as a Tool for Choosing the Better Strategy for
Trail Recovery ................................................................................................... 262
Charles Besancon
Wayne A. Freimund
Where in the World Wide Web Is Wilderness? ................................................. 268
ix
1. State-of-Knowledge on Protected
Areas Issues in South Africa
2. Traditional and Ecological Values of
Nature
3. Wilderness: Systems and
Approaches to Protection
4. Protection of Coastal/Marine and
River/Lake Wilderness
5. Spiritual Benefits, Religious Beliefs,
and New Stories
6. Personal and Societal Values of
Wilderness
7. The Role of Science, Education, and
Collaborative Planning in Wilderness
Protection and Restoration
1. State-of-Knowledge on Protected
Areas Issues in South Africa
The Shamwari Game Reserve serves as
an outdoor classroom for a pre-Congress
training session (photo by Alan Watson).
1