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Historical Patterns of Surface Fire in
Canyon Pine-Oak Forests, Savannas, and
Intervening Semiarid Grasslands of the
Southwest Borderlands:
An Abstract of Work in Progress
Mark Kaib, Christopher H. Baisan, Thomas W. Swetnam
1
Researchers have long speculated about past fire regimes in the canyon pine-oak forests,
savannas, and intervening semiarid grasslands. Although these mesic canyon pine-oak forest
environments contain high biodiversity, certain endemic species, and increasing rates of ecotourism
(Felger et al 1997; Fishbein et al. 1996), little research has been conducted within these areas
when compared to the adjoining grasslands. Many authors have suggested a grassland fire-return
cycle of roughly 10 years (e.g., Bahre 1995, 1991, 1985; Baisan and Swetnam 1990; Hastings
and Turner 1965; Humphrey 1987, 1963, 1958; Leopold 1924; Marshall 1963, 1962, 1957;
McPherson 1995; Moir 1982; Swetnam et al. 1992, 1989). Lack of paleoecological evidence
and sole reliance upon seasonal, sporadic, sometimes rare, and often biased historic records have
resulted in disparities.
Dendrochronologic (tree-ring dated) reconstructions of fire and climate, and historical records,
date back prior to Spanish colonization (circa 1600's; Swetnam and Baisan 1996a, 1995b; Meko
eta!. 1995; Bancroft 1889, 1884). Patterns of widespread and frequent (i.e., every 5-10 years)
low intensity surface fires were recorded for centuries by fire-scarred pines in these areas until the
1870's and 1880's, when increased land-use and primarily livestock production led to rapid near
extinction of fires of this nature (Cooper 1960; Dieterich and Swetnam 1984; Leopold 1924,
Swetnam and Baisan 1996a; Weaver 1951). American fire suppression policies became effective
by the 1930's (Swetnam and Baisan 1995a) further ensuring fire cessation and exacerbating forest
and grassland change. Unfortunately recent extraordinary wildfires in the Southwest have
threatened and taken human lives (e.g., Peak, Dude, Rattlesnake, Storm King). Additionally these
anomalous fire events incinerated large patches of forested landscapes far different in character
from past fires. After more than seventy years of discourse elucidating the need and destiny of fire
in these ecosystems, recently funds have been allocated specifically for ecosystem fire
management and research in the Southwest Borderlands (USDA 1992, 1993; Stephenson 1996).
This region is of special interest for cross-border comparisons. Similar biophysical conditions
but often unique land-use history in some cases has resulted in very different ecosystem processes
and structure. Mexican and Native American land-use practices were and continue to be more
diverse and in some cases less intensive than American production systems. Research on fire and
1
All at the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.
101
land-use history in Mexico may demonstrate alternative and possibly more sustainable ecosystem
management approaches. Some areas in Mexico have continued to experience common surface
fires over the last century due to remoteness, varied land-use, economics, culture, and lack of fire
suppression. Additionally traditional fire use by past and present cultures provide insight to
potential human influence on fire history in these areas. Although recent fire-history investigations
of anomalous fire patterns have considered anthropogenic sources (Baisan and Swetnam 1990,
1995; Kaib et al. 1996a; Morino 1996; Seckleki et al. 1996; Swetnam et al. 1989), limited
historical and ethnographical synthesis has often resulted in inconclusive results.
The relative roles of humans verses climate and lightning in controlling past fire patterns has
been increasingly under debate (e.g. AA Soclety Meeting 1996; Fish 1996; Williams 1994). Fire
history reconstructions may in some cases contain anthropogenic patterns that can be supported
jointly by tree-ring, historical, and ethnographic evidence. The Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research
has an extensive network of fire chronologies (Swetnam and Baisan 1996a, 1996b) that document
regional ecosystem fire patterns predominantly controlled by regional climate (Grissino-Mayer and
Swetnam 1997; Swetnam 1993; Swetnam and Baisan 1996b; Swetnam and Betancourt 1997,
1990). In some periods and places the fire history chronologies are likely enhanced by
anthropogenic influence (Baisan and Swetnam 1995; Kaib et al. 1996b). Cultures and
ecosystems are dynamic but also uniquely bound by regional geomorphic, edaphic, and climatic
conditions (Fish 1996). Moreover human populations are confined by spatially limited water and
food resources (Castetter and Opler 1936). Indeed it may well be the case that human impacts
due to the utilization of fire, as with other past Native American land-use patterns in these areas
(Betancourt and Van Devender 1981; Betancourt et al. 1986; Savage 1991; Swetnam 1984),
were primarily site and time specific, and not generalizable to broader areas or long time spans.
Because these complex relations vary by iocaiity and culture, anthropogenic fire patterns must first
be resolved at specific well documented sites before regional ecosystem influences can be invoked.
Tangible evidence has been recovered from remnant fire-scarred stumps, logs, and snags of
Apache (Pinus engelmannii) and Arizona pines (P. arizonica) along canyon pine-oak forests. We
selected six comparable canyon sites connected by lower intervening semiarid grasslands that span
the international Sulfur Spring and San Pedro basins. Given the topographic barriers typically
separating these canyon habitats it is likely that many fires spread primarily into and between these
lower canyons from intervening grasslands as opposed to intramontane fire spread. Historical
records and Forest Service reports indicate that past lightning- and human-caused grassland fires
commonly spread over vast areas in this region (Bahre 1995, 1991, 1985; Barrows 1978; USFS
Coronado National Forest, fire reports on file, Tucson, Arizona). Furthermore lack of fire has been
commonly cited as the driving force behind extensive increases in woody trees and shrubs within
semiarid grasslands (Archer 1994, 1958; Bahre 1995; Humphrey 1963, 1958). Synchronous fire
dates between sites, combined with these lines of evidence, provide a basis for inferring fire
frequencies sustained by the intervening semiarid grasslands (Kaib et al. 1996b). Preliminary
analysis of fire reconstructions from Rhyolite, Pine, and Turkey Creek Canyons in the western
Chiricahua Mountains indicate past surface fires in these areas were more frequent than previously
thought, ranging between one fire every 4 to 7 years (Kaib et al. 1996b). These canyons were
occupied seasonally for centuries by the Chiricahua Apache, and fire reconstructions are likely
influenced by their use and occupation of these areas (Cole 1988).
The robust cultural history of this region together with multicentury fire-history reconstructions
also suggests the influence of humans in some areas and times. Decadal episodic intervals of
elevated fire frequencies were associated with well documented borderland wartime periods
(tentatively; 1680-1710, 1748- 1786, and 1831-1876; Bancroft 1889, 1884; Basso 1971;
102
Griffen 1988a, 1988b, 1979; Naylor and Polzer 1986; Spicer 1962). Fire was a tactical tool
used by most cultures (Pyne 1982) and commonly in warfare during these periods. Anthropogenic
fire patterns were also perhaps tied to traditional Chiricahua Apache cultural practices (Castetter
and Opler 1936, Opler 1941) associated with these periods. Each identified wartime period was
unique but often linked to shorter intervals of political unrest (Spicer 1962), increased Apache
raiding (Griffen 1988a, 1988b, 1979), general warfare (Basso 1971; Binckerhoff et al. 1965),
episodic drought and famine (John 1975; Meko et al. 1995), and increased fire frequency (Kaib et
al. 1996b).
Fire reconstructions from these unique canyon pine-oak forests document the decadal to
century scale variability of past fire regimes sustained by these interconnected ecosystems. In
conjunction with regional and higher elevation fire reconstructions these chronologies will increase
our knowledge of fire spread across these borderland basin and range vegetation gradients. Fire
history research in Mexico by comparison illustrates land-use patterns and livestock production
systems which did not exclude recurrent 20th century fire patterns and processes from these
ecosystems. Ecological, historical, and cultural research in the Southwest Borderlands
demonstrate comparative, alternative, and perhaps in some cases more sustainable ecosystem
management practices. Furthermore these sites contain several centuries of fire and cultural
history that together will help shed light upon the spatial and temporal influence of anthropogenic
fire and the interaction of biophysical and cultural fire patterns.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Henri Grissino-Mayer for his support and review of this work.
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