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Utilization Of Abandoned
Mine Drifts and Fracture
Caves By Bats and
Salamanders:
Subterranean
Ouachita Mountains1
Abstract.-Twenty-seven abandoned mine drifts
and four fracture caves constitute one of the most
unique habitats in and adjacent to the Ouachita
National Forest, an area devoid of solutional caves,
Six species of salamanders and nine species of bats
were found to utilize these areas.
David A. S a ~ g e yGary
, ~ A. HeidtS3
Darrell R.
Caves and mines play an important
role in the ecology of many species,
serving as permanent or temporary
habitats. Culver (1986) stated, "the
variety of species that depends on
caves during some critical time in
their life cycle, such as hibernation in
bats, is impressive and usually
underestimated ." To this statement,
we add mines.
Bear Den Caves are located in
Winding Stair Mountain, LeFlore
County, in southeastern Oklahoma.
These four caves occur in an outcrop
belt of a massive sandstone unit and
were formed by a number of factors,
the most important being gravitational sliding and slumpage of sandstone. These four caves have more
than 365 meters of mapped passageway and represent the only known
caves in the Ouachita National Forest
(Puckette 1974-75).
Additional subterranean habitat
was formed from 1870 to 1890, when
the area extending west from Hot
Springs to Mena, Arkansas was the
scene of a gold, lead, silver and zinc
'Paper presented at symposium, Management of Amphibians, Reptiles, and
Small Mammals in North America. [Flagstaff, AZ,July 19-21 , 1988).
David A. Saugey is a Wildlife Biologist,
US. Forest Service, Ouachita National Forest, Hot Springs, AR. 7 1902.
3GaryA. Heidt is Professor of Biology,
University of Arkansas at Little Rock, A R.
72204.
4Danell R. Heath is an Undergraduate
Student University of Arkansas at Little
Rock, AR. 72204.
rush. During the period of greatest
activity, 1885 to 1888, over a dozen
gold mines were in operation, ranging from shallow test holes to extensive linear and L-shaped drifts extending u p to 150 meters into the
surrounding mountains (Harrington
1986, Hudgins 197'1,U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers 1980). The "gold
and silver boom" effectively ended
with the issuance of a report which
in effect stated there were no precious metals in paying quantities to
be found in the area (Branner 1888).
Soon thereafter, many mines were
abandoned as prospectors moved
West (Harrington 1986, Hudgins
1971).Through the years, other minerals, such as manganese and mercury, have been mined from the Ouachitas resulting in the excavation of
numerous additional drifts; but for a
variety of reasons, most have been
abandoned (Clardy and Bush 1976,
Stone and Bush 1984).The legacy of
these mining activities has not been
riches and new-found wealth, but the
creation of unusual and unique wildlife habitat.
The objectives of this study were
to review, compile, and consolidate
existing literature concerning utilization of caves and mine drifts by bats
and salamanders in the Ouachita
Mountains. In addition, we provide
new data and propose recommendations concerning management of
caves and mines in the Ouachita National Forest and on other public and
private lands.
METHODS
During the past six years, 27 abandoned mines in Garland (S),
Montgomery (31, Pike (4) and Polk
(12) counties, Arkansas (fig. 1)were
located and visited a minimum of
eight times (at least once each season). In several cases, where endemic
or Category I1 (U.S. Federal Register
1985) species occurred or breeding
populations were found, mines were
visited much more often. Mist netting of entrances for bats was conducted in spring, summer, and fall.
Bear Den Caves came to our attention during 1987 and were visited
several times. Collections were minimal (mines only) and voucher speci-
Figure 1 .-Location of Ouachita National
Forest (backslashed area) and study area
(crosshatched area).
mens are located in the Vertebrate
Collections at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock and Arkansas
State University.
Following McDaniel and Smith
(1976), we include the probable ecological position of the species in the
cave and mine environments. This is
followed by comments concerning
the status or life history of each species. Following Barr (1963)and
McDaniel and Smith (1976) the terms
"troglophile" (commonly found in
caves), "trogloxene" (may be common in caves but must leave to complete their life history), and "accidental" (unable to survive long in the
cave environment) have been employed in the species accounts.
RESULTS
Nine species of bats and six species
of salamanders were found to utilize
caves and abandoned mine drifts
during some portion of their annual
cycles.
Annotated List of Bats and
Salamanders Utilizing Caves and
Abandoned Mine Drifts
given by Means (1974) and Trauth
(1988) provided descriptions of
deposition sites in seepage areas during the severe summer drought in
1980. Heath et al. (1986) reported the
occurrence of this endemic salamander in four drifts, with egg clutches
deposited on the underside of rocks
in one mine and the presence of larvae in two others. In those mines
with larvae, pools contained abundant leaf litter and isopods. On one
occasion, larvae were observed feeding on isopods. Since these observations were made, numerous additional visits to these four mines revealed the presence of Dmnognathus
when epigean conditions would be
considered ideal. The pools within
these and other drifts are the result
of seepage through walls which, in
some instances, provided sufficient
volumes of water to have small
streams flowing from their entrances.
However, unlike the preferred,
gravel-bottomed stream habitat,
pools typically exhibited silted substrates with very little rubble and
few rocks large enough for egg attachment.
Eurycea mulfiplicafa (Cope).
Troglophile.
CLASS AMPHIBIA
Order Urodela
Family Plethodontidae
Desmognafhus brimleyorum
(Stejneger). Troglophile.
Means (1974) stated the Ouachita
dusky salamander was confined to
rocky, gravelly, streams in the Ouachita Mountains. Rock falls along
the upper portions of streams represented particularly good adult habitat. This species was most abundant
where water percolated through
rocky substrate in streambeds and
along stream sides. Description of
egg clutch characteristics and
stream/streamside deposition were
The many-ribbed salamander is primarily an aquatic species endemic to
the Interior Highland region and adjacent areas that contain suitable
habitat. It may be found under
stones, logs, and other debris in
clear, rock or gravel-bottomed
streams (Bishop 1943, Ireland 1971,
Reagan 1974).It inhabits essentially
the same habitat as Desmognafhus
brimleyorum (Strecker 1908). Hurter
and Strecker (1909) noted
Desrnogrlathus eating Eu y c e a individuals with which they were confined. Heath et al. (1986) reported
both larvae and adults in two mines
and in one, larvae shared the same
pools with Desmognathus larvae. Both
mines contained shallow streams
with a gravel substrate. One addi-
tional mine contained larvae of this
species. A seepage stream in this
mine was approximately five centimeters wide, one centimeter deep,
and extended a distance of sixty
centimeters before dropping into a
large pool at the entrance. The pool
connected directly to an epigean
stream.
Plefhodon caddoensis Pope and
Pope. Troglophile.
Large aggregations of the endemic
Caddo Mountain salamander using
drifts as refugia to escape heat and
dryness during summer and fall
were first reported by Saugey et al.
(1985). Over 100 individuals were
discovered in each of two drifts,
from June through September 1983.
Subsequent visits to these and other
drifts revealed limited use of three
additional drifts and use of one of
the original aggregation sites for egg
deposition and breeding (Heath et al.
1986).Since these observations were
made, summer aggregations of this
salamander have numbered as high
as 383 individuals and additional egg
clutches have been observed and
monitored. Known only from the
Novaculite Uplift area of the Ouachita Mountains in Howard,
Montgomery, and Polk counties in
Arkansas (Blair and Lindsey 1965,
Robison and Smith 1982), this salamander and its habitat are of special
concern to the Arkansas Natural
Heritage Commission (ANHC)
(Smith 1984). In 1985, the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service (USFWS) designated it a Category I1 species. In
1986, the U.S. Forest Service (Ouachita National Forest) began informal consultation with the USFWS
(Jackson, Mississippi, Endangered
Species Field Station) and requested
field assistance from the ANHC concerning preservation of critical mine
aggregation sites and protection of
their vulnerable populations. Placement of a gate at one sensitive site is
planned in 1988 (fig. 2).
Plethodon glutinosus glutinosus
(Green). Troglophile.
The slimy salamander, a woodland
species, is widely distributed, exploiting virtually every available terrestrial habitat. This species is commonly found under rocks, in and
under well rotted logs and stumps,
and buried deep in moist layers of
leaf litter. During hotter and drier
portions of the year, they usually retreat deeper into the substrate. Although primarily epigean, this salamander has been reported to use
caves for aggregation sites, egg deposition and brooding, and escape from
inhospitable surface environmental
conditions (Barnett 1970, Noble and
Marshall 1929).Heath et al. (1986)
reported this salamander from five
mines; two contained breeding populations and brooding behavior has
been observed several times. Subsequent observations have confirmed
another of the five mines as an egg
deposition and brooding site. One of
the mines reported with a breeding
population (Heath et al. 1986) is the
site of an annual aggregation of slimy
salamanders exceeding 600 individuals. A gate (fig. 2) has been constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers to protect this population.
Continuing studies to determine the
effect of gating will allow comparison of pre- and post-gating data.
ened" in Oklahoma. Sievert (1986)
proposed it as a species of "special
concern," conditional on his recommendations concerning silvicultural
practices on National Forest lands.
Black (1974) reported this salamander in Bear Den Caves where they
were found throughout, but most
commonly within the first 19 meters
or twilight zone. A small juvenile
with a snout-vent length (SVL) of < 7
mm was found in an entrance and
the presence of numerous juveniles
with SVLs of > 30mm may indicate
egg deposition and brooding activities. One of the authors (DAS) visited
these caves in December, 1987 and
observed one adult Rich Mountain
salamander near the entrance of one
cave. An additional visit in June' 1988
resulted in the observation of 30+
salamanders of various size classes.
Considerable human refuse and a
well worn path indicated substantial
numbers of visitors. Considering the
uniqueness of this area and the Category I1 status of this salamander,
steps are being taken to exclude excessive visitation and protect this
population from vandalism and
overcollection. These caves are utilized by the small-footed bat, Myotis
leibii, (Caire 1985) also a Category I1
species.
Plethodon serratus Grobrnan.
Troglophile.
The endemic Ouachita Red-backed
salamander is commonly found beneath rocks, logs, and in leaf litter at
all elevations throughout the Ouachita Mountains. This species has
been observed in one mine on two
separate occasions. In both cases, it
has been in association with large
aggregations of the Caddo Mountain
salamander during extremely dry
epigean conditions. Reagan (1974)
frequently found this species in association with the Caddo Mountain
and Rich Mountain salamanders.
CLASS MAMMALIA
Order Chiroptera
Family Vespertilionidae
Myotis.austroriparius (Rhoads).
Trogloxene.
The first Arkansas specimens of the
southeastern bat were collected from
one of several drifts located 12 miles
northwest of Hot Springs, Garland
County, Arkansas (Davis et al. 1955).
Plethodon ouachitae Dunn and
Heinze. Troglophile.
Endemic to the Ouachita Mountains
of Arkansas and Oklahoma, the Rich
Mountain salamander may be found
living beneath rotting logs and
stumps. However, it lives primarily
under pieces of sandstone on heavily
overgrown talus north slopes (Black
1974, Dunn and Heinze 1933, Pope
and Pope 1951, Sievert 1986).Reagan
(1974)listed this species as "endangered and vulnerable" in Arkansas.
Ashton (1976) and Black (1980) both
considered this salamander "threat-
Figure 2.-Example of gate constructed by the Ouachita National Forest and the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers at the entrance of an abandoned mine (using USFWS specifications).
At the time of collection (November
1952) and during a subsequent visit,
this species was found in association
with the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus, and Keen's bat, Myotis keenii.
This particular drift was inundated
by the filling of Lake Ouachita in
1955 and, since that time, no additional specimens have been observed
in nearby drifts. The second occurrence of this species in the Ouachita
Mountain area was from abandoned
Cinnabar mines located on an peninsula in Lake Greeson, Pike County,
Arkansas (Heath et al. 1986). During
a winter visit (January 1984) over 150
individuals of both red and gray
color phases were observed in deep
torpor. A subsequent early spring
visit (March 1986), revealed 15 individuals. During December, 1986,
only a few scattered individuals were
found. According to personnel familiar with the drift, considerable human visitation and disturbance may
have been the cause of sharp decline
in use of this excavation. Mumford
and Whitaker (1982) suggested the
southeastern bat does not tolerate
disturbance and is likely to change its
roosting and hibernation sites quite
readily. Caire (1985) did not report
this species, but records exist for the
Little River drainage in southeastern
Oklahoma (Glass and Ward 1959).
The southeastern bat is listed as a
Category TI species in the U.S. Federal Register (1985).
Myofis keenii (Merriam).
Trogloxene.
Utilization of caves and mines by
Keen's bat has been well documented
(Barbour and Davis 1969, Heath et al.
1986, McDaniel and Gardner 1977).
Sealander and Young (1955) first reported the occurrence of Keen's bat
from the Ouachita Mountain area
when three specimens were collected
from the drift located 12 miles northwest of Hot Springs. Caire (1985)
mist-netted a number of specimens at
Bear Den Caves; the majority were
males with a few postlactating females. Heath et al. (1986) found this
bat in 12 drifts. The largest hibernating aggregation consisted of 12 bats,
including both males and females.
Normally, from one to three individuals (usually males) were found
hibernating in small cracks and crevices near entrances. On occasion, two
have been found together in drill
holes in ceilings and walls and, less
frequently, individuals were observed hanging in the open. The largest non-hibernating cluster was 57
females found in the spring of 1985.
Three were collected and found to be
pregnant (drifts were not used as
maternity roosts). Although utilized
more frequently during winter
months, these drifts contained from
one to several Keen's bats throughout most of the year.
Myofis leibii (Audubon and
Bachman). Trogloxene.
The small-footed bat is very common
and widespread in the western
United States where it readily uses
caves and mines for hibernation. In
the eastern United States it is considered to be rare (Barbour and Davis
1969, Smith 1984). Caire (1985) reported mist-netting four males, three
adults and one subadult, at Bear Den
Caves. Specimens collected in September had descended testes. Heath
et al. (1986) did not record this bat
from drifts in Arkansas. According
to Barbour and Davis (1969), the only
known winter habitats for this species are caves and mines. Preferred
hibernation sites are near entrances
where temperatures drop below
freezing and humidity is relatively
low. Abandoned drifts in the Ouachitas generally have one, small,
par tially collapsed entrance which
ensures relatively warm interiors (18
C) with high humidities, which is unsuitable hibernating habitat. Mistnetting of creeks and drift entrances
and subsequent winter visits to drifts
have been unsuccessful in locating
this bat. Caire (1985) indicated this
species is probably restricted to cave
areas. Thus, the few caves in southeastern Oklahoma are critical to the
species survival and are in need of
protection. The small-footed bat is a
Category I1 species (U.S. Federal
Register 1985).
Myofis lucifugus (LeConte).
Trogloxene.
The little brown bat appears to be
extremely rare in the Ouachita
Mountains. It had been reported
from one drift by Sealander and
Young (1955),but an additional
specimen was reported by Heath et
al. (1986) from a drift in Arkansas. In
Oklahoma, the little brown bat has
been collected only from Beavers
Bend State Park in the southeastern
part of the state (Glass and Ward
1959).
Myofis sodalis Miller and Allen.
Trogloxene.
Sealander and Young (1955) reported
a misidentified Indiana bat from a
now inundated drift northwest of
Hot Springs. There is a confirmed
record of the species from a southeastern Oklahoma cave (Glass and
Ward 1959).Neither Caire (1985) nor
Heath et al. (1986) found this species
inhabiting mines or caves in the Ouachi tas.
Pipistrellus subflavus ( F . Cuvier).
Trogloxene.
The eastern pipistrelle was described
as fairly abundant in southeastern
Oklahoma (Caire 1985)and as widespread and abundant in the Arkansas
portion of the Ouachitas (Heath et al.
1986).Barbour and Davis (1969) described it as the most abundant bat
over much of the eastern United
States. Caves and mines appear to be
important habitats for winter hiber-
nation sites and for summer night
roosts (Barbour and Davis 1969,
McDaniel and Gardner 1977). Caire
(1985) reported capturing many individuals at Bear Den Caves during
summer months. Heath et al. (1986)
reported this species had been observed in every drift at all times of
the year and that, over a three year
period, one drift had an annual
population of between 600-800 hibernating individuals. Visits to this
hibernaculum over the past three
years have revealed the number of
individuals to be fairly constant. Preliminary observations of a drift that
has had a gate in its entrance for two
years have indicated an increase in
numbers of hibernating pipistrelles.
Epfesicus fuscus (Palisot de
Beauvois). Trogloxene.
Heath et al. (1986)reported that, although common in the Ouachita
Mountain area, the big brown bat
was rarely found hibernating in
drifts. The four drifts used during
hibernation had larger, less restricted, openings that created a variable temperature zone. Rarely were
more than two or three observed in
any drift. This species characteristically chose hibernating sites near the
en trance where temperature and
humidity levels were lower. Similar
hibernating behavior has been documented in other caves and mines
(Barbour and Davis 1969, Lacki and
Bookhout 1983).Caire (1985)reported this species from Bear Den
Caves.
drift near Lake Greeson; the ambient
temperature was 2 C.
The three following species of Lasiurus, normally considered tree bats,
have been captured during swarming activities at the entrances of, but
not inside drifts (Heath et al. 1983,
1986).Similar behavior in tree bats
has been observed at caves (Barbour
and Davis 1969, Harvey et al. 1981).
Lasiurus borealis (Muller).
Accidental.
The red bat was captured at the entrances of three drifts. Caire (1985)
reported capturing this species at
Bear Den Caves. Red bats were reported from inside two Ozark caves
by McDaniel and Gardner (1977).
Saugey et al. (1978) discovered the
remains of 140 red bats in one Ozark
cave.
Lasiurus seminolus (Rhoads).
Accidental.
Heath et al. (1983) reported the capture of a female Seminole bat at the
entrance to a drift in Polk County,
Arkansas, during September.
Lasiurus cinereus (Palisot de
Beauvois). Accidental.
Previously unreported, a male hoary
bat was captured simultaneously
with the above mentioned Seminole
bat. The occurrence of this species in
mines and caves has been well documented (Barbour and Davis 1969,
Saugey et al. 1978).
Lasionycferisnoctivagans
(LeConte). Trogloxene.
DISCUSSION
Typically considered a tree bat, the
silver-haired bat has been found in
numerous caves and mines (Barbour
and Davis 1969, Saugey et al. 1978,
Whitaker and Winter 1977).Heath et.
al. (1986) discovered a single specimen hibernating in a breezeway of a
Caves are common and widely distributed in the United States. Caves
are known in every state and, in
some, are very common. It has been
found that most caves contain a biologically interesting fauna (Culver
1986). Where caves are scarse, abandoned mineshaf ts occasionally provide the same specialized habitat as
do natural caves (Barbour and Davis
1969).
Abandoned mine drifts and fsacture caves represent important habitat features in the Ouachita Mountains. Six species of salamanders and
nine species of bats utilize these
structures for some purpose. In addition, four of the six salamanders are
endemic to the Ouachita Mountains,
and a fifth is endemic to the Interior
Highlands. Two of these
salamanders, Plethodon caddoensis
and P. auachitae, are Category I1 species. For all of these salamanders,
caves and mines may only represent
larger versions of existing subterranean microhabitats, complimenting
existing situations and not replacing
them. However, caves and mines do
provide "natural laboratories" where
insights into life histories and species
interactions, otherwise unobservable,
may be studied with the knowledge
gained applied to management of
surface populations.
Six of the nine species of bats
regularly frequent caves or mines
during some portion of their annual
cycles and two of these are listed as
Category I1 species (Myotis austroriparius and M leibii). Mines provide a
key habitat component for bats
where natural subterranean hibernacula are scarce. Hibernacula can be
viewed as islands of different sizes
and complexities in an ocean of habitat inhospitable for hibernation
(Gates et al. 1984).Most caves and
mines in the Ouachitas are small and
marginal as hibernacula when compared with extensive and complex
cave systems of other regions. However, minor hibernacula may become
major ones (depending on their size,
configuration, and microclimate),if
the latter are destroyed. Further, they
may function to promote range expansions (Gates et al. 1984).In addition, small populations become increasingly important in species management when large populations are
continually threatened (Humphrey
1978).
Fifty-three vertebrate taxa use
Ozark caves (McDaniel and Gardner
1977). Heath et al. (1986) reported the
occurrence of 27 vertebrate taxa utilizing abandoned mine drifts in the
Ouachita Mountains. Caire (1985)
and Black (1974) reported two species from Bear Den Caves. We report
two additional species from abandoned mines (Lnsiurus cinereus and
Plethodon serratus). Of the 31 recorded species that use caves and
mines in the Ouachita Mountains, 22
are common to both the Ouachitas
and Ozarks.
These data further support Maser
et a1 (1979) when they stated,
"Unique habitats occupy a very
small percent of the total forest land
base, yet they are disproportionately
important as wildlife habitats." From
our measurement, the total area of all
known and inventoried caves and
drifts in the Ouachita Mountains is
approximately one acre in a forest
with nearly 1.6 million surface acres.
For these reasons, resource managers
should not overlook opportunities to
protect and conserve what may appear to be marginal sites, especially
in areas where these unique habitats
may be a limiting factor.
MANAGEMENT
RECOMMENDATIONS
While the National Forest Management Act (1976) and Endangered
Species Act (1973) specify objectives
and set policy, the Forest Service
Manual provides guidance and direction to realize these objectives relating to species of special concern
and their habitats. These documents
mandate consideration of these
unique and valuable resources in all
phases of planning and project implemen tation.
Nieland and Thornton (1985), Nieland (19851, Hathorn and Thornton
(19861, and Chaney (1984) provide
additional information, guidance and
considerations concerning management, inventory and evaluation of
caves. Caire (1985) made recommendations about habitat management
for bats, including Bear Den Caves in
southeastern Oklahoma, and Sievert
(1986) proposed guidelines for preservation of habitat for the endemic
Rich Mountain salamander.
Because management of cave resources are adequately addressed in
these references, the following recommendations address issues concerning needed management of abandoned mine drifts whose importance
to bats and other vertebrates has
been demonstrated by Heath et al.
(1986), Lacki and Bookhout (19831,
Saugey et al. (1985),Whitaker and
Winter (1977) and this study.
In line with these studies, we recommend the following actions be
taken on National Forests, other public lands, and private lands:
1. Address abandoned mine
drifts and shafts as "unique
subterranean habitat" in the
Cave Management section of
the Forest Service Manual.
Most of the language in this
chapter is directly applicable
to these excavations.
2. Incorporate management
prescriptions for abandoned
mine drifts into Forest Land
Management Plans and other
resource management planning documents, where applicable.
3. Develop specific supplements, for individual National Forests, to the Forest
Service Manual concerning
the inventory, evaluation,
and management of these
excavations.
4. Prepare a chapter in the Oua.chita National Forest Wildlife Handbook providing direction and guidance concerning management of
abandoned mine drifts and
coordination with other resources.
5. Use full seasonal or partial
closures to protect species of
special concern during critical periods of the year.
6. Acquire lands within agency
administrative authority that
contain caves and abandoned mine drifts.
7. Prohibit extraction of minerals and other materials from
abandoned mine drifts.
8. Identify and designate abandoned k i n e drifts, caves,
and associated above ground
habitat as "key areas" for
wildlife during the silvicultural prescription process.
9. Set aside and preserve travel
corridors to prevent isolation
and loss of use by terrestrial
vertebrates.
10. Establish monitoring activities to assess changes in the
drift environment and associated wildlife utilization.
11. Continue inventory of species utilizing drifts and determine how and what they
are using them for.
Cooperate, consult, and coordinate with state and federal
resource management agencies, universities and colleges, public and private conservation organizations, and
other interested publics to
promote conservation, education, and research.
"Ultimately, the survival of most
animal species depends more on
habitat protection than on direct
shielding of the creatures themselves" (Smith 1984).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank District Rangers John M.
Archer and Rex B. Mann, Resource
Assistant Clifford F. Hunt, and Wildlife Staff Officer Dr. David F. Urbston, all of the Ouachita National
Forest, for their support and encouragement during this study. Special
appreciation is extended to Clark
Efaw, Belinda Jonak, Stan Neal, Dianne Saugey, and Derrick Sugg for
valuable assistance in the field. Leonard Aleshire and David Heath
were most helpful in locating abandoned mines in the Polk County
area. The Arkansas Geological Commission provided useful information
concerning the location of mines.
This study was supported, in part, by
the U.S. Forest Service (Ouachita National Forest), a University of Arkansas Faculty Research Grant and the
University of Arkansas at Little Rock
College of Science's Office of Research, Science and Technology.
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