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The Use of Riparian Vegetation in Damascus Basin 1
Mohammad S. Abido 2
Abstract.--The status of the riparian ecosystem and
benefits obtained from it in Damascus, Syria, is described.
Besides the natural functions of the riparian vegetation,
it is a source of construction wood, fuelwood, fodder, food,.
and popular medicine. Other uses, such as recreation, fences
and windbreaks, are also discussed. Clearing lands for agricultural purposes, water pollution, and urbanization are the
main threats to the ecosystem. Proper disposal of waste and
better management plans of the resource are essential to maintain and preserve the aesthetic and the practical value of
this resource.
INTRODUCTION
Damascus, the capital of the Syrian Arab
Republic, is a city in the middle of a desert. It
is a city whose history extends over 3000 years.
Damascus is surrounded by lush vegetation, flowers,
and an ample number of willow and poplar trees. In
1978, the population of the city is estimated to
be around 1,142,000.
The secret of the thriving history of the
city is the Barada River and its surrounding riparian vegetation. In fact, the importance of the
riparian vegetation can be seen from the many names
which were given to the city: "the inspiration of
the poets," "the eye of the East," and "the rival
of paradise" are a few examples of those descriptions.
The city has a semi-arid Mediterranean climate,
characterized by a wet season - mainly in winter
and a relatively long dry summer. Damascus receives
about 190 mm of rainfall, mainly in the winter.
Primarily, the riparian vegetation dictates
the landscape and the structure of the city and its
suburbs. Buildings in Damascus city and in the
villages outside are clustered along the river
system, from its origin almost to its end.
long. The river originates in an area of high
mountains, which receives a high amount of precipitation in winter in the form of snow and rainfall.
The river moves along a bed of bare rocks, eroding
the rocks to form narrow canyons northwest of
Damascus. The resulting sediments are deposited in
fans southeast of Damascus. The latter area is
generally known as AL-Goutha Basin.
The average discharge of the river is 2.5m3/sec,
with a maximum discharge of 25m3/sec in May and a
minimum of 5m3/sec in October. The catchement area
is about 262km2 (Khouri and Rasoul Agha, 1977).
The Barada River, is dammed by earthen structures in several locations along its course. Before
entering the city, it is divided into seven small
channels. Each channel is directed to different
areas of the city, and given the name of that area.
Those divisions were recognized a thousand years
ago.
Throughout history, human beings altered the
natural flow of water in the river and, subsequently,
the dynamics of the riparian community. It is assumed that AL-Goutha Basin was an impenetrable
jungle, with a wide variety of plants and wildlife.
Today, the whole basin is composed of a mixture of
various kinds of landscape, including buildings,
paved streets, and a "man-made riparian vegetation."
THE BARADA RIVER ECOSYSTEM
Land Ownership
The Barada River is perennial, about 66 km
Most of the land adjoining the Barada River is
privately owned property. The owners, usually small
farmers, build houses and other facilities on relatively high ground and raise crops and livestock
on the low parts of the flood plains. Farmers
believe that they have the right to use an unlimited
amount of river water. In each village along the
river, farmers have an agreement among themselves
on how and when to use the water for irrigation and
lpaper presented at the Riparian Ecosystems
and their Management: Reconciling Conflicting
Uses Conference. Tucson, Arizona, April 16-18,
1985.
2Mohammad S. Abido is an Instructor of Forest
Science, College of Agriculture, University of
Damascus, Damascus, Syria.
467
and other purposes. In fact, such agreements have
never been challenged by the government.
Species Composition
Since the natural vegetation of the area has
developed under the influence of man and his activities, at the present time, much of the area looks
like agricultural fields. Various trees, such as
willow (Salix alba or Salix nigra) and plane
(Plantanus ori~lis), are found in abundance
immediately along the river bank. Poplar (Populus
nigra var hamoui or Populus alba var roumi)~---­
found naturally and raised on man-made plantations
on the flood plains. Associations of shrubby vegetation, such as roses (Rosa damascena), blackberries
(Rubus idaeus), basil (Myrtus communis), oleander
(Nereiu~nder), common reeds (Phragmites
australis), jasmines (Jasminus sp.), exist on various locations in the valley. Several varieties
of ferns (Dryopteris sp.), mints (Mentha sp.), and
grasses are present too.
The severe aridity of the environment, which
precludes any farming outside the river flood
plains, forces the farmers to clear the natural
vegetation on the flood plain and convert the area
into orchards and agricultural fields. Walnut
(Juglans regia), apple (Malus sylvestris), apricot
(Prunus a~aca), pear (Pirus communis), plum
(Prunus domestica) , and pomegranate (Punica
g~m), in addition to various types of vegetables and forage crops, are the most commonly
grown in the valley.
USES OF RIPARIAN VEGETATION
Besides the natural functions of the riparian
vegetation in stabilizing river banks, trapping
silt and sediments, and providing habitat for fish,
wildlife species, and birds, it plays an important
role in the life of people, especially in an arid
setting. It is a source of the following:
Wood Products
Small poles for construction are usually obtained from trees scattered along the river banks
or from commercial plantations in the flood plains.
After trees are cut, logs are sold at the site to
local villagers for use in home construction.
Usually, poplar wood is used in roofing and framework construction.
Since it is a fast growing tree species,
poplar is widely grown in 1 1uge commercial plantations in the valley. It requires less tending and
yields a large profit in a relatively short period
of time. These intensively managed properties are
private holdings.
Poplar wood and wood obtained from "minor"
species, are sawed into lumber (in small private
mills) to be used in the furniture industry and
other light industries. Plane and poplar are
mainly used in making doors~ windows, shelves,
tables, and cabinets. Because it is easy to nail
and staple, low-quality (fluffy and knotty) poplar
468
and willow wood is used to make light packaging
containers, crates, and boxes.
Recently, poplar has been grown primarily as a
source of industrial timber for matches, chipboard,
and pulp and paper along major rivers in the country.
Also, the government has built a number of woodbased light industries, such as pencil and match
plants, utilizing wood products obtained mainly
from poplar plantations on the valley.
Craftsmen use poplar and willow wood for making
wooden toys, jewelry boxes, and wooden shoes.
Agricultural tools are made primarily from,ash and
poplar trees. Multi-stemmed species, wood residue,
bark, and small limbs are used £or firewood, and
for cooking and heating.
Food
Some plants which grow along the river's banks
are edible and have great nutritional value. Commo.n
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is cooked with food.
Mint (Mentha viridis) is used, either fresh or
dried,~kind of spice. After harvesting and
drying, it is ground and added to various foods,
such as salad, and is also used in hot tea to give
the drink its distinctive flavor.
Sumac powder, which is extracted after drying
sumac fruits, forms a major component of certain
recipes. Jelly and jams are usually made from
berries by boiling them with sugar.
Popular Medicine and Other qommodities
Plants which grow along streams or in flood
plains, in particular, the mint family, are used
traditionally in popular medicine. The Arab philosopher and physician Ibn Sina wrote that balsam
rejoices the heart and gives spiritual strength.
Today, this old idea is still current. Common balsam (Melissa officinalis) is used as a remedy for
sea sickness, headache, and for fainting fits.
Also, the infusion of that plant is used as a remedy
for scorpion and spider stings as well as for the
relief of stomach pain.
Many uses of such plants have been recognized
over the years. Pomegranate, for example, has a
number of uses. The bark is used to cure dysentery
and diarrhoea. Its fruits are edible and a syrup
can be made from them. Even the skin of the fruits
is used in dyeing cloth. Oleander and basil leaf
extracts are used primarily to heal skin diseases
such as scabies (Sarcoptes scabiei). Also, laurel
leaves (Laurus nobilis) are added to laundry water
to give clothes a distinctive scent and to soften
them.
Soap is often made of laurel leaves. Oily
materials are extracted by boiling the leaves in
water for three days. When the oil is extracted,
it is converted to soap by mixing it with another
synthetic material.
Fences and Windbreaks
When an area in the flood plains is cleared for
agricultural purposes, the existing vegetation is
left on the perimeter of the property. The uncut
vegetation, primarily spiny shrubs, poplar and
willow trees, serves two purposes: it acts as a
live physical barrier to stray livestock, and it
functions as a windbreak shielding the crops from
wind damage. Also, poplar trees are planted inside
the field along the irrigation ditches and as a
divider between sections of the field.
Fodder
Land, such as marshes and meadows, which is
not used for agricultural purposes is used primarily
for goat, sheep, and cow grazing. Fodder crops,
such as alfalfa and clover, are interplanted between fruit and poplar trees. Poplar and willow
leaves, in addition to the leaves of other shrubby
species, are used as a supplementary diet for livestock.
Recreation
One of the most important uses of the riparian
ecosystem in arid and semi-arid environment of the
Barada River is recreation. In desert cities, such
as Damascus, where the temperature reaches 40°C,
and hot winds sear the skin, the only place which
provides shade and humidity is the riparian ecosystem, where water is available.
Camping and picnicking sites are scattered
along the stretch of the river from Al-Baramike to
Alhama, and even extend into Al-Zabadani Valley.
During the weekend and vacation periods, people get
out to those areas seeking shade and the scenic
beauty of the valley.
Recreational water activities are carried in
the reservoir from which the river originates.
Large restaurants, cafes, and entertainment centers
have been developed along the shores of the reservoir to attract tourists.
Pesticides and the destruction of natural
vegetation destroy the habitat of many wildlife
species. Some wildlife species are now considered
to be in danger of extinction. Black bird, the
Syrian woodpecker (Dendrocopos syriacus), and the
jay (Garrulus glandarius) are a few examples.
Uncontrolled grazing of domesticated animals
in the riparian zones hamper the regeneration of
naturally occurring plant species due to excessive
grazing and trampling.
Water pollution is a widespread problem in
the river basin. In fact, it constitutes a threat
to all the components of the ecosystem. ' The Barada,
once "the river of gold," has become a system to
carry sewer water and liqui& wastes,
especially during the dry season of the year. The
main source of pollution is agricultural and industrial waste. Farm drainage water, and marble and
cement plants discharge their wastes into the river.
It is estimated that the amount of waste water discharged into the river is 4-5m3/sec.
Urbanization and highway developments are
weakening the system more and more. Industrial and
residential projects have been build in the flood
plains due to the absence of zoning law.
Riparian vegetation in an arid or semi-arid
environment is a very valuable biotic system. It
is a source of wood, food, fodder, and other commodities. Rational and moral considerations require
the maintenance and the preservation of the aesthetic
and the practical value of the system. Reconciliation
among the conflicting uses must be worked out by
careful planning and assessing the needs and demands
for each use. Finally, residential, industrial,
and agricultural waste must be disposed properly
away from the river to get the most benefits from
this existing resource.
THREATS TO RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEM
Clearing riparian zones for agricultural land
is a common practice. Horticultural and agricultural crops are scattered across the flood plains.
Apple, pear, apricot, and walnut orchards and maize,
wheat, and alfalfa fields are substituted for
willows, vines, reeds, and many other species.
469
LITERATURE CITED
Khouri, J. and W. Rasoul Agha. 1977. Ground Water
in Syrian Arab Republic. Damascus, Arab Center
for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands.